SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES IN COASTAL FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN INDIAC

by

Atul Sinha, Fisheries Division

and

V. Sampath, Department of Agriculture New Delhi, India

ABSTRACT

In the Indian 8th Five Year Plan (1992-97) over 60% of the projected government investment in fisheries will be devoted to the development and management of the small-scale coastal fisheries which presently account for some four fifths of total marine fisheries production. Emphasis will be placed not only upon modernizing the traditional sector but also upon improving the wellbeing and standards of living of artisanal fisheries communities. The paper describes in detail the current nature and conditions of India's small-scale coastal fisheries. The fishermen are generally the poorest and most disadvantaged sector of society, afflicted by declining catches, low incomes, lack of access to credit and by the absence of even the most basic civic amenities and infrastructures. Severe conflicts often occur between the traditional sector and mechanized trawlers. Cooperatives have so far failed to achieve their expectations. Attention is drawn to the adverse effects of the "open access" situation which, inter alia, has encouraged non-fishermen to take an increasingly large role in mechanized fishing operations; the need to promote alternative sources of employment and income for artisanal fishermen and their families is underlined. The paper concludes with an extensive list of suggestions for the improvement of the small-scale coastal fisheries. In particular, it is strongly argued that the further enhancement of the sector should be best approached within the context of integrated rural development; steps should be taken to control entry to the fisheries and to aIlocate exclusive use rights, allied with artificial reefs, to artisanal fishing communities

1. Introduction

"Fisheries" are an increasingly important economic activity in India and a powerful income and employment generator, as they stimulate the growth of a number of subsidiary industries. Besides being a source of cheap and protein-rich food for all sections of society, fishing is also a foreign exchange earner. The fisheries sector, in general, thus has the potential to make a significant impact on the socio-economic status of that large section of Indian society that belongs to small-scale fishing communities.

In order to augment food supplies and to demonstrate the advantages of mechanized, deep-sea fishing, a Deep-sea Fishing Station was established in 1946 at Bombay as the first step towards the development of marine fisheries in the country. However, systematic

This paper is an edited, abridged version of a lengthier earlier document.

149

development of fisheries in India started only with the introduction of the planning concept in the early 1950s and the pace of development gradually accelerated over successive plan periods.

The major objectives of fisheries development pursued in India during the various plan pe,riods include (a) enhancement of fish production and productivity of fishermen, fish farmers and the fishing industry; (b) generation of employment for the coastal and rud,,poor; (c) improving the welfare of fishermen and their socio-economic standards; and (d) augmenting the export of marine products and thereby increasing foreign exchange earnings.

In line with the above objectives, the implementation of employment generation and welfare oriented programmes for the benefit of fishermen, the introduction of innovative schemestprojects particularly aquaculture development, coastal fisheries development and management, the creation of infrastructure facilities for landing and berthing of fishing vessels, the creation of facilities for preservation, storage, transportation and marketing of fish, etc., have been identified as major thrust areas.

Small-Scale Fiherie

Government investment in the fisheries sector which was hardly a 100 million rupees during the First Five year Plan (1951-56), was increased to Rs. 4,000 million for the 8th Five Year Plan period (1992-97). Of this outlay,, Rs. 2,020 million have been earmarked for development of coastal marine fisheries including creation of infrastructure facilities for landing and berthing of fishing vessels and Rs. 420 million for the welfare of small-scale artisanalttraditional fishermen. These constitutes 61 % of the total Government investment in the fisheries sector, which is an indicator of the increased impetus being given to the development and management of small-scale coastal marine fisheries.

Modernization of the traditional sector and introduction of small off-shore multi-day non-trawling type of vessels targeting specific resources are the twin strategies of the Government to increase fish production from the coastal areas and to help small-scale fisherfolk, their groups or their cooperatives. In order to regulate fishing by traditional, mechanized and deep-sea fishing vessels and to protect the interests of the traditional fishermen in particular, who are entirely dependent on fishing within the territorial waters, a Marine Fishing Regulation Act has been enacted by the Federal Government to provide landing and berthing facilities for fishing craft at major and minor ports, requisite infrastructures such as fishery harbours and fish landing centres with facilities for preservation and storage of fish and their auctioning, have been created at vantage points all along the coastline. For the benefit of traditional fishermen (who contribute to about 44% of the total marine catch) special emphasis has been given to the development of small fish- landing centres.

urces. Potential and Status of Wloitation

India has a coastline of 8,085 km with a continental shelf area of about 512,000 km2 and 2.20 million km2 within the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). While the continental shelf is narrower towards the southeast and northwest coast, it become wider towards the northeast and northwest coast. The shelf area is shallow (not exceeding 16 m) off the southeast coast (Tamil Nadu) but becomes deeper off the West Bengal and .Andhra coasts (between 50 and 70 m) off the west coast generally the continental shelf is wider than

the east coast. The nature of the continental shelf and continental slope exerts an influence on the fishery of the east and west coasts.

Compared with an estimated potential of about 3.92 million tons of fish from the Indian EEZ, the present level of exploitation is already the order of 2.57 million tons (i.e., about two thirds of the total exploitable potential). Development programmes introduced over successive plan periods have helped in increasing the fish production from the coastal waters substantially (from a meagre 0.53 million tons in 1950-51 to 2.57 million tons in 1992-93, an annual average growth rate of 9.7%). Between 1984-1988, coastal marine fisheries production stagnated around 1.7 million tons, mainly because of increased fishing pressure exerted by a number of bull-trawlers and rapid growth in the number of traditional and mechanized craft, concentrating on the high value shrimps and fish species for the export market. However, with the banning of bull-trawling and certain changes in policy, there was a revival in marine fish production and in recent years marine fish production has grown at a rapid rate of 12.5 % per annum (see Table 1).

Coastal Fisheries Develo~ment and Welfare of Fishermen

About 80% of present marine fish production comes from within the 50 m depth zone and the remaining 20% from depth up to 200 m. Some 98% of this production is contributed by the traditional and mechanized sectors, the balance from deep-sea fishing. The contribution of the west coast to total marine fish production is 70%, the balance coming from the east coast. Out of the 3.92 million tons of estimated exploitable fishery potential, 2.28 million tons lies within 0-50 m depth, 1,367 million tons in the 50-200 m depth, 0.028 million tons in the 200-500 m zone and the remaining 0.246 million tons in the oceanic region. While the fish potential within the 0-50 m is almost exploited to MSY levels, the potential beyond 50 m depth is grossly under-exploited. Since the resource within 50 m depth is so heavily exploited, the artisanal units were becoming marginalized, necessitating the protection and improvement of the artisanal/traditional marine fishing sector by extending their areas of operation. The Government, therefore, introduced a programme for motorization of traditional craft with a view to extending their range of operation besides introducing a number of measures for craft design and enacting the Marine Fishing Regulation Act for conservation, management and development of marine fisheries within temtorial waters.

The development strategy adopted during the 7th Plan period was to modernize the traditional sector, not solely to optimize the exploitation of the near-shore resources, but also to increase fish production and improve the living standards of the traditional fisherfolk. About 5,000 traditional craft were motorized and over 200 improved beach landing craft were introduced through fishery cooperatives so as to demonstrate their effectiveness along the surf-beaten east coast. Another major programme was the mechanization to promote the exploitation of off-shore fishery resources. The Government also banned bull-trawling, chartered multi-purpose fishing vessels and imposed restrictions on shrimping so as to halt the indiscriminate exploitation of shrimp and other high value fishery resources off the northeast coast.

Welfare of fishermen was also given high priority during the 7th Five Year Plan period. A novel "Group Accident Insurance Scheme" was created to provide insurance cover to the fishermen, who risk their lifes at sea. Over 900,000 active fishermen now benefit from this programme. Model fishing villages providing basic civic amenities such as housing, driqwng water supply, credit societies, community hall, etc., have been developed in 132 locations. These steps taken by the Government were acclaimed at the 13th Tripartite

Conference on Working Condition of Fisherfolk, organized by the International Labour Organization in Geneva in May 1988.

Since the inshore fishery is becoming saturated with both powered and non-powered small craft, the financial incentives given for introduction of mechanized craft up to 13 m size have been withdrawn. However, incentives continued to be provided' to the small- scaletartisanal fisheries sector for modernization of traditional craft, development and introduction of new generation fishing craft made of materials other than wood; these steps have helped in extending the exploitation by small-scale fishermen of offshore untapped fishery resources. This will have a far-reaching socio-economic impact on the small-scale and traditional sector.

There are 9 million persons engaged in the fisheries of India, of which about 40% are full time/part time professionals. Increased emphasis is now being laid on revamping on- going fishermen welfare programmes and introducing a new saving-cum-relief scheme for fishermen to tide them over their economic problems during the four lean months of fishing every year.

2. Current Status of Small-Scale Fishermen in Coastal Areas

The Indian marine fishery resources are exploited mainly from inshore areas by subsistence, small-scale mechanized and industrial sectors. In the traditional sector there are over 180,000 non-motorized and 26,170 motorized craft which includes Kattumarams, dug- out canoes and plank-built boats of different types. In the mechanized sector, there are about 34,570 mechanized craft of different sizes which include trawlers, gill netters, purse seiners, long-liners and chartered vessels (see Table 2). The coastal marine fisheries involve about 3.2 million small-scale artisanal fisherfolk.

The area of operation of traditional and most of the mechanized sector is confined to the coastal waters within 50 m depth. Some of the motorized traditional craft, however, engage in gill-netting, hand- and long-lining beyond 50 m depth. Of the total marine fish production, 44% (about 1.13 million tons) is contributed by the small-scale sector. While mechanized fishing vessels contribute on an average about 1.38 million tons of fish per annum.

In general, small-scale or artisanal fisheries are characterized by irregular catches, limited fishing range and unstable incomes. They typically consist of a single unit owned or hired by an individual or a group of fishermen or their families. Despite their important contribution, small-scale fisherfolk are generally the poorest and the most disadvantaged sector of the society. Artisanal fishing villages often lack the most basic amenities and infrastructures. The fishermen have virtually no access to credit from the commercial banks. Fluctuating catches, low earnings and inability to raise capital prevent many fishermen from investing even in the simplest equipment/machinery. Most of the small-scale fisherfolk who live in the rural areas also work as seasonal labourers in agriculture or as part-time farmers or occasional wage earners in order to supplement their family incomes. For want of adequate infrastructure facilities and institutional credit, they remain mainly subservient to those who control the sale of their catch or their access to credit.

Even though motorizatior. has helped to reduce the hardships faced by the fishermen when extending their area of operation, it has had no substantial impact in increasing earnings from fish catches. Fishermen traditionally fishing with the simplest, cost-effktive

traditional hand or sail driven craft have to invest heavily in fuel cost and maintenance of the engines, etc., resulting in a reduction of net income from such fishing operations.

'@e small-scale fishermen predominantly live in little villages scattered along the coastline. They are normally members of low disadvantaged castes and belong to one of the lowest economic strata in Indian society. The fisherwomen in particular have a very low status in social hierarchy and social and cultural barriers normally prevent them from playing an equal part in the decision making process even within the family. The standard of living of these fisherfolk is very low and they lack basic amenities such as sanitary facilities, housing, electricity and drinking water supply, education, health and medical facilities, etc. Credit for fisherfolk (usually called "an advance") is made available by comparatively wealthy fishermen, prawn dealers, net owners and also by bicycle vendors. Even though no interest is charged on these advances, the indebted fishermen are supposed to sell their catches exclusively to those who have provided credit. The fishermen also hesitate from approaching commercial banks for credit as the procedures involved are too complex and cumbersome.

The literacy level amongst the fisherfolk is very low and often they do not appreciate the importance of educating their children. Rather, they try to send them for fishing or to other supplementary activities for additional earnings even at the age of 12 years. Many fishermen tend to spend a sizeable portion of their earnings in drinkingtgambling and neglect the health, food and medical needs of the family. The problem of meagre incomes of fishing communities is aggravated by increasing population pressures.

Competition for shrimps between the traditional sector and the mechanized trawlers has led to increased fishing pressure within the inshore waters and serious conflicts regarding fishing rights. These conflicts at times become very severe resulting in damage to craft and gear and on certain occasions leading to violence. The growth in the labour force and the inability to expand the resource base are inducing small-scale fishermen to engage in destructive types of fishing such as dynamiting, poison, etc. In order to resolve these conflicts and to conserve and manage the coastal fishery resources, the Marine Fishing Regulation Act, 1978, has been enacted by the various State GovemmentlUnion Territories. This Act has enabling provisions for defining fishing zones for traditional mechanized and deep-sea fishing sector, restrictinglbanning of trawling in inshore waters, prevention of destructive types of fishing, regulation of certain types of fishing gears and their mesh size, declaration of closed seasons, etc. However, for want of proper enforcement mechanisms, some of the provisions of the Act cannot be properly implemented. It is now proposed to strengthen enforcement by introducing a number of patrol craft.

It has been observed that technology proved to be appropriate in some areas has been found to be inappropriate in other locations, particularly in the small-scale sector. For example, the beach-landing craft which was very popular and appropriate for east coast conditions was not popular among the west coast fishermen, particularly in Kerala, necessitating designing and development of plywood canoes.

Other aspects hampering the development of small-scale fishing are the lack of intermediate technology for preservation/processing of fish, lack of infrastructures (especially storage and transportation), entry of middlemen in marketing processes even within the public auction systems, remoteness of landing sites and lack of information about market pri$~s, etc., resulting in post-harvest losses and consequent low prices for fish.

3. Craft and Gear Used in Coastal Fisheries

Fishing has been a tradition for centuries in India and artisanal fishermen have devised ingenious methods of fishing craft and gear for selective fishing. Dug-out canoes or other open craft or rafts, including kattumarams, are the simplest craft used in India for such types of fishing. Introduction of synthetic material has improved the catching efficiency of the fishermen. New gears and craft are being tested continuously with encouraging results. ~evelopment of new types of user-friendly and more efficient fishing craft for operation off open beaches is an important component of technology development being pursued. The commonest types of craft and gear used in India for exploiting the coastal marine fishery resources are as follows:

(i) Kattumarams (3-7 logged)

Made of wooden logs, ferro-cement or fibre glass. These craft are used for gill netting, hand lining, long lining, troll lining, boat and shore seining, cast netting, laying of traps etc., within 50 m depth. However, some of the sail driven or motorized craft can fish beyond 50 m depth on a limited scale with line and gill nets.

(ii) Dug-out canoes, plank-built canoes, plywood canoes, etc.

These craft are propelled by oar or sail or by out-board motor and used mainly for gill netting, hand lining, long lining, trolling, boat seining, cast netting, etc.

(iii) Masula boats, Teppa, navas, dinghies and dhonies

These craft are made of wood, FRP or marine plywood used mainly for scoop netting, cast netting, laying of traps, fixed bag nets, longlining, shore seining, boat seining, gill netting, drag netting, etc.

(iv) Beach-landing craft

These craft range in size from 6.7 to 8.5 m, made of timber, marine plywood, FRP or polystyrene blocks, etc. These craft are operated either by sail or by out-board or in-board motors. They are more compatible, mobile and efficient than traditional ones and offer access to the resources not adequately tapped by the traditional craft. These craft can operate up to 32 nautical miles from the coast.

sector

(i) Trawler up to 20 metre

They are used in demersal trawling mainly for shrimp and pelagic trawling.

(ii) Sona boats

These craft are used for stem trawling with provision for gill netting and out-rigged shrimping.

(iii) Mini trawlers

These are used for shrimping with out-rigger and stem trawling.

(iv) Small mechanized craft

These are improved beach-landing craft made of plywood, FRG or aluminium, of 8.5 - 9.5 metre size with an 8-9 HP in-board diesel engine for operation off the east coast. they can be used for drift netting and long lining for exploiting seer fish, pelagics and sharks. These craft can also be operated by sail to save fuel.

(v) Modified intermediate fishing craft

A small off-shore fishing craft of 9.6 m length with a 20 HP in-built diesel engine for large meshed, drift netting and line fishing; can also be operated by sail for fuel saving.

(vi) Gill netters

(drift and bottom set)

(vii) Purse-seiner-cum trawler for pelagic fishing, demersal trawling

(viii) Long liner-cum-trawler for long lining and stem trawling

The major types of gears used are:

Traditional sector:

- hook and line - long line - cast net - shore seine including rampini nets - drag net - set bag net - stake netttraps - gill net - boat seines - ring seines - trammel net

Mechanized sector:

- trawl net @elagic mid-water and bottom trawling) - purse seine - long line - pole and line - drift and bottom set gill net of different mesh sizes - high-opening bottom trawl net - bag net - do1 net

Fish catch and di~oslt lon of . .. fish catch

Of the total marine fishing landings, about 56% is contributed by pelagic species and 44% by demersal species. The east coast contributes about 7.45 million tons against 17.52 million tons from west coast. Sardines, clupeids, sciaenids, carangids, mackerel and penaeid prawns are the most dominant groups of fish. Other important species are Bombay duck, perches, ribbon fish, anchovies, sharks seer fish, catfish, wolf hemng, goat fish, thread fin, bill fish, mullets, lobsters, crabs, squids and cuttle fish, etc.

Out of the total fish production, about 66% is marketed domestically in fresh form, about 16% is cured, 8% is reduced into fish meal and other products, 7% is frozen, 1% is canned and the remaining 2% used for miscellaneous purposes (see Table 3). Out of 2.57 million tons of marine fish, about 1.2 million tons is consumed in fresh form, 0.7 million tons in dry form, 0.45 million tons is used for conversion into fishery products for export and the remaining 0.22 million tons for fish meal. There has been a continuous decline in the share of fresh fish consumption in the domestic market since 1966 which may be attributed to lack of adequate marketing infrastructure. Another reason could be the increase in exports of marine products from less than 36,000 tons in 1971 to around 208,600 tons in 1992.

4. Role of Fiherwomen in Coastal Fisheries

The majority of fisherwomen share with their menfolk the activities of fish distribution and marketing, fish processing, curing, preservation and other allied task; prawn peeling, clam and fishtshrimp seed collection, etc. Some of them are self-employed as vegetable or sweet-meat vendors. Over 200,000 fisherwomen are engaged in these types of activities. For most of them, daily life is a hard grind as fishermen's families are generally large, they have problematic husbands, have low incomes and lack marketing facilities and credit. The fisherwomen have a very low status in the social hierarchy and are not normally given equal participation even in the decision making process at the home front. They are excluded from membership of fisheries cooperatives; they are not provided with educational opportunities and vocational training. It has also been observed that even though fisherwomen supplement their family incomes through fish marketing, net making, seed collection and sales, this does not entitle them to take independent decisions or to have access to resources either within the family or in the fishing village. There are hardly any schemes/programmes for providing technical support to the fisherwomen in the small-scale fisheries.

Since 1987, the Bay of BengaI Programme (BOBP) has set up a number of pilot projects in which fisherwomen constitute the target group. Participation by women from the fishing communities must be an essential element of development of the country's small-scale fisheries. This objective could best be achieved by encouraging women to take part in development planning and decision making at the village level.

5. Role of Fishery Cooperatives and Other Fisherfolk ORGANIZATIONS

There are over 8,300 primary fishery cooperative societies in India with a membership of about 1.14 million. For fisheries cooperatives development, the National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) which started financing the fisheries cooperative sector in 1972, has so far sanctioned Rs. 1,747.90 million for development of fisheries. Out of 8,300 primary cooperatives, 1,860 are in the marine sector. However, the

growth and development of fisheries cooperatives in the country is yet to reach the desired levels.

-Some of the fisheries cooperatives still have organizational, managerial and operational weaknesses, making them unsuccessful, inactive or moribund. In spite of governmental support in terms of technical, financial and infrastructure facilities most of fishery cooperatives have yet to achieve their objectives. This can be attributed to the weak linkages with different organizations and between the primary, district and State level cooperative societies, federations, apex bodies, etc., lack of trained managerial manpower, lack of cooperative spirit among the fishermen, etc. Fisheries cooperatives are varied in nature and their functions generally represent half-hearted attempts to overcome problems. Primary production is perhaps the area in which fisheries cooperatives have been found to be the least effective; the marketing sector has been considered as more remunerative and hence most of cooperatives place emphasis on fish marketing.

Nevertheless, hardly 10% of the total fish production is marketed by the fishery cooperatives. It has been estimated that the share of the fishermen of final retail sale values depends on the number of intermediaries and the distance between the landing centres. The fishermen's share is the highest (80%) for the one -link channel, i.e., direct sale to retailerslvendors and the lowest (20%) in the Clink channel (auctioneer, wholesaler, commission agent and retailerlvendor) in the marine sector. If the fishermen are to be assured remunerative price for their produce, fishery cooperatives must play a greater direct role in integrated fish marketing.

The National Federation of Fishermen's Cooperatives Limited (FISHCOPFED) carries out promotional activities and provides business support to its constituent organizations. FISHCOPFED has been implementing the Group Accident Insurance Scheme for Active Fishermen, who are the members of the cooperatives, on behalf of the Government of India. Through its efforts, about 900,000 fishermen are being insured annually for total disability of death and partial disability. This organizations also helps fisheries cooperatives in inter- State sales of fish and in exports to potential markets. FISHCOPFED has also taken up a programme for providing health &re and family welfare programmes in the coastal States from 1989 onwards.

In addition to FISHCOPFED, there are a number of voluntary organizations and State level fishery cooperatives which are striving to assist artisanal fishermen. They have yet to create any substantial impact in motivating the entire population of the active fishermen to become members of the cooperatives. To infuse a sense of confidence in them, a through revamping and revitalking of the moribund fisheries cooperatives in the country is needed.

6. Socio-Economic Issues in Coastal Fisheries Management

The development of infrastructure and technological capabilities for exploitation of fisheries cannot alone fulfil one of the major objectives of the fisheries development, i.e., upgrading the living conditions of the communities by providing additional employment and income generating opportunities. The main target group for fisheries development in the country has indeed been the traditional, small-scale fisherfolk community, reflecting the importance of socio-economic factors.

Government efforts to uplift small-scale fishing communities by improving technology and providing subsidies to acquire motorized/mechanized craft and gear, however, appear to have brought a number of problems including over-fishing and local conflicts. While

motorization and better gears have made fishing easier and less dangerous, they have indirectly led to reduction in employment and displacement of labour. The small-scale fisherfolk also face competition from large mechanized boats, particularly trawlers which intrude into inshore waters earmarked for fishing by traditional fishermen, jeopardizing the interests of small fishermen not only by over-exploiting the resources, but also, by damaging craft and gear.

,Traditional fishing communities are presently confronted problems arising from over- exploitation and consequent depletion of the coastal resources and lack of market infrastructure facilities, particularly post-harvest support and transportation. The situation is further aggravated by lack of alternative employment opportunities. Government efforts, therefore, are now directed towards improving shore-based activities such as fish processing and marketing and the development of coastal aquaculture in order to increase opportunities for employment and income generation.

Special consideration must also be given to the social and economic organization of the fishing communities, division of labour between men and women and employment opportunities for income generation within these communities. Salient features of surveys of socio-economic conditions in fishing villages conducted by the Government during the 7th Plan period, in some selected coastal states are presented in Table 5. In spite of the increasing awareness of the developmental needs of traditional fishing communities, lack of adequate information on their socio-economic conditions continues to hamper the implementation of suitable policies and programmes. For example, in West Bengal and Orissa information on the nature of occupation, income and expenditure of fishermen, the household expenditure, the household borrowing and physical assets are still not available.

As a result of increased demand for fresh fish for domestic consumption and for marine export products, particularly shrimp, and also reflecting lack of alternative employment opportunities in agriculture, etc, even non-fisherfolk castes have entered fishing. Such entry is, however, restricted to areas where environmental conditions such as natural harbours, creeks, lagoons make it possible for them to learn how to operate boats. In Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and South Orissa, the coast being surf-beaten open beaches, there has been very little intrusion by non-fisherfolk into artisanal fishing except for shore seining operations.

A number of fisherfolk also practise agriculture and other allied activities and work as labourers during certain periods of the year. A 1985 study in Orissa revealed that traditional fisherfolk spend more time on fishing and slightly less time on secondary occupation than non-traditional fisherfolk. Other castes have partly taken to sea fishing because of the lack of traditional employment opportunities.

These artisanal fisherfolk whose traditional occupation is fishing almost all own marine fishing gears. The non-traditional fisherfolk, however, generally own estuarine gear suggesting that while the traditional fishermen are sea fishing, non-traditional fishermen are confined to fishing in the estuaries and river mouths. Animal keeping, shop keeping and firewood collection are other activities engaged in by artisanal fishermen.

The traditional fisherfolk send their children to work at a much younger age than those of the non-traditional fisherfolk, who have caste occupations such as agriculture, artisan, etc. Girls of traditional fishermen normally are involved in fish marketing and processing earlier than the girls from other groups/castes. Children are very aften initiated

into gardening and tailoring in the fishermen community, which originally belonged to agriculture or artisan castes.

Because of dwindling fish catches and declining incomes from fishing, the traditionallartisanal fishermen and their families are tending to diversify into agriculture, firewood collection, shop keeping, tailoring, sweet-meat vending, vegetable vending, etc., as subsidiary activities. While the men are exclusively engaged in marine fishing, the women are involved in marketing of fish. During the sowing and harvesting season, some women also work as agricultural labourers and coolies. However, constitutionally everyone has -a right to do any kind of job or work as long as there are no conflicts between the traditional sector and the non-traditional sector. Hence, it may not be possible to control entry into or exit from fisheries by various sections of the society. The only possible solution to this problem could be motivating the traditional fishermen and others to enter into shore-based activities such as aquaculture, fish processing, storage and marketing.

To help diversify income earning opportunities in fishing communities, the Government is setting up small extensive shrimp farms along the coastline in the vast brackish water areas. A package of technical, financial and extension support is provided through district level organizations called Brackish water Fish Farmers' Development Agencies.

The adverse impact of entry by non-fishermen into mechanized fishing is often cited as a flaw in Indian fisheries administration. Most of the fishing vessels which were given on 50% loan and 50% subsidy to groups of fishermen, changed hands for a number or reasons, particularly non-payment of loans by fishermen. Such mechanized fishing craft, owned by the defaulting fishermen, were seized and auctioned and subsequently purchased by non- fishermen. Other entrepreneurs found the economics of the mechanized fishing attractive enough for them to introduce mechanized boats without claiming any subsidy and loan at commercial rates from the Government. Traders and processors have also introduced mechanized boats with their own capital. It is estimated that about 30% of the owners of mechanized craft are now non-fishermen.

One of the main barriers to sustained fisheries development is the condition of open access to the fisheries. Wherever access is unlimited, there will be a substantial increase in fishing pressure and corresponding decline in catch rate until maximum sustainable yield has been reached and finally surpassed. Moreover, when no price or value is placed in the resources, capital and labour will continue to enter the fishery as long as revenues, including subsidies, exceed the investment costs.

Among the main objectives of fishery development in India is the improvement of the socio-economic conditions of the fisherfolk, the exploitation of under-utilized fishery resources beyond 50 m depth by encouraging off-shore pelagic fishing craft and diversification of fisheries into aquaculture. Instead of restricting the entry of non-traditional fisherfolk into the fishing industry, both traditional and non-traditional fisherfolk should be encouraged to diversify their activities to shore-based aquaculture, fish marketing, etc.

7. Conclusions and Suggestions

A number of factors such as fishing pressure on the near-shore stocks, increased capitalization in large-scale commercial fishing operations, free and open access to the resources, increased competition for the limited supplies, etc, are hampering the small-scale

fisheries sector. These have also lead to diminishing incomes for small-scale fishermen and increasingly severe conflicts.

As the problem of rural fishing communities are not related solely to fish production, the development of this sector should be approached within the context of integrated rural development. In order to conserve and manage the fisheries resources, over-capitalization should be stopped and the fishing fleet reduced to lower levels. Integrated development which provides investment opportunities outside fish harvesting activities might help to reduce over- capitaliiation in fisheries. Benefits of such an integrated system of development include improved access to markets, educational opportunities and heath facilities, greater supplies of protein from non-fishery sources, greater control over population growth, alternative employment and improved outward mobility from the fishery.

Since open and free access to the resources has been identified as the major factor in over-exploitation of the resources, it must be curbed or limited by introducing licensing, fixing individual quotas or providing exclusive rights to the use of certain sea areas to the traditional fisherfolk.

As suggested by FAO, Governments could begin to extract some sort of a rent and use it not only to help in covering the cost of management but also to establish funds for the purpose of buying out superfluous capital and labour. It has also been suggested that for the protection of artisanal fisheries, the first step should be to transfer management authority to the local levels and increase the participation of fishermen in the management decisions. This might lead to the provision of use rights to small-scale fishing communities and enable them to take their own decisions with regard to the protection of employment opportunities or the enhancement of the economic rents.

In line with the Strategy for Fisheries Management and Development endorsed by the FA0 World Conference on Fisheries Management and Development, 1984, India has made special efforts to increase production by small-scale fisheries by giving priority to this sector in national fisheries development policies. The Government is also proposing to introduce an uniform territorial limit for fishing by the traditional fishermen up to 10 nautical miles in the west coast and 7-10 nautical miles in the east coast depending on the nature of the continental shelf and slope, so that these artisanal fishermen could have exclusive fishing rights within that region. To more effectively enforce the provisions of the Marine Fishing Regulation Act, including protection of user rights, the Government is to strengthen policing mechanisms by introducing a number of patrol boats. It is also proposed to introduce Artificial Reefs (ARs) and mariculture along the coastline; this would give opportunities to strengthen community-based fishery rights, as the planning, deployment and management of such structures will be carried out with the active participation of the fishing communities.

Fixed gear fisheries such as set net fisheries, fish traps and pot fisheries for crabs, lobsters, etc, might also benefit from exclusive fishing rights. The national efforts could also pave the way for the creation of exclusive use rights by:

- encouraging the use of fixed gears such as ARs

strengthening fishing communities and fishermen's cooperatives/groups

- raising awareness among small-scale fishing communities of the need for their involvement in decision-making process and for avoiding major conflicts over fishing rights

taking monetary measures to extract economic returns and assign economic values to resources.

Significant improvements in the welfare of the small-scale fishermen may be gained through community-based approaches to the management of common property resources. Artificial reef deployment programmes, for example, may help to move traditional development efforts generally towards artisanal fisheries and to relieve conflicts between the trawl and small-scale fisheries. They also have effects on the daily working pattern of the fisherfolk that have profound repercussions on family life and on the role of women. Evolution of forms of property of fishing rights over sea space and fishery resources affords an opportunity for greater equality in access to resources (as evidenced in Japan) and development of new production relationships between the large-scale and small-scale fishermen (as is witnessed in Indonesia, Philippines, etc.). As a first step towards introduction of community-managed and owned ARs, it is proposed to introduce about 100 such ARs under a Pilot Project during 1993-97, both in the east and west coasts of India. Support would be welcomed from IPFC member countries having expertise in fabricationldesigning of ARs made of environmentally friendly material such as HDPE or other suitable materials.

Phased development of off-shore pelagic fisheries involving small-scale fisherfolk through introduction of intermediate type of craft (13-19 m size) would help to exploit hitherto under-exploited pelagic fishery resources such as tuna, sharks, etc. A programme for the introduction of such multi-day non-trawl type of fishing craft is proposed on the basis of recent successful trials undertaken by BOBP in the Bay of Bengal. About 200 such craft may be introduced in the next five years to exploit off-shore pelagic resources in the 50-200 m depth.

Creation of adequate infrastructure facilities for landing and berthing of fishing vessels and reducing the post-harvest losses would help to ensure remunerative price to producers.

Noting the complexity and wide variety of problems faced by the artisanal fishing sector, it is of paramount importance that adequate measures are taken at nationallregional level to provide simple appropriate technologies for increasing coastal fish production for fish processing and production of value-added products, with financial and technical support from international organizations. Incentives should also be given to the small-scale fishing sector for better utilization of by-catch, reduction of wastes and for providing value-added fish processing. One useful step might be the introduction of intermediate technologies for processing of fish as silage and transformation of the' catch into surimi-based (semi- processed) intermediate product as well as bulk freezing. Technology for fish processing must not only be appropriate to the local conditions, but should also be of sufficient level to allow the processors to meet national and international quality standards and to contribute to the protection of the environment.

It has been widely recognized that credit and marketing have a lead role to play in improving living standards of small-scale fishing communities. Proper market support would ensure assured credit flowlrepayment, maintaining a business and stepping up their income levels. At present, institutional credit through commercial banks, cooperatives, etc., and projectslprogrammes of the Government is available only to few small-scale fisherfolk and the vast majority depend on non-institutional credit. While financial institutions have recently started to encourage small-scale fisheries, they have yet to make any in-roads, due to lack of appropriate lending policieslprocedures for the small-scale fishing sector and rigidity in the terms and conditions for sanctioning of such assistance. It is only by creating a

participatory relationship between the financial institutions and the fishing communities that the three-fold objective of increasing protein-rich fish production, income and employment generation and betterment of socio-economic status of the artisanal fisherfolk can be achieved.

Both the marine and inland fisheries sectors require better facilities for handling, storage and distribution for domestic marketing. Provision of infrastructure facilities, particularly improvement of existing fishery harbours and fish landing centres and the establishment of a string of new small harbours and landing centres with requisite support services for preservation, storage and distribution of fish including cold storage, ice-plants, auction halls, etc., are of prime importance in the upgrading of small-scale fishing communities. Terminal markets should be set up in all the major fish catching centres.

Formulation of educational programmes to enable fisherfolk to discover themselves and gain confidence in relation with their environment could combate that sense of hopelessness which is crippling their minds and sagging their energies. Non-formal education of fisherfolk could help them to become genuine participants in the process of growth. In Tamil Nadu, the non-formal education for fisherfolk, initiated by BOBP, has given very encouraging results. Under this experiment, the fisherfolk were shown pictures, charts and posters relating to health, sanitation, fishing operations, fishery-related activities; citizenship, cooperation, income generating activities, etc. This programme has created an awareness among the fishermen of the need for savings, environmental sanitation, etc.

With respect to gender related issues, lack of access to technical training, traditional cultural biases, orientation credit and extension programmes mainly towards males, etc., are major problems which need to be solved if fisherwomenfolk are to be given equal participation in the decision making process among the fishing communities. The role of fishermen in promoting social changes should be better understood, as it is significant because of their influence on children. More women extension workers need to be trained and employed. It is also essential that suitable credit projects and resources are devised for the benefit of fisherwomen. Formation of women's associations, coupled with higher income generating opportunities for women could help in initiating attitudinal changes in women and in redefining their role.

Development and welfare inputs for fishermen in the coastal areas of India, are normally channelled through fishermen's cooperatives. However, in majority of the cases, it has not produced the desirable results; a vast number of fisheries cooperatives still have organizational and management weaknesses. There is a need to revamp and re-vitalize fishery cooperatives at the grassroots level (primary cooperatives) by providing financial and expert inputs and supporting their involvement in fish marketing and related activities. Non- governmental organizations (NGOs) should be encouraged to have an authentic identification with the fisherfolk by being with them, sharing their life and work and understanding their situation. They may also help in building up fisherfolk groups/organizations, after properly understanding the divisions within the fisherfolk communities based on class, caste, ownership of assets, fishing methods, etc.

Training of trainers and extension workers has become increasingly important, as a growing number of small-scale fisherfolk need to acquire new skills in order to generate income and improve their standards of living. Many fishermenlfish farmers are not being reached by proper extension services. Most of them are small-scale, subsistence and resource-poor fishermen and fisherwomen. Because of low levels of education, technologies adopted by them are inefficient and their production and productivity consequently low.

Means must be found to improve fishermen's capabilities, especially in the use of new technologies. Information and training in fishery resource management, conservation, exploitation, post-harvest support, market regulations, packaging, etc., should be provided at the'national level to small-scale fisherfolk, in particular to the new generation of young people.

Controls over multiple uses of the environment will help to improve health conditions and reduce the vulnerability of fishing families to natural disasters such as storms and floods. Environmental monitoring and disaster warning systems should be provided for the coastal fishing communities.

Traditionallartisanal fisherfolk are characterized by low and un-evenly distributed income, indebtedness, sub-standard housing and living conditions, malnutrition, illiteracy, high child mortality and low life expectancy. They also often have limited access to basic amenities such as clean water, electricity, health services, etc. Over the last decade, the focus of development planners has been enlarged to cover parallel concerns for social justice. In order to achieve the twin objectives of growth and elimination of poverty, the basic things such as improving the productivity and the social well-being of the fisherfolk should go hand in hand. Adequate supply of safetclean drinking water and sanitary disposal of wastes should occupy high priority. Basic amenities such as housing, medical care, electricity supply, public fish auction halls, community centres, primary and secondary formal and non-formal education centres/schools, credit societies, fishery cooperatives, etc., should be made available in all the fishing villages.

When evaluating the Bay of Bengal Programme's mother project "Small-scale fisherfolk communities" the DANIDAlSIDAtFAO mission stated that multi-disciplinary integrated approach to improving the small-scale fisherfolk's living condition was very appropriate for this region. It has further suggested that future programmes should give emphasis to fishery-resources management and extension support for small-scale coastal fisherfolk.

Demand for fish as food continues to increase, while the rate of growth in world fish production is tending to level off. Small-scale fisheries have several advantages over large- scale fisheries in contributing to the net national income and social welfare, being labour intensive, consuming less fuel, using more selective gear. They have a greater self-interest than large-scale fisheries in the management of the fisheries, because they depend on resources adjacent to their communities. The production of small-scale fisheries is also particularly important as it is devoted almost entirely to domestic consumption. Development of small-scale fisheries, therefore, is very relevant to enhancing the food security in developing countries. Better management of the EEZ of the coastal states could also assist the small-scale fisherfolk to gain better access and increase the total fish catch.

Major constraint on the small-scale fisheries sector are the lack of satisfactory information on economic and social aspects, inadequate markets, high costs of new technologies and social and cultural impediments to the adoption of new techniques. Technological improvements applied to limited resources in certain cases have led to an uneven acquisition of the technology, benefitting a few to the detriment of the many. This has also been a source of conflicts between different users of the same stock area. It has been recognized that small-scale fishing efficiency and productivity could be improved through modern gear technology, improving fishing vessels and better processing, preservation, distribution and marketing facilities. Both biological and sociological research is needed to

ensure that new technologies are relevant to their needs and abilities and to promote their understanding and acceptance of measures that may have to be introduced in the interests of resource management .

Socio-economic aspects of the fishery sector play a critical role in maintaining the productivity of the sector. The applied research requirement for this sector thus includes assessment and monitoring of the economic and social status of the fisheries, regulation of access, use rights and resource rents, technical aspects of enforcement, social mechanisms in management of the small-scale fisheries and social organization and gender and equity issues in small-scale fisheries communities.

Table 1 Marine Fish Production Trends in India

YEAR

- SI No.

1.

Total -

--

MARINE FISH PRODUCTION IN MILLION TONS

Table 2 Fishing Craft in Marine States of India as in 1991-92

Andhra Pradesh Goa Gujarat Karnataka Kerala Maharashtra Orissa Tamil Nadu West Bengal Andaman & Nicobar islands Lakshadweep Pondicherry

Non- traditionall

crafts

3.

Motorized traditional

craft (out of co1.3)

4.

Mechanized craft

5 .

Total

6. (3+5)

Table 3 Disposition of Fish Catches (both freshwater and marine f~heries)

Frozen Year

(in '000 tons)

Marketing fresh Dried

562.4 (19.9) 460.4 (15.8) 526.4 (1 8.1) 529.0 (17.2) 590.9 (16.5) 591.9 (16.0)

Canned

9.8 (0.4) 12.1 (0.4) 4.9

(0.2) 20.6 (0.7) 28.7 (0.8) 27.9 (0.7)

Reduced Miscellanwu s PUT'=

Total

2824.3

2921.8

2906.6

3082.4

3584.5

3703.8

Table 4 Social Amenities and Infrastructural Facilities in Marine Villages

Facilities

Drinking water - Tap water - Tube well - Open well Rivers and tanks

Medical facilities Parks and gardens Cinema hails Electrification Librarylreading mom

Bducational institutions within reach - Primary school - High school - College - Others

Post office Public transport from village Market Bank Approach road

Housing for fishermen - Wha - Owned - Rented

-Pucca - Owned - Rented

Fishermen cooperatives societies

(in percentage)

Gujarat Tamil Nadu West Bengal

Note: West Bengal figurea are based on simple average and not on weighed average. Orissa figures are based on BOBP (1983).

Table 5 Socio-Economic Conditions of Fishermen in Marine Fishing Villages

Indicators

Indebtedness

Household borrowing m Money lender Owner of craft - Merchant, trader - Cooperative - Commercial bank - Government - Relatives - Others

Physical assets (Households having) - Furniture - Cycle - Scooter - Radio - Transistor radio - Wrist watch - Other clocks - Utensils (metal) - Fan - Sewing machine - Refrigerator

Choice of o c c e - Voluntary - Heredity - Lack of other opp. - Profitability

Nature of occ-n - Catching fish - Fish culture - Boatlnet making - Sale of fish - Processing

(in percentage)

Gujarat

54

7 4 1 32

1 11 1

17 1

76 8 2

29 15 50 10

100 4 1 0

1 95 3 1

76 0

14 9 0

Tamil Nadu

63

63 5 7 6

12 0 7 0

43 13

N A 13 6

10 6

100 2 0

NA

2 98 0 0

96 29

1 1 0

West Bengal

57

37 1 6

24 29 2 4 3

NA 12

NA NA

93 NA

3 NA

9 74 4

13

NA NA NA NA NA

Orissa

Table 5 Sdo-Economic Conditions of F'ishermen in Marine Fishing Villages

Indicators

-l%rg. fish production -From allied sectors -From other occup. -Av. income (Rs.0O)h.h -Av. fish production exP ( R s w

-Net income @s.OO)h. h -Consumption exp. (Rs.00)h.h

-Net saving (Rs. OO)h.h

-Food -Clothing -Social reli. exp. -Medical expenses -Education -Others (entertainment, drinks, tobacco, coffee, etc.

v (malelfemal& -Illiterate -Primary school -Middle school -High school -College and technical education

M v e fishwmmby maln occ- -Craft & gear owner -Hired own labour in fishing

-Other fishing activities -Agriculture -Agricultural labour -Trade/business Service

-Others/non-working

Gujarat

95 3 2

176 40

136

90 46

66 16 1 6 6

5

NA N A N A NA

NA

14

59 9 0

14 0 2 1

age) (continuel

Tamil Nadu

70 29

1 98 29

69

74 (-)5

7 1 10 7 6 2

4

49 27 13 9

2

22

49 4 0 0 0 3

14 .

West Bengal Orissa

Note: West Bengal figures are based on simple average and not on weighted average. Orissa figures are based on AFC 1981.