Stratigraphic architecture and gamma ray logs of deeper ramp

carbonates (Upper Jurassic, SW Germany)

T. Pawellek1, T. Aigner*

Institut fur Geowissenschaften, Sigwartstrasse 10, Universitat Tubingen, D-72076 Tubingen, Germany

Received 30 October 2001; accepted 5 September 2002

Abstract

The objective of this paper is to contribute to the development of sequence stratigraphic models for extensive epicontinental

carbonate systems deposited over cratonic areas. Epicontinental carbonates of the SW German Upper Jurassic were analysed in

terms of microfacies, sedimentology and sequence stratigraphy based on 2.5 km of core, 70 borehole gamma ray logs and 24

quarries. Facies analysis revealed six major facies belts across the deeper parts of the carbonate ramp, situated generally below

fair-weather wave base, and mostly below average storm wave base but in the reach of occasional storm events. Observed

stratigraphic patterns differ in some aspects from widely published sequence stratigraphic models:

1. Elementary sedimentary cycles are mostly more or less symmetrical and are, thus, referred to as ‘‘genetic sequences’’ or

‘‘genetic units’’ [AAAPG Bull. 55 (1971) 1137; Frazier, D.E., 1974. Depositional episodes: their relationship to the

Quaternary stratigraphic framework in the northwestern portion of the Gulf Basin. University of Texas, Austin, Bureau of

Economic Geology Geologicalo Circular 71-1; AAPG Bull. 73 (1989) 125; Galloway, W.E., Hobday, D.K., 1996.

Terrigenous Clastic Depositional Systems. 489 pp., Springer; Cross, T.A., Baker, M.R., Chapin, M.S., Clark, M.S., Gardner,

M.H., Hanson, M.S., Lessenger, M.A., Little, L.D., McDonough, K.J., Sonnenfeld, M.D., Valasek, D.W., Williams, M.R.,

Witter, D.N., 1993. Applications of high-resolution sequence stratigraphy to reservoir analysis. Edition Technip 1993, 11–

33; Bull. Cent. Rech. Explor. Prod. Elf-Aquitaine 16 (1992) 357; Homewood, P., Mauriaud, P., Lafont, F., 2000. Best

practices in sequence stratigraphy. Elf EP Mem. 25, 81 pp.; Homewood, P., Eberli, G.P., 2000. Genetic stratigraphy on the

exploration and production scales. Elf EP Mem. 24, 290 pp.], in contrast to the asymmetrical, shallowing-upward

‘‘parasequences’’ of the EXXON approach.

2. Neither sequence boundaries nor maximum flooding surfaces could be clearly delineated. Cycle boundaries are generally not

represented by sharp stratal surfaces but are always transitional and, thus, referred to as ‘‘turnarounds’’ [Nor. Pet. Soc. Spec.

Publ. 8 (1998) 171].

Several types of genetic sequences were delineated. Both major types of facies and sequences show characteristic gamma

ray log signatures. Based on the cycle stacking and the gamma ray patterns, a hierarchy of sequences was recognized, probably

driven in part by 100,000- and 400,000-year Milankovitch signals. The cyclicity allowed regional correlations across various

depositional environments such as sponge–microbial bioherms and coeval basins. The basin-wide correlation revealed

0037-0738/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/S0037-0738(02)00319-6

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-7071-2977551; fax: +49-71071-295727.

E-mail address: t.aigner@uni-tuebingen.de (T. Aigner).1 Present address: RWE-Dea, Uberseering 40, 22297 Hamburg, Germany.

www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240

evidence for a subtle clinoform-type stratigraphic architecture along very gentle slopes, rather than a so far assumed simple

‘‘layer cake’’ pattern.

D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Upper Jurassic; Carbonate ramp; Sequence stratigraphy; Gamma ray; Genetic sequence; Stacking pattern; SW Germany

1. Introduction

Carbonate ramps (Ahr, 1973) form very wide-

spread, yet still enigmatic, types of depositional sys-

tems (Wright and Burchette, 1998) that host

significant amounts of hydrocarbons in many parts

of the world, especially in cratonic areas such as the

Arabian Platform (e.g. Kerans et al., 1994; Murris,

1981; Al-Husseini, 1997). The shallow-water areas of

inner ramps are generally well known from a larger

number of case studies (see, e.g. the recent compila-

tion of Wright and Burchette, 1998), partly because of

the availability of actualistic analogs (e.g. Kirkham,

1998). In contrast, the deeper-water zones of outer

ramp systems received comparatively little attention.

This paper aims to document depositional patterns

in a deeper-water realm of an Upper Jurassic carbo-

nate ramp. Firstly, a facies analysis in this mostly sub-

storm wave base setting was carried out, concentrating

on peculiar sponge–microbial bioherms. Secondly,

sequence analysis revealed a so far unrecognized

cyclicity and a pronounced cycle hierarchy. Thirdly,

core-calibrated and outcrop-generated gamma ray logs

were used for correlation across facies belts. An

underlying objective of this paper is to contribute

the evolving variety of sequence stratigraphic pat-

terns, thus, adding to and extending current models.

2. Geological setting

During the Upper Jurassic, large parts of the Euro-

pean craton were covered with a shelf sea marginal to

the oceanic Tethys in the South. In the North, this

shelf sea was separated from the boreal sea by an

island archipelago. In the southern, deeper part of this

epicontinental shelf sea, an extensive siliceous

sponge–microbial reef belt developed. According to

Meyer and Schmidt-Kaler (1989, 1990), the Swabian

facies as the central part of this reef belt formed a

deeper-water area between the shallower Franconian–

Southern Bavarian platform in the East and the Swiss

platform in the West. To the South, the Swabian facies

passed into the Helvetic Basin.

Within the Swabian facies, between 400 and 600 m

of carbonate rocks were deposited during the Upper

Jurassic. Two major lithofacies-types can be distin-

guished (e.g. Gwinner, 1976; Geyer and Gwinner,

1979):

(1) the so-called normal facies, consisting of well-

bedded limestones and calcareous marls, and

(2) the so-called massive facies, when bedding is

either absent, indistinct or very irregular.

The massive limestones are built by microbial

crusts (stromatolites and thrombolites) and siliceous

sponges that have been interpreted by various authors

as relatively deep and quiet water ‘‘reefs’’, mounds or

bioherm (e.g. reviews of Gwinner, 1976; Leinfelder et

al., 1994, 1996). The normal facies may either inter-

finger with the reefs or onlap onto the reefs (Gwinner,

1976; Pawellek, 2001). In the upper parts of the Upper

Jurassic, a coral facies developed locally upon the

microbial crust–sponge reefs.

The abundance of reef facies increases and de-

creases regularly through time. Reef expansion phases

correlate with an increase in the carbonate content

within the normal facies, while phases of reef retreat

correlate with increasing abundance of marls within

the normal facies (Meyer and Schmidt-Kaler, 1989,

1990; Pawellek, 2001).

3. Material and methods

This study is based on 16 borehole cores (Figs. 1

and 2), each about 100–150 m in length with a total

length of nearly 2.5 km. All cores were continuously

cut to allow a detailed and a complete macrofacies

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240204

Fig. 1. Palaeogeography of the Mid-European Upper Jurassic (adapted from Meyer and Schmidt-Kaler, 1989, 1990) with study area Swabian Alb, and locations of quarries and

boreholes studied (see Fig. 2).

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205

Fig. 2. (a,b) Stratigraphic subdivision of the higher Upper Jurassic of the Swabian Alb with the stratigraphic range of the here-studied boreholes and quarries. (1) Ages from

Hardenbol et al. (1998). (2) Subboreal ammonite zones from Hardenbol et al. (1998) and Hantzpergue et al. (1998). (3) Classical stratigraphic subdivision, dating back to Quenstedt

(1858). (4) Subdivision Geological Survey, Villinger and Fleck (1995). (5, 6) Lithostratigraphic subdivision, Villinger and Fleck (1995). Numbers of data points refer to map of Fig. 1.

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Fig.2(continued).

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240 207

logging. From all boreholes, gamma ray logs were

available. For microfacies analysis, approximately

every meter a peel, a thin section or a polished slab

was made. Facies proportion diagrams (Kerans and

Tinker, 1997) were established in order to document

the cyclicity in a quantitative way. In addition to the

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240208

borehole cores, 53 borehole gamma ray logs and 24

quarries were analysed, and four outcrop gamma ray

logs were measured to integrate the one-dimensional

borehole data with the two- and three-dimensional

outcrop data.

4. Lithofacies and log response

In the higher Upper Jurassic of the Swabian Alb,

18 different microfacies-types may be distinguished

which are grouped into the following six macrofacies

classes (Fig. 3) (for further details, the reader is

referred to Pawellek, 2001; Pawellek and Aigner,

2002):

(1) Marls and marly limestones: greyish marls and

marly limestones build successions of several

decimeters up to several tens of meters.

(2) Well-bedded limestones: centimeter- to decimeter-

thick lime mudstones alternating with thin marl

interbeds or partings.

(3) Debris limestones: clasts of sponges, microbial

crusts, reworked intraclasts and rarely corals form

the main components. The size of components

and their composition is highly variable.

(4) Particle-rich limestones: consisting mainly of

rounded intraclasts, peloids and ooids, with a

dominantly packstone and rarely grainstone

texture. In this facies, tubular tempestites (Wan-

less et al., 1988, 1995; Tedesco and Wanless,

1991) can commonly be observed.

(5) Microbial and sponge–microbial limestones:

consisting mainly of stromatolitic and thrombolitic

sponge boundstones.

(6) Sponge limestones and marls: comprising sponge-

rich float- to rudstones.

These major facies-types and as well as common

vertical facies successions have characteristic gamma

ray log shapes (Fig. 4):

(1) Marls and marly limestones have the highest

impulse rates (20–50 cps) and can, therefore,

easily be distinguished from all other facies-types

and successions. The gamma ray log of marls

with a thickness of several meters to tens of

meters normally has an irregularly serrate shape.

Thin marl layers between limestones show

needle-like gamma ray spikes.

(2) The gamma ray log of well-bedded limestones is

characterized by irregular lower impulse rates

(10–20 cps) with notches and teeth, representing

marly bedding partings.

(3) Debris limestone units mostly show a very sharp

decrease in gamma ray values at the base.

Upwards, the gamma ray log shows a gradual

increase in impulse rates and a bell shape often

tracking fining upward trends that may represent

distinct debris flow events.

(4) Particle-rich limestones have generally lower

impulse rates (3–7 cps) and less serrate log

shapes than the well-bedded limestones.

(5) The base of microbial and sponge–microbial

limestone units is commonly characterized by a

small peak in the gamma ray log recording a marly

interval (bioherm initiation). Characteristically, an

upward decrease in impulse rates can be observed,

corresponding to bioherm expansion. When mi-

crobial and sponge–microbial limestones pass

upwards into marls or well-bedded limestones

recording bioherm retreat and give-up, the gamma

ray log shows an increase in impulse rates again.

(6) Within sponge limestone successions, commonly,

the limestones become more and more marly

Fig. 3. Main lithofacies classes of the higher Upper Jurassic of SW Germany. (a) Well-bedded limestone: mudstone texture, commonly

bioturbated, here Chondrites (1) (from Ro 7525/B2, 64 m, age: Malm f1). Scale: 1 cm. (b) Debris limestone: wacke- to packstone or a float- to

rudstone texture, composed of microbial debris and sponge debris (tuberoids) (5), intraclasts (3), Peloids (4) and bioclasts (1: Tubiphytes

morronensis CRESCENTI, 2: Terebella spp.). This example represents the intraclast–bioclast microfacies type (from Ro 7821/B1, 21 m, age:

Malm f1). Scale: 1 cm. (c) Particle-rich limestone: packstone, very rarely grainstone, composed of ooids (1), peloids (2) and rounded intraclasts

(3) (from Ro 7525/B1, 93.5 m, age: Malm e). Scale 1 mm. (d) Sponge limestone: float- to rudstone texture, composed of sponges (1) and

variable other particles, forming different microfacies-types. Here, single bioclasts (3: echinoderm) and thrombolites grown upon the sponges

(2) occur (from Ro 7820/B1, 112 m, age: Malm d3). Scale 5 cm. (e) Thrombolite: microbial limestones, boundstone texture. Thrombolites can

be distinguished from stromatolites by their clotted and micropeloidal fabric (from Ro 7524/B1, 10.75 m, age: Malm e). Scale: 1 cm. (f)

Stromatolite: microbial limestones, boundstone texture. In contrast to thrombolites, stromatolites have a regular and periodic succession of

laminae (1, 2) (from Ro 7525/B1, 106.5 m, age: Malm e). Scale: 1 cm.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240 209

Fig. 4. Some examples of characteristic gamma ray log shapes of facies associations and vertical facies successions. For further information, see

text.

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upwards. Thus, the gamma ray log of sponge

limestone successions is normally characterised

by an increase in impulse rates.

The gamma ray log is, thus, useful for overall

facies predictions. In this paper, only the most com-

mon shapes are described (the full spectrum of shapes

are documented in Pawellek, 2001). Note that karsti-

fied, dolomitized and dedolomitized sections influen-

ces the shape of the gamma ray log.

5. Facies associations and their geometries

The two- and three-dimensional geometries of

facies associations forming distinct rock bodies (here

referred to as ‘‘geobodies’’) and their relationships to

each other were analysed in outcrop studies (Fig. 5).

Three different geobodies/facies associations can be

separated:

(1) Biohermal bodies (Fig. 5A): consist of massive

limestones, built mostly by microbial, sponge–

microbial and sponge limestones. Bioherms

occur in two different types. Firstly, small-scale

bioherms with lens-like, conical, pillar-like or

totally irregular shape (for examples, see, e.g.

Fritz, 1958; Hiller, 1964; Gwinner, 1976). The

extension of these bioherms are some decimeters

up to several meters in diameter and height.

Secondly, large-scale bioherms with mostly

dome-like shapes. These bioherms have a

diameter of more than 100 m up to kilometers

and a height up to 120 m (e.g. Gwinner, 1958,

1976; Ziegler, 1977; Wendt, 1980; Dietl and

Schweigert, 1999). In all scales of bioherms

phases of expansion, retreat and vertical build-up

(analog to progradation, retrogradation and

aggradation) can be recognized.

(2) Talus bodies (Fig. 5B and C): consist of wedges

of debris limestones (breccias and calcarenites),

interfingering with both bioherms and basinal

sediments. Individual debris layers form wedges

with a decreasing thickness from the bioherm to

the distal basin. Near the bioherms, the wedges

have a thickness of some to several meters and

can reach up to tens of meters. The length of

these wedges alternates between more than 100

m up to several hundred meters. Within the debris

wedges, large olistoliths (Fig. 5C) can occur.

(3) Basin-fill units (Fig. 5D): basins between

bioherms are filled by well-bedded limestones,

marly limestones and marls. These may show

slumping structures (e.g. Gwinner, 1961, 1976)

and may include calcareous turbidites. Basinal

sediments show either interfingering with the

bioherms and the talus deposits or a distinct

onlap relationship with the bioherms. In the

lower Malm and Malm d1–3, bedded limestones

are very widespread over the Swabian Alb

(Meyer and Schmidt-Kaler, 1989, 1990). In

Malm d4 and Malm e, only local basinal areas

exist (‘‘Linsenkalke’’, Meyer and Schmidt-Kaler,

1989) with a diameter of some tens of meters up

to some thousands of meters between extensive

biohermal bodies. From the higher Malm eonwards, the bioherms retreat (Fig. 18). The

morphology of the basins in the higher Malm e tothe Malm f2 depends on the geometries of the

retreating bioherms, but can be approximately

described as bowls. In the Malm f2, the diameters

of these bowls can reach several hundred meters

up to some kilometers. In the Malm f3, basinalbedded facies dominate again the whole area of

the Swabian Alb.

6. Sedimentological facies model

Based on nearly 70 borehole and 24 outcrop

investigations, a first-pass, schematic facies model

was developed. In general, the depositional system

of the Upper Jurassic of SW Germany can be

described as a carbonate ramp (e.g. Leinfelder,

1993; Leinfelder et al., 1994). The Swabian Alb is

located on the deeper part of this ramp.

Meyer and Schmidt-Kaler’s (1989, 1990) paleo-

geographic maps distinguish three major facies realms

in the present study area: thick-bedded limestones

(‘‘Quaderkalke’’), a sponge reef belt and deeper

basins. This rough zonation is further refined by this

study, where six facies belts are differentiated (Fig. 6):

(1) The distal basin facies belt is characterised by

marly sediments. Only distal turbidites and thin

limestone beds interrupt thick marly successions.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240 211

Fig. 5. Major facies associations. (A) Basinal sediments forming onlaps against bioherm. ‘‘Mergelstetten’’ quarry, Malm f2. (B) A succession of debris wedges and basinal sediments

interfingering with a bioherm. ‘‘Gerhausen’’ quarry, Malm f1. (C) House-like olistoliths transported into basinal sediments. ‘‘Liptingen’’ quarry, Malm f3. (D) Bedded limestones and

marls of Malm f1 age. ‘‘Bohmenkirch’’ quarry.

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(2) In the proximal basin facies belt, well-bedded

limestones, fine-grained debris limestones and

turbidites are dominant. Small scale bioherms (see

above) consisting of thrombolites and sponges

occasionally occur.

These two facies belts do not show any indications

of storm action and are, thus, interpreted to have been

deposited below the reach of even occasional storms.

(3) The bioherm margin facies belt consists mostly of

sheets or wedges of debris limestones, which are

interbedded with thin, well-bedded limestone

units. The shedding of reef debris may well be

triggered by occasional storm events.

(4) In the sponge–thrombolithe bioherm facies belt,

large-scale bioherms occur. They are built by

sponges and thrombolites with rare stromatolites.

Internal erosion surfaces and microcycles starting

with sponge debris overgrown by thrombolites

and stromatolites suggest occasional strom events

(Pawellek and Aigner, in press).

(5) In the sponge–stromatolitic facies belt, stromato-

lites are the dominant microbial components in

the bioherms. Sponges also occur, but are less

abundant than in the sponge–thrombolite bio-

herm facies belt.

(6) The particle-rich limestone facies belt consists of

ooid–peloid– intraclast packstones with rare

grainstones lenses. Commonly, particle-rich

limestones include layers with stromatolites.

Stromatolitic biostromes and small-scale bio-

herms can also occur. In this facies belt,

indicators for storm action (tabular and tubular

tempestites) were abundantly observed. There-

fore, the particle-rich limestone belt is inter-

preted as a depth zone which was affected by

average storm action. Abundant burrow fills

document pervasive bioturbation.

In all facies zones, indicators for permanent wave

action are missing. This indicates that the depositional

area of Swabian Alb is generally well below the fair-

weather wave base. This sedimentological facies

model for the Swabian Alb has similarities to the

facies model of the Upper Jurassic homoclinal ramp

of the Dobrogea/Romania (published by Herrmann,

1996).

Fig. 6. Schematic sedimentological facies model of the higher Upper Jurassic of SW Germany. Within the deeper part of a carbonate ramp, six

main facies belts can be distinguished. The particle-rich limestone facies belt is assumed to be within the average storm wave base. The whole

depositional area is clearly below the fair weather wave base and the shallow part of the ramp system is not exposed in the study area. Not to

scale.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240 213

7. Genetic sequences

7.1. General

The detailed examination of cores and logs re-

vealed reoccurring motifs of vertical facies succes-

sions on several scales of cyclicity. Many of these

cycles show symmetrical facies successions. In con-

trast, the building blocks of the classic EXXON

sequence stratigraphy scheme are the purely asym-

metrical shallowing-upward ‘‘parasequences’’ boun-

ded by sharp flooding surfaces. The majority of the

cycles observed in this study, however, are built by

both shallowing-upward and deepening-upward half-

cycles, bounded by gradational contacts rather than

sharp stratal surfaces. Therefore, the fundamental

stratigraphic building blocks are here referred to as

‘‘genetic sequences’’ (cf. Wheeler, 1964; Busch,

1971; Frazier, 1974; Galloway, 1989; Homewood et

al., 1992, 2000; Cross et al., 1993; Galloway and

Hobday, 1996; Sonnenfeld, 1996; Cross and Lessen-

ger, 1998). ‘‘Genetic sequences’’ or ‘‘genetic units’’

are defined as generally meter-scale elementary strati-

graphic cycles which can be regionally correlated and

that record phases of shallowing followed by deep-

ening (e.g. Homewood et al., 1992, 2000; Homewood

and Eberli, 2000; compare to ‘‘cycles’’ of Kerans and

Tinker, 1997). In the higher Upper Jurassic in SW

Germany, the thickness of genetic sequences varies

between 4 and 10 m in the basins and can reach up to

20 m in bioherms. Seven different types of genetic

sequences can be distinguished. In general, sequences

result from time rates of change in accommodation

and sediment supply (e.g. Jervey, 1988; Schlager,

1993). Each sequence records a cycle of increasing

followed by decreasing accommodation space (A) to

sediment supply or production (S) ratios. Deepening

occurs as a result of an increase in accommodation

space and/or a decrease in sediment supply or pro-

duction (increasing A/S ratio). Shallowing occurs as a

result of a decrease in accommodation space and/or an

increase in sediment supply (decreasing A/S ratio).

Variations in accommodation space (A) and in sedi-

ment supply or production (S) determine the sedimen-

tary facies within stratigraphic units. Within a

complete sequence, a phase with decreasing A/S ratios

(shallowing half-cycles) and a phase with a increasing

A/S ratio (deepening half-cycles) can be distinguished,

bounded by ‘‘turnarounds’’ (Cross and Lessenger,

1998). The modelling program of Dunn predicts such

more gradual changes in trend for greater water depths

(e.g. Goldhammer et al., 1993) and this pattern has

been reported before in Fischer plots and in cycle

stacking (e.g. Goldhammer et al., 1990; Schlager,

1992). For practical reasons (integration of several

criteria and factors), and in order to graphically

emphasize these shallowing and deepening trends,

triangles are used as a sort of ‘‘shorthand’’ symbol,

as also applied by several other authors (e.g. Cross et

al., 1993; Cross and Lessenger, 1998; Homewood et

al., 1992, 2000; Homewood and Eberli, 2000; Guil-

locheau, 1995; Bourquin and Guillocheau, 1996; Van

Buchem et al., 1996).

7.2. Description

7.2.1. Bioherm cycles

7.2.1.1. Facies. This cycle-type can only be found

within bioherms and is characterised by the vertical

facies succession sponge limestones or marls

(base)– thrombolitic sponge limestones– thrombo-

lites–stromatolites and vice versa. Sometimes, espe-

cially in the Malm d1–3, the stromatolites play a

minor role or can completely left out in this facies

succession. In outcrop, progradational and retrogra-

dational phases correlate with this facies succession:

the succession from sponge limestones to stromato-

lites is often connected with expansion of the

bioherm (Fig. 7), while the succession from stro-

matolites to sponge limestones shows bioherm

retreat (Fig. 7).

7.2.1.2. Gamma ray log shapes. The shape of this

cycle-type can be described as bowl with relatively

high impulse rates at the base and at the top (caused

by sponge limestones with a relative high impulse

rate) and with very low impulse rates in the middle of

a cycle (caused by stromatolitic facies, which has as

the particle limestones the lowest impulse rate of all

facies-types).

7.2.2. Bioherm debris cycles

7.2.2.1. Facies. A bioherm debris cycle has the

typical facies succession: (sponge limestones or marls

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240214

are sometimes missing)–thrombolitic sponge lime-

stones–thrombolites–debris limestones–well-bedded

limestones or marls and vice versa (Fig. 8).

7.2.2.2. Gamma ray log shape. Two half-cycles

may be distinguished in the log shapes. One half-

cycle is characterized by a decreasing impulse rate

and correspond to the facies succession: (sponge

limestones with relatively high impulse rates)–throm-

bolites–debris limestones (with relatively low im-

pulse rates). The second half-cycle is characterized

by a relatively rapid increase in impulse rates, corre-

sponding to the succession debris limestone–well-

bedded limestones and/or marls.

7.2.3. Bioherm-bedded limestone/marl cycles

7.2.3.1. Facies. A typical facies succession of this

cycle-type is: marls or sponge marls and/or well-

bedded limestones or sponge float- to rudstones–

sponge–microbial limestones (sponge–thrombolites,

thrombolites, stromatolites, etc.) and vice versa (Fig.

9).

7.2.3.2. Gamma ray log shape. Normally, the shape

of this cycle-type can be described as symmetric bowl

with high impulse rates at the edge of the bowl

(caused by well-bedded limestones or marls) and with

the lowest impulse rate at the middle of the bowl

(caused by the stromatolites with the lowest impulse

rate of all facies-types.

7.2.4. Bioherm tuberoid cycles

7.2.4.1. Facies. A typical facies succession of this

cycle-type is: marls and/or well-bedded limestones–

tuberoid wacke- to packstones–thrombolithic sponge

limestones– thrombolithes– sponge limestones or

marls and/or well-bedded limestones or marls and

vice versa (Fig. 10).

7.2.4.2. Gamma ray log shape. Normally, the shape

of this cycle shows a funnel-shaped log signature.

The lower half-cycle is characterised by a slow

decrease in impulse rates caused by the facies

succession: marls and/or well-bedded limestones–

tuberoid wacke- to packstones–thrombolithic sponge

Fig. 7. Genetic sequence in outcrop (quarry Willmandingen), with the facies succession sponge thrombolite– thrombolite–sponge thrombolite

(bioherm cyle). The succession from sponge thrombolites to thrombolites correponds to bioherm progradation, while the succession from the

thrombolites to sponges correlates to bioherm retrogradation.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240 215

limestones–thrombolithes. The upper half-cycle is

characterised by a rapid increase in impulse rates

caused by sponge limestones or marls and/or bed-

ded limestones or marls, which overlie the throm-

bolites.

7.2.5. Particle-rich limestone cycles

7.2.5.1. Facies. This cycle-type is characterized by

the succession well-bedded limestones– intraclast–

bioclast limestones or tuberoid limestones (sometimes,

these facies-types are missing)–particle-rich lime-

stones and vice versa. Sometimes, especially in the

lower Malm e, a modified cycle-type occurs: particle-

rich limestones (packstones)–particle-rich limestones

(pack- to grainstones and grainstones)–particle-rich

limestones fixed by microbial crusts and vice versa.

Sometimes, especially in the well-bedded, intraclast–

bioclast and tuberoid limestones, thrombolitic layers

can occur (Fig. 11).

7.2.5.2. Gamma ray log shape. Its very difficult to

identify this cycle-type from gamma ray log alone.

Only if well-bedded limestones are within this cycle-

Fig. 8. Genetic sequences from ‘‘bioherm debris cycle’’-type. The example is taken from Ro 7623/B4, Malm f1.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240216

Fig. 9. Genetic sequences from ‘‘bioherm-bedded limestone/marl cycle’’-type. The example is taken from Ro 7525/B1, Malm e.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240 217

Fig. 10. Genetic sequences from ‘‘bioherm tuberoid’’-type. The example is taken from Ro 7820/B1, Malm d.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240218

Fig. 11. Genetic sequences from ‘‘particle-rich limestone cycle’’-type. Note that the log character of the gamma ray has changed in the section

between 130 and 135 m because of slight carstification. The example is taken from Ro 7623/B4, Malm d3–Malm e.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240 219

type can single cycles be identified by the peak caused

by the well-bedded limestones (well-bedded lime-

stones have a higher impulse rate than the other

facies-types in this succession).

7.2.6. Debris cycles

7.2.6.1. Facies. This cycle-type is characterized by

the facies succession: marls and/or bedded lime-

Fig. 12. Genetic sequences from ‘‘debris cycle’’-type. The example is taken from Ro 7525/B2, Malm f1.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240220

stones–intraclast–bioclast wacke- to packstones (this

facies-type is sometimes missing)–breccias and vice

versa (Fig. 12).

7.2.6.2. Gamma ray log shape. The gamma ray log

of this cycle shows a very typical shape. The

transition from marls and/or bedded limestones to

debris limestones is normally very sharp. This

sudden transition is characterized by a sharp inci-

sion in the gamma ray log (bedded limestones and

marls have high impulse rates, debris limestones

have low impulse rates). The succession from the

debris limestones to the bedded limestones and

marls again is characterized by a gradual increase

in impulse rates.

7.2.7. Marl–limestone cycles

This cycle-type is characterized by a rhythmic

alternation of marls and well-bedded limestones.

The rhythmical change from marls and well-bedded

limestones is normally well represented in the gamma

ray log. The marls are characterized by high impulse

rates, while the limestones show relatively low

impulse rates (Fig. 13).

7.3. Interpretation

As mentioned above, the majority of the cycles

observed in this study can be divided into two parts:

a shallowing-upward and a deepening-upward half-

cycle. A whole suite of sedimentological, palynolog-

ical and paleoecological criteria were used to delin-

eate these deepening or shallowing trends in the

above-described cycle-types. Each criterion on its

own may be ambiguous to indicate variations in

water depth. Taking several criteria together, how-

ever, gives more confidence in the interpretation of

trends in relative waterdepth. Variations in the con-

tent of ooids, the size, roundness and sorting of all

components, the occurrence of sparitic and micritic

matrix and the clay content within the cycles are

interpreted to reflect variations in hydrodynamic

energy. An upward increase in ooid content, sparitic

matrix, size, roundness and sorting of the compo-

nents going hand in hand with a decrease in micrite

and clay is interpreted as an increase of depositional

energy. A reverse increase in micrite, stylolites and

clay and a decrease in ooids, sparitic matrix, round-

ness and sorting of the components are interpreted to

record a decrease in hydrodynamic energy. It is

noticeable that a consistent increase of clay content

parallels a decrease of shallow-water indicators like

ooids and stromatolites (see Pawellek, 2001). This

observation stands in contrast to the classic sequence

stratigraphic concept of mixed carbonate-siliciclastic

passive margins. There, the intervals with the highest

clastic input is interpreted to represent lowstands of

sea level (e.g. Van Wagoner et al., 1988). It is

questionable if this concept can unambiguously be

transferred to all types of carbonate ramps. Palynol-

ogy was used to test if increasing clay content

represents a shallowing or deepening trend (Fig.

14). Within the marl layers, an increase in marine

phytoclasts was found, whereas within the limestone

layers, continental phytoclasts increase. This implies

that the marls and clays represent ‘‘basinal marls’’,

deposited as background sedimentation in deeper-

water zones, where carbonate production is limited,

rather than lowstands.

Parallel to these sedimentological and palynofacies

variations, trends in the biota were observed, espe-

cially in the content and growth habit of siliceous

sponges, and in the type of microbial crusts. The

interpretation of these variations is difficult but pro-

vide some clues. According to many authors, throm-

bolites are most widespread in deeper-water zones

(e.g. Keupp et al., 1993, 1996; Leinfelder, 1993,

1994; Leinfelder et al., 1993, 1996; Dromart et al.,

1994; Herrmann, 1996; Schmid, 1996; Rehfeld, 1996)

because they are considered to have been formed by

light independent microbes (e.g. Schmid, 1996).

Moreover, thrombolites are often found in aphotic

zones (e.g. Dromart et al., 1994; Taylor and Palmer,

1994; Reitner et al., 1996) although they may also

occur in shallow subtidal depths (e.g. Feldmann and

McKenzie, 1997, 1998). An important limiting factor

for the growth of thrombolites is sedimentation rate.

Thrombolites can only grow in areas with very low

sedimentation rates, as commonly found in deeper

water (e.g. Leinfelder, 1993; Leinfelder et al., 1994,

1996; Schmid, 1996). Another limiting factor for

microbialite growth is nutrient supply (e.g. Sprachta

et al., 2001). In contrast, stromatolites are built mostly

by light-dependent cyanobacteria, dominate in shal-

lower-water zones and can handle better a higher

sedimentation rate than thrombolites (e.g. Golubic,

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240 221

1976; Jones and Hunter, 1991; Golubic and Knoll,

1993; Defrage et al., 1994; Schmid, 1996). Therefore,

stromatolites are mostly regarded as shallower-water

indicators, while thrombolites are thought of as

deeper-water indicators (e.g. Schmid, 1996). Feld-

mann and McKenzie (1997, 1998) report of a gradual

change from stromatolites to thrombolites associated

with rising sea level. Siliceous sponges are often

regarded as indicator for deeper-water zones (e.g.

Krautter, 1995, 1997; Leinfelder, 1993; Leinfelder et

al., 1994, 1996).

There are several indications that facies and organ-

ism succession in the above described cycles, such as

from siliceous sponges to stromatolites, or from marls

Fig. 13. Genetic sequences from ‘‘marl– limestone cycle’’-type. The example is taken from Ro 7525/B3, Malm f1 – 2.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240222

Fig. 14. Palynofacies analysis within basinal sediments. The marine fraction (dominated by dinoflagellate cysts) has its maximum within intervals with low CaO contents and high

clay contents, whereas the continental fraction dominates intervals with higher CaO content and lower clay content.

T.Pawellek,

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/Sedimentary

Geology159(2003)203–240

223

to particle-rich limestones can be interpreted as an

increase in depositional energy and, thus, as a shallow-

ing trend. This means that the accommodation space

decreases while possibly sediment production in-

creases (A/S < 1, ‘‘shallowing half-cycle’’). The shal-

lowing/deepening turnaround is located in the section

with the highest energy and on top of the shallowest

facies. This means that the shallowing/deepening turn-

around in the cycles discussed here is located, for

instance, on top of the thickest stromatolites, or on top

of the particle-rich limestone with the highest ooid

content. In contrast, there are many indications that the

facies and organism succession from stromatolites to

siliceous sponges, or from particle-rich limestones to

marls, can be interpreted as an energy decrease and as

a deepening trend. Thus, accommodation space

increases while possibly sediment production de-

creases (A/S>1, ‘‘deepening half-cycle’’). The deep-

ening/shallowing turnaround is located in the section

with the lowest energy and on top of the deepest

facies-type. The shallowing/deepening turnaround is

located on top of the section with the highest clay or

micrite content and/or with the highest sponge content

(e.g. marls or marly limestones, well-bedded lime-

stones, marly or micritic sponge floatstones or rud-

stones).

8. Stacking patterns

Genetic sequences as described above are in turn

built by two hierarchies of small-scale cycles, which

are only locally correlateable and which are described

in detail in Pawellek (2001) and in Pawellek and

Aigner (in press). Commonly, several (in the analysed

cores and outcrop studies commonly four) stacked

genetic sequences build one medium-scale sequence

(some examples of this stacking pattern are docu-

mented in Figs. 8–13). The thickness of the medium-

scale cycles varies between 10 and several tens of

meters. Several medium-scale sequences form large-

scale sequences (Fig. 15). Large-scale cycles are more

than 100 m thick.

In many cases, the gamma ray log is an useful tool

to identify the cycle stacking patterns (e.g. (Figs. 12,

13, 15 and 16)). The overall deepening or shallowing

trends are traced by an increase or decrease in impulse

rates. Similar stacking patterns became obvious during

the outcrop studies. In the bedded facies, the cyclicity

is immediately apparent along outcrop faces and well

traced in outcrop gamma ray logs (Fig. 17).

Outcrops studies also show that bioherm geome-

tries are related to the cyclicity. Reef progradation and

increasing debris production occurs during shallow-

ing half-cycles while retrogradation of bioherms cor-

responds to deepening half-cycles. In the higher

Jurassic of SW Germany, the large-scale cycles con-

trol the general distribution of the bioherms (general

trend of expanding bioherms from the Malm c to the

Malm e and overall retreat of bioherm from the Malm

e to the Malm f2). Medium-scale cycles control the

geometry (expanding versus shrinking) of individual

bioherms, the distribution of bioherm debris and the

composition of bioherm debris (Fig. 18). Finally,

small-scale pro- and retrogradational pulses of the

bioherms (Fig. 7) and the occurrence of single reef

debris layers (Fig. 18) correspond to the level of

genetic sequences.

9. 2D correlation

Within the same facies association, e.g. within

the basinal facies, the cyclicity and its high-reso-

lution correlation are straightforward and are often

possible by just using gamma ray log (subregional-

scale correlation, Fig. 16). High-resolution correla-

tions between different facies associations have so

far been difficult. In this study, genetic sequences

and their stacking were employed for the correla-

tion between wells. Genetic sequences are inde-

pendent of the local facies and are recognizable

over the whole depositional profile and, thus, form

ideal correlation units. Time lines are generated by

connecting the turnaround points of the cycles

between the different boreholes. For correlation,

both the genetic sequences and the medium-scale

cycles were used. With these correlation methods, it

was possible to correlate boreholes between differ-

ent paleogeographic positions (bioherms, proximal

basin areas with bioherm debris and distal basins)

in the higher Upper Jurassic of SW Germany (Fig.

19).

A conceptual scheme of the sequence correlation is

illustrated in Fig. 20. Typically, the sponge–microbial

bioherms are considered to be limited by the ‘‘aver-

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240224

Fig. 15. Large-scale cycles build by a stack of medium-scale cycles. In this figure, a correlation between the medium- and large-scale cycles and

the conventional lithostratigraphy was attempted.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240 225

age’’ strom wave base. The delicate and fragile

sponges and thrombolites probably lived optimally

in quiet, deeper-water areas well below the reach of

average storms. They grew upwards up to near the

average storm wave base, where thrombolites were

probably replaced by stromatolites. Further upward

reef growth was likely to have been hampered by

storm erosion, shedding debris off the bioherms into

surrounding basins. It may, thus, be speculated that

the sponge–microbial bioherms were not directly

controlled by sea-level changes. However, there might

have been an indirect sea-level control via the average

storm wave base, which fluctuates in harmony with

sea-level. Average storm wave base acted as a ‘‘wave

base razor’’ (Sonnenfeld and Cross, 1993) controlling

reef debris production as well as expanding, aggrad-

ing or retreating bioherm geometries. Principally,

these patterns are comparable to progradational–

aggradational cycles in the Paris Basin chalk (Met-

traux et al., 1999), interpreted to have built up from

below strom wave base up to near fair-weather wave

base.

10. Basin-fill architecture

The Upper Jurassic of the Swabian Alb is com-

monly regarded as an example of an epicontinental

succession characterised by a simple layer cake strat-

igraphy (e.g. Gwinner, 1976, Meyer and Schmidt-

Kaler, 1989, 1990). In this study, regional strati-

graphic cross-sections based on numerous wells were

produced the first time (Fig. 21). These show that the

basin-fill architecture is not as simple as previously

assumed: depocenters can be observed, that migrate

through time from West to East. In the Malm d1–3, thedepocenter is located in the western Swabian Alb. In

Malm d4 and lower Malm e, the depositional center

migrates to the East and in upper Malm e and Malm f,the depocenter reaches the Eastern Swabian Alb.

Fig. 16. Example of a subregional correlation between two gamma ray logs in basinal facies (boreholes Ro 7525/B3 and Ro 7525/B4) over a

distance of 2 km.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240226

Fig. 17. Outcrop log and outcrop gamma ray from Malm d1 – 4 the Schlattstall quarry. The marly layers between the limestone units can be

correlated with peaks in the gamma ray log. Note the different hierarchies of sequences.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240 227

Fig. 18. (a,b) Architecture and geometries of facies bodies and sequence hierarchy in the Gerhausen–Altental quarry. The gamma ray log was

measured in a borehole which was drilled 10 m behind the quarry wall. This cross-section is characterised by an overall retrogradation of large

dome-shaped bioherms. Retrogradation does not happen gradually, but is punctuated by subordinate retro- and progradation steps. These

subordinate steps are controlled by the genetic sequences. In addition, medium-scale sequences with a medium-scale retrogradation and

progradation step can be recognised. The bioherms mostly consists of microbial crusts and sponges. However, in the upper part corals appear.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240228

Fig. 19. Regional correlation example of genetic sequences (2) during one medium-scale sequence (1) across various depositional environments.

T.Pawellek,

T.Aigner

/Sedimentary

Geology159(2003)203–240

229

Thus, the stratigraphic architecture clearly records an

overall progradational pattern and very low-angle

(0.06–0.6j) clinoforms must be assumed dipping to

the east rather than a ‘‘layer cake stratigraphy’’.

11. Conclusions

(1) As a case study for epicontinental carbonate sys-

tems, the Upper Jurassic of the Swabian Alb was

Fig. 20. Schematic sketch of the correlation concept in the higher Upper Jurassic of SW Germany. Genetic sequences can be identified in all

facies belts and can, therefore, be used for correlation. Time lines can be generated by connecting the turnarounds. Note the systematic changes

in cycle symmetry/asymmetry within the stacking pattern.

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240230

Fig. 21. W–E section on the basis of connecting turnarounds through the study area of the Swabian Alb. Depositional centers can be observed, which migrate from the Malm d to the Malm f from West to East. Thus, the basin fill architecture records a gentle but noticeable progradation. Very low angle clinoforms may be postulated

dipping to the East, rather than a simple larger-scale pattern (1: Ro 7920/B1; 2: Gutenstein 1; 3: Unterschmeien 3; 4: Ro 7820/B1; 5: Ro 7821/B1; 6: Ro 7821/B2; 7: Saulgau TB3; 8: Upflamor 1; 9: Ro 7621/B2; 10: Ro 7623/B4; 11: Ro 7624/B1; 12: Ro 7624/B2; 13: Gerhausen; 14: B 423; 15: Ro 7524/B1; 16: Ro 7525/B2; 17: Ro

7525/B1; 18: Neu–Ulm; 19: Ro 7525/B3; 20: Ro 7426/B1; 21: Steinheim–Stubental; 22: Ro 7326/B1; 23: Burgberg; 24: Heerstraßle 2; 25: Mergelstetten P1; 26: Mergelstetten P5; 27: Mergelstetten K24; 28: Holltal).

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240 pp. 231–236

investigated. Five main macrofacies classes can

be distinguished. These form three facies

associations building characteristic geobodies:

(1) lens-like, conical, pillar-shaped or dome-like

bioherms, (2) wedge-shaped talus bodies and (3)

basin-fill bodies, which fill the space between

bioherms.

(2) A sedimentological facies model with lateral

facies successions reflecting the deeper parts of a

carbonate ramp was established.

(3) Detailed logging of borehole cores and outcrops

revealed so far unrecognized sedimentary cycles

of various scales. Cycles are commonly more or

less symmetrical and can be separated in two

half-cycles. One half-cycle shows an increase in

hydrodynamic energy and a shallowing-up trend,

the other half-cycle a decrease in energy and a

deepening-up trend.

(4) Because the fundamental stratigraphic units do

not conform to the asymmetric parasequence

model, they are referred to as ‘‘genetic sequen-

ces’’ recording variations in the ratio of accom-

modation space (A) and sediment supply and/or

production (S). In this way, the lower half-cycle is

interpreted as times of decreasing accommoda-

tion space while possibly sediment production

increases (A/S < 1, shallowing half-cycle). The

upper half-cycle is viewed as times of increasing

accommodation space while possibly sediment

production decreased (A/S>1, deepening half-

cycle). The shallowing/deepening turnaround is

located in the section with the highest energy and

on top of the shallowest facies and the deepening/

shallowing turnaround is located in the section

with the lowest energy and on top of the deepest

facies-type.

(5) Stacks of several genetic sequences build

medium- and large-scale scale sequences. Com-

monly, four genetic sequences build one me-

dium-scale sequence, thus, possibly recording

100,000- and 400,000-year Milankovitch signals.

(6) The gamma ray log is a useful tool identifying the

vertical facies successions, cycles and cycle

hierarchies. Deepening half-cycles show an

increase in impulse rates while shallowing half-

cycles are characterized by a decrease in impulse

rates. Karstified, dolomitized and dedolomitized

sections modify the log character.

(7) Based on the cycle architecture, gamma ray

correlation was possible between boreholes of

different palaeogeographic zones (bioherms,

proximal and distal basins). Time lines can be

generated in the cycle correlation by connecting

turnarounds.

(8) A regional stratigraphic cross-section based on

borehole data through the study area reveals a

migration of depocenters and a very low-angle

progradation to the East, in contrast to the so far

assumed simple layer cake stratigraphy.

(9) The salient features of this carbonate system—

sub-storm wave base sponge–microbial bio-

herms, symmetrical rather than asymmetrical

fundamental stratigraphic sequences, gradual

turnaround zones rather than sharp stratal surfaces

such as maximum flooding surfaces, transgres-

sive surfaces and sequence boundaries (appa-

rently lacking)—are thought to be caused by the

generally deeper ramp setting. These features

document modifications to current sequence

stratigraphic models.

Acknowledgements

The authors want to thank the Geological Survey

of Baden-Wurttemberg (especially Dr. Werner, Dr.

Schloz, Dr. Franz), Fa. Schwenk, the Deutsche

Bundesbahn and the building authorities of the town

Ulm, for making cores and gamma ray logs available.

Some of the cores were part of an exploration

program of the land Baden-Wurttemberg (see Giese

et al., 1997; Werner, 2000). The authors also want to

thank the quarry companies (KWV Jurasteinwerke,

Fa. Teufel, Fa. Baur, Fa. Gbr. Leibfritz, SWS

Steinwerke, Heidelberger Zement, Fa. Schneider, Fa.

Wager, Fa. Grotzinger, Fa. Siegling, Fa. Schon and

Hippelein, Fa. Schneider, Fa. Rosch Konrad Sohne,

Fa. Ulmer Weiß, Fa. Merkle, Fa. Schwenk, Fa. Heinz

Schotterwerke, Fa. Moeck). Thanks to Dr. A. Gotz

(Darmstadt) for the palynological analysis and to

Dipl.-Geol. M. Ruf (Tubingen) for producing peels.

Reviewer W. Schlager is thanked for his constructive

and useful remarks. The DFG (Deutsche Forschungs-

gemeinschaft) is thanked for financial support (project

Ai 17/5).

T. Pawellek, T. Aigner / Sedimentary Geology 159 (2003) 203–240 237

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