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ARCHIVES UNBOUND .................................. PAGE 4
17TH AND 18TH CENTURY BURNEY COLLECTION NEWSPAPERS ..........................PAGE 5
19TH CENTURY BRITISH LIBRARY NEWSPAPERS ........................................ PAGES 6-7
19TH CENTURY UK PERIODICALS .............PAGES 8-9
19TH CENTURY U.S. NEWSPAPERS ............. PAGE 10
BRITISH LITERARY MANUSCRIPTS ONLINE, C. 1660-C.1900 .....................................PAGE 11
BRITISH LITERARY MANUSCRIPTS ONLINE, MEDIEVAL & RENAISSANCE........................PAGE 11
CONDITIONS AND POLITICS IN OCCUPIED
WESTERN EUROPE, 1940-1945 ................ PAGE 12
DECLASSIFIED DOCUMENTS REFERENCE SYSTEM .................................. PAGE 12
THE ECONOMIST HISTORICAL ARCHIVE 1843-2003 ........................................... PAGE 13
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY COLLECTIONS ONLINE ............................................PAGES 14-15
FINANCIAL TIMES HISTORICAL ARCHIVE, 1888-2006 ...........................................PAGE 16
THE ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS HISTORICAL ARCHIVE ONLINE: 1842-2003 ................ PAGE 17
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF JORGE LUIS BORGES ................................. PAGE 17
THE MAKING OF MODERN LAW: LEGAL
TREATISES, 1800-1926 ............................ PAGE 18
THE MAKING OF MODERN LAW: PRIMARY
SOURCES, 1620-1926 .............................PAGE 19
THE MAKING OF MODERN LAW: TRIALS, 1600-1926 ...........................................PAGE 20
THE MAKING OF MODERN LAW: U.S. SUPREME COURT RECORDS AND BRIEFS,
1832-1978 ............................................. PAGE 21
THE MAKING OF THE MODERN WORLD: THE GOLDSMITHS’-KRESS LIBRARY OF
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THE MIDDLE EAST ONLINE: SERIES 2: IRAQ 1914-1974 .................................... PAGE 23
NORTHERN IRELAND: A DIVIDED COMMUNITY, 1921-1972: CABINET PAPERS OF THE STORMONT
ADMINISTRATION, FROM THE PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE OF NORTHERN IRELAND ............... PAGE 24
SOURCES IN U.S. HISTORY ONLINE: THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION .......................... PAGE 24
SOURCES IN U.S. HISTORY ONLINE: THE CIVIL WAR ...................................... PAGE 24
SOURCES IN U.S. HISTORY ONLINE: SLAVERY IN AMERICA .............................. PAGE 24
POST-WAR EUROPE: REFUGEES, EXILE AND
RESETTLEMENT, 1945-1950 .................... PAGE 25
PUBLIC LIFE IN CONTEMPORARY ARGENTINA ............................................ PAGE 25
SABIN AMERICANA: 1500-1926 ................ PAGE 26
SLAVERY AND ANTI-SLAVERY: A TRANSNATIONAL ARCHIVE ................... PAGE 27
STATE PAPERS ONLINE, 1509-1714 ..... PAGES 28-29
SUR, 1931-1992 ...................................... PAGE 30
TESTAMENTS TO THE HOLOCAUST .............. PAGE 30
THE TIMES DIGITAL ARCHIVE, 1785-1985 .... PAGE 31
TIMES LITERARY SUPPLEMENT HISTORICAL ARCHIVE, 1902-2005 .......... PAGE 31
WOMEN, WAR & SOCIETY, 1914-1918 .......PAGE 32
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THE TIMES DIGITAL ARCHIVE, 1785-1985
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Nancy F. Koehn, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University
AN ESSAY FROM 19TH CENTURY U.S. NEWSPAPERS DATABASE
Consumerism and Consumption
A national consumer culture first emerged in the United
States late in the nineteenth century. But the origins of a
consumer society stretch back for at least a century before
that. In the 1780s Thomas Jefferson had dreamed of a vir-
tuous republic composed of self- sufficient yeoman farmers,
untainted by the squalor associated with manufacturing.
Consumption, in Jefferson’s utopia, would revolve around
the basic requirements of subsistence, all of which could
be found in the land’s bounty. His was a powerful vision,
and its ideological influence was long-lasting. But it was
not an accurate description of how most people lived in the
new United States. Jefferson himself was one of the nation’s
most conspicuous consumers, going deep into debt to fill
his home, Monticello, with expensive goods from around
the world.
On small farms in Massachusetts, in elegant Philadelphia
row houses, and on sprawling Virginia plantations,
Americans at the end of the eighteenth century bought,
bartered, and used a range of goods that they did not or
could not produce themselves, including tea, china table-
ware, spices, calico, satins, clocks, Dutch ovens, and sugar.
Even on the edges of the Appalachian frontier, peddlers and
general storekeepers kept households supplied with whis-
key, needles, hoes, and a myriad of other items.
Many of these goods came from or through Great Britain.
All told, Britain’s exports to North America and the West
Indies expanded by more than 2,300 percent over the
course of the eighteenth century. By the early 1800s North
America and the West Indies bought more than half of
Britain’s exports, the overwhelming majority of which were
manufactures, especially textiles and metalwares.
Antebellum Consumption
In the first decades of the nineteenth century most commer-
cial connections within the United States were local. New
England peddlers, for example, hawked Bibles, almanacs,
and hymnals to individual farmhouses in rural Vermont as
well as to regional merchants. Plantation owners in eastern
Georgia traveled to Savannah to buy buckwheat, crackers,
lard, and tea, using credit on their future cotton sales.
During a nine-month period at the beginning of the nine-
teenth century sixty-six different customers were noted
in the ledger of one general store in Louisville, Kentucky.
Most patrons were white men, but several women and
African American slaves shopped there as well. In almost
twelve hundred transactions, an average of about eighteen
per customer or two visits each a month, these people
bought thread, shoes, hats, chamber pots, spectacles, and
other goods and paid for their purchases with cash, store
credit, skins, and wood.
The inhabitants of early-nineteenth-century cities had more
choice in goods and outlets than those who lived in rural
areas. Hundreds of stores filled urban streets, offering an
assortment of groceries, dry goods, glassware, medicines,
and even paint. Buoyed by rapid population growth and
increased commerce, specialty shops also appeared in U.S.
cities beginning in the 1820s. These outlets initially focused
on broad categories of merchandise, such as groceries and
hardware, but by 1850 urban consumers could find stores
dedicated to narrow lines of goods, such as books, carpet-
ing, tea and coffee, china, cutlery, and hats.
Nearly all stores were small, measuring a few hundred
square feet in size. Many were operated informally from
the owners’ homes without elaborate displays or extensive
advertising. Specie was frequently in short supply during
the first half of the nineteenth century, and like their coun-
terparts in the country large numbers of city dwellers paid
for their purchases with other goods or on credit.
This localized consumer economy did not necessarily trans-
late into widespread material affluence or comfort. In the
1830s, for example, most farm families lived in three- or
four-room houses without basements or flooring, save for
the bare earth. On average these households probably spent
less than 200 dollars (about 3,100 dollars in late-twentieth-
century dollars) a year for all expenses except housing.
Rural families in the 1830s spent about 40 percent of their
nonhousing budgets on food. More than half of this went
for cereals, flour, and cured meat and fish. Most of the re-
mainder was spent on salt, spices, sugars, and beverages.
In the city as well as in the country most Americans had
Get the most from
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