SEROLOGICAL EVALUATION OF IMMUNITY AGAINST MEASLES IN CHILDREN ATTENDING MURTALA MOHAMMED...

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E-International Scientific Research Journal is indexed

by more than 16 worldwide Institutions…….

Indexing

Some of world wide renowned Editors and Reviewers…. ALGERIA

Bensafi Abd-El-Hamid

Associate Professor Department of Chemistry, Faculty of

Sciences, Abou Bekr Belkaid University,

Algeria.

Highest Degree Obtained: Ph.D.

Field of highest degree obtained: Polymer

Thermodynamics

AUSTRALIA

Dr Melissa Stahle

Postdoctoral Research Associate School of Molecular Bioscience, University

of Sydney

Sydney, Australia

PhD (Science)- Plant Genetics

BANGLADESH

Mirza Hasanuzzaman PhD Fellow - Plant

Physiology

Assistant Professor Department of Agronomy, Sher-e-Bangla

Agricultural

University, Sher-e-Bangla Nagar

Dhaka, Bangladesh Number of refereed articles published in

English-language journals: 55

BULGARIA

BORIS GEORGIEV ASSYOV Senior Research Assistant

Department of Mycology

Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem

Research

Bulgarian Academy of Sciences-

BULGARIA

EDUCATION

Higher education

MSc in Botany

Department of Botany, Faculty of Biology

Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski

(defence in 2001)

PhD

Institute of Botany, Bulgarian Academy of

Sciences (approved 2010)

PhD-thesis:"Taxonomy, economic value and

conservation importance of the

representatives of the genus Boletus in

Bulgaria” (supervisor assoc. prof. Dr

Cvetomir Denchev

Number of refereed articles published in


Number of journals published in English: 3

Primary areas of expertise:

Taxonomy and Nomenclature of fungi

Evaluation and Conservation of the fungal

diversity

Sustainable use of the fungal resources

CHILE

Dr. Koduri Venkata Surya Ramam

Associate Professor Department of Materials Science and

Engineering

Universidad de Concepcion, CHILE Biography published in 2000 Outstanding

Intellectuals of the 21st Century 2009/2010–

International Biographical Centre,

Cambridge, England

Post Doctoral Research Fellow, Deutsche

Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG)

Martin Luther University, GERMANY.

Post Doctoral Research Fellow, NSTB

Singapore Fellowship,

Nanyang Technological University,

SINGAPORE.

Post Doctoral Research Fellow, NRL

Fellowship,

Seoul National University, SOUTH

KOREA.

Research Associate, UGC-DST, Govt. of

Editorial Board

India Fellowship,

Indian Institute of Science – IISC, Materials

Research Centre, Bangalore, India.



Areas of Expertise: Physics [Specialization:

Solid State Physics and Materials Science]

CROATIA

Dr.Ivan Sosa MD - Assistant/Junior

Researcher

Department Of Forensic Medicine

Medical Faculty Of Rijeka University

Rijeka, Croatia Number of refereed articles published in


Areas of Expertise: Forensic

Neuropathologhy, Injury Prevention, Brain

Injury, Head Trauma, Traffic Traumatisam

Editing for: Injury Prevention Journal, The

Forensic Examiner, Clinical Insight –

Libertas Academica Postgraduate Medicine

EGYPT

Alaa Hassan Sayed, Ph.D. . Researcher

Hormones Department, Medical Research Division, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D-

Zoology

Helal Ragab Moussa, Ph.D. Assist. Professor in Botany (Plant

Physiology),

Radioisotope Dept., Nuclear Research

Center, Atomic Energy Authority, Middle

Eastern Regional Radioisotope Center for

the Arab Countries.

Cairo, Egypt

Dr. Saber Mohamed Abd-Allah - Reproductive Biology

Associate Professor of Theriogenology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine

Cairo University, Egypt Number of refereed articles published in


Member of Editor Board of American

Journal of Academic Research and

Reviewer for many international scientific

journals such as Journal of reproduction in

domestic animals, Journal of Chromosome

Research, Journal of Dairy Science, Journal

of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics,

Journal of Tropical and subtropical

Agroecosystem, American Journal of

Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,

Malaysian journal of medical sciences etc…

Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed Ph. D in Electronic Engineering

University: Menoufia University, Egypt

Areas of interest and experience: Optical

communication systems, Advanced optical

communication networks, Wireless optical

access networks, digital and analog systems,

Optoelectronics devices, Advanced material

science

INDIA

Prof. (Er.) Anand Nayyar Assistant Professor

Department of Computer Applications & IT

KCL Institute of Management and

Technology, Jalandhar

Ludhiana, Punjab, India

Highest Degree Obtained: M.Tech-IT

Field of highest degree obtained:Information

Technology

Primary areas of expertise: Networking,

Wireless Sensor Networks, Distributed

Systems, Information Systems, Software

Engineering, Digital Signals Processing,

Network Security, Mobile Adhoc Networks,

Adhoc Networks, Digital Image Processing,

Artificial Intelligence & Robotics, Wireless

Networks

Dr. Pawar Rajkumar Tukaram Department of zoology, Majalgaon Arts,

Science and Commerce College, Majalgaon

Dist. Beed

Maharashtra, India

Assistant Professor & Head

Field of highest degree obtained :

Parasitology, Fishery

Your primary areas of expertise : Fisheries,

Limniology, Parasitology.

Ms. B. Vasavi M.C.A, M.Tech (Computer Science)

Associate Professor

Department of Computer Science and

Engineering

Hyderabad Institute of Technology &

Management

R.R District, India

Research Experience: In Networks

Technologies, Tibco Cloud Computing

Environment, Network Security and Data

Mining–4 years

Mr. A. C. Suthar Assistant Professor

Ph. D. - Electronics and Communication

M.E.-Communication Systems Engineering

Department of Electronics &

Communication

C. U. Shah College of Engg. and Tech.,

Wadhwan City-363030, Gujarat, India

Areas of Expertise: Electronics and

Communication

Dr. Vivek Dalpatrao Kapse Assistant Professor,

Department of Physics, Arts, Science and

Commerce College, Chikhaldara,

Maharashtra, INDIA

Field of highest degree obtained: Materials

science

Primary areas of expertise: Preparation of

nanostructured materials and their gas

sensing behavior

DR. ASHOK KUMAR KULKARNI ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY,

MEDICITI INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL

SCIENCES, HYDERABAD (A.P) INDIA

Field of highest degree obtained

MOLECULAR BIOPHYSICS

Primary areas of expertise: MOLECULAR

MODELING, NMR, SYNTHESIS OF

PEPTIDES & PROTEINS, CELL-

ADHESION RESEARCH,

CANCER AND METASTASIS

RESEARCH, HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

TEACHING, STRUCTURE BASED

DRUGDESIGNING, STRUCTURAL

BIOLOGY

Dr. N.Senthilkumar B.E.M.B.A, Ph.D Assistant Professor

Department of Management

Studies

Anna University, Chennai – 600025

Ph.D Management

M.B.A Marketing& Operations

Management

Dr. Govind P. Shinde, PhD Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of

Management Studies and Research, Navi

Mumbai.

Maharashtra. India

Associate Professor


Management Science

Primary areas of expertise : Marketing,

Finance and Commerce

Dr. Prashant Singh, M. Sc. , Ph.D. (Chemistry)

Assistant Professor, A.R.S.D College,

University of Delhi, New Delhi, INDIA

Mr. MOHAMMAD SHAHID T-73/5, Okhla Main Market Jamia Nagar,

New Delhi 110025, India

Research Fellow

Jamia Millia Islamia New Delhi India

Education Doctor of Philosophy

(CHEMISTRY)

JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA NEW DELHI

Dr. Rajeev Singh Department Of Chemistry, ARSD College,

University Of Delhi, Dhaula Kuan, New

Delhi-110021

Assistant Professor

Field of highest degree obtained:

ORGANOMETALLIC CHEMISTRY,

BIOINORGANIC




BIOINORGANIC CHEMISTRY,

ORGANOMETALLICS,

BIOCHEMISTRY, NANOMEDICINE

AND SOL-GEL CHEMISTRY

DR. KANTI BHOOSHAN PANDEY Department of Biochemistry, University of

Allahabad

City: Allahabad, U.P, India

Guest Faculty and Researcher

Biochemistry


Biochemistry

Primary areas of expertise: Free Radical

Biology, Polyphenols and Human Aging

Dr. Anil Batta Associate Professor

Baba Farid Univ. Of Health Sciences,

faridkot, India

MD(Medical Biochemistry)

Primary areas of expertise- Tumor Markers

& Drug Deaddiction

Dr. Vijay S. Wadhai PhD Assistant Professor & Head in Microbiology

Department ,

Sardar Patel Mahavidyalaya, Chandrapur,

Nagpur University Nagpur

Field Of Interest:- Environmental

Microbiology b)Biotechnology c) Industrial

Microbiology

Dr. Arun S. Kharat Professor and Head

Department of Biotechnology, Dr.

Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada

University, Aurangabad, Sub-Campus

Osmanabad.

Maharashtra, India

Highest Degree Obtained : Ph.D (Indian

Institute of Science) PDF-Universite Joseph

Fourier, Grenoble France and PDF-

Rockefeller University, New York, USA.

Field of highest degree obtained : Molecular

genetics, Molecular Biology, Genetic

Engineering, Microbiology, Biotechnology.

Primary areas of expertise: Genetic

Engineering, Genetics, Microbiology,

Biotechnology

Dr. Ashwini Kumar Dixit Pondicherry, India

Assistant Professor

Botany / Plant Biology and Biotechnology

KM Centre For PG Studies (Autonomous)

Primary areas of expertise: Microbiology,

Pharmacognosy, Environmental Biology,

Ethnobotany, Phytochemistry, Astrology,

Biophysics

Dr.V.E. Nethaji Mariappan Scientist-D Department :Centre for Remote

Sensing & Geoinformatics

Ph D Agriculture, Soil Science Annamalai

University/SAC(ISRO

Ph.D. Title: Crop Simulation Model,

Remote Sensing and GIS for Zonal Rice

Crop Assessment and Yield

Forecasting [work carried out at Space

Applications Centre, ISRO as JRF)

Dr. Bharath Kumar Ravuru Designation ASSOCIATE

PROFESSOR

Department BIOTECHNOLOGY

Area of Specialization Plant

Biotechnology, Medicinal Plants,

Ethnobotany and Forest Ecology

DESHMUKH MAHADEO SHRIRANG Sr. Lecturer, Department Of Economics,

S. K. Somaiya College Of Arts, Science And

Commerce,

Vidyavihar, Mumbai- 400 077

M.A. ECONOMICS(AGRI. ECO.

MONETARY ECO.)

Ph.D- Export Competitiveness Of Major

Horticultural Products In Maharashtra

Dr. Bhaskar C Behera Scientist D

Plant Science Division , Agharkar Research

Institute

(Autonomous Institute of Dept. of Secience

&Technology, Govt. Of India),G.G. Agarkar

Road, Pune‐411004, India

Education: Ph.D , M.Phil , M.Sc

(Botany, Specialization: Plant Physiology &

Biochemistry)

Nature of Research: The major broad area of

research Biodiversity and Bioprospecting

includes physiology, Biochemistry,

Biotechnology of lichen (a symbiotic

organism in association with fungi and

algae) and in the sub area of research

includes:Tissue culture of lichens for

establishing of culture collections towards

conservation of germplasms, search of

natural product from lichens and their

biological activity profiling using in vitro /

in vivo system for their

biomedical/pharmaceutical / food

nutraceutical applications.

Research Papers Published : 70+

Dr. Chandra Mohan Singh Bisht, Ph.D Assistant Professor

Department of Chemistry, Government Post Graduate College, Kumaun University, Berinag (Pithoragarh) INDIA Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D.

Natural Product Chemistry (Phytochemistry

& Microbiology)

Dr.S.Sasikumar Principal Roever Engineering College, Perambalur, Tamil Nadu, India Areas of Expertise: Signal Processing,

Signal and image analysis, VLSI,

networking

Ph.D, Anna University, Chennai, India

IET-YPSC Young Teacher Award’2010.

Best Paper Award for national conference at

Excel College of Engineering for women,

Feb2010.

Biography accepted for Marquis Who’s

Who in the World (Nov 2010 Edition)



Books Published: 6

Dr. Vivek Dalpatrao Kapse. Assistant Professor and Head, Department

of Physics,

Arts, Science and Commerce College,

Amravati (M.S.), India

Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D.,

Materials science



Dr.V.B.Sakhare, PhD - Reservoir Fisheries

and Limnology

Reader and Head Post Graduate and Research Department of

Zoology

Yogeshwari college, Ambajogai-431517

Maharastra - India Number of refereed articles published in


Number of book chapters published in

English :25

Number of books published in English :10

Dr. S. Subba Tata M. Sc., M. Tech. Ph. D

Guest Lecturer Department of Microbiology

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

India

Dr. Jayant Dubey Ph.D. in Statistics

Associate Prof. & Head Dept of Business Studies

BT Institute of Research & Technology,

Sagar

Madhya Pradesh, India

Dr.Chandrapal Singh Bohra, Ph.D., NET

(ICAR), CES, M. Sc. (Forestry)

Assistant Professor & Coordinator, Environmental Science

Department of Environmental & Mechanical

Engineering

Amrapali Institute of Technology &

Sciences

Uttarakhand (UK),

INDIA

Dr(Mrs) Anita S.Goswami-Giri, PhD (Biochemistry)

Sr. lecturer Department of Chemistry, B.Bandodkar

college of Sciences

Chedani Bunder rd , Thane (Mumbai,

Maharashtra

India

Dr. Sunil Kumar Mishra Associate Professor of English

DRONACHARYA COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING, Gurgaon, India.

Academic Qualification:

•Doctor of Philosophy (D. Phil) in English,

University of Allahabad (India),

•Certificate of Proficiency in French,

University of Allahabad(India),2001

•Master of Arts (M.A.) in English,

University of Allahabad (India), 2001.



Dr.M.VIJAYARAGAVAN ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Department of Botany

GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE,

THIRUVANNAMALAI (T.N).

Highest Degree Obtained Ph.D


ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION


English-language journals 17

Editing or peer review experience (for

English-language journals) 12-JOURNALS

Your primary areas of expertise:

PHYTOREMEDIATION,

BIOREMEDIATION, METAL

POLLUTION,SOIL POLLUTION, WATER

POLLUTION,

Madhavi Dharankar

Lecturer, School of Education,

Yashavantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open

University, Nashik, MS , India

Highest Degree Obtained: M.Sc., M.Ed.,

MADE (M. A. in Distance Education), M

Phil (Distance Education),

PGDDE (PG Diploma in Distance

Education), PGDRD (PG Diploma in Rural

Development),

PG Diploma in Environmental Education

(Green Teacher) and Online Certificate

Program in Instructional Design.

Field of highest degree obtained: Education




Expertise in distance education and use of

Information Communication Technology

(ICT) in education.

Authored 6 books solely and 21 co-

authored.

Contributed twenty-seven chapters as writer.

Instructional technology- edited nine books

and content edited five books.

INDONESIA

Prof. Dr.Tatik Suryani President (Dean)

STIE Perbanas Surabaya

Indonesia

DR. DJUWARI M. HUM, PhD Director of Language laboratory

STIE Perbanas, Surabaya,

Indonesia

Primary Area of Expertise: Linguistic,

Education and Management

Fr. Dameanus Abun, SVD

College: St. Paul Major Seminary, Ledalero-

Maumere-NTT- Indonesia. Philosophy: 1987-1992, Theology : 1992-

1995.

Ordination: 1995.

Graduate Studies:

MBA: Divine Word College of Laoag,

Ilococ Norte-Philippines (11999- 2002)

Ph.D: International Academy of

Management and Economic: Philippines

(2002-2005)

Training: Strategic Positioning for Education Leaders

(SPEL): Asian Institute of Management

(AIM): 2006.

Teaching Experience:

Divine Word College of Laoag, Graduate

School, 2005-present

Divine Word college of Vigan, 2005-

present.

Thesis panelist: Divine Word college of

Vigan, 2005-present

Mr. Masoud Hashemi. Faculty member and lecturer,

English Department, Islamic Azad

University (IAU), Toyserkan Branch,

Hamedan, Iran.

MA. in English Methodology ( TEFL ) ,

Islamic Azad University , Tehran Central

Branch , Iran. 1995

PhD Scholar of TESL,University of

Technology ( UTM ) , Malaysia , 2010

LIBYA

Dr. Ibrahim Mohameed Eldaghayes Assistant Professor Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Al-Fateh

University

Al-Fateh University, Tripoli, Libya PhD, Bristol University, Faculty of Medical

and Veterinary Sciences, Bristol - UK



Areas of Expertise: Immunology and

Virology

MALAYSIA

Dr. Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf Research Fellow

Department of Chemistry Faculty of

Science, University of Malaya, Kuala

Lumpur Malaysia

Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D.,

Environmental Chemistry


English-language journals-10


English- 4

Number of books published in English-1

Dr. Suk-Fun Chin

Senior lecturer at University of Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) PhD (Distinction), University of Western

Australia, Australia. (2009)

Postgraduate Diploma in Teaching and

Learning, University of Malaysia Sarawak

(2005)

Dr. Vasudeva Murthy C R SENIOR LECTURER

FORENSIC PATHOLOGY

MANAGEMENT AND SCIENCE UN

IVERSITY, SHAH ALAM

MALAYSIA

Highest Degree Obtained : DOCTOR OF

MEDICINE

Primary areas of expertise: MEDICINE/

FORENSIC PATHOLOGY

MECEDONIA

Dejan Marolov Division International relations and EU law

"Goce Delcev" University

Macedonia

Highest Degree Obtained PhD


International law




English 1

Number of books published in English 2

Primary areas of expertise: Law

MOROCCO

Professor Mabrouk BENHAMOU LPPPC, Physics Department, Sciences

Faculty Ben M’sik

P.O. 7955, Casablanca, Morocco

A prominent scientist with more than 100

publications. Chosen as TOP 100

SCIENTISTS 2008 by the International

Biographical Centre

NEPAL

Dr. Prakash Adhikari , M.S. Consultant and President of NGO of

Nepalese doctors (Healthy Human Society)

Department of ENT and Head and Neck Surgery and Research Director of Healthy Human Society, Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital, Institute of Medicine, Kathmandu, Nepal Field of highest degree obtained: ENT and

Head and Neck Surgery


English-language journals: 58.


English: 6 published.


English-language journals): in 13

international journals and editor of

international journal entitled: RARE

TUMORS

Primary areas of expertise: ENT and Head

and Neck Surgery and Research

NIGERIA

AGBABIAKA, LUKMAN ADEGOKE Principal Lecturer

FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC,NEKEDE

OWERRI, IMO STATE, NIGERIA

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS:

(Ph.D ANIMAL NUTRITION)IMO STATE

UNIVERSITY, OWERRI-2005-DATE

(MSc. ANIMAL NUTRITION), THE

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF

TECHNOLOGY, OWERRI, IMO STATE-

1999


English-language journals:: 12


English: 1

Dr. ANJOV, Kahaga Terfa Department of Religion and Philosophy,

Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria

ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS

OBTAINED WITH DATES

Ph.D Ethics & Philosophy 2011

M.A. Metaphysics (Master of Arts,

Philosophy) 2011

M. A. Religious Studies 2004

Books Published: 6

Research Publication: 7

PAKISTAN

Dr. Zeeshan Nawaz

Technical Director, LEADS Pakistan, Lahore PhD in Chemical Engineering &

Technology, Beijing Key Laboratory of

GreenReaction Engineering & Technology

(FLOTU), Department of Chemical

Engineering,

Tsinghua University, Beijing, China. *Best

Researcher Award (Sept. 2007-June 2010)

PHILIPPINES

DUMALE, Wilfredo Jr., Arellano Department of Plant Science, College of

Agriculture,

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, 3700 Nueva Vizcaya, THE

PHILIPPINES

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Biological

and Environmental Engineering, 2009

Graduate School of Agricultural and Life

Sciences

The University of Tokyo

Field of highest degree obtained: Biological

and Environmental Engineering

Dr. John Anthony A. Domantay, M.D., FPSP, Ph.D. Dean, College of Medicine, Saint Louis University, Baguio City, Philippines *Postgraduate Certificate in Epidemiology

and Biostatistics,Drexel University,

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

*Postgraduate Diploma (PG Dipl) in

Epidemiology, University of London

External Programme, United Kingdom

Dr. Ruben Castillo Umaly, Ph.D. Vice President for Research, Development and Special Projects, University of the Cordilleras, Philippines Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Foundation

Curie, University of Paris, France(Radiation

Immunology) (French Government Fellow,

3 years)

Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Institute for

Tropical Medicine, University of

Hamburg,Germany (Immunology of

Tropical Parasites) (Alexander von

Humboldt Research Fellow, 3 years)

Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Medical

Malacology, University of Michigan, Ann

Harbor,USA (WHO Fellow) – one term

Postdoctoral Research Fellow in

Immunology of Parasites, Leiden

University(WHO Fellow, one term)

Postdoctoral Training in Applications of

Radioisotope Techniques in Parasitic

Immunology,Mahidol University, (WHO

Fellow) one month

Postdoctoral Training in Molecular

Genetics: National Institute of

Genetics,Mishima Japan (Asian Molecular

Biology Association Fellow) (one month)



Areas of Expertise: Radiation Biology

(Biophysics),

Professor Dr. Jimmy T. Masagca Doctor of Philosophy Units in Science

Education (Major in Biology), De La Salle

University-Manila, Philippines and

Philippine Normal University, Manila

Doctor of Education (Major in Educational

Management), Meritissimus/ Outstanding

Doctoral Dissertation, Catanduanes State

Colleges, Virac, Catanduanes, Philippines

President Pacific Island Institute for Pedagogy,

Technology, Arts & Sciences

Inc.Constantino Street, Virac City

Catanduanes, Philippines

Dr. Nenita I. Prado Professor VI, Central Mindanao University,

Philippines

Executive Director, Central Mindanao

University Admission Tests Board

President, Philippine Association for

Graduate Education Region 10, Cagayan de

Oro City

Board of Directors, Philippine Association

for Graduate Education (National)

Senior Accreditor, Accrediting Agency of

Chartered Colleges and Universities of the

Philippines

Assessor, Commission on Higher

Education’s Institutional Monitoring and

Evaluation for Quality Assurance

Author: Methods of Research

Research Project Leader: Effectiveness of

Instructional Materials in Mathematics,

Statistics and Methods of Research

Extension Project Leader: Adopt-A- School

to Sinangguyan National High School on

Learning Assessment

Member: Central Mindanao University

Publication Board

Member, Central Mindanao University

Instructional Material Development Board

Highest Degree Obtained: Doctor of

Philosophy in Education major in Research

and Evaluation

Field of highest degree obtained: Education




English: 10

Number of books published in English: 6

Your primary areas of expertise: Curriculum

and Instruction, Assessment, Mathematics

Education, Research and Evaluation

Vicky Discaya Isonza, PhD Professor, Graduate School

Holy Cross of Davao College

Highest Degree Obtained: PhD

Field of highest degree obtained: Education-

Research and Evaluation




English-language journals): 1 with

Philippine Association of Institutions for

Research, Inc. and International Association

of Multidisciplinary Research

Primary areas of expertise: Counselling,

Psychology and Research and Evaluation

DR. MARIA RIO ABDON NAGUIT Director for Research

Jose rizal Memorial State University


Philiosphy in Marine Biology

Field of highest degree obtained: Marine

Biology




English-language journals): 5

Primary areas of expertise: marine biology,

population genetics, mariculture,coastal

resource management,

DR. Evelyn R. Campiseño Vice President for Research, Extension and

Development/University Professor

Jose Rizal Memorial State University


Education


Educational Management




English:

Number of journals published in English: 4

volumes

Primary areas of expertise: Education

SPAIN

Dr. Ángel F. Tenorio

Senior Lecturer Applied Mathematics Division. Dept.

Economics, Quantitative Methods and

Economic History. Polytechnic School.

Pablo de Olavide University. Spain

Certificado de Aptitud Pedagógica

(equivalent to the Postgraduate Certificate in

Education). Institute of Learning Sciences.

University of Seville, March 2001.

Doctor (Ph.D.), University of Seville,

December 2003

SRILANKA

Dr. Balasundaram Nimalathasan Senior Lecturer

Department of Accounting, Faculty of

Management Studies & Commerce,

University of Jaffna, Jaffna, Sri Lanka

Academic Degree

· Doctor of Philosophy.

· Higher National Diploma in Accountancy

(HNDA) Advanced Technological Institute

of Jaffna, Sri Lanka.

· Post Graduate Diploma in Management

(PGDM), University of Rajarata, Sri Lanka.




English:3

Number of books published in English: 3

THAILAND

Wichian Sittiprapaporn, Ph.D.

Senior Lecturer Department of Educational Psychology and

Guidance

Faculty of Education, Mahasarakham

University

THAILAND

Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Cognitive

Neurosciences

Seoul National University College of

Medicine, Funded by the Korea Foundation

for Advance Studies (KFAS), Seoul, Korea,

2007

Certificate in Cognitive Neurosciences

Helsinki Winter School of Cognitive

Neurosciences, Organized by the Cognitive

Brain Research Unit (CBRU), University of

Helsinki, Finland, 2005

Ph.D. in Neurosciences

Neuro-Behavioural Biology Center, Institute

of Science and Technology for Research and

Development, Mahidol University,

Thailand, 2002

USA

Dr. Prasanna G. Alluri, M.D., Ph.D. Resident Surgeon

Department of Surgery

University of Michigan Medical School

Highest Degree Obtained : M.D., Ph.D.

Field of highest degree obtained : Medicine

Primary areas of expertise : Medicine,

Biological Chemistry

Dr. Karni Singh Moshal, PhD NIH T32 Fellow

Cardiovascular Research Center, RI

Hospital

1 Hoppin Street, Coro West, Rm# 5100

Alpert Medical School of Brown University

Providence, RI

Dr. Ravinder Kodela Research Assistant Professor

Department of Physiology and

Pharmacology

City University of New York Medical

School, New York, USA


Organic/Medicinal Chemistry

Primary areas of expertise

Organic/Medicinal Chemistry related

Cancer Research

Murali Gururajan, Ph.D. Research Scientist (Research Assistant

Professor)

Uro-Oncology Research Program Atrium 103, 8750 Beverly Blvd, Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA- USA Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D-

Immunology &Toxicology

Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA –Post

Doctoral Fellow

Mohan Goli, Ph.D. Senior Researcher

Department of Biochemistry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX-75235 Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D.

(Synthetic Organic Chemistry)

*Best Process Development Scientist from

Genentech Pharma Inc, USA(2007)

*Chemistry of the year 2010 from American

Chemical society at San Francisco C.A,

USA (2010)

Dr.Vicky Mody, Ph.D - Organic Chemistry University of Houston- Houston, TX

Co-Founder, Novaphene Inc.,

Associate Editor for Internet Journal of

Medical Update, and

Assistant Professor of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Basic Sciences,

Appalachian College of Pharmacy,

Oakwood, VA, 24631

Ms. Mingyan Chu

Senior Chemist Boehringer Ingelheim Chemicals, Inc.

Analytical Methods Development,

Petersburg VA 23805

Master of Chemistry, Queen’s University

Kingston, Ontario, Canada

Yuehua Wei, PhD

Research Scientist

University of California, San Francisco

Field of highest degree obtained: Molecular

Pharmacology

Primary areas of expertise: molecular

biology, biochemistry, genetics, aging, cell

growth

2010, Ph.D. in Molecular bioscience,

Rutgers & Robert Wood Johnson Medical

School-UMDNJ, New Jersey;

2005, M.S. in Molecular Biology and

Biochemistry, Graduate University of

Chinese Academy of Sciences, China

YEMEN

Dr. Ali Saleh Alarussi PhD in International Accounting (University

Utara Malaysia UUM),2008

Title of the PhD thesis

( Determinants of voluntary Financial and

Environmental Disclosure on the Internet by

Malaysian Companies)

MSc in International Accounting (University

Utara Malaysia UUM), 2005

Title of the Master thesis

( Voluntary Financial Disclosure on the

Internet)

Dean of Business and Finance Faculty

Faj Attan 60 street

Sana'a, Sana

Yemen

International University Twintech

Technology (IUTT)


International Accounting

Primary areas of expertise: Accounting

(online reporting)

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1. ANTIMICROBIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY PATTERN OF Staphylococcus aureus

ISOLATED FROM SURGICAL WOUND OF PATIENTS IN JOS UNIVERSITY

TEACHING HOSPITAL, NORTHCENTRAL NIGERIA

………Idighri, M. N. and Nedolisa, A.C., Egbujo, E.C

…1

2. SEROLOGICAL EVALUATION OF IMMUNITY AGAINST MEASLES IN

CHILDREN ATTENDING MURTALA MOHAMMED SPEACIALIST

HOSPITAL, KANO-NIGERIA

……Hamid, K.M, Mukhtar, M.D, Arzai, A.H, Yusuf,I, Mohammed, A.H,

Mainasara, A.S and Tofa, U.A

…8

3. OVERVIEW OF SYNTHESIS AND ACTIVITY OF COUMARINS

……….Monga Paramjeet K., Sharma Dipak, and Dubey Arti

…16

4. STUDY OF ZOOPLANKTON DIVERSITY AND SEASONAL VARIATION

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS IN

TULSHI RESERVOIR OF KOLHAPUR DISTRICT (M.S.), INDIA

……….. K. B. Koli, D. V. Muley.

…38

5. SPECIES DISTRIBUTION OF SPIDERS IN BARPETA DISTRICT OF ASSAM:

A DIVERSITY MEASURE

……… Suruchi Singh , A. Borkotoki and C. K. Sarmah

…47

6. EXISTING AND EMERGING RISKS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS GEO-

HYDROLOGICAL HAZARDS IN HINDU KUSH HIMALAYA REGION:

A COMPLEMENTARY STUDY

… Pradeep K. Rawat and Hari Krishna Nibanupudi

…58

Table of Contents

E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749

1

ANTIMICROBIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY PATTERN OF

Staphylococcus aureus ISOLATED FROM SURGICAL

WOUND OF PATIENTS IN JOS UNIVERSITY

TEACHING HOSPITAL, NORTHCENTRAL NIGERIA

Idighri, M. N.

1 and Nedolisa, A.C.

2Egbujo, E.C

3

1Solat Women Hospital, Jos Plateau State Nigeria.

2 Department of Microbiology Jos University Teaching Hospital.

3 Meena Histopathology Laboratory Services, Jos.

Author for correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from 200 cases of surgical

wounds of patients attending Jos University Teaching Hospital were examined. Out of the 200

samples examined Staphylococcus aureus was isolated in 61(30.5%). Others isolated were

Proteus spp 38(19%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa 34(17.5%), Escherichia coli 29(14.5%),

Klebsiella spp 25(12.5%), Streptococcus spp 3(1.5%) and Alkagenes 1(0.5%). No bacteria were

isolated in nine (9) samples. The age group with the highest number of isolate was (21-30) with a

frequency of 50%. Females (32%) were more infected than male (30%). The overall profile of

susceptibility pattern showed that Gentamycin and Erythromycin were more sensitive 89% and

74% respectively and Penicillin was the least sensitive 26%. The result of the study shows that

Gentamycin and Erythromycin are more effective in the management of Staphylococcus aureus

in this locality.

Keywords: Staphylococcus aureus, surgical wounds,

INTRODUCTION:

Wound is defined as a bodily injury caused by physical means with disruption of the continuity

of structures (Baker, 1980). Micro- organisms which are responsible for wound infections

depends on the surgical site, the study population and antimicrobial use within the hospital. The

most common organism in wound infection is Staphylococcus auerus (Taylor, 1992 and

Buwembo, 1990).Staphylococcus auerus remains a significant cause of mortality and morbidity

in tropical countries (Rasoul, et al, 2010; Onile et al, 1985). The Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention estimates that approximately 500,000 surgical site infections occur annually in the United States

(Perencevich et al., 2003). If this figure is anything to go by, it then means that in third-world country

like Nigeria where such health statistical data are hardly documented calls for attention. Apart

from the increased discomfort to the patient and damage to certain surgical procedures, the


2

duration of hospital stay is prolonged, this adding to the financial burden of surgical management

(Hiramatsu et al, 1997). More recently, the problem has further been compounded by the

emerging cases of microbial resistance to Staphylococcus aureus (Akpaka et al,2006 and

Douglas, et al., 1998). The aim of the present study is to establish the incidence of

Staphylococcus aureus in surgical wounds, among male and female and its antibiotic sensitivity

pattern to various antibiotic in different age groups in this locality.

Staphylococcus aureus is a gram-positive cocci, catalase and coagulase positive bacterium.

MATERIALS AND METHOD:

This study was conducted in Jos University Teaching Hospital (JUTH) Plateau state Nigeria. A

total of 200 specimens obtained from patients who had undergone surgical operations in the

various surgical wards of the hospital comprising Casualty, Orthopedics, appendicitis and

Prostate operation.

Patients were enrolled after obtaining informed consent from them or guardians/attendants. Each

specimen was accompanied by such information as patients’ name, hospital number, ward

number, sex, age, date and clinical prognosis on admission, site and type of surgery and

antibiotic prophylaxis if any. Samples were collected with assistance of medical officers or ward

nurses during ward-rounds and before dressing. The specimens (Pus, Exudates or aspirates) were

aseptically obtained from surgical sites using sterile swab stick and sterile syringe.

The specimens were cultured on blood agar, chocolate agar and MacConkey agar plates. The

chocolate plate was incubated with increased carbon dioxide jar at 370 in the incubator. Culture

plates were examined after 24 hours incubation for growth and culture characteristic for

identification of the isolate by gram stain, catalase and coagulase testing according to standard

bacteriological procedures (Cheesbrough, 1993) each confirmed Staphylococcus aureus isolate

was prepared in peptone water to match 0.5 Macfarand turbidity standards.

A sterile well dried nutrient agar plate was inoculated by flooding with 6hours incubated broth.

Excess was drained off the plate, allowed to dry and using a sterile forceps the appropriate gram-

positive sensitivity disc was placed on it pressed gently to ensure contact with medium. The

zones of inhibition were measured and compared with national committee for clinical laboratory

standards guidelines (NCCLS, 1995).

RESULTS

The following results were obtained. Out of 200 patients with surgical wound attending Jos

University Teaching Hospital that were examined for bacterial growth and antibiotic

susceptibility pattern. The following results were obtained.


3

Table I. The frequency of Staphylococcus aureus and other bacterial isolates in Jos University

Teaching Hospital

Bacterial species No. of Isolates (%)

Staphylococcus aureus 61(30.5)

Pseudomonas aeruginosa 34(17.0)

Klebsiella specie 25(12.5)

Proteus specie 38(19.0)

Echerichia coli 29(14.5)

Streptococcus specie 3(1.5)

Alkaligenes specie 1(0.5)

Sterile culture(No growth) 9(4.5)

Total 200(100)

Table II. The Age group Distribution of the Staphylococcus aureus Isolates in Jos University

Teaching Hospital

Age Range (yrs) Number Tested Number

Positive (%)

0-10 45 17(38)

11-20 76 20(26)

21-30 20 10(50)

31-40 20 8(40)

41-50 24 2(8)

51-60 15 4(27)

Table III. Distribution of Staphylococcus aureus among Male and Female surgical patients in

Jos University Teaching Hospital

Sex Number Tested Number

Positive (%)

Male 116 34(30)

Female 84 27(32)

Total 200 61


4

Table IV. Age group Susceptibility patterns of Antibiotics tested on Staphylococcus aureus

isolated in Jos University Teaching Hospital

Age Isolates PEN GEN CHL AMP TE ERY STR

CLO 0-10 17 4(24) 12(71) 4(24) 8(47) 11(65) 12(71) 10(59)

7(41) 11-20 20 6(30) 19(95) 13(65) 6(30) 14(70) 15(75) 9(45)

11(55) 21-30 10 3(30) 10(100) 5(50) 4(40) 7(70) 8(80) 5(50)

5(50) 31-40 8 3(38) 7(88) 6(75) 6(75) 4(50) 5(63) 6(75)

6(75) 41-50 2 0(0) 2(100) 1(50) 2(100) 1(50) 1(50) 0(0)

1(50) 51-60 4 0(0) 4(100) 4(100) 2(50) 3(75) 4(100) 2(50)

3(75)

Key: PEN – Penicillin; GEN – Gentamicin; CHL – Choramphenicol; AMP – Ampicillin; TE –

Tetracycline; ERY – Erythromycin; STR – Streptomycin; CLO – Cloxacillin

Table V: Antibiotic sensitivity and resistant pattern of Staphylococcus aureus in Jos University

Teaching Hospital

Type of Antibiotic No. tested No. sensitive %Sensitive %Resistant

Penicillin 61 16 26 74

Gentamicin 61 54 89 11

Choramphenicol 61 33 54 46

Ampicillin 61 28 46 54

Tetracycline 61 40 66 34

Erythromycin 61 45 74 26

Streptomycin 61 32 53 47

Cloxacillin 61 33 54 46


5

DISCUSSION

This study shows the occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus from surgical wounds of in –patients

admitted in Jos University Teaching Hospital, North Central Nigeria in which two hundred (200)

samples were analyzed, table 1 shows the frequency of occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus

and other bacterial isolates in pure cultures. Staphylococcus aureus had the highest number of

occurrence 30.5%(61) while Streptococcal species and Alkligenes species had the least frequency

occurrence of 1.5%(3) and 0.5%(1) respectively. These findings agree with previous findings

(Amrita Shriyan, et al.,2010; Anguzu and Olila, 2007) who reported that the most single cause of

post-operative wound infection was Staphylococcus aureus. A high frequency of occurrence was

recorded among the female patients 32% than male patients with 30% (Table III). The

difference seems to be too small although statistical difference was not determined.

However, the result shows an increased prevalence of the gram negative bacterial organism in

the surgical wounds analyzed compared to the gram positives. This is in line with other findings

(Anguzu and Olila, 2007; Anbumani et al.,2006), indicating increase or equal prevalence of

gram negative to gram positive organisms in hospital wound infection. Hence, suggesting the

need to also look at antibiotic susceptibility pattern of gram negative organisms in future studies.

Staphylococuss aureus has been documented to be most liable to infect new born babies, surgical

patients, old and malnourished persons and patients with diabetes and other chronic disease (Tou

et al, 1995).Table II which shows that age group of 21-30 has the highest percentage of isolate of

50%, and followed closely by the age group of 31-40 with 40%. This result disagrees with the

findings of Law and Wrong, (1980) that patients in the age group greater than 40 years were

associated with higher surgical wound infection and that of (Nwankwo and Nasiru, 2011) that

observed higher frequency in age group (0-10) and older children. Although this study

concentrated on surgical wound infections only while (Nwankwo and Nasiru, 2011) worked on

isolation of Staphylococcus aureus on different samples. However, a relatively high positive

culture was equally observed in patients within the age group of 0-10years (36%) in this study.

Looking at Table IV and V, the antibiotic susceptibility test revealed that in all the age groups,

the isolates showed a marked sensitively to Gentamycin followed by Erythromycin.

Staphylococcus aureus sensitivity to Gentamycin in this study was 89% which agrees with

(Nwankwo and Nasiru, 2011; Paul et al 1982 and Ndip et al 1997). A marked resistance to some

of the commonly used and relatively safe antibacterial agents was also observed (TableIV and

V), for example Staphylococcus aureus shows some level of resistance to all the antibiotics used

with penicillin(Table V) having the highest resistance in this work which could be attributed to

interplay of many factors ranging from abuse of drugs by patients, unrestricted use of broad

spectrum antibiotics for prophylactic measures prior to surgery or operatively without resorting

to sensitivity testing. The compromise by some surgeon substituting antibiotic prophylaxis and

chemotherapy for basic surgical principle has been revealed. For example, it was noted that out

of 218 post-operative patients studied 180(82%) received antibacterial agents immediately post-

operatively, 120(68.33%) of which receive antibacterial agents containing Cloxacillin (Njoku-

Obi and Ojiegbe 1986). They therefore suggested that such practice while necessary, might

seriously affect the number and the type of organisms isolated from wound infections and their

antibiotic susceptibility patterns. The resistance of Staphylococcus aureus to Penicillin and other

antibiotics can be due to the production of beta-lactamase or possession of extra chromosomal


6

factor, R-factor or plasmids. In this study, beta-lactamase was not tested for in the

Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated. It is essential that this should be done from time to time

to determine the best drug for treatment. Several workers have observed that the prevalence of

Beta-lactamase producing Staphylococcus aureus vary greatly in different countries and at

different time. In the United State, Nafcillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus accounted for 0.1%

of the isolates in 1970s while in the 1980s, it constituted 10-30% of isolates from nosocominal

infection (Basker et al., 1980) and (Haley et al., 1982). In contrast in Denmark Nafcillin

resistant Staphylococcus aureus constituted 40% of isolates in 1970s but only 10% in the 1980

without notable changes in the use of Nafcillin or other Beta-lactamase stable antimicrobial

drugs.

REFERENCE:

Amrita S, Sheetal R Narendra N. (2010). Aerobic Micro-Organisms in Post-Operative Wound

Infections and Their Antimicrobial Susceptibility Patterns. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic

Research, (4):3392-3396.

Anbumani N, Kalyan J, Mallika M(2006). Epidemiology and Microbiology of Wound

Infections. Indian Journal for the Practising Doctor. Vol. 3, No. 5 (2006-11 - 2006-12)

Anguzu J.R and Olila, D (2007). Drug sensitivity patterns of bacterial isolates from septic post-

operative wounds in a regional referral hospital in Uganda. African Health Sciences Vol 7.,148-

154.

Baker (1980). Medical Microbiology Techniques staining pp. 213-234

Basker M.J. Edmonden R.A, Sutherlande R. (1980) Comparative stabilities of Penicillin and

Cephalosporins to Staphylococcus beta-lactamase and activities against Staphylococcus aureus.

J. Antimicrobal chemotherapy 6: 34-41.

Cheesbrough M. Medical laboratory manual for Tropical countries. Vol 2, 1993, pp225-227

Douglas S.K, David C.C.; Charles W.S and Allen B.K (1998). Association of Bordeline

Oxacillin-Susceptiblity Strains of Staphylococcus aureus with Surgical Wound Infections.

Journal of Clinical Microbiology. P.219-222.

Hairamatus K, Hanaki H, Ino T, Yabuka K, Oguri T, Tenover F.C. (1997). Methicillin-resistant

Staphyloccus aureus clinical strain with reduced vancomycin susceptibility. Journal of

Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 40:135-136

Haley R.W (1982). The emergence of methicilline resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in

United States Hospital. Ann. International Medicine. 97:297

Lau W.Y and Wong S.H (1981): Randomized, prospective trial of tropical infection. High risk

factor American Journal of Surgery Vol. 142:393-7


7

NCCLS (1995). Perfomance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing, Sixth international

supplement. NCCLS documents M100-S6,Villanova, Pa.

Ndip R.N, Ebah L.M.E, Onile B.A.( 1997). Antibiogram of Staphylococcus aureus from clinical

Syndromes in Ilorin. Nigeria. J Med Lab Sci. 6:24-26.

Njoku-Obi A.N.U and Ojiegbe G.C. (1989): Resistance patterns of bacterial isolated from wound

infections in a University Teaching Hospital West African. Journal of Medicine. Vol. 8(1): 185-

189

Nwankwo E.O and Nasiru M.S (2011). Antibiotic sensitivity pattern of Staphylococcus aureus

from clinical isolates in a tertiary health institution in Kano, Northwestern Nigeria. Pan African

Medical Journal. 8:4

Onile B.A, Odugbemi T.O, Nwofor C.( 1985). Antibiotic susceptibility of Bacterial agents of

Septicemia in Ilorin. Nig Med Pract. 9(4): 16-18

Patrick E. A, Shivnarine K, William H .S and Michele M (2006). Prevalence and antimicrobial

susceptibility pattern of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from Trinidad&

Tobago. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials, 5:16

Paul M.O, Aderibie D.A, Sule C.Z.( 1982). Antimicrobial sensitivity patterns of hospital and non

hospital strains of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from nasal carriers. J Hyg Camb. 89:253-260.

Perencevich E.N, Sands K.E, Cosgrove S.E,(2003). Health and economic impact of surgical site

infections diagnosed after hospital discharge. Emerg Infect Dis.9(2):196-203.

Rasoul S. Hossein K, Mehrnaz R, Alireza A and Kheirollah G (2010).Antimicrobial

Susceptibility Pattern of Staphylococcus aureus Strains Isolated from Hospitalized Patients in

Tehran, Iran. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 6(2):125-132


8

SEROLOGICAL EVALUATION OF IMMUNITY

AGAINST MEASLES IN CHILDREN ATTENDING

MURTALA MOHAMMED SPEACIALIST HOSPITAL,

KANO-NIGERIA

*Hamid, K.M1, Mukhtar, M.D

2, Arzai, A.H

2, Yusuf,I

2, Mohammed, A.H

1, Mainasara, A.S

1and

Tofa, U.A3

1. School of Medical Laboratory Science, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, NIGERIA

2. Biological sciences Department, Bayero University Kano, NIGERIA

3. Microbiology Department, Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, Kano, NIGERIA

*Author for Correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Measles immunity status in Kano state has never been assessed, this study serve as relevant

serological evidence and a source of data for future references on measles immunity among

children in Kano. It was the interest of this research to determine the measles immunity status of

500 children aged less than 10 years. Blood sample from 500 children aged<10 years attending

Murtala Mohammed Specialist Hospital, Kano, Nigeria was collected and process to obtain a

serum. The serum was used to determine Haemagglutination Inhibion (HI) antibody using

Haemagglutination Inhibition Assay. Questionnaire was used to obtain demographic data of the

children relevant to the study. The protective titer in this study was ≥1:40. Of the 500 children

studied, 44 (8.8%) children had undetectable HI antibody titer, 128 (25.6%) children had HI

antibody titer <1:40 and 328 (65.6%) children had HI antibody titer ≥ 1:40. Of the 224 children

with history of measles infection, 123 (54.91%) were vaccinated and protected against measles

infection, 21 (9.38%) were vaccinated but unprotected, 43 (19.20%) were unvaccinated but

protected and 37 (16.52%) were unvaccinated and unprotected. Of the 276 children with no

history of measles infection, 148 (53.62%) were vaccinated and protected, 40 (19.49%) were

vaccinated but unprotected, 14 (5.07%) unvaccinated but protected and 74 (26.81%)

unvaccinated and unprotected. Statistically, there was significant association between measles

infection and protection against measles and also between measles vaccination and protection

against measles (P>0.05). The study found that a majority of the children had protective level of

HI antibody which implies that they were safe, few had undetected or low level of HI antibody,

and this means they were at risk of measles infection.

Key words: Measles, Haemagglutination Inhibition, Antibody, Immunity, vaccination,

Kano.

INTRODUCTION

Measles is a disease that harms children and spreads fast. It is preventable by vaccination.

Measles is still endemic in Nigeria and is a major cause of childhood illness and death.


9

Elimination of measles has been achieved in some regions of the world; however, this has so far

been unattainable in the African continent (CDC, 2006). More than 20 million people are

affected each year by measles (WHO, 2008). In 2006 there were 242,000 measles death globally.

This translates to about 663 deaths everyday or 27 deaths every hour (WHO, 2008). In African

countries, there has been a remarkable increase in measles cases among children in recent years.

In Nigeria, there is an indication of general rise in the incidence of the disease in most of

northern Nigeria. A report from the Voice of America (VOA) indicates that many hundreds of

children have died in northern Nigeria since December, 2007. In the same report it was estimated

that in Katsina State, some 165 children had died and 3000 cases were reported in the preceding

three months. In Zaria City of Kaduna State over 200 children died and many more were

hospitalized (Gilbert, 2008).

The international medical organization, "Medicins sans frontiers "(MSR) reported that measles

infection rose by 670% in Kano in the first 21 weeks of 2001 over the same period in 2000.

Measles epidemic killed over 200 Children in Kano in December 2007(IRIN, 2008).

Development of immunity to this disease is either by congenital transfer of protective antibodies,

vaccination or infection by wild type (Anne et al., 1977).

The immunity status of children against measles in kano has never been assessed. It is the

interest of this study to carry out study on measles immunity among children using

Heamagglutination Inhibition (HI) test. Certain viruses posses the capacity to bind red blood

cells (RBC) of specific animal species at defined temperature. This binding produces visible

agglutination and is known as viral heamagglutination (Ochei and Kolhatkar, 2007). Measles

virus Heamagglutinate Monkey erythrocytes particularly patas or African green monkeys.

Heamagglutination inhibition of measles virus is an indication of the presence of antibodies

against the virus (Hsiung, 1982). In this study, measles immunity status of 500 children attending

the Murtala Mohammed Specialist Hospital, Kano was assessed using Haemagglutination

inhibition (HI) assay.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area: The study was carried out at the Murtala Mohammed Specialist Hospital, Kano.

The Hospital was selected for the study because it is one of the referral centers for pediatric cases

in Kano State.

Subjects: The subjects for the study were children under 10 years who were attending the

Hospital for treatment of measles and other diseases. Before collection of blood samples,

permission was sought from the Kano state Hospital Management Board.

Sample Collection and Distribution of Questionnaires

Sample Collection: A total of 500 blood samples were collected by vene puncture. The blood

was dispensed into a labeled screw capped container. It was then centrifuged at 2000g for

5minutes to obtain a serum. The serum was separated into a cryovials and stored at -20oC until

tested. However, before collection of blood samples from children, due consent from the children

was sought and after explaining the purpose and concept for the study.


10

Demographic details of the subjects: Questionnaires were used to obtain demographic data of

the children, these includes age, sex, address, and history of measles and vaccination status.

Sourcing of Measles antigen: The measles antigen was obtained from Public Health Centralized

Immunization Clinic, University College Hospital Ibadan, Nigeria. The antigen was prepared by

the Serum Institute of India Limited.

Treatment of Patas monkey blood: Blood of Patas monkey was collected and dispensed into

Alserver’s solution and washed 3 times by centrifugation at 3000g for 10 minutes in Phosphate

buffer saline (PBS) (pH 7.0). A 10% stock suspension from the packed cells was prepared and

stored at 4ºC for not more than 1 week prior to use. A 0.5% suspension of packed cells was made

from the 10% stock just before use (Hsiung, 1982).

Serum treatment

Heat inactivation: - The serum samples were heated at 56ºC for 30 minutes to inactivate

compliment and hemolysin(Hsiung, 1982 and Ochei and Kolhatkar, 2007).

Removal of Naturally Occurring Unspecific Agglutinin: Each serum was diluted 1:5 with

phosphate buffer saline (pH7.0), and then mixed with 0.1 ml of 50% packed cell (washed and

packed). The mixture was placed in a refrigerator for 1 hour and then centrifuged for 10 minutes

at 2000g to remove the unspecific agglutinins which could give false negative result (Hsiung,

1982).

Kaolin treatment: This was done to remove non specific inhibitors present in the serum. A 25%

suspension of kaolin (acid washed) in phosphate buffer saline (pH 7.0) was prepared. One

milliliter of each serum diluted 1:5 was mixed with 1ml of the kaolin suspension, shaked

vigorously and allowed to stand at room temperature for 20 minutes, with intermittent shaking.

Centrifuged at 2000g for 30 minutes, the supernatant represent the treated serum at 1:10 dilution

(Hsiung, 1982).

Haemagglutination (HA) Test: About Twenty five microliter of PBS (pH 7.0) was dispensed

into each microtiter well plate using a micro dropper. Twenty five microliter of undiluted

measles antigen was added to the first well, and then 2-fold serial dilution followed, the last well

served as control. Twenty five microliter of 0.5% PRBC was added to all the wells and allowed

to settle at 37ºC for 1 hour (Ochei and Kolhatkar, 2007).

Haemagglutination Inhibition (HI) Test: About Fifty microliter of 1:10 dilution of the treated

serum was dispensed into first well of the microtiter plate and twenty five microliter of PBS (pH

7.0) was dispensed into the remaining wells. 2- Fold serial dilution was made up to 9th

well to

gives a range of 1:10-1:2560, last wells served as controls. Twenty five microliter of the 4HAU

of the measles antigen was added to each well except the 10th

and 12th

wells. The plate was

shook and the mixture was incubated at 37ºC for 1 hour. Twenty five microliter of 0.5% washed

packed cell in PBS was added to each well and the mixture was incubated at 37ºC for 1 hour or

when the cells in the control wells settled at the bottom. The result was then read (Ochei and

Kolhatkar, 2007).


11

Data Analysis: Identification of factors that may associate with protection or unprotection was

carried out by the chi-square using SPSS 16.0 version.

RESULTS

Haemagglutination Inhibition (HI) antibody titers’ obtained in this study were 1:10 to 1:320.HI

antibody titers < 1:40 were non-protective while HI antibody titers ≥ 1:40 were protective.

Overall result Showed that out of the 500 children surveyed, 65.6% had protective titer while

34.4% had non-protective titer (Table 1). This means that a majority of the children had a

protective antibody titer against measles (i.e. ≥ 1:40).

Table1: Measles immunity status of children in Kano- Nigeria

Sex Protected children (%) Non-protected children (%) Total

Male

181(68.56) 83(31.44) 264

Female

147(62.29) 89(37.71) 236

Total 328 172 500

Table 2 shows the level of Haemagglutination Inhibition antibody titer among the children by

age. Ten (40%) out of 25 children aged <1 year had no detectable HI antibody, while 4 (16%)

had 1:40 HI titer. None of the children aged less than 1 year had a HI titer above 1:80. Of 274

children aged 1-5 years, 31 (11.31%) had no detectable HI antibody, 77 (28.10%) had HI titer of

1:40 and 63 (22.99%) had HI titer of 1:20 and 6 (2.19%) had HI titer of 1:320. Of 201 children

aged 6-10 years, 3 (1.49%) had no detectable HI antibody titer, 43 (21.39%) had HI titer of 1:40,

36 (17.91%) of had HI titer of 1:20 and 16 (7.96%) had HI titer of 1:320.

Table 2: Haemagglutination Inhibition (HI) antibody titer among children in Kano-Nigeria

Age

group

(yrs)

HI titer

(%)

Total

Nil 1:10

1:20

1:40 1:80

1:160

1:320

<1 10 (40) 3 (12) 4 (16) 4 (16) 4 (16) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 25

1-5 31(11.31) 11(4.01) 63(22.99) 77(28.10) 50(18.25) 36(13.14) 6(2.19) 274


12

6-10 3 (1.49) 11(5.47) 36(17.91) 43(21.39) 39(19.40) 53(26.37) 16(7.96) 201

Total 44 25 103 124 93 89 22 500

Out of the 500 children, 224 had history of measles infection and 123 (54.91%) of the 224

children were vaccinated and protected, 21 (9.38%) were vaccinated but non-protected, 43

(19.20%) were non-vaccinated but protected, while 37 (16.52%) were non-vaccinated and non-

protected. Among the 500 children, 276 had no history of measles infection, 148 (53.62%) were

vaccinated and protected against measles, 40 (14.49%) were vaccinated but non-protected, 14

(5.07%) were non-vaccinated but protected, while 74 (26.81%) were non-vaccinated and non-

protected (Table 3)

There was significantly statistical association between measles infection and protection against

measles among the children at P>0.05. Similarly, there was significant association between

measles vaccination and protection against measles at P>0.05.

Table 3: Measles immunity status of children based on history of measles infection and

vaccination in Kano-Nigeria

Measles

infection

Vaccinated children Non-vaccinated children Total

Protected

(%)

Non-protected

(%)

Protected

(%)

Non-protected

(%)

Yes 123 (54.91) 21 (9.38) 43 (19.20) 37 (16.52) 224

No 148 (53.62) 40 (14.49) 14 (5.07) 74 (26.81) 276

Total 271 61 57 111 500

.

DISCUSSION

Result of the study indicate that a majority of the children had a protective antibody titer against

measles (i.e. ≥ 1:40) and few had non-protective antibody titer (i.e. <1:40).The study revealed

8.8% with undetectable HI antibody titer in their serum. While 5.0% and 20.6% had HI antibody

titer of 1:10 and 1:20 respectively. This implies that the level of HI antibody titer is low (i.e. <

1:40) which means it will not confer protection against measles. This undetectable level of

antibody may be attributed to some factors such as age, vaccination success, exposure to wild

type of measles virus, intercurrent illness, malnutrition etc. According to Zhuji (1987) for

children whose antibody levels fall to undetectable or low levels, re-infection and viral

replication may occur after subsequent exposure to wild virus which may boost the antibody

levels.

Among the vaccinated children that had history of measles infection, 21 (9.38%) were

unprotected, despite the measles infection and vaccination. The non protection was probably due

to poor potency of the vaccine, intercurrent acute illness, passive immunity, age of vaccination


13

and nutritional status. This is in line with the study of Cutts et al., (1995) who reported that the

proportion of children who develop protective antibody levels following measles vaccination

depends on the presence of inhibitory maternal antibody and immunologic maturity of the

vaccine recipient as well as the dose and strain of the vaccine virus. Frequently cited figures are

that approximately 85% of children develop protective antibody levels when given one dose of

measles vaccine at 9 month of age and 90% to 95% respond when vaccinated at 12month of age.

It has also been reported that very young infants (six month or younger) do not develop high

levels of neutralizing antibodies after immunization with attenuated measles virus vaccines even

in the absence of passively acquired maternal antibodies (Siegrist 2001). In a study by Krober, et

al. (1995). It was found that lower seroconversion rates after measles vaccine in 15 to 18 month

old febrile children with rhinorrhea compared to controls without rhinorrhea.

Among the vaccinated children without history of measles infection, 40 (14.49%) were

unprotected (Table 3). This is true because an earlier study showed that the antibody induced by

vaccination decline overtime and may become undetectable. Nevertheless, immunological

memory persists and following exposure to measles virus most vaccinated persons produce a

measles virus-specific immune response without clinical symptoms (Moss et al., 2007). Also the

duration of immunity following measles vaccination is more variable and shorter than following

wild type measles virus infection, but persists for decades (Flugstrud et al., 1997).

The study showed that there are a significant number of children (19.20%) that suffered measles

based on their history and were unvaccinated and they were also protected against measles

impliedly due to the exposure to measles virus. The duration of protective immunity following

wild type measles virus infection is generally thought to be lifelong. This reason and the

observation made by Peter Panum (1940) that during the epidemic on the isolate Faroe Islands

demonstrated the long-term protective immunity conferred by wild type measles virus infection.

Two measles epidemics occurred in this community decades apart. Adults with a history of

measles infection as children did not acquire measles after re-exposure 65 years later. Also the

possibility of re-exposure with the wild type of measles virus is high because of the location of

the sampled children. Studies in the Republic of Senegal suggested that subclinical boosting of

antibody levels may result from frequent exposure in regions where measles virus is circulating

(Whittle et al., 1999).

The study also showed that 14 (5.07%) of unvaccinated children that have no history of measles

infection, were protected (Table 3). This is probably due to passive immunity acquired from

mother, which is enough to confer immunity against measles. Black and Yannet (1960) had

earlier reported protective efficacy of antibodies to infants from passively- acquired maternal

antibodies.

Also from Table 3, 37 (16.52%) children that have history of measles infection and were non

vaccinated and non protected. This is probably due to low titer because the significant titer in this

study is ≥ 1:40, and also the children probably were not re-exposed to the wild type of measles

virus after the first exposure. Consequently, the antibody level may become undetectable or

lower until when re-exposed again. This is in agreement with the suggestion by Schuederberg et

al., (1973) that when measles antibody falls to low levels, re-exposure to measles virus (wild or


14

vaccine virus) stimulate memory cells, which remain dormant after the initial infection and

primed to produce a measles specific response.

In comparison with the above findings, Janal et al., (2011) had conducted a serological survey of

measles immunity among 479 elementary school children. Their finding confirms durable

immunity and low rate of vaccine failure following live attenuated measles vaccination. They

suggested that maternal antibody interferes with the active immune response in children

immunized when <1year of age because the group of children had significantly lower titer and

significantly were more susceptible than the children immunized when ≥ 2 years.

Also a community – based survey to determine the prevalence of measles HI antibodies among

children in Santa Cruz Bolivia was conducted by Bartoloni et al., (2004) reported that measles

vaccine coverage in the children was 77% and 1439 (87%) had detectable HI antibody, but a

high proportion had antibody levels below 200miu (30-40%).They associated measles

seronegativity with not being vaccinated against measles, negative history of measles disease and

young age. Of 212 children without detectable measles antibody, 123 (58%) had a positive

history of vaccination or measles disease, they noted that historical information was not

sufficiently reliable to identify susceptible. These findings are in line with the finding of this

study. However, there is disparity pertaining protective titers which depends on country.

CONCLUSION

The study revealed that majority of the children had protective HI antibody titer (65.6%), while

few (34.4%) had either undetectable antibody or low levels of HI antibody titer (i.e. <1:40),

which will not confer protection. The protection was due to passive immunity, vaccination with

potent vaccine and /or exposure to the wild type of measles virus. The lack of protection was

perhaps due to non-vaccination, loss of passive immunity, loss of vaccine potency, intercurrent

acute illness, age, immune compromised condition or malnutrition.

REFERENCES:

Anne, S.Y., Joseph, H.D., Lawrence, A.R., Biot, H. Measles Immunization success and failure

JAMA 1977, 237-35

Bartoloni, P., Cutts, F.T., Guglielmetti, F.G., Brown, M.L. and Roselli, M. Prevelence of

measles antibody among children under 15 years of age in santa cruz, Bolivia; implications for

vaccination strategies.January-febuary 1995,pp 119-122

Black, F.L. and Yannet, H. Inapparent Measles after gammaglobulin administration. JAMA 1960,

73:1183-8

Centers for Disease Controls and Prevention. Vaccine preventable deaths and global

immunization vision and strategy. MMWR 2006, 55:511-5

Cutts, F.T., Grabowsky, M., Markowitz, L.E. The effect of dose and strain of live attenuated

measles vaccine on serological responses in young infants. Biologicals 1995, 23:95-106.


15

Flugsrud, L.B., Rid, T.O., Aasen, S., Bendal, B.P. Measles antibodies and herd immunity in 20-

and 40-year –old Norwegians scand. J Infect Disease 1997, 29:137-40

Gilbert Da Costa. “Measles outbreak hits northern Nigerian State” 2008

Voice of America (V.O. A)

Hsiung, G.D. Diagnostic virology. 3rd

edition, 1982 Yale university press, U.S.A pp 40-41

Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN) NIGERIA: Measles Cases increases by nearly

700% in Kano.2001 UN’s IRIN Humanitarian information unit.

Janal, M.K., Paul, G.Q. and Henry, H.B. Measles susceptibility among elementary school

children. Am. J. Epidemiol 2011, 173:2

Krober, M.S., Stracener, C.D., Bass, J.W. Decreased Measles antibody response after Measles-

Mumps-Rubella vaccine in infants with colds. JAMA 1991, 265:2095-2096.

Moss, W.J., Scott, S., Mugala, N., Ndhlovu, Z., Beeler, J.A., Audet, S.A. et al. Immunogenicity

of standard-titer measles vaccine in HIV –infected and uninfected Zambian children, an

observational study. J. Infect. Disease 2007, 196:347-55.

Ochei, J. and kolhatkar, A., Medical laboratory science theory and Practice .6th

ed 2007 Tata

McGraw Hill publishing company Ltd pp 864

Panum, P.L. Observation made during the epidemic of measles on the Faroe Islands 1940. New

York. Delta Omega society.

Schluderberg, A., Lamm, S.H., and Landrigan, P.J. Measles immunity in children vaccinated

before one year of age. Am J Epidemiol 1973, 97:402-409

Siegrist, C.A. Neonatal and early life vaccinology. Vaccine 2001, 19:3331-46.

Whittle, H.C., Aaby, P., Samb, B., Jensen, H., Bennett, J., Simondon, F. Effect of subclinical

infection on maintaining immunity against measles in vaccinated children in West Africa. Lancet

1999, 353:98-101.

World Health Organization (2008): ‘Measles’. WHO Media Center

Zhuji, YY. Epidemiologic Examination of immunity period of Measles vaccine (Chinese). Chin

Med J 1987, 67:19-22


16

OVERVIEW OF SYNTHESIS AND ACTIVITY OF

COUMARINS

Monga Paramjeet K.1, Sharma Dipak

2, and Dubey Arti

1Department of chemistry, Shreeneelkantheshwar Govt. P.G. College, Khandwa, M.P. India

2Department of chemistry, Maharaja Ranjit Singh College of Professional Science, Indore, M.P.,

India

Author for Correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Coumarins is well known plant derived natural product which is extensively used as a biological

active compound. Natural and synthetic coumarins were verified to have antioxidant, anti

inflammatory, anticoagulation, estrogenic, dermal photosensitizing, vasodilator, molluscicidal,

anti helmentic, sedative, hypnotic, analgesic, hypothermic and antiulcer activities. The utility of

microwaves in coumarins synthesis is now receiving considerable attention. Formation of

coumarin derivatives using microwave irradiation in excellent yields, solvent free reactions

condition with good purity. Dietary exposure to benzopyrones is quite significant, as these

compounds are found in vegetables, fruits, seeds, nuts, coffee, tea and wine. It is estimated that

the average western diet contains approximately 1 gm day of mixed benzopyrones. This review

is based on recent studies of coumarins and coumarin related compounds. Therefore the focus

will be on these relevant compounds and their pharmacological importance along with the

various microwave synthesis method and its comparison with conventional method of synthesis.

Key words: Coumarin, microwave synthesis, pharmacological activities, SAR, various

synthesis.

INTRODUCTION:

Coumarin agents (known as 1,2-benzopyrone), consisting of fused benzene and α-pyrone rings

are present in significant amounts in plants and more than 1300 coumarins were identified from

natural sources1. These natural compounds serve as important models for advanced design and

synthesis of more active analogous coumarins that possess were shown to have potent

antioxidant and radical- scavenging properties in various experimental models2.

The synthesis of coumarins and their derivatives has attracted considerable attention from

organic and medicinal chemists for many years as a large number of natural products contains

this heterocyclic nucleus3. They are widely used as additives in food, perfumes, cosmetics,

pharmaceuticals4 and optical brighteners

5 and dispersed fluorescent and laser dyes

6. Thus the

synthesis of this heterocyclic nucleus is of much interest. Coumarins have been synthesized by

several routes including pechmann7, perkin

8, knoevenagel

9, reformatsky

10 and wittig

11 reactions.

Coumarins also exhibits anticoagulant activity and some coumarin drugs are widely used as

anticoagulants- warfarin and acenocoumarol12-16

. In recent years researchers have applied


17

microwave as a tool in order to minimize reaction time, avoid side products, increase yield and

simiplify the course of reactions for combinatorial chemistry17

. These investigation have

revealed their potentials as versatile biodynamic agent for example 3-heteroaryl substituted

coumarins and benzocoumarins of potential interest as pharmaceutical and, photochromic dyes18

.

Similarly aromatic chalcones and heteroaromatic chalcones synthesized from 3-acetyl coumarin

with aromatic and heteroaromatic aldehyde exhibit high potency as antibacterial agent19

.

Introduction of fluoro and sulfonamide moieties into coumarin side chain improve the biological

activity of compound20

. Specifically 1,5 substituted benzothiazepine21

are well known

compounds for diverse therapeutically properties like antimicrobial22

, antihypertensive23

,

calcium channel blocker24

, blood platelet aggregation inhibitory25

, and coronary vasodilatory

effects26

. Furthermore isoxazoline derivative of coumarins and chalcones possesses antibacterial

activity against bacteria (gram+ve) and (gram-ve) and antifungal activity27

and also 3-

bromoacetyl coumarin with thiazo group (Schiff bases) possess a broad spectrum of biological

importance28

. The coumarins containing a Schiff base are expected to have enhanced antitumor

and other biological activity29

. In the same the presence of a quinoline nucleus in the frame work

of various pharmacologically active compound and they are valuables synthons used for the

preparation of nano and meso structures with enhanced electronic and photonic properties30

. It is

well known that the biological activity associated with the hydrazone compounds attributed to

the presence of the active pharmacophore (-CONH-N=C-). Hence many hydrazone compounds

containing this active moiety showed good anticancer bioactivities29

. This is an attempt has been

made to compare both the system of synthesis at various stages, so that it can spark new thoughts

on synthetic methodologies, reactivity pattern and biological activities.

Table No 1 : Pharmacological activities of Coumarins

S.

No.

Authors Structure

Pharmacological

Activity

Catalyst

1 J.T. Desai

at.el. 2008

Ref.No.27

OO

N

S

NH

ON

R

Anti microbial,

anti fungal, anti

inflammatory

agent, anti HIV

Hydroxyla

mine

hydrochlo

ride

NaOH –

catalyst

Methanol-

solvent


18

2 Bhanvesh

Naik

et.al.2006

Ref.No.28

O O

N

S

N CH R

Antimicrobial,

fungicidal,

antibacterial, anti

coagulant, anti

allergic

Methanol

3 Bhanvesh

Naik

et.al.2006

Ref.No.28

N

S

N

Cl

R

O

Antimicrobial,

fungicidal,

antibacterial, anti

coagulant, anti

allergic

DMF

4 V.S.V.

Satyanara

yana et. al.

2008

Ref.No.29

R N

NH

O O

CH3

O

O

Antibacterial,

antifungal, anti

tumor activity

Solvent

free

5 I.R.

Siddiqui

et.al.2010

Ref.No.30 N

R1

R2

R3 CH3

N

O

NH

O

R4

Anti asthmatic,

antibacterial, anti

fungal, anti

malarial, anti

viral, anti

inflammatory

InCl3 in

ethanol

6 F.

Matloubi

Moghadd

m et. al.

2009

Ref.No.31

R O O

R1

Antimicrobial and

anti chemo

therapeutics

Solvent

free

condition ZrOCl2.8H2O

Catalyst

7 DH More

et.al. 2011

Ref.No.32

OR

1

R2

R

O

Cancer therapy,

anti

inflammatory,

antiviral

H2SO4


19

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Microwave Synthesis:

Solvent free synthesis of 3-substituted coumarins:The ZrOCl2.8H2O shows high catalytic

activities for the synthesis 3-subsituted coumarins via knoevenagel condensation under solvent

free conditions by microwave heating. The procedure offers several advantages including the

low loading of catalyst, high yields clean reaction and the use of a variety of substrate which

makes it a useful of attractive strategy for the synthesis of 3-substituted coumarins31

.

ROH

H

O

+R

1

OEt

OZrOCl2.8H2O

MW 6 min.

RO O

R1

Synthesis of thiazole derivative of coumarins: Substituted 2-amino-4-(coumarin-3-yl) thiazole

was synthesized from the reaction of 3-bromoacetyl coumarin with thiourea. The condensation

of this compound with substituted aldehydes was carried out both conventional and microwave

method to get 2- N-(substituted benzylidine) imino-4-(coumarin-3-yl) thiazoles (schiff base). In

conventional method the reaction was carried out in methanol and it took 5 to 6 hr. but it took

only 2 to 3 min. under microwave irradication28

.

OO

S

N

NH2

OHC

R

+

conventional

5-6 hr.

methanol

microwave

2 to 3 min.

O O

S

N

N CH

R

MWI using InCl3 catalyst:Synthesis of highly subsituted 1-H-quinolin-2-one derivatives based

on the MCR of isatin, hydrazine and coumarins under microwave irradiation in the presence of

10 mol% of InCl3 using ethanol as a solvent, The usual work-up gave the corresponding 1-4-

quinoline-2- one in excellent yields30

.


20

O O

CH3

R1

R2

R3

+ NH2-NH2 +NH

O

O

R4

10 mol % InCl3

MWNR1

R2

R3 CH3

N

O

NH

O

R4

Synthesis of coumarin derivative under solvent free condition:The ethyl 2[(4-methyl-2-oxo-

2H-chromen-7-yl)oxyl]acetate is obtained by Hydroxy -4-methyl-2H- chromen- 2-one and ethyl

chloro acetate in solvent free condition under microwave irradiation29

.

OOH

O

CH3

+ C

CH2

O

C2H5

Cl

O

O

CH3

OO

H5C2O

O

Natural coumarins possessing anti-HIV activity

Dipyranocoumarins-Calanolides(+)-Calanolide A, (+)-[10R, 11S, 12S]-10, 11-trans-dihydro-

12-hydroxy-6,6,10,11-tetramethyl-4-propyl-2H, 6H-benzo[1,2-b:3,4-b’:5,6b”] tripyran-2-one, is

a novel nonnucleoside RT inhibitor (NNRTI) with potent activity against HIV-1.

CostatolidesTwo isomers of calanolide A, (-)-calanolide B (costatolide) and (-)-

dihydrocalanolide B (dihydrocostatolide), possess antiviral properties similar to those of

calanolide A. Each of these three compounds has properties of NNRTIs. The calanolide

analogues, however, exhibit enhanced antiviral activity against drug-resistant viruses after

NNRTI treatment. Costatolide and dihydrocostatolide are highly effective inhibitors of clinical

strains, including those representing various HIV-1 clades, Sis, NSIs, T-and M-tropic isolates.

InophyllumThe seeds of Calophyllum cerasiferum vesque (Family-clusiaceae) and calophyllum

inophyllum linn.(Family-clusiaceae) contain several known coumarins, among them the potent

HIV-1 RT inhibitors costatolide and inophyllum P. calophyllum cerasiferum contained (-)-

calanolide B33

.


21

Table No 2: Comparison between microwave-assisted and conventional method of synthesis

in terms of yield and time: 27

S No Structure Microwave

Irradiation

Conventional

Heating

Ref.

No.

Time

(min)

Yield

(%)

Time

(hr.)

Yield

(%)

1 O O

N

SNH

ON

O

OCH

3 92 7.5 _ 34

_ 34

2 O O

N

SNH

ON

CH

2.5 90 6.5

3 O O

N

SNH

ON

Cl

2.5 90 7.0 _ 34

4 OO

N

SNH

ON

Cl

2.5 91 6.0 _ 34

5 OO

N

SNH

ON

Cl

Cl

3.0 92 8.0 _ 34


22

6 O O

N

SNH

ON

H3CO

2.5 94 7.5 _ 34

7 O O

N

SNH

ON

OCH3

2.5 91 8.0 _ 34

8 O O

N

SNH

ON

OCH3

OCH3

OCH3

3.5 92 9.0 _ 34

9 O O

N

SNH

ON

N(CH3)2

3.5 94 8.5 _ 34

10 O O

N

SNH

ON

O

3.0 91 7.5 _ 34

Table No 3: Comparison between microwave-assisted and conventional method of

synthesis in terms of yield and time: 28

S.

No Structure Microwave

Irradiation

Conventional

Heating

Ref.

No.

Time

(min)

Yield

(%)

Time

(hr.)

Yield

(%)


23

1 OO

N

SN CH OH

OCH3

2.0 89 5 82 35

2

OO

N

SN CH

OCH3

OCH3

OCH3

2.0

80

5.0

76

35

3 O O

N

SN CH N(CH3)2

2.0 83 5.5 74 35

4 O O

N

SN CH

OH

1.5 88 5.5 80 35

5 O O

N

SN CH Cl

2.5 77 5.0 71 35

6 OO

N

SN CH

Cl

2.5 75 6.0 68 35


24

7 OO

N

SN CH

H3CO

2.0 86 5.5 78 35

8

O O

N

SN CH OCH3

1.5

90

6.0

81

35

9

OO

N

SN CH

Cl

Cl

2.5 81 6.5 72 35

10 OO

N

SN CH

NO2

2.5 78 6.0 70 35

11 O O

N

SN

O Cl

OH

OCH3

4.0 79 15 70 35

12 O O

N

SN

O ClOCH3

OCH3

OCH3

3.5 74 15.0 66 35


25

13

OO

N

SN

O Cl

N(CH3)2

3.5

78

16.0

60 35

14

OO

N

SN

O Cl OH

3.5 80 15 69 35

15

OO

N

SN

O Cl

Cl

3.0

77

15.0

65

35

16 OO

N

SN

O Cl Cl

3.5 70 16 60 35

17 OO

N

SN

O Cl

OCH3

3.5 75 16 68 35

18 O O

N

SN

O Cl OCH3

3.0 81 15.0 71 35

19

4.0

70

15.0

64

35


26

O O

N

SN

O Cl

Cl

Cl 20 O

O

N

SN

O Cl NO2

4.0 70 16.0 62 35

Table No 4: Comparison between microwave-assisted and conventional method

of synthesis in terms of yield and time: 29

S.


Irradiation

Conventional

Heating

Ref.

No.

Time

(min)

Yield

(%)

Time

(hr.)

Yield

(%)

1

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

2 92.3 1.0 86.2 36

2

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

Cl

2 91.7 1.0 83.5 36

3

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

NO2

2.5 86.4 1.30 81.6 36


27

4

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

OH

2.5 87.6 1.0 84.3 36

5

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

OH

OCH3

3 80.5 2.0 76.8 36

6

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

NCH3 CH3

3 80.1 2.0 69.7 36

7

H3CO

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

OCH3

3 88.2 2.0 77.5 36

8

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

Cl

2.5 93.5 1.0 83.2 36

9

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

OCH3

OCH3

3 87.8 2.0 79.3 36


28

10

SBr

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

2 93.6 1.0 89.4 36

11

OCl

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

2.5 86.2 2.0 69.6 36

12

OO2N

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

2.5 83.5 2.0 64.8 36

13

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

O

2.5 84.7 2.0 66.1 36

14

S

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

2 92.7 1.0 86.1 36

15 NH

N

CH N NH

O

O

O

CH3

O

3 74.2 2.30 61.2 36

16

CH CH CH N NH

O

O

O O

2.5 81.3 2.0 72.6 36



S.


Irradiation

Conventional

Heating

Ref.

No.


29

Time

(min)

Yield

(%)

Time

(hr.)

Yield

(%)

1

N

N

NH

H

HH

OH

CH3

O

O

5 87 _ _ 37,38

2

N

N

NH

H

H CH3

O

O

OH

H

5 83 _ _ 37,38

3

N

N

NH

H

OH CH3

O

O

H

OH

4 86 _ _ 37,38

4

N

N

NH

H

H CH3

O

O

H

H3CO

4 83 _ _ 37,38


30

5

N

N

NH

NO2

H CH3

O

O

H

OH

5 85 _ _ 37,38

6

N

N

NH

NO2

H CH3

O

O

OH

H

6 81 _ _ 37,38

7

N

N

NH

NO2

OH CH3

O

O

H

OH

5 84 _ _ 37,38

8

N

N

NH

NO2

H CH3

O

O

H

H3CO

6 81 _ _ 37,38


31

9

N

N

NH

CH3

H CH3

O

O

H

OH

6 82 _ _ 37,38

10

N

N

NH

CH3

H CH3

O

O

OH

H

5 84 _ _ 37,38

11

N

N

NH

CH3

OH CH3

O

O

H

OH

6 91 _ _ 37,38

12

N

N

NH

CH3

H CH3

O

O

H

H3CO

5 89 _ _ 37,38


32



S.


Irradiation

Conventional

Heating

Ref.

No.

Time

(min)

Yield

(%)

Time

(hr.)

Yield

(%)

1

O O

COOEt

5 86 1 55 39

2

O O

COOMe

5 84 1 55 39

3

O O

COPh

5 90 1 55 39

4

O O

CN

5 62 1 55 39

5

O O

COOEt

H3CO

5 88 1 55 39

6

O O

COPh

OCH3

5 92 1 55 39

7

O O

CN

OCH3

5

60

1

55

39


33

8

O O

COOEtBr

5 76 1 55 39

9

O O

COPhBr

5

84

1

55 39

10

O O

CNBr

5 66 1 55 39

11 EtOOC

O

O

5 69 1 55

39

12 PhOC

O

O

5 79 1 55 39

Table No 7: Comparison between microwave-assisted and conventional

method of synthesis in terms of yield and time: 32

S.


Irradiation

Conventional

Heating

Ref.

No.

Time

(min)

Yield

(%)

Time

(hr.)

Yield

(%)

1 O

CH3

CH3 O

H

2-10 90 _ _ 40,41


34

2 O

CH3

CH3 O

H

2-10 89 _ _ 40,41

3 O

CH3

Cl O

CH3

2-10 95 _ _ 40,41

CONCLUSION

Coumarin and coumarin-related compounds have proved for many years to have significant

therapeutic potential. They come from a wide variety of natural sources and new coumarin

derivatives are being discovered or synthesized on a regular basis. Coumarin is a simple

molecule and many of its derivatives have been known for more than a century. However, their

vital role in plant and animal biology has not been fully exploited. It is evident from the research

described that coumarin and coumarin-related compounds are a plentiful source of potential

drugs candidate in relation to its safety and efficacy. New coumarin derivatives have been

synthesized using conventional and microwave heating mathodology and characterized. The

advantages in the use of microwave methodology are shorter reaction times, higher yields and

simplified work up procedures for the point of purification of the prepared compound. The

combination of solvent free reaction condition and microwave irradiation leads to significantly

reduced reaction times, enhanced conversions and sometime higher selectivity with several

advantages. The microwave irradiation is used for carrying out chemical transformations which

are pollution free and eco friendly so MAOS is considered as an “green” technology.

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38

STUDY OF ZOOPLANKTON DIVERSITY AND

SEASONAL VARIATION WITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO PHYSICOCHEMICAL

PARAMETERS IN TULSHI RESERVOIR OF

KOLHAPUR DISTRICT (M.S.), INDIA

K. B. Koli*, D. V. Muley.

Department of Zoology, Shivaji Univesity Kolhapur- 416004

Author for correspondence:: [email protected]

ABSTRACT:

Zooplanktons are microscopic organisms, acts as integral components of aquatic food web and

contribute significantly to productivity of freshwater ecosystems. They are performing at second

trophic level in energy flow and switch over to conversion of detritus matter into edible animal

food. In this study, we tried to assess the zooplankton species richness, diversity, evenness and to

predict the state of Tulshi reservoir according to physico-chemical parameters. The water

samples were collected fortnightly from different sites and studied the zooplankton diversity.

During present study, the physico-chemical parameters like atmospheric temperature, water

temperature, turbidity, pH, dissolved oxygen, salinity, total dissolved solids, chlorides, hardness,

biological oxygen demand and the plant nutrients like phosphates and nitrates were determined.

A total 39 species of zooplanktons have been found, of which 15 species of Rotifer, 12 species of

Copepod, 10 species of Cladocera and 2 species of Ostracoda have been found. Zooplankton

population showed positive significant co-relation with physico-chemical parameters like

temperature, alkalinity, phosphate, hardness and BOD. Whereas negatively correlated with

rainfall and salinity. Seasonal variations in zooplanktons was observed. The physico-chemical

parameters of Tulshi reservoir were suitable for the growth of aquatic biota and represent a

resource for scientific management of pisciculture practices by taking some precautions.

Key Words: Tulshi reservoir, Zooplankton diversity, seasonal variation, Physico-chemical

parameters.

INTRODUCTION:

Zooplankton constitute important food item of many omnivorous and carnivorous fishes. The

larvae of carps feed mostly on zooplankton (Dewan et al., 1977) because zooplankton provides

the necessary amount of proteins. The principal source of food for fish within the water body;

Zooplankton also plays a very important role in the food chain as they are in the second trophic

level as primary consumer and also as contributors to the next trophic level. Both the qualitative

and quantitative abundance of plankton in a fish pond are of great importance in managing the

successful aquaculture operation, as they vary from location to location and pond to pond within


39

the same location even within similar ecological conditions. Michael (1968) worked in detail on

the ecology of zooplankton population from different waters of India. Rotifers, Cladocerans,

Copepods and Ostracods constitute the major groups of Zooplanktons. They occupy an

intermediate position in the food web and mediate the transfer of energy from lower to higher

trophic levels (Waters, 1987). Being heterotrophic in nature, they play a key role in cycling of

organic materials in an aquatic ecosystem (Gupta and Sharma, 2007). Zooplankton communities

are typically diverse and are highly sensitive to environmental variation. Due to short life cycle,

zooplankton communities often respond quickly to environmental change (Sharma et al., 2007)

the changes in physico-chemical conditions of water can be reflected directly on the biotic

community of ecosystem. Zooplankton has great significance as pollution indicators. As a major

element in aquatic biota, the zooplankton community often exhibits dramatic changes in

response to the changes in the physico-chemical properties of the aquatic environment. Hence

zooplankton association, abundance, seasonal variation, richness and diversity can be used as for

the assessment of water pollution and for pisciculture management practices. The present study

analyses the one year data. (January 2010 to December 2010) of the zooplankton community

structure. Special attention is paid at analyzing species composition and seasonal pattern,

diversity and evaluating the relationships among different zooplankton groups and physico-

chemical parameters.

MATERIAL AND METHODS:

Collection of sample and sampling period: Water samples were collected fortnightly around

9.00 to 10.00 a.m. from selected four sites of Tulshi reservoir from January 2010 to December,

2010.

Zooplankton sampling and analysis: Zooplankton samples were collected by filtering 50 liters

of water through standard plankton net (77 mesh bolting silk) and the samples were fixed in 5%

of formalin. Zooplanktons were identified by keys given by Ward & Whipple (1959), Mellanby

(1963), Needham & Tonapi (1980) and Bhouyain & Asmat (1992). Analysis involved by

transferring of 1 ml sub sample from each of the samples to the Sedgewick-Rafter counter and

counting of cells within 10 squares of the cells, chosen randomly and Analysis was done on a

Sedgwick-Rafter counting cell, under compound microscope.

N = A × 1000 × c

V × f ×c

Where,

N= Number of zooplankton cells or units per liter of original water, A= Total number of

zooplankton counted, C= Volume of final concentration of the samples in ml, V=Volume of a

field in cubic mm, F= Number of fields counted, L= Volume of original water in liters, Statistical

analysis was done using SPSS programme.

Identification and calculation:

Zooplankton species identification was done with the help of standard references Moniruzzaman

(1997), Zheng Zhong et al.,(1984) Adoni et al.,(1985). Analysis of zooplanktons was carried out

using Sedgwick Rafter plankton counting cell quantitatively in accordance to Welch (1948).


40

Number of Zooplankton in the S-R cell was derived from the following formula APHA (1976).

No. of Species/ L= C × 1000 mm3

L × D × W × S

Here,

C = No of organisms counted, L = Length of each stripe (mm), D = Depth of each stripe (mm)

W= Width of each stripe (mm), S= Number of stripes.

Community structure analysis: To obtain the estimation of species diversity and species

richness by two indices.

1) Shannon and Weaver (1949) and Simpson (1949) diversity index value was obtained using the

following equation:

D = Σ Pi2 (log Pi) (Shannon’s index)

i = I

D = Σ Pi2 (Simpson index)

i = I

Where

Pi = is the proportion of the first species, the proportions are given Pi= ni/N

2) Species richness (R1 and R2) was obtained using the equation.

R1 = (S - 1) / log N (Margalef, 1951)

R2 = S √n (Menhinick, 1964)

Where:

R = is the index of species richness, S = total number of species, N = total number of individuals

Physico-chemical parameters:

Sample was taken from the selected pond and measured various types of physico-chemical such

as Temperature, turbidity and pH, DO, hardness etc. Water temperature was measured at each

station (four sites) using a Mercury thermometer. Water PH was measured by a bench top

electrometric pH meter. Transparency of water was measured by using Secchi disc. The sample

was taken from four different sites of the pond was measured and analysed by using relevant

equipments and chemicals in the laboratory. Different titrometric method was applied to

experiment, according to standard methods (APHA, 1989, 2005, 2008). Trivedi and Goel (1986).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

The monthly variations population dynamics of zooplanktons in Tulshi reservoir is shown in

table 1 and the monthly variations of the physico-chemical parameters are shown in Table 2. The

list of diversity Zooplankton species found during sampling in Tulshi reservoir and their

monthly variations in percent composition and percentage of zooplankton is shown in Tables 3

and 4.This study was conducted for a period of one year from January to December 2010 for

investigating the zooplankton diversity , abundance in relation to physico-chemical

characteristics of Tulshi reservoir . The fluctuations in the physico-chemical parameters, the

biological diversity are affected. So physico-chemical environment mainly controls the

biological diversity, species richness and population dynamics of zooplanktons.


41

During this study the average water temperature of 4 sites of Tulshi reservoir recorded during

January to December 2010 was site I- 30.020

c (S.D = ±0-26), site II- 29.130c (S.D= ± 19 ), site

III- 27.96 0c(S.D= ±0.26) and site IV -28.1

0c (S.D=±24.23) respectively. The variation in water

temperature may be due to different timing of collection and the influence of season (Jayaraman

et al., 2003).Temperature controls behavioral characteristics of organisms,. No other factor has

so much influence as temperature (Welch, 1952).The rise in atmospheric temperature caused

enhancement in the evaporation rate and the positive correlation of Copepods with temperature

indicated that the copepods develop better in warm periods after winter. (Winkler, 2002). The

better development of copepods during warmer and of rotifers during colder years coincides with

the investigation of Heerkloss et al., (2005) and significantly higher for copepods and lower for

rotifers in warm years.

Transparency is a physical parameter in aquatic ecosystem and thus directly affects productivity.

Transparency was observed to be lowest 167cm) in January, 2005 and highest (178cm).

The pH recorded during the present study was generally of near neutral to alkaline range

suggesting that the lake water was well buffered throughout the period. During this study,

rotifers were found mostly at sites II (pH 9.0) and site III (pH 8.8) as compared to site I (pH 9.2),

and 4 (pH 9.2). This indicates the positive correlation of pH- value with rotifers. While as

Copepods were indicating a negative correlation of pH value with copepods. Relatively high

values of DO have been recorded in the present study. There are no drastic effects on planktons

because fluctuations in DO are less.

The highest total alkalinity was recorded at site IV and III site in the month of April and the

lowest in September at site I and II. Bhuiyan (1970) recorded the total alkalinity of medium

productive water body ranging from 25-100 mg/l. Chloride values in the present study were not

alarming in Tulshi reservoir.

Zooplankton diversity:

About 39 species of zooplanktons belonging to four major groups i.e Copepod, Rotifers

Cladocera and ostracods. Out of which 12 species of Copepods, 15 species of Rotifers, 10

species of Cladocera and 2 species of Ostracoda were identified and recorded in Table 5. During

the study period in Tulshi reservoir. Among the Zooplankton copepoda an Rotifera are dominant

group than the Cladocera and Ostracoda. Copepoda > Rotifera > Cladocera > Ostracoda.

Due to the presence of diverse Planktonic forms indicates good ecological condition of the

reservoir.

CONCLUSION:

Huge diversity of planktons in Tulshi reservoir indicates there is no pollution and play a pivotal

role in aquatic ecosystem and shows proper biogeochemical cycles. So Tulshi reservoir is very

good for natural pisciculture practices. The Physico-chemical environment mainly controls the

biological diversity. The positive correlation of Copepods and Rotifers with temperature

indicated that they develop better in March and April (warmer period). The positive correlation

of Copepods and Rotifers with pH- value indicated that they mainly prefer the alkaline medium


42

for their growth. Zooplankton abundance v/s transparency and also abundance of plankton v/s

total alkalinity shows positively correlations. Plankton abundance is negatively correlated with

water current velocity and free CO2.

Table 01.Monthly variations population dynamics in 1 ml. concentrate of Zooplankton

at Tulshi tank (Jan 2010-Dec 2010)

Months Rotifera Cladocera Copepoda Ostracoda

SITES SITES SITES SITES

I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV

Jan-

2010 564 419 534 329 423 393 324 543 765 678 876 657 321 145 786 654

Feb 543 324 548 453 432 239 235 214 983 876 821 657 214 77 324 234

Mar 734 654 231 436 438 456 432 235 987 765 765 675 328 543 129 176

April 543 521 437 432 211 342 475 435 1054 986 768 987 322 64 65 45

May 312 432 546 453 214 213 321 532 876 872 876 435 231 329 231 310

Jun 235 343 231 214 132 156 345 326 342 432 435 564 237 126 213 127

Jul 154 543 342 84 89 77 123 146 123 452 654 765 67 98 87 76

Aug 29 348 324 432 120 205 234 278 125 163 197 657 64 63 97 86

Sept 98 231 236 324 125 178 153 209 87 321 345 876 55 97 35 72

Oct 345 391 121 654 502 427 502 412 145 654 704 342 178 209 239 187

Nov 543 329 237 432 429 397 431 323 264 324 435 453 298 234 176 197

Dec 2010 432 530 439 254 456 411 398 549 862 765 879 765 343 325 198 205

Table 02. Annual average of physico-chemical parameters at site І, ІІ, ІІІ, ІV of Tulshi

tank(Jan 2010 to Dec 2010).

Physico-chemical Parameter Site I Site II Site III Site IV

Temperature (oc)

30.02

± o.26

29.13

±0.19

27.96

±0.26

28.01

±0.24.23

Turbidity (NTU) 12.05

±0.11

9.93

±1.23

9.23

±0.72

9.18

±0.94

Transparency (cm) 178.25

±1.45

167.58

±1.32

-

-

-

-

pH 9.2

±1.34

9.0

±1.45

8.8

±1.74

9.2

±1.65

D.O (mg/l) 7.42

±0.12

8.02

±0.13

7.68

±0.14

8.24

±0.14

Free co2 (mg/l) 0.49

±0.06

0.39

±0.07

0.42

±0.07

0.40

±0.07

Alkalinity (mg/l) 138.23

±2.65

132.54

±2.78

134.18

±3.54

139.23

±3.54

Hardness (mg/l) 113.24

±1.7

110.46

±1.9

104.56

±1.05

108.23

±1.9

Phosphate (mg/l) 0.07

±0.01

0.067

±0.01

0.8

±0.012

0.8

±0.016


43

Nitrate (mg/l) 0.65

±0.064

0.71

±0.o54

0.53

±0.059

0.63

±0.071

Chlorides (mg/l) 38.54

±0.54

37.98

±0.45

42.76

±0.44

39.65

±0.052

All the values presented in the table are average ± SD

Table 03. Average Monthly variations in percent composition of zooplankton in 1 ml.

Concentrate at Tulshi tank (Jan 2010-Dec 2010).

Months Rotifera Copepoda Cladocera Ostracoda

Jan-2010 36.48 30.40 22.04 15.06

Feb 27.90 42.41 13.14 18.53

Mar 31.41 42.41 12.59 15.57

Apr 26.30 51.77 10.85 13.06

May 21.21 51.26 10.94 18.56

Jun 24.86 50.35 1.89 24.88

Jul 36.60 28.41 16.15 17.82

Aug 12.78 35.85 37.84 21.51

Sept 36.08 2.35 55.91 2.13

Oct 29.86 9.45 40.40 18.27

Nov 34.95 14.41 27.47 22.15

Dec 2010 26.69 36.09 23.10 17.10

Table 04. Average Percentage of Zooplankton of Tulshi Tank

Zooplankton 2010

Rotifera 27.34

Copepoda 32.93

Cladocera 22.69

Ostracoda 17.05

Table 05 Diversity of Zooplankton in Tulshi Reservior at selected sites

Sr.

No

Zooplanktom species Sites

Rotifera I II III IV

1 Brachionus falcatus. +++ + ++ ++

2 Brachionus caudatus. + ++ ++ +

3 Brachionus forticula. + ++ ++ _

4 Brachionus calyciflorus +++ + + +

5 Brachionus angularis. + + ++ +

6 Brachionus vulgaris. + + _ +

7 Brachionus rubens. ++ + + _

8 Keratella tropica. _ + +++ +

9 Kellicottia sp. + ++ + +

10 Filinia terminalis. + + + _


44

11 Filinia branchiate + + + +

12 Asplanchana pilinia. + ++ + ++

13 Asplanchana brightwelli + + + +

14 Asplanchana priodonta + + + _

15 Testidinella mucronata + _ + ++

Copepoda ++ + + +

16 Diaptomus nauplius +++ + + +

17 Heliodiaptomus viddus + + ++ +

18 Neudiaptomus diaphorus ++ ++ + _

19 Rhinediaptomus indicus + + +++ +

20 Cyclopoid sp. + + ++ +

21 Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi ++ ++ + ++

22 Heliodiaptomus viduus + + + +++

23 Mesocyclop hyalinus. + ++ + +

24 Calanoid sp. ++ + _ _

25 Eucyclops sp. + ++ + +

26 Paracyclops fimbricatus. + + + +

27 Thermocyclops sp. + ++ + +++

Cladocera + + +++ +

28 Daphnia pulex + + + +

29 Daphnia caritiata +++ + + _

30 Diaphanosoma brachyarum + ++ + +

31 Macrothrix laticornis ++ + +++ +

32 Moina macrocopa + + + _

33 Lyneus sp. +++ + + +

34 Bosmina sp. + +++ + +

35 Allona sp. + + _ +++

36 Macrothrix laticornis + + + +

37 Euryalona oriantalis + + + _

Ostracoda ++ + _ _

38 Cypris sp. + + _ _

39 Stenocypris sp. + _ + +

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47

SPECIES DISTRIBUTION OF SPIDERS IN BARPETA

DISTRICT OF ASSAM: A DIVERSITY MEASURE.

Suruchi Singh 1, A. Borkotoki

2 and C. K. Sarmah

3

1. Assistant Professor, Dept. of Zoology, B.H. College, Howly, Barpeta, Assam.

2. Retd. Professor, Dept of Zoology, Gauhati University, Assam.

3. Assistant Professor, Dept. of Statistics, B. H. College, Howly, Barpeta, Assam.

Author for Correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT:

The study of spider fauna of state Assam has not been comprehensively carried out. Our present

work has been an attempt to provide relevant information regarding spiders, which would be the

baseline documentation for the future studies in the state Assam or for Northeastern part of the

nation. The study area, Barpeta district of the state Assam, lies between Latitudes 2605’ N to

26049’ N and Longitudes 90

039’E to 91

017’E covering an area of 3245 sq Km. A survey was

carried out during June 2008 to May 2011 in different ecosystem of this area to assess the spider

diversity. Many specimens were collected by visual search methods and preserved in 70% ethyl

alcohol .The specimens were identified in Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. This paper has

been started with the spider distribution in the district and concluded with the alpha, beta and

gamma diversity estimation. It is documented that 69 spider species from different habitats of the

different blocks of Barpeta District.

Keywords: Barpeta, spider distribution, diversity estimation, web.

INTRODUCTION:

Northeastern region of India is one of the richest hotspots of the world, has remained poorly

explored, and much of its diversity is being lost without any record. Spiders, of class Arachnida,

order Araneae under Phylum Arthropoda, vary considerably in size, shape and behavior. The

basic characteristics shared by them are- body divided into cephalothorax and the abdomen,

presence of eight legs (made up of seven segments each) and pedipalps, capacity to produce silk

and possess no antenna. They are identified for their webs and web silk with future prospects. All

spiders can make silk but many don’t spin web, they may use the silk to wrap the prey, to hang

from and to make egg sacs and nests. They are ubiquitous in terrestrial ecosystems and abundant

in both natural and agricultural habitats (Turnbull, 1973; Nyfeller & Benz, 1987). They play a

significant role in the regulation of insect and other invertebrate populations in most ecosystems

(Wise, 1993; Russell-Smith, 1999; Raghavendra, 2001).Spider surveys may provide an effective

means for measuring the impact of habitat degradation or land use change on biodiversity.

Baseline studies involving spiders as biological indicators have been conducted elsewhere; e.g.

Allred (1969) and Allred & Gertsch (1976) documented spider diversity in Arizona and Utah

after new power plant installations and in Nevada at the Nevada Nuclear Test Site. In spite of


48

several applied values, spiders have received cursory attention. In conservation efforts, often

“charismatic” species like birds and mammals draw most attention and ecological significant

groups like spiders are often neglected. Ironically, the spider diversity in Assam is still not fully

explored or understood. Manoranjan Barman (Barman, 1975, 1979) has done a work on spider of

Khasi and Jantia hills of Meghalaya, N.E. region in seventies of last century. B.K.Tikader

(Tikader,1970) and B.K.Biswas (Biswas,2000a,b,2003,2004,2006,2007) also collected some

information on diversity of spiders of Northeastern states like Tripura, Meghalaya, Sikkim ,

Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram except Assam. As spiders species of Assam are

poorly documented & no research has been done so far for the applied use of spider & its related

product in this region. The proposed study was carried out with the objectives to document the

spider diversity of Barpeta District of Assam.

Objective:

The present study has been carried out with the objective of documentation of the spider fauna of

Barpeta District of the state Assam through quantification of spider density and diversity

estimation.

Study Time:

The study was carried out during the year June 2008 to May 2010. The year was divided into

four seasons - June to September, October to November, December to February and March to

May. Most collection were made between the hours of 9 A.M. to 6 P.M. Sampling occurred

under suitable weather conditions for spider collection, temperatures between 15–38 °C.

Sampling:

Visual search sampling methods used by Sebastian et al. (2005) was adopted in this study to

sample the spider fauna from selected study sites. Random sampling was done from the same

selected study sites in all the seasons. A total of 36 hours was spent in each site across the four

seasons. We have taken all 10 political blocks of the district and in each block’s 3 plots were

selected. As a whole, we have divided whole district in 30 different plots. Each plot is again

divided into 4 different types of habitat i.e. Grassland cum bushy, Marshy, Residential and

agricultural area.

COLLECTION METHODS:

The following collection methods carried out according to Coddington et al. (1991); Toti et al.

(2000) -

1) Aerial hand collection i.e. collecting spiders found above knee level for that a sweep net was

used to capture spiders seen high in the vegetation.

2) Ground hand collection i.e. collecting spiders found below knee level in the vegetation or leaf

litter.


49

3) The beat-sheet method of collection performed by stretching out a light-colored cloth under

the tree branch or other low vegetation and grabbing the branch and shaking it vigorously.

Spiders resting or nesting in this vegetation fall onto the cloth.

Preservation technique:

The spiders collected from each site was preserved together in 70% ethyl alcohol with proper

labeling of locality, date of collection and other notes of importance.

Identification:

The preserved specimens were observed under a stereo-zoom microscope for some of its minute

characteristics. The spiders were identified to the species level except the immature ones, which

could be identified only to the generic level. All specimens were identified in Zoological Survey

of India, Kolkata and with the help of available literature like Handbook of spiders’ by

B.K.Tikadar(1987) and ‘Spiders of India’ by P.A.Sebastian and K.V.Peter(2009).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

The percentage distribution of spider family in the Table 1 tells us that the Araneidae spider

family is found significantly in Barpeta district contributing 28.14% of the total spider family

found in the district, whereas the spider family Hersilidae being almost rare in the district. From

the Table 2 we observed that Barpeta Block of the district consist of large number of individuals

of spider i.e.14.20% and Bhabanipur showing only 6.02% of individual 0f observed spider.

From the Table 3 of percentage distribution of spider species found in Barpeta district, we have

observed that Argiope pulchella, the spider species are significantly available covering 11.96%

of the total spider population in the entire district. On the other hand the spider species like

Asemonea tenuipes, Olios milleti, Argyrodes argentatus, Argyrodes gezedes and Misumena

chrysanthemi are found to be almost rare in the district just covering 0.09% contribution to the

spider families. The Pie diagram (refer to Figure 1) given below shows that more than half of the

total species observed in the Barpeta district are web less spider. Almost one/3rd

of the observed

spiders is Orb weaver.

Table 4 reveals that spider of Araneidae family are found in large number as residential habitat.

Whereas the families Tetragnathidae, Lycosidae etc are found widely as wild spider in the

district Barpeta. More over a few numbers of marshy spiders are also found in the district. From

the Figure 2 (bar diagram) shown below we have observed that wild spiders are found in large

scale than domestic spiders and a few no. of marshy spiders are found in the district.

From the table 5 we have found that Aerial collecting method of spider is more significant than

all other trapping techniques. By Aerial method, we have collected more than half of the sample

spiders in our study.


50

From the table 6, we found that maximum families and species were abundant during the

summer season and least during monsoon and winter. Thus, clarifies that they are more active

during summer.

Alpha diversity usually expressed as species diversity or number of species (diversity) of a

particular area or ecosystem. The table 7 shows that Block 2 (Rupsi) is rich in spider species with

alpha diversity as 56 whereas the Block 3(Bajali) and Block 4 (Bhabanipur) consist of least

spider species with alpha diversity calculated as30 and 29 respectively. Beta diversity is the total

number of species unique to each area or ecosystem, when compared with between them. The

table 8 shows that the beta diversity is more when comparison is done between Block 2/3

(Rupsi/bajali) i.e. 28 and least in Block 6/7(Mandia and Jamaphulbari) with 6. Table 9 below

shows that Gamma diversity is the measure of overall diversity of the region i.e. the total number

of spider species in the Barpeta District of Assam is 69.

Table 10 shows that the number of species found per sample unit are 0.58, which shows workers

effectiveness.

CONCLUSION:

From the results and data, a preliminary status of spiders in Barpeta district of Assam is much

clear. The study documented 69 species of spiders and highest of Araneidae family with Argiope

pulchella as the dominant species. The largest individuals collected were in summer season. The

spider weaving orb webs are in majority among web weavers. Rupsi block recorded highest

number of species. There is an urgent need for updating the database. Exploration of species

diversity understanding the habitat ecology, behaviour, etc. culminating into a database for the

Assam is an imperative.

Acknowledgement:

Our sincere thanks to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for granting permission

to do the taxonomic works with Dr. A. K. Sanyal, S. Talukdar and Dr. B. K. Biswas, utilizing the

facilities there.

REFERENCES:

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29:105-108.

Allred, D.M. and W.J. Gertsch. 1976. Spiders and Scorpions from northern Arizona and

northern Utah.Journal of Arachnology 3: 87-99.

Barman, M. (1975).Studies on Spider fauna of Khasi and Jantia Hills.(Aranea:Arachnida),

PhD Thesis, Department of Zoology, Gauhati University.


51

Barman, M. (1979). Studies on some spiders of the genera Tegenaria and Agelena from

Khasi and Jaintia hills,India (Araneae: Agelenidae).Journal of the Bombay Natural History

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Biswas, B. & K. Biswas 2004. Araneae: Spiders. Fauna of Manipur, State Fauna Series 10,

Zoological Survey of India. 25-46.

Biswas, B. & K. Biswas 2006. Araneae: Spiders. Fauna of Arunachal Pradesh, State Fauna

Series 13(Part-2), Zoological Survey of India. 491-518.

Biswas, B. & K. Biswas 2007. Araneae: Spiders. Fauna of Mizoram, State Fauna Series 14,

Zoological Survey of India. 455-475.

Coddington, J.A., C.E. Griswold, D. Silva, D. Penaranda & S. Larcher. 1991. Designing and

testing sampling protocols to estimate biodiversity in tropical ecosystems. Pp. 44–60. In The

unity of evolutionary biology: Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of

Systematic and Evolutionary Biology. (E.C. Dudley, ed.). Dioscorides Press, Portland,

Oregon.

Nyffeler, M. & G. Benz. 1987. Spiders in natural pest control: a review. Journal of Applied

Entomology 103:321–329.

Raghavendra, N. 2001. ‘Diversity of arboreal spiders in cashew orchards’ M.Sc.

dissertation, Department of Applied Zoology, Mangalore University.

Russell-Smith, A. 1999. The spiders of Mkomazi Game reserve. In: Coe, M. et al. (eds).

Mkomazi: The ecology, biodiversity and conservation of a Tanzanian savanna. Royal

Geographical Society, London.

Sebastian, P.A., M.J. Mathew and S. Pathummal Beevi. 2005. The spider fauna of the

irrigated rice ecosystem in central Kerala, India across different elevational ranges. The

Journal of Arachnology 33:247–255.

Sebastian P.A. and Peter K.V.(2009). Spiders of India, Universities press, India.

Tikader, B.K. (1970). Spider fauna of Sikkim. Records of the Zoological Survey of India.

64:1-83


52

Tikader, B .K. 1987. Handbook of Indian Spiders, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,

India.

Toti, D.S., F.A. Coyle & J.A. Miller. 2000. A structured inventory of Appalachian grass bald

and heath bald spider assemblages and a test of species richness estimator performance.

Journal of Arachnology 28:329–345.

Turnbull, A.L. 1973. Ecology of the true spiders (Araneomorphae). Annual Review of

Entomology 18:305–348.

Wise, D.H.1993. Spiders in Ecological Webs, Cambridge Univ. Press, London 342 pp

(Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science. Volume 56— 1976)

Table 1: Percentage distribution of spider on the basis of their family

Sl.No. Family Percentage abundance of different families

1. Araneidae 28.14

2. Hersiliidae 0.17

3. Linyphiidae 1.98

4. Lycosidae 11.45

5. Nephilidae 0.95

6. Oxyopidae 12.65

7. Philodromidae 0.34

8. Pholcidae 10.24

9. Pisauridae 4.22

10. Salticidae 17.82

11. Sparassidae 4.39

12. Tetragnathidae 4.39

13. Theraphosidae 0.26

14. Theridiidae 2.32

15. Thomicidae 0.34

16. Uloboridae 0.34

Total 100


53

Table 2: Percentage distribution of the individual spider by block of the district.

Sl.No. Name of the Block Percentage of the individual

1 Gobardhana 13.08

2 Rupsi 15.49

3 Bajali 9.90

4 Bhabanipur 6.02

5 Paccabetbari 7.74

6 Mandia 7.5

7 Jamaphulbari 8.7

8 Chenga 7.05

9 Sorukhetri 10.32

10 Barpeta 14.20

Table 3: Percentage distribution of spider species found in Barpeta Dist.

Sl.no. Species % of

species Sl.no. Species

% of

species

1 Araneus mitificus 1.72 36 Smeringopus pallidus 0.34

2 Araneus inustus 3.18 37 Uthina atrigularis 0.17

3 Argiope aemula 2.15 38 Perenethis venusta 1.98

4 Argiope anasuja 1.38 39 Polyboea vulpine 0.34

5 Argiope catenulate 0.34 40 Thalassius albocinctus 1.89

6 Argiope pulchella 11.96 41 Asemonea tenuipes 0.09

7 Cyclosa bifida 0.17 42 Carrhotus viduus 0.86

8 Cyclosa confraga 0.34 43 Epeus tener 0.52

9 Cyclosa

hexatuberculata 0.6 44 Hasarius adansoni 3.1

10 Cyclosa spirifera 0.52 45 Hyllus semicupreus 0.26

11 Cyrtophora cicatrosa 0.52 46 Menemerus bivittatus 0.52

12 Cyrtophora moluccensis 0.6 47 Phidippus yashodharae 0.6

13 Gasteracantha kuhli 0.6 48 Plexippus paykulli 5.16

14 Neoscona mukerjei 3.79 49 Plexippus petersi 4.32

15 Parawixia dahaanii 0.26 50 Telamonia dimidiate 2.41

16 Hersilia savignyi 0.17 51 Heteropoda leprosa 0.69

17 Lepthyphantes sp. 1.03 52 Heteropoda nilgirina 1.8

18 Lynyphia striata 0.95 53 Heteropoda venatoria 1.8

19 Lycosa mackenziei 2.84 54 Olios milleti 0.09


54

20 Lycosa tista 1.64 55 Leucauge decorate 2.75

21 Pardosa birmanica 3.18 56 Leucauge tessellata 1.12

22 Pardosa

pseudoannulata 1.46 57 Tetragnatha javana 0.17

23 Pardosa sumatrana 2.32 58 Tetragnatha

andamanensis 0.17

24 Herrennia multipuncta 0.26 59 Tetragnatha mandibulata 0.17

25 Nephila kuhlii 0.34 60 Ischnocolus khasiensis 0.26

26 Nephila pilipes 0.34 61 Achaearanea 0.17

27 Oxyopes birmanicus 3.96 62 Argyrodes andamanensis 0.26

28 Oxyopes javanas 2.15 63 Argyrodes argentatus 0.09

29 Oxyopes lineatus 1.81 64 Argyrodes flavescens 0.09

30 Oxyopes shweta 2.5 65 Argyrodes gezedes 0.09

31 Oxyopes sunandae 2.24 66 Theridion manjithar 1.64

32 Tibellus elongates 0.34 67 Camaricus formosus 0.26

33 Artema Atlanta 2.32 68 Misumena chrysanthemi 0.09

34 Crossopriza lyoni 6.11 69 Uloborus danolius 0.34

35 Pholcus phalangioides 1.3 Total 100

Table 4 : Proportion distribution of spider families

on the basis of their habitat

Family

Habitat Proportion of

observed

individuals residential agricultural jungle marshy

Araneidae 0.40 0.17 0.34 0.09 0.281

Nephilidae - - 1.0 - 0.009

Tetragnathidae 0.08 0.31 0.55 0.06 0.044

Uloboridae 1.0 - - - 0.003

Hersiliidae - - 1.0 - 0.002

Oxyopidae - 0.56 0.44 - 0.127

Philodromidae - - 1.0 - 0.003

Thomicidae 1.0 - - - 0.003

Pisauridae 0.04 0.12 0.41 0.43 0.043

Salticidae 0.21 0.27 0.41 0.11 0.178

Sparassidae 0.55 - 0.45 - 0.044

Lycosidae 0.10 0.11 0.64 0.15 0.114

Theraphosidae - - 1.0 - 0.002

Theridiidae 0.07 - 0.93 - 0.023

Pholcidae 0.54 0.03 0.43 - 0.103

Linyphiidae 0.26 - 0.74 - 0.021

Total - - - - 1.00


55

TABLE 5: NUMBERS OF INDIVIDUALS, ADULTS AND SPECIES OF ADULT

SPIDERS ACCORDING TO THE COLLECTING METHOD.

Collecting

Methods

No. of

sampl

e

units

No.of

adults

Mean no.

of adults

per sample

unit

% of

total

adults

No.of

species

Mean No.

of species

per

sample

unit

% of

total

species

Aerial 120 525 4.375 45.18 39 0.33 56.52

Ground 120 477 3.975 41.05 28 0.23 40.58

Beating 120 160 1.333 13.77 26 0.22 37.68

Total 120 1162 9.683 100 69 0.58 100

Table 6: Status on different collecting seasons

Sl.

No.

Collecting

Seasons

No. of

families

% of

family

No. of

species

% of

species

No. of

Observed

individuals

% of

individuals

1 Monsoon 11 68.75 26 37.68 84 7.23

2 Post-

Monsoon

15 93.75 57 82.61 430 37.00

3 Winter 10 62.5 23 33.33 63 5.42

4 Summer 16 100 69 100 585 50.34

TOTAL - - - - 1162 100

Table 8: Beta diversity estimates of spider species in the Blocks of Barpeta district.

Diversity

Indices

Blocks of Barpeta District

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Beta

Diversity

1/2=17 2/3=28 ¾=11 4/5=15 5/6=16 6/7=6 7/8=10 8/9=11 9/10=16 10/1=17

Table 9: Gamma diversity estimates of spider species in the Blocks of Barpeta district.

Diversity

Indices


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Gamma Diversity 69

Table 7: Alpha diversity estimates of spider species in the Blocks of Barpeta district.

Diversity

Indices


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Alpha Diversity 54 56 30 29 36 36 34 34 37 46

E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME

Figure 1: Showing proportion of spider on the basis of web characteristics

52%

Diagram represents spider proportion on

the basis of web characteristics

Table 10 : Worker’s Effectiveness

No. of

sample

unit

No. of adults

collected

120 1162

Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094

proportion of spider on the basis of web characteristics

34%

2%

12%

Diagram represents spider proportion on

the basis of web characteristics

Orb weaver

Sheet weaver

Irregular weaver

Webless

Table 10 : Worker’s Effectiveness

No. of adults No. of

species

No. of adults per

sample unit

No. of species per

sample unit

69 9.7 0.58

1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749

56

proportion of spider on the basis of web characteristics

Orb weaver

Sheet weaver

Irregular weaver

Webless

No. of species per

sample unit


Figure 2: Represents the proportion of spider families in different habitat.

Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094


1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749

57



58

EXISTING AND EMERGING RISKS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS GEO-HYDROLOGICAL

HAZARDS IN HINDU KUSH HIMALAYA REGION: A COMPLEMENTARY STUDY

Pradeep K. Rawat and Hari Krishna Nibanupudi

International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), GPO Box 3226, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Nepal

Author for Correspondence: [email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region is highly vulnerable for tectonic and hydrological hazards

and cause great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development

with have far-reaching economic and social consequences. Neo-tectonic activities along several

active thrusts and faults responsible for earthquake disasters whereas climate change and land

use degradation accelerating the water-induced disasters such as flash flood, river-line flood,

erosion, wet mass movement during monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period as

drying up of natural water springs and streams. The main objective of the study was to assess the

existing and emerging risks of climate change and its geo-hydrological hazards in Hindu Kush

Himalaya (HKH) region. The study carried out using secondary data on disasters and their

impacts within the countries in HKH region (i.e. Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan, China, India,

Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan). Data have been obtained from some international leading

database management agencies (EM-Data etc.) and also through some pioneer published

research work on disasters. Result of the present study shows that the region experienced

increasing frequency of tectonic and hydrological hazards. Hydrological hazards are among the

more devastating types of hazard as they occur rapidly with little lead time for warning, and

transport tremendous amounts of water and debris at high velocity. Disasters affect thousands of

people in the HKH region every year by losing their lives, homes, and livelihoods along with

expensive infrastructure. Data analysis suggesting that out of total annual disaster in HKH

region 14% are earthquake and landslide disaster, 48% are hydrological disasters (i.e.36%

flood, 9% mass movement, 3% drought) whereas 38% are other types of disasters such as storm

(23%), wild fire (1%), extreme temperature (6%), epidemic (8%). Results concluded that hazard

events increasing with the growth rate of 6% each year in the region. Subsequently human

casualties increasing with the rate of 9% each year whereas affected people and infrastructural

loss increasing with that rate of respectively 6% and 4% each year. Because of the high growth

rates of the existing risks level expected that the emerging risk has the potential to evolve into

extreme events.

Keywords: Tectonic Hazards, Hydrological Hazards, Socio-economic Risks, HKH


INTRODUCTION Hindu Kush Himalaya region lies 112°5"E on the globe and encompasses a geographical area of 3,441,719 kmor part of eight Asian countries from west to east Bangladesh Bhutan, China, Indiamountainous part and source of ten large Asian river systems Brahmaputra (Yarlungtsanpo), Irrawaddy, Salween (Nu), Mekong (Lancang), Yangtse (Jinsha), Yellow River (Huanghe), and Tarim (Dayan), basis for livelihoods to a population of around 210.53 million people in the region. About 95% population of the total population depends on agriculture and forest resources but the is decreasing 0.36 km2 per year and the agricultural production decreasing due climate change and several natural disasters (Rawat et. al., 2011sheer height, Hindu Kush Himalaya is the youngesttectonic movement due to prevailing geological conditions. Though each and every part of the world is more or less susceptible to natural calamities, but the Himalaya due to its complex geological structures, dynamic geomorphology, and seasonality in hydroconditions experience natural disasters very frequently, especially earthquake and water induced hazards (Rawat et. al., 2011-b).

Fig. 1:Neo-tectonic activities in HKH region along the several active thrusts and faults responsible for earthquake disasters (Fig. 2) whereas climate change and land use degradation accelerating the

International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094

Hindu Kush Himalaya region lies between the latitude 15°42"–40°8"N and longitude 59°34"encompasses a geographical area of 3,441,719 km2 including

or part of eight Asian countries from west to east (Fig. 1). These countries are Bangladesh Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. Topographically it is mountainous part and source of ten large Asian river systems – the Amu Darya, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra (Yarlungtsanpo), Irrawaddy, Salween (Nu), Mekong (Lancang), Yangtse (Jinsha),

he), and Tarim (Dayan), - and provides water, ecosystem services, and the basis for livelihoods to a population of around 210.53 million people in the region. About 95% population of the total population depends on agriculture and forest resources but the

per year and the agricultural production decreasing due climate change and several natural disasters (Rawat et. al., 2011-a). Dwarfing all other mountains of the world in sheer height, Hindu Kush Himalaya is the youngest mountain system, which is still undergoing tectonic movement due to prevailing geological conditions. Though each and every part of the world is more or less susceptible to natural calamities, but the Himalaya due to its complex

amic geomorphology, and seasonality in hydroconditions experience natural disasters very frequently, especially earthquake and water induced

Fig. 1: Location of HKH Region tectonic activities in HKH region along the several active thrusts and faults responsible for

earthquake disasters (Fig. 2) whereas climate change and land use degradation accelerating the

1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749

59

40°8"N and longitude 59°34"–including over all

(Fig. 1). These countries are Afghanistan , Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. Topographically it is

the Amu Darya, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra (Yarlungtsanpo), Irrawaddy, Salween (Nu), Mekong (Lancang), Yangtse (Jinsha),

and provides water, ecosystem services, and the basis for livelihoods to a population of around 210.53 million people in the region. About 95% population of the total population depends on agriculture and forest resources but the forest cover

per year and the agricultural production decreasing due climate change a). Dwarfing all other mountains of the world in

mountain system, which is still undergoing tectonic movement due to prevailing geological conditions. Though each and every part of the world is more or less susceptible to natural calamities, but the Himalaya due to its complex

amic geomorphology, and seasonality in hydro-meteorological conditions experience natural disasters very frequently, especially earthquake and water induced

tectonic activities in HKH region along the several active thrusts and faults responsible for earthquake disasters (Fig. 2) whereas climate change and land use degradation accelerating the


60

water-induced disasters such as flash flood, river-line flood, erosion, wet mass movement during monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period as drying up of natural water springs and streams (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Earthquake induced Landslide (1 km Height) along active fault in Dabka watershed

District Nainital in HKH region There are several anthropogenic factors that may contribute to water induced hazard acceleration, including poorly managed agriculture, forest fire, overgrazing, and substandard construction of roads and buildings. These environmental disasters cause great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development with have far-reaching economic and social consequences. Although the Himalaya is highly vulnerable for all type of water-induced hazards such as flood, erosion, land slide in monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period (as drying up of natural water springs and streams) but recent past its observed that flood hazard causing a major threat for the entire Himalaya tract (Bajracharya et al. 2007a; Rawat et. al., 2012). Mainly two types of floods are common throughout the Himalaya i.e. flash flood and river-line flood which are among the more devastating types of hazard as they occur rapidly with little lead time for warning, and transport tremendous amounts of water and debris at high velocity (Fig. 3). Flash floods and river-line floods affect thousands of people in the Himalayan region every year by loosing their lives, homes, and livelihoods along with expensive infrastructure. There are several different causes of flash flood and river-line flood in HKH region such as intense rainfall (IRF); glacial lake outburst (GLO), landslide dam outburst (LDO), rapid snow melt (RSM) and failure of dams and other hydraulic structures (Jonkman, 2005,

Kunja

Maniya

Badhanthaly

Binayak

Ghughukhan

Baghani

Chhara

Salba

Jalna Malla

Dola

Fethepur

Aniya

Saur

Ranikota


61

Rawat et. al., 2011-d). But intense rainfall (IRF) is very frequent cause for flash flood and river-line flood in the Himalaya which play a key role for flash flood and river-line flood. Fig. 4 llustrating a example of landslide dam outburst (LDO) in Pareechu River 2004 which analyzed through satellite imagery.

Fig. 3: Flash flood and River Line Flood in HKH region: Respectively Upper and Lower Picture Sources: ICIMOD


62

Fig. 4: Satellite image of the Pareechu River: a. about one month after the landslide damming

(15 July 2004); b. about 2.5 months after damming (1 September 2004); and c. after the outburst Sources: ICIMOD

The main meteorological phenomenon causing intense rainfalls in the region are cloudbursts, stationarity of monsoon trough and monsoon depressions. Flash flood in the region cause great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development with have far-


63

reaching economic and social consequences. About hundreds of peoples are losing their life each year due to flash flood hazard in Himalaya region such as in a recent incidence of flash flood hazard occurred at midnight of 6 Aug 2010 due to cloudburst hit the Himalayan town of Leh in the frontier region of Ladakh Himalaya killing at least 93 people and more than thousands of peoples loosed their houses and property. On the other hand the river-line flood triggering several environmental socio-economic problems in many ways. River-line flood is undercutting of valley sides which causes the mountainsides to become unstable and ultimately ends in landslides and slope instability which demolished the infrastructural development (road network, buildings, canals, communication connectivity etc) and natural resources specially forest, land and water. During floods, tremendous amounts of erosion occurs on the banks of rivers and streams and washed away the crops and productive land whereas some time moreover, unsorted sediments are deposited over agricultural fields and settlements especially during monsoons. Hundreds of lives and billions of dollars worth of property and investment in high-cost infrastructure are lost in the region every year due to landslides, debris flows, and floods, along with the destruction of scarce agricultural lands. In the last decade of the 20th Century, floods killed about 100,000 persons and affected about 1.4 billion people worldwide and the number of events as well as deaths is increasing (Jonkman 2005). Statistics show that the number of people killed per event on average is significantly higher in Asia than elsewhere, and among all water-induced disasters this number is much higher for flash floods (Jonkman 2005). In Nepal, landslides, floods, and avalanches destroy important infrastructure worth US $9 million and cause about 300 deaths annually (DHM 1998 an IIDS 2001). In Afghanistan, 362 people were killed or reported missing and 192 people were injured as a direct consequence of flash floods in 2005 (Xu et al. 2006). In total, about 100,000 people were displaced by these events. Exceptional events can exceed these numbers by many times — in 1998 the Yangtze flood in China caused an estimated US $31 billion of damage (Kron 2005). Despite the destructive nature and immense impact they have on the socio-economy of the region, flash floods have not received adequate attention. This is mainly because of poor understanding of the processes of flash floods and lack of knowledge of measures to manage the problem in the HKH region. Thus, the impacts of natural hazards are multi-dimensional, affecting environmental, social and economic systems. There is an urgent need to produce quantitative, reliable model that can be used for disaster risk reduction to formulate a sustainable development plan for the HKH region which could be equally implement other similar mountainous parts of the world. Consequently the present report provides existing and emerging risks potential of disasters in the HKH region.

METHODOLOGY As mentioned in introduction section that the HKH region is highly vulnerable for several tectonic hazard (earthquake and landslide), hydrological hazards (flash flood, river-line flood, erosion, wet mass movement during monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period) therefore we need to investigate integrated risks of all these tectonic and hydrological hazards. In order to that the study carried out through desk work and complementing the data with the help of several previous case studies have been done on different hazards in HKH region by ICIMOD and other research institutions. Beside that EM-DATA also used to assess the decadal and annual trends of natural hazards and their impact and risks in HKH region. In order to that the ICIMOD


64

facilitating the data through several case studies on water induced disasters in HKH region (Ives, 1986; Bruijnzeeel and Bremmer, 1989; Dhital et al, 1993; ITECO, 1996; Khanal, 1999; Chalise, 2001; Mool et al, 2001; ICIMOD, 2002; ICIMOD, 2002a; Li and Behrens, 2002; Narendra et al, 2007; Shrestha et al, 2008; Shrestha, 2008 and 2010). Some other pioneer studies on water induced hazard in HKH region carried out by Kumaun University, Nainital India have been also considered to achieve the high accuracy level of hazard, vulnerability and risks assessment (Valdiay and Bartariya, 1989; Rawat, 1994; Tiwari, 2000; Rawat et al 2011-a,b,c,d,e,f and Rawat et al 2012). To analyze existing and emerging risks of hydrological disaster in HKH region the present study focused on three types of data:

• Climate change data

• Hazard data

• Vulnerability data

• Data on environmental and socio-economic elements at risk, Climate Change Data: Climate change data provides a summary about spatial distribution of temperature, rainfall, humidity and evaporation science last several decades carried out by some pioneer studies in Hindu Kush Himalaya region. Rawat et al (2011) carried out a comprehensive study on hydro-meteorological study during 2005-2010 and detected trends of climate change through compare the results with previous hydro-meteorological study carried out by Bisht (1990) in the same study area. Singh et. al. (2011) provided a comprehensive report on climate change in Hindu Kush Himalaya region using the climate records collected by Shrestha (2009a). Present study established the co-relation between climate change and acceleration of geo-hydrological hazards beside their environmental and socioeconomic impacts in the HKH region. Hazard Data: This data deals about the events of several hazards in HKH region, cause great loss of life and property and pose a serious threat to the normal life as well as to the process of development. Although previous studies providing some hazard data in HKH region but the EM-DAT data also analysed for HKH region. This analysis includes defining hazard intensity or the strength of a hazard event based on the hazard scenario and the hazard probability level. Vulnerability Data: Vulnerability data informs the hazard of place, which encompasses biophysical risks as well as social response and action. Biophysical risks include analysis of the distribution of hazardous conditions, human occupancy of hazardous zones, degree of loss due to hazardous events, and analysis of the characteristics and impacts of hazardous events (Heyman et al 1991; Messner and Meyer 2005) whereas social response and action comprises of hazards and relates social vulnerability to coping responses of communities, including societal resistance and resilience to hazards (Blakie et al. 1994; Watts and Bohle 1993; Messner and Meyer 2005). The vulnerability to a given element at risk is subjected during a hazard event depend on the hazard. These stresses include shaking in the case of earthquakes, moisture stress in the case of drought, inundation during floods, and so on. A given element may be severely challenged by one hazard but completely unaffected by another. A building, for example, may collapse when subjected to seismic shaking or incur damage due to floods, but may suffer little or no impacts in a drought. Similarly, the fertility of agricultural land may benefit directly as a result of flooding, whereas exposed infrastructure may be severely damaged. For a given hazard, vulnerability will vary across a set of similar elements and from one element to the next. Hazard data used to assess the vulnerability in HKH region following above methodology.


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Data on Environmental and Socio-economic Elements at Risks: A risk-level scale is a combination of hazard level and total vulnerability (both environmental and socioeconomic). The scale is obtained by subjective judgment, similar to the hazard-level scale (Table 1). The integrated risks of all hydrological hazards have been investigated considering and overlaying the available hazard and vulnerability data of several case studies have been done in HKH region as sited above. Data Complementation: The data carried out by previous studies on climate change, hazard, vulnerability and their risks has been integrated through HVRA-model to understand a wider view of the existing and emerging risks of the natural disasters in Hindu Kush Himalaya region. The HVRA-model suggesting a GIS based effective and essential hazard-vulnerability-risks assessment model (HVRA-model) for disaster risks reduction (DRR) in the Hindu Kush Himalaya region (Table 1). The HVRA model consists of comprehensive existing geo-environmental information of the HKH region through three GIS module: i.e. Geo-informatics, Hydro-informatics and Socio-economic informatics module with their 16 hazard and risks controlling factors and total 90 sub-factors for HKH region (Table 1). Geo-informatics: The geo-informatics module consists of the attribute data for its seven different geo-sectors of the Hindu Kush Himaya region, i.e. geology (rock types), rock dip direction, structural lineaments, geomorphology (emphasizing particularly fluvial landforms), slope, soils, and landslide density. Table 1 suggesting that those seven geo-factors comprises of their 47 hazard controlling sub-factors to assess the vulnerability and several types of risks. Hydro-informatics: The hydro-informatics module consists of the attributed data for its seven different hazard controlling hydrological factors of the Hindu Kush Himaya region, i.e. precipitation, spring density, stream frequency, ground water, erosion rate, runoff and flood magnitude. Those seven factors comprised of total 28 hazard controlling sub-factors (Table 1). Socioeconomic-informatics: The socioeconomic-informatics module consists of the attributed data for its two different hazard controlling socioeconomic factors of the Hindu Kush Himaya region, i.e. land use land cover pattern and demographic profile comprised of total 15 hazard controlling sub-factors as illustrated in Table 1.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION Trends of Climate Change in HKH region Rawat et al (2011) advocating that all the climatic zones (i.e. sub-tropical, temperate and moist temperate) spreading towards higher altitudes due to global climate change and degrading the natural favorable climatic condition of the existing land use land cover pattern and accelerated several hydrological hazards. Shrestha (2009a) and Singh et al (2011) reported that during year 1975-2006, average temperatures increased over most of the region, as indicated increases in average temperature ranged from 0.6 to 1.3ºC; the differences in the maximum temperatures across the stations ranged from 1.1 to 2.0ºC and the minimum from 0.2 to 0.5ºC.


66

Table 1: Integrated Hazard, Vulnerability and Risks Assessment (HVRA) model overlaying 90 controlling factors under three GIS module in HKH region

Geo-environmental Parameters of HKH Region

Integrated Hazard Assessment

Integrated Vulnerability Assessment

Integrated Risk Assessment

Low Moderate High V. High Low Moderate High V. High Existing Emerging

Geo

-in

form

ati

cs

Geology or Major Rock types

1. Dolomites Low Low

2. Limestone Low Low

3. Quartzite Moderate High

4. Quartzwacke Moderate High

5. Slates Moderate High

6. Shales Moderate High

7. Sand stone High Very High

8. Shattered material Very High Extreme

Rock Dip Direction

9. Along slope Very High Extreme

10. Anti slope Low Low

Lineament

11. Thrusts Very High Extreme

12. Faults Very High Extreme

13. Joints Moderate High

14. Fractures Moderate High

Geomorphology

15. Structural/Denudational hills Moderate High

16. Pediments Moderate High

17. Valley fill shallow High Very High

18. Valley fill moderate Very High Extreme

19. Weathered pediplain High Very High

20. Erosional terraces Very High Extreme 21. Depositional terraces Very High Extreme 22. Alluvial fans Very High Extreme 23. Fluvial fans Very High Extreme 24. Screed slops Very High Extreme 25. Gulling Moderate High

26. Rills Moderate High

27. Flooded areas Very High Extreme 28. Old river channels Very High Extreme 29. Flood plains Very High Extreme 30. Moist area Very High Extreme 31. Sites of debris flow Very High Extreme 32. Inundation Very High Extreme 33. Bank cuts Very High Extreme

Soil

34. Stony hilly soil Low Low

35. Loumous and podzolic Moderate High

36. Crushed salty soil Moderate High

37. Conglomeratic Moderate High

38. Fine sandy soil Very High Extreme


67

39. Fluvial sandy soil Very High Extreme

Active Landslide Density

40. Low (<4 landslide/km2) Low Moderate

41. Moderate (4-8 landslide/km2) Moderate High

42. High (8-16 landslide/km2) High Very High

43. Very High (>16 landslide/km2) Very High Extreme

Slope

44. Gentle (<10°) Low Moderate

45. Moderate (10°-20°) Moderate High

46. Steep (20°-30°) High Very High

47. Very Steep (>30°) Very High Extreme

Hy

dro

-in

form

ati

cs

Spring Density

48. Low (<4 spring/km2) Low Moderate

49. Moderate (4-8 spring/km2) Moderate High

50. High (8-16 spring/km2) High Very High

51. Very High (>16 spring/km2) Very High Extreme

Stream Frequency

52. Low (3 streams/km2) Low Moderate

53. Moderate (3-6 streams/km2) Moderate High

54. High (6-12 streams/km2) High Very High

55. Very High (>12 streams/km2) Very High Extreme

Rainfall

56. Low (<600mm/year) High Very High

57. Moderate (600-1200 mm/year) Moderate High

58. High (1200-2400 mm/year) High Very High

59. Very High (>2400 mm/year) Very High Extreme

Groundwater

60. Low High Very High

61. Moderate Moderate High

62. High High Very High

63. Very High Very High Extreme

Erosion Rate

64. Low (<.40 mm/year) Low Moderate

65. Moderate (.40-.80 mm/year) Moderate High

66. High (.80-1.60 mm/year) Very High Extreme

67. Very high (> 1.60 mm/year) Very High Extreme

Runoff (Average)

68. Low (<20 l/s/km2) Low Moderate

69. Moderate (20-40 l/s/km2) Moderate High

70. High (l/s/km2) (40-60 l/s/km2) High Very High

71. Very High (>60 l/s/km2) Very High Extreme

Flood Magnitude (Peak flood rate)

72. Low (<100 l/s/km2) Moderate High

73. Moderate (100-200 l/s/km2) Moderate High

74. High (200-400 l/s/km2) High Very High

75. Very High (>400 l/s/km2) Very High Extreme

So

cio

-in

form

ati

cs

Land Use

76. Snow cover Very High

77. Forested area Moderate High

78. Shrubs land Moderate High

79. Barren land Moderate High

80. River beds Moderate High


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81. Agricultural land Very High Extreme

82. Settlements & Built-up areas Very High Extreme

83. Road network, canals Very High Extreme

84. Transmission lines Very High Extreme

Demography

85. High population density Very High Extreme

86. Low Population density High Very High

87. Male population High Very High

88. Female Population Very High Extreme

89. Poor people Very High Extreme

90. Rich people Moderate High


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Integrated Multiple Hazard Assessment in HKH Region The Hindu Kush Himalaya region highly vulnerable for earthquake and water-induces disasters because neo-tectonic activities along the several active thrusts and faults triggering earthquake and landslide disasters whereas climate change and land use degradation accelerating the water-induced disasters such as flash flood, river-line flood, erosion, wet mass movement during monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period as drying up of natural water springs and streams. Consequently we have to investigate integrated risks of all existing tectonic and water-

induced hazard in the region (Table 2 and Fig. 5). Data analysis suggesting that out of total annual disaster in HKH region 14% are earthquake and landslide disaster 48% are hydrological disasters (i.e.36% flood, 9% mass movement, 3% drought) whereas 38% are other types of disasters such as storm (23%), wild fire (1%), extreme temperature (6%) and epidemic (8%). Table 2: Distribution of Several Disasters in HKH region

Hazards % of Total Hazards

Tectonic Hazards

Earthquake 14

Landslide 4

Hydro-Hazard

Flood 36

Mass Movement 5

Drought 3

Other types of Hazards

Storm 23

Wild Fire 1

Extreme Temperature 6

Epidemics 8

Total 100

Fig. 5: Bar Diagram Showing the Distribution of Several Disasters in HKH region.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Eart

hquake

Landslid

e

Flo

od

Mass

Movem

ent

Dro

ught

Sto

rm

Wild

Fire

Extr

em

e

Tem

pera

ture

Epid

em

ics

Tectonic Hazards Hydro-Hazards Other Hazards

In P

erc

ent


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Although the HKH region experience several natural disasters but the water induced disasters have major part of total disasters because they occurred in each rainy season very frequently whereas other disasters are occasional disasters. Water-induced disasters are flash flood, river-line flood, erosion, wet mass movement during monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period as drying up of natural water springs and streams. There are several different causes of flash flood, river-line flood and wet mass movement in HKH region such as intense rainfall (IRF); glacial lake outburst (GLO), landslide dam outburst (LDO), rapid snow melt (RSM) and failure of dams and other hydraulic structures (Jonkman, 2005, Rawat et al 2011b). But intense rainfall (IRF) is very frequent cause for flash flood and river-line flood in the region which play a key role for flash flood and river-line flood. The main meteorological phenomenon causing intense rainfalls in the region are cloudbursts, stationarity of monsoon trough and monsoon depressions. Flash flood in the region cause great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development which have far-reaching economic and social consequences. About hundreds of peoples are losing their life each year due to flash flood hazard in Himalaya. Through data complementation of previous case studies on several hazards total 90 hazard controlling factors have been identified throughout the HKH region (Table 1). These 90 hazard controlling factors have been categorized as geo-informatics factors, hydro-informatics factors and socio-informatics factors and used to assess the level of hazard in a particular location (Table 1). Consequently four level of hazard determined and categorized as low, moderate, high and very high hazard zone in HKH region. The results suggested that out of total 90 hazard controlling factors 25 have very high level intensity of hazard, 11 have high level intensity of hazards whereas 11 and 12 factors respectively moderate and low level intensity of hazards (Table 1). Integrated Multiple Vulnerability Assessment in HKH Region After determined the hazard intensity for each 90 controlling factors the vulnerability of each factor for Geo-environmental and socio-economic elements has been carried out. The integrated hazard vulnerability suggesting two types of vulnerability: Geo-environmental Vulnerability: Geo-environmental vulnerability deals the susceptibility of geo-environmental elements that comprises of geo-elements (i.e. geology, rock dip, geomorphological landforms, slope, soil types, landslide etc) and hydro-elements (i.e. precipitation springs density, stream frequency, groundwater potential, snow cover, runoff, flood magnitude and erosion rate etc). The result suggested that there are total 47 geo-elements out of them 26 geo-elements are very high vulnerable, 19 geo-elements are highly vulnerable whereas 19 geo-elements and 11 geo-elements respectively moderate and low vulnerable for several natural hazards in HKH region (Table 1). Socio-economic Vulnerability: Socio-economic vulnerability deals the susceptibility of socioeconomic elements that comprises of land use pattern (i.e. snow cover, forest area, shrubs land, barren land, agricultural land, settlement and built up areas, road network, canals, and Transmission lines etc.) and demographic pattern (i.e. precipitation springs density, stream frequency, groundwater potential, snow cover, runoff, flood magnitude and erosion rate etc). The result suggested that there are total 42 socioeconomic elements out of them 8 are very high vulnerable, 2 are highly vulnerable whereas 3 and 2 respectively moderate and low vulnerable for several natural hazards in HKH region(Table 1).


71

Integrated Multiple Risks Assessment in HKH Region The environmental and socio-economic elements are associated with vulnerable areas of several hazards have been determined for risks assessment. The raw database of the EM-DATA (country profile) also analyzed to assess the trends of risks in HKH region. Accordingly the result suggests several existing and emerging risks of natural hazards for environment, society and economy of the Hindu Kush Himalaya region. A brief description on existing and emerging risks is given as below: Existing Risks Assessment: All the environmental and socio-economic elements having direct impacts of hazards within the vulnerable areas determined as existing risks. Table 1 shows four levels of existing risk respectively very high, high, moderate and low level. A GIS based risks level map can be easily delineate after hazard and vulnerability mapping. Generally following environmental and socio-economic risks of several natural hazards have been experiences in the HKH region: Human Casualties: In average more than thirty six thousand people loses their life each year due to natural hazards in Hindu Kush Himalaya region as the results carried out by last ten years data analysis (Table 3). The spatial distribution of human casualties suggests that Myanmar, China, Pakistan and India have very high annual human casualties rate that’s accounts respectively 12644 people, 9532 people, 7200 people and 5309 people each year. Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Nepal have high to moderate casualty rates respectively accounts about 1080, 864 and 220 people each year whereas Bhutan recorded as a low human casualty rate about 20 people by each year (Table 3). Affecting People: The natural hazards affecting more than one hundred seventy eight million people each year in Hindu Kush Himalaya region as the results carried out by last ten years data analysis (Table 4). The average annual result of the data analysis suggests that maximum people affects in China (120748236), Bangladesh (6409000), Myanmar (288992), India (46643291) and Pakistan (3447604) whereas Nepal (271085), Afghanistan (338112) and Bhutan (92) comparatively recorded moderate to low (Table 4). Fig. 6 illustrating that how hazard affecting human life and their home in HKH region

Fig. 6: Hazards affecting Human Life and his Settlement in HKH Region


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Table 3: Spatial Variability of Human Casualties due to Hazard Events in Hindu Kush Himalaya Region

Years Person Killed due to Natural Hazards in HKH Region

Afghanistan Bhutan Bangladesh China India Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Total

2001 485 - 253 922 21045 51 170 257 23183

2002 4083 - 928 1426 2991 21 564 220 10233

2003 4220 - 529 1092 2251 13 287 493 8885

2004 18 200 1034 807 17947 307 185 31 20529

2005 582 - 332 1074 4997 17 51 74240 81293

2006 382 - 154 2098 1431 59 157 513 4794

2007 296 - 5721 1161 2236 35 214 911 10574

2008 350 - 92 7164 1417 113 223 2186 11545

2009 101 23 348 575 2149 24 459 102 3781

2010 1334 - 68 88450 1808 138366 115 249 230390

2011 25 - 50 81 122 74 - 2 354

Total 11876 223 9509 104850 58394 139080 2425 79204 405561

Ave/year 1080 20 864 9532 5309 12644 220 7200 36869

Table 4: Spatial Variability of Effected People due to Hazard Events in Hindu Kush Himalaya Region

Years Person Effected by Natural Hazards in HKH Region


2001 204695 - 730750 40366434 27017741 3750 21261 1324983 69669614

2002 313670 - 1701304 285289179 342028850 50000 266065 159943 629809011

2003 318424 - 553145 219552435 8098047 59254 1268780 229850085

2004 5540 1000 36889954 52949587 33960512 40700 800015 13248 124660556

2005 44720 - 1186606 83943283 28667616 16 31600 12655683 126529524

2006 2233910 - 94149 88739422 7384478 70106 280000 8230 98810295

2007 30255 - 23215116 120116276 38143033 166664 640706 1652711 183964761

2008 452964 - 636090 136975954 13989068 2420000 250003 366084 155090163

2009 65857 12 4504550 128762751 8996639 1351 619660 75080 143025900

2010 46200 - 887340 145656674 4790168 405049 13372 20397901 172196704

2011 3000 - 100000 25878599 50 21277 - 1000 26003926

Total 3719235 1012 70499004 1328230594 513076202 3178913 2981936 37923643 1959610539

Ave/year 338112 92 6409000 120748236 46643291 288992 271085 3447604 178146413


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Table 5: Spatial Variability of Infrastructural Loss due to Hazard Events in Hindu Kush Himalaya Region

Years Damages or Loss due to Natural Hazards in HKH Region (US$ Million)


2001 0.01 - - 4449 2984.924 - - 493.5 7927.434

2002 - - - 6156.8 961.91 - - 0.03 7118.74

2003 - - - 16368.511 889 - - 11120 28377.511

2004 - 200 2700 4327.48 3522.8 500.688 - - 11250.968

2005 5.05 - - 11822.775 7240 - - 110 19177.825

2006 - - - 12463.691 3390 - - - 15853.691

2007 - - 2414 8004.698 376.151 - 2.4 - 10797.249

2008 - - - 111233 145 4000 0.029 327.118 115705.147

2009 20 - 270 9031.552 2734 - 60 103 12218.552

2010 - - - 20305.436 2149 57 - - 22511.436

2011 - - 7008.466 - 3.6 5200 12212.066

Total 25.06 200 5384 211171.409 24392.785 4561.288 62.429 17353.648 263150.619

Ave/year 2 18 489 19197 2218 415 6 1578 23923

Table 6: Spatial Variability of Hazard Events in Hindu Kush Himalaya Region

Years Frequency of Natural Hazard Events in HKH Region


2001 6 - 4 21 12 1 3 5 52

2002 9 - 7 19 11 1 3 8 58

2003 9 - 8 25 14 - 2 5 63

2004 4 1 13 23 11 5 4 8 69

2005 10 - 11 19 21 1 2 10 74

2006 12 - 5 31 17 2 4 8 79

2007 11 - 6 18 27 9 1 10 82

2008 9 - 8 37 22 1 5 7 89

2009 11 2 14 32 26 1 10 8 104

2010 11 - 13 36 27 8 14 12 121

2011 1 - 1 8 2 1 1 1 42

Total 101 3 90 273 196 35 49 86 833


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Ave/year 9 1 8 25 18 3 4 8 76


Infrastructural Loss: Infrastructural loss comprises of both private and public property loss in terms of US$ (Table 5 and Fig. 6 & 7). The results carried out through recent past eleven year data analysis suggests that China, India and Pakistan have the natural hazards that is respectively 19197 US$, 2218 US$ and 1578 US$ each year. Myanmar, Bangladesh and Bhutan have respectively 415 US$, 489 US$ and 18 US$ average annual loss whereas Nepal (6 US$) and Afghanistan (2 US$) recorin Hindu Kush Himalaya region (Table 5).

Fig. 7: Flood Demolished the Highway Bridge and the newer one have been established just

Degradation of Land Resources:

is the erosion of soils in the area. It has been estimated that the average rate of soil erosion in Kumaon Himalaya ranges between 1 and 1.7 mm/year (Rawat and Rawat 1994; Rawat 2011). Each ton of sediment generated through erosion removes 12.50 to 19.90 kg of organic carbon, 0.82-1.44 kg of nitrogen, 0.41 to 0.49 kg of phosphorus and 0.64 to 0.71 kg of potassium (Bhatnagar and Kundu 1992). The study showed that agricultural land, forests, scrubland and barren land have been degraded by the soil erosion, landslides and floods in the region. It was established that the annual rate of degradation of the land resources in the region was about 12.60 hectare/year for each 70Km

International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094

Infrastructural loss comprises of both private and public property loss in terms of US$ (Table 5 and Fig. 6 & 7). The results carried out through recent past eleven year data analysis suggests that China, India and Pakistan have the maximum annual loss due to natural hazards that is respectively 19197 US$, 2218 US$ and 1578 US$ each year. Myanmar, Bangladesh and Bhutan have respectively 415 US$, 489 US$ and 18 US$ average annual loss whereas Nepal (6 US$) and Afghanistan (2 US$) recorded low annual loss due to natural hazards in Hindu Kush Himalaya region (Table 5).

Flood Demolished the Highway Bridge and the newer one have been established just

above of that Sources: ICIMOD

Degradation of Land Resources: The main process leading to the degradation of land resources is the erosion of soils in the area. It has been estimated that the average rate of soil erosion in Kumaon Himalaya ranges between 1 and 1.7 mm/year (Rawat and Rawat 1994; Rawat

generated through erosion removes 12.50 to 19.90 kg of organic 1.44 kg of nitrogen, 0.41 to 0.49 kg of phosphorus and 0.64 to 0.71 kg of potassium

The study showed that agricultural land, forests, scrubland and ren land have been degraded by the soil erosion, landslides and floods in the region. It was

established that the annual rate of degradation of the land resources in the region was about hectare/year for each 70Km2 area (Rawat et. al., 2011). That includes

1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749

Infrastructural loss comprises of both private and public property loss in terms of US$ (Table 5 and Fig. 6 & 7). The results carried out through recent past eleven year

maximum annual loss due to natural hazards that is respectively 19197 US$, 2218 US$ and 1578 US$ each year. Myanmar, Bangladesh and Bhutan have respectively 415 US$, 489 US$ and 18 US$ average annual loss

ded low annual loss due to natural hazards

Flood Demolished the Highway Bridge and the newer one have been established just

ding to the degradation of land resources is the erosion of soils in the area. It has been estimated that the average rate of soil erosion in Kumaon Himalaya ranges between 1 and 1.7 mm/year (Rawat and Rawat 1994; Rawat et. al.,

generated through erosion removes 12.50 to 19.90 kg of organic 1.44 kg of nitrogen, 0.41 to 0.49 kg of phosphorus and 0.64 to 0.71 kg of potassium

The study showed that agricultural land, forests, scrubland and ren land have been degraded by the soil erosion, landslides and floods in the region. It was

established that the annual rate of degradation of the land resources in the region was about cludes 31.11 % (3.92


hectare) agricultural land, 22.78 % (2.87 hectare) forest land, 20.16 % (2.54 hectare) scrub land and 25.95 % (3.27 hectare) barren land. Livestock Loss: Livestock is back bone of the mountain agro-economy because they not only play a important role for agricultural production but also provide milk and meat food. Therefore people use milk and meat for their own consumption as well as commercial purpose to make money to mange other market needs. But unfortunately annual livestock casualty is about ten times more than human casualty due to hazard events in the Hindu Kush Himalaya region. Food Deficiency: As initially mentioned that about 95% population of the region depends on agriculture and forest resources but both are decreasing due to very high rate of land degradation through natural hazards. Decreasing forest cover accelerating hydrological hazard extremely as floods in monsoon period whereas drought in non-monsoon period which are effecting agricultural production. Consequently the annual agricultural production decreasing about 16% by each year and poses a serious threat of food deficiency in the region (Rawat et al 2011-h). Changing Rural Livelihood and Migration: The effects and risk of the natural hazards are multidimensional in HKH region. Therefore it’s observed that the trends of livelihood changing and people preferring secondary and tertiary sectors livelihood than primary sector (i.e. mainly agricultural and forest related). But unfortunately due to lack of resources people do not fulfill their desires in the mountain region and ultimately they migrated to down-stream plain areas for better livelihood in big cities, towns and other similar places. As a result this trends of migration not only danger for mountain ecosystem and socio-economic setup but also emerging several risks in the down-stream plain areas due to increasing population density and there needs etc. Emerging Risks Assessment: It’s observed by this study that due to lack of effective joint inter-governmental risks reduction policies and low level community awareness the risks level of the hazard increasing (Table 1). In order to that emerging other new types of risks in HKH region and its adjoining least low vulnerable areas as discussed below: Increasing Spatial Variability in Hazard Events: The spatial distribution of the natural hazard has been analyzed for the HKH region. The results suggested that although the total annual hazard events are increasing but beside that the spatial variability of the events also increasing. It means somewhere hazard taking place with high to extreme events whereas some places it’s recorded with low level events (Table 6 and Fig. 8). The middle part of the HKH region comprises of Bangladesh, China, India Nepal and Pakistan experiencing very high frequency of hazard events. Myanmar and Afghanistan have moderate frequency of hazard events whereas the land of Bhutan experiencing low hazard vents (Table 6 Fig. 8). The region having average 76 hazard events each year and highest found for china (25) and India (18). Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan have average respectively about 9, 8 and 8 hazard events each year whereas Nepal, Myanmar and Bhutan respectively have about 4, 3 and 1 natural hazard each year (Table 6 Fig. 8).


Fig. 8: Spatial Variation of Average Annual Hazard Events in HKH Region

Rising Growth Rate of Risks: The emerging risks of the hazards accelerating the intensity of the risks and increasing the consequences of the hazards in Hindu Kush region. The result of the data analysis suggests that all four aspects of the risks increasing with very high rates. Table 7 and Fig. 9 showing that the hazard event increasing with the growth rate of 6% each year, human casualties increasing with the rate of 9% each year whereas effected people and infrastructural loss increasing with that rate of respectively 6% and 4% each year. Because of the high growth rates of the existing risks level expected that the emerging risk has the potential to evolve into

extreme events. Table 7 demonstrates that there are total four levels (i.e. low, moderate, high, very high) of existing risks and expected to convert into five levels of emerging risks (i.e. low, moderate, high, very high and extreme) due to accelerated risk potential of the hazard events in the region. It’s also observed that all most of the elements converting in upper risks level from existing risk level (Table 7 and Fig. 9).

Table 7: Trends of Decadal and Annual Growth Rates of Several Risks in HKH Region

Hazard Impacts and Risks

Years Gross Change Growth Rates in %

2001 2010 2001-2010 Decadal Ave. Annual No. of Events 52 121 69 57 6

Human Casualties 23183 230390 207207 90 9

People Effected 69669614 172196704 102527090 60 6

Infrastructural Loss 7927.434 12212.066 4284.632 35 4

0

5

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25

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ge A

nn

ual

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hanistan

Bhu

tan

Ban

glade

sh

Chin

aIn

dia

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nmar

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Pak

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HKH Region


Fig. 9: Trends of Decadal and Annual Growth Rates of Several Risks in HKH Region Triggering Trans-Boundary Risks: It means the hazard event affects not only the HKH region but also affecting adjoining plain ecosystem. The HKH boundary covers mainly the mountainous part. This mountainous region comprises of ten river basin’s upstream parts. Consequently the risks of the hazards could affect the down-stream river basin’s ecosystem equally. It means if the natural hazards take place in HKH region accordingly it will have several direct or indirect socio-economic and environmental impacts on plain ecosystem because all the down-stream basins of the HKH region are highly populated area of the world and have dense socio-economic infrastructural setup (Fig. 10). So it causes great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development. Accelerating Climate Change Related Risks: Accelerated Deforestation is a major responsible factor to increase global climate change that’s why all the national, regional and international climate change adaptation agencies suggests to protect and increase the forest cover of the earth but unfortunately all the disaster events such as earthquake, slope failure, landslide, slumps, erosion, wet mass-movement, flash flood and river-line flood etc devastates hectares of forest land each year in Hindu kush Himalya region. It has been estimated that active Himalayan terrain is being deforested at the rate of 0.36km2/year. Out of total annual deforestation 78% accounts for several natural hazard events in the region whereas 22 % decreasing due to another anthropogenic factors such as increasing agricultural land, growing urbanization, industrialization, cutting of trees, road construction etc. (Rawat et al 2011). Consequently the high annual rates of deforestation makes the region more vulnerable for each next coming years hydrological hazards and also emerging climate change related risks such as seasonal variability,

0

10

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70

80

90

Gro

wth

Ra

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in %

)

No. of Events Human Casualties People Effected Infrastructural

Loss

Disaster Risks

Decadal Growth Annual Growth


Fig. 10: Probable Emerging Risks (b) in Down Stream Basins of HKH Region (a)

Amu Darya

Yellow

Yangtze

Mekong

Safween

Irrawaddy

BrahmaputraGanges

Tarim

Indus

Indus Sea

Hindu Kush Himalaya Region

Down Stream River Basins

Asia

River Basins

HKH Region

Index

Amu Darya

Indus Sea

Yellow

Yangtze

Mekong

Safween

Irrawaddy

BrahmaputraGanges

Tarim

Indus

Moderate Risk

Low Risk Zone

HKH Region

Index

Very High to Extereme

High Rik

Hindu Kush Himalaya Region

Emerging Risk Zones in Down Stream Basins

b

a


extreme meteorological and hydrological events, increasing water discharge rate in glacial-fed river basins due to high glacier melting rate and decreasing water discharge in rain-fed river basins due to drying up springs and perennial streams. In order to that the other impacts of the disaster induces climate change in HKH region investigated are decreasing crop and fruit production, food deficiency, water deficiency, decreasing livestock, migration and changing livelihood etc. (Rawat et al 2011). Risk of National and International Disputes: Some times it experienced that the areas, countries and regions which are associated along the down-streams they suffers by flood hazards and blamed on the administrative system of up-stream areas, countries and regions. Such kinds of flood hazards take place because of poor risks reduction strategy and management in up-stream and down-stream areas. It’s also occurred some times due to extreme precipitation as a result of climate change and high rates of deforestation. This phenomenon causes a great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development because of down-stream areas have dense socio-economic infrastructure as mentioned previously. Rising Sea Level: Already it has been established that all the glaciers are melting with high rates due to climate change and providing high water volume in sea throughout the year. But during monsoon season several hydrological hazards take place in the mountain and its adjoined plain areas and accelerate high runoff and erosion and bring the sediment in the streams which ultimately reached and deposited in the sea. Consequently both process (climate change and hydrological hazards) would increase the rising rate of sea level and will have great impacts on costal ecosystem.

Conclusion and Recommendations The report concluded that the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region is highly vulnerable for tectonic and hydrological hazards and cause great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development with have far-reaching economic and social consequences. Neo-tectonic activities in HKH region along the several active thrusts and faults responsible for earthquake disasters whereas climate change and land use degradation accelerating the water-induced disasters such as flash flood, river-line flood, erosion, wet mass movement during monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period as drying up of natural water springs and streams. The results also suggested that the hazards not only accelerating the existing risks but also emerging new risks in HKH region and adjoins down stream plain and costal ecosystem such as increasing spatial variability in hazard events, rising growth rate of risks, triggering trans-boundary risks, accelerating climate change related risks, risk of national and international disputes, rising sea level etc. The study recommended a comprehensive GIS database (DBMS) modeling for existing and emerging disaster risks reduction (DRR) in Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region. The DBMS comprises of comprehensive existing geo-environmental information of the HKH region through three GIS module: i.e. Geo-informatics, Hydro-informatics and Socio-economic informatics. Theses three GIS module will provide the spatial and attribute data for hazard-vulnerability- risk assessment (HVRA) model. This HVRA model will be suggest spatial distribution of existing and emerging risks level (i.e. low to extreme level) throughout the Hindu Kush Himalaya region. Than accordingly the necessary measures could be apply for disaster risk reduction (DRR) in HKH region.


Acknowledgements

This study constitutes part of a research report on “Understand and Analyze the Existing and Emerging Risks in the Hindu Kush Himalaya Region” funded to Dr. Pradeep K. Rawat (corresponding author) by International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal. Authors are indebted to ICIMOD for financial support to conduct this study.

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SEROLOGICAL EVALUATION OF IMMUNITY AGAINST MEASLES IN CHILDREN ATTENDING MURTALA MOHAMMED...

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