E-International Scientific Research Journal is indexed
by more than 16 worldwide Institutions…….
Indexing
Some of world wide renowned Editors and Reviewers…. ALGERIA
Bensafi Abd-El-Hamid
Associate Professor Department of Chemistry, Faculty of
Sciences, Abou Bekr Belkaid University,
Algeria.
Highest Degree Obtained: Ph.D.
Field of highest degree obtained: Polymer
Thermodynamics
AUSTRALIA
Dr Melissa Stahle
Postdoctoral Research Associate School of Molecular Bioscience, University
of Sydney
Sydney, Australia
PhD (Science)- Plant Genetics
BANGLADESH
Mirza Hasanuzzaman PhD Fellow - Plant
Physiology
Assistant Professor Department of Agronomy, Sher-e-Bangla
Agricultural
University, Sher-e-Bangla Nagar
Dhaka, Bangladesh Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 55
BULGARIA
BORIS GEORGIEV ASSYOV Senior Research Assistant
Department of Mycology
Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Research
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences-
BULGARIA
EDUCATION
Higher education
MSc in Botany
Department of Botany, Faculty of Biology
Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski
(defence in 2001)
PhD
Institute of Botany, Bulgarian Academy of
Sciences (approved 2010)
PhD-thesis:"Taxonomy, economic value and
conservation importance of the
representatives of the genus Boletus in
Bulgaria” (supervisor assoc. prof. Dr
Cvetomir Denchev
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 23
Number of journals published in English: 3
Primary areas of expertise:
Taxonomy and Nomenclature of fungi
Evaluation and Conservation of the fungal
diversity
Sustainable use of the fungal resources
CHILE
Dr. Koduri Venkata Surya Ramam
Associate Professor Department of Materials Science and
Engineering
Universidad de Concepcion, CHILE Biography published in 2000 Outstanding
Intellectuals of the 21st Century 2009/2010–
International Biographical Centre,
Cambridge, England
Post Doctoral Research Fellow, Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG)
Martin Luther University, GERMANY.
Post Doctoral Research Fellow, NSTB
Singapore Fellowship,
Nanyang Technological University,
SINGAPORE.
Post Doctoral Research Fellow, NRL
Fellowship,
Seoul National University, SOUTH
KOREA.
Research Associate, UGC-DST, Govt. of
Editorial Board
India Fellowship,
Indian Institute of Science – IISC, Materials
Research Centre, Bangalore, India.
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 45
Areas of Expertise: Physics [Specialization:
Solid State Physics and Materials Science]
CROATIA
Dr.Ivan Sosa MD - Assistant/Junior
Researcher
Department Of Forensic Medicine
Medical Faculty Of Rijeka University
Rijeka, Croatia Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 3
Areas of Expertise: Forensic
Neuropathologhy, Injury Prevention, Brain
Injury, Head Trauma, Traffic Traumatisam
Editing for: Injury Prevention Journal, The
Forensic Examiner, Clinical Insight –
Libertas Academica Postgraduate Medicine
EGYPT
Alaa Hassan Sayed, Ph.D. . Researcher
Hormones Department, Medical Research Division, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D-
Zoology
Helal Ragab Moussa, Ph.D. Assist. Professor in Botany (Plant
Physiology),
Radioisotope Dept., Nuclear Research
Center, Atomic Energy Authority, Middle
Eastern Regional Radioisotope Center for
the Arab Countries.
Cairo, Egypt
Dr. Saber Mohamed Abd-Allah - Reproductive Biology
Associate Professor of Theriogenology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Cairo University, Egypt Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 55
Member of Editor Board of American
Journal of Academic Research and
Reviewer for many international scientific
journals such as Journal of reproduction in
domestic animals, Journal of Chromosome
Research, Journal of Dairy Science, Journal
of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics,
Journal of Tropical and subtropical
Agroecosystem, American Journal of
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
Malaysian journal of medical sciences etc…
Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed Ph. D in Electronic Engineering
University: Menoufia University, Egypt
Areas of interest and experience: Optical
communication systems, Advanced optical
communication networks, Wireless optical
access networks, digital and analog systems,
Optoelectronics devices, Advanced material
science
INDIA
Prof. (Er.) Anand Nayyar Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Applications & IT
KCL Institute of Management and
Technology, Jalandhar
Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Highest Degree Obtained: M.Tech-IT
Field of highest degree obtained:Information
Technology
Primary areas of expertise: Networking,
Wireless Sensor Networks, Distributed
Systems, Information Systems, Software
Engineering, Digital Signals Processing,
Network Security, Mobile Adhoc Networks,
Adhoc Networks, Digital Image Processing,
Artificial Intelligence & Robotics, Wireless
Networks
Dr. Pawar Rajkumar Tukaram Department of zoology, Majalgaon Arts,
Science and Commerce College, Majalgaon
Dist. Beed
Maharashtra, India
Assistant Professor & Head
Field of highest degree obtained :
Parasitology, Fishery
Your primary areas of expertise : Fisheries,
Limniology, Parasitology.
Ms. B. Vasavi M.C.A, M.Tech (Computer Science)
Associate Professor
Department of Computer Science and
Engineering
Hyderabad Institute of Technology &
Management
R.R District, India
Research Experience: In Networks
Technologies, Tibco Cloud Computing
Environment, Network Security and Data
Mining–4 years
Mr. A. C. Suthar Assistant Professor
Ph. D. - Electronics and Communication
M.E.-Communication Systems Engineering
Department of Electronics &
Communication
C. U. Shah College of Engg. and Tech.,
Wadhwan City-363030, Gujarat, India
Areas of Expertise: Electronics and
Communication
Dr. Vivek Dalpatrao Kapse Assistant Professor,
Department of Physics, Arts, Science and
Commerce College, Chikhaldara,
Maharashtra, INDIA
Field of highest degree obtained: Materials
science
Primary areas of expertise: Preparation of
nanostructured materials and their gas
sensing behavior
DR. ASHOK KUMAR KULKARNI ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY,
MEDICITI INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL
SCIENCES, HYDERABAD (A.P) INDIA
Field of highest degree obtained
MOLECULAR BIOPHYSICS
Primary areas of expertise: MOLECULAR
MODELING, NMR, SYNTHESIS OF
PEPTIDES & PROTEINS, CELL-
ADHESION RESEARCH,
CANCER AND METASTASIS
RESEARCH, HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
TEACHING, STRUCTURE BASED
DRUGDESIGNING, STRUCTURAL
BIOLOGY
Dr. N.Senthilkumar B.E.M.B.A, Ph.D Assistant Professor
Department of Management
Studies
Anna University, Chennai – 600025
Ph.D Management
M.B.A Marketing& Operations
Management
Dr. Govind P. Shinde, PhD Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of
Management Studies and Research, Navi
Mumbai.
Maharashtra. India
Associate Professor
Field of highest degree obtained :
Management Science
Primary areas of expertise : Marketing,
Finance and Commerce
Dr. Prashant Singh, M. Sc. , Ph.D. (Chemistry)
Assistant Professor, A.R.S.D College,
University of Delhi, New Delhi, INDIA
Mr. MOHAMMAD SHAHID T-73/5, Okhla Main Market Jamia Nagar,
New Delhi 110025, India
Research Fellow
Jamia Millia Islamia New Delhi India
Education Doctor of Philosophy
(CHEMISTRY)
JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA NEW DELHI
Dr. Rajeev Singh Department Of Chemistry, ARSD College,
University Of Delhi, Dhaula Kuan, New
Delhi-110021
Assistant Professor
Field of highest degree obtained:
ORGANOMETALLIC CHEMISTRY,
BIOINORGANIC
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 14
Primary areas of expertise:
BIOINORGANIC CHEMISTRY,
ORGANOMETALLICS,
BIOCHEMISTRY, NANOMEDICINE
AND SOL-GEL CHEMISTRY
DR. KANTI BHOOSHAN PANDEY Department of Biochemistry, University of
Allahabad
City: Allahabad, U.P, India
Guest Faculty and Researcher
Biochemistry
Field of highest degree obtained :
Biochemistry
Primary areas of expertise: Free Radical
Biology, Polyphenols and Human Aging
Dr. Anil Batta Associate Professor
Baba Farid Univ. Of Health Sciences,
faridkot, India
MD(Medical Biochemistry)
Primary areas of expertise- Tumor Markers
& Drug Deaddiction
Dr. Vijay S. Wadhai PhD Assistant Professor & Head in Microbiology
Department ,
Sardar Patel Mahavidyalaya, Chandrapur,
Nagpur University Nagpur
Field Of Interest:- Environmental
Microbiology b)Biotechnology c) Industrial
Microbiology
Dr. Arun S. Kharat Professor and Head
Department of Biotechnology, Dr.
Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada
University, Aurangabad, Sub-Campus
Osmanabad.
Maharashtra, India
Highest Degree Obtained : Ph.D (Indian
Institute of Science) PDF-Universite Joseph
Fourier, Grenoble France and PDF-
Rockefeller University, New York, USA.
Field of highest degree obtained : Molecular
genetics, Molecular Biology, Genetic
Engineering, Microbiology, Biotechnology.
Primary areas of expertise: Genetic
Engineering, Genetics, Microbiology,
Biotechnology
Dr. Ashwini Kumar Dixit Pondicherry, India
Assistant Professor
Botany / Plant Biology and Biotechnology
KM Centre For PG Studies (Autonomous)
Primary areas of expertise: Microbiology,
Pharmacognosy, Environmental Biology,
Ethnobotany, Phytochemistry, Astrology,
Biophysics
Dr.V.E. Nethaji Mariappan Scientist-D Department :Centre for Remote
Sensing & Geoinformatics
Ph D Agriculture, Soil Science Annamalai
University/SAC(ISRO
Ph.D. Title: Crop Simulation Model,
Remote Sensing and GIS for Zonal Rice
Crop Assessment and Yield
Forecasting [work carried out at Space
Applications Centre, ISRO as JRF)
Dr. Bharath Kumar Ravuru Designation ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
Department BIOTECHNOLOGY
Area of Specialization Plant
Biotechnology, Medicinal Plants,
Ethnobotany and Forest Ecology
DESHMUKH MAHADEO SHRIRANG Sr. Lecturer, Department Of Economics,
S. K. Somaiya College Of Arts, Science And
Commerce,
Vidyavihar, Mumbai- 400 077
M.A. ECONOMICS(AGRI. ECO.
MONETARY ECO.)
Ph.D- Export Competitiveness Of Major
Horticultural Products In Maharashtra
Dr. Bhaskar C Behera Scientist D
Plant Science Division , Agharkar Research
Institute
(Autonomous Institute of Dept. of Secience
&Technology, Govt. Of India),G.G. Agarkar
Road, Pune‐411004, India
Education: Ph.D , M.Phil , M.Sc
(Botany, Specialization: Plant Physiology &
Biochemistry)
Nature of Research: The major broad area of
research Biodiversity and Bioprospecting
includes physiology, Biochemistry,
Biotechnology of lichen (a symbiotic
organism in association with fungi and
algae) and in the sub area of research
includes:Tissue culture of lichens for
establishing of culture collections towards
conservation of germplasms, search of
natural product from lichens and their
biological activity profiling using in vitro /
in vivo system for their
biomedical/pharmaceutical / food
nutraceutical applications.
Research Papers Published : 70+
Dr. Chandra Mohan Singh Bisht, Ph.D Assistant Professor
Department of Chemistry, Government Post Graduate College, Kumaun University, Berinag (Pithoragarh) INDIA Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D.
Natural Product Chemistry (Phytochemistry
& Microbiology)
Dr.S.Sasikumar Principal Roever Engineering College, Perambalur, Tamil Nadu, India Areas of Expertise: Signal Processing,
Signal and image analysis, VLSI,
networking
Ph.D, Anna University, Chennai, India
IET-YPSC Young Teacher Award’2010.
Best Paper Award for national conference at
Excel College of Engineering for women,
Feb2010.
Biography accepted for Marquis Who’s
Who in the World (Nov 2010 Edition)
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 34
Books Published: 6
Dr. Vivek Dalpatrao Kapse. Assistant Professor and Head, Department
of Physics,
Arts, Science and Commerce College,
Amravati (M.S.), India
Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D.,
Materials science
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 10
Dr.V.B.Sakhare, PhD - Reservoir Fisheries
and Limnology
Reader and Head Post Graduate and Research Department of
Zoology
Yogeshwari college, Ambajogai-431517
Maharastra - India Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 35
Number of book chapters published in
English :25
Number of books published in English :10
Dr. S. Subba Tata M. Sc., M. Tech. Ph. D
Guest Lecturer Department of Microbiology
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
India
Dr. Jayant Dubey Ph.D. in Statistics
Associate Prof. & Head Dept of Business Studies
BT Institute of Research & Technology,
Sagar
Madhya Pradesh, India
Dr.Chandrapal Singh Bohra, Ph.D., NET
(ICAR), CES, M. Sc. (Forestry)
Assistant Professor & Coordinator, Environmental Science
Department of Environmental & Mechanical
Engineering
Amrapali Institute of Technology &
Sciences
Uttarakhand (UK),
INDIA
Dr(Mrs) Anita S.Goswami-Giri, PhD (Biochemistry)
Sr. lecturer Department of Chemistry, B.Bandodkar
college of Sciences
Chedani Bunder rd , Thane (Mumbai,
Maharashtra
India
Dr. Sunil Kumar Mishra Associate Professor of English
DRONACHARYA COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING, Gurgaon, India.
Academic Qualification:
•Doctor of Philosophy (D. Phil) in English,
University of Allahabad (India),
•Certificate of Proficiency in French,
University of Allahabad(India),2001
•Master of Arts (M.A.) in English,
University of Allahabad (India), 2001.
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 4
Dr.M.VIJAYARAGAVAN ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Department of Botany
GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE,
THIRUVANNAMALAI (T.N).
Highest Degree Obtained Ph.D
Field of highest degree obtained
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals 17
Editing or peer review experience (for
English-language journals) 12-JOURNALS
Your primary areas of expertise:
PHYTOREMEDIATION,
BIOREMEDIATION, METAL
POLLUTION,SOIL POLLUTION, WATER
POLLUTION,
Madhavi Dharankar
Lecturer, School of Education,
Yashavantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open
University, Nashik, MS , India
Highest Degree Obtained: M.Sc., M.Ed.,
MADE (M. A. in Distance Education), M
Phil (Distance Education),
PGDDE (PG Diploma in Distance
Education), PGDRD (PG Diploma in Rural
Development),
PG Diploma in Environmental Education
(Green Teacher) and Online Certificate
Program in Instructional Design.
Field of highest degree obtained: Education
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals 13
Primary areas of expertise:
Expertise in distance education and use of
Information Communication Technology
(ICT) in education.
Authored 6 books solely and 21 co-
authored.
Contributed twenty-seven chapters as writer.
Instructional technology- edited nine books
and content edited five books.
INDONESIA
Prof. Dr.Tatik Suryani President (Dean)
STIE Perbanas Surabaya
Indonesia
DR. DJUWARI M. HUM, PhD Director of Language laboratory
STIE Perbanas, Surabaya,
Indonesia
Primary Area of Expertise: Linguistic,
Education and Management
Fr. Dameanus Abun, SVD
College: St. Paul Major Seminary, Ledalero-
Maumere-NTT- Indonesia. Philosophy: 1987-1992, Theology : 1992-
1995.
Ordination: 1995.
Graduate Studies:
MBA: Divine Word College of Laoag,
Ilococ Norte-Philippines (11999- 2002)
Ph.D: International Academy of
Management and Economic: Philippines
(2002-2005)
Training: Strategic Positioning for Education Leaders
(SPEL): Asian Institute of Management
(AIM): 2006.
Teaching Experience:
Divine Word College of Laoag, Graduate
School, 2005-present
Divine Word college of Vigan, 2005-
present.
Thesis panelist: Divine Word college of
Vigan, 2005-present
Mr. Masoud Hashemi. Faculty member and lecturer,
English Department, Islamic Azad
University (IAU), Toyserkan Branch,
Hamedan, Iran.
MA. in English Methodology ( TEFL ) ,
Islamic Azad University , Tehran Central
Branch , Iran. 1995
PhD Scholar of TESL,University of
Technology ( UTM ) , Malaysia , 2010
LIBYA
Dr. Ibrahim Mohameed Eldaghayes Assistant Professor Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Al-Fateh
University
Al-Fateh University, Tripoli, Libya PhD, Bristol University, Faculty of Medical
and Veterinary Sciences, Bristol - UK
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 3
Areas of Expertise: Immunology and
Virology
MALAYSIA
Dr. Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf Research Fellow
Department of Chemistry Faculty of
Science, University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur Malaysia
Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D.,
Environmental Chemistry
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals-10
Number of book chapters published in
English- 4
Number of books published in English-1
Dr. Suk-Fun Chin
Senior lecturer at University of Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) PhD (Distinction), University of Western
Australia, Australia. (2009)
Postgraduate Diploma in Teaching and
Learning, University of Malaysia Sarawak
(2005)
Dr. Vasudeva Murthy C R SENIOR LECTURER
FORENSIC PATHOLOGY
MANAGEMENT AND SCIENCE UN
IVERSITY, SHAH ALAM
MALAYSIA
Highest Degree Obtained : DOCTOR OF
MEDICINE
Primary areas of expertise: MEDICINE/
FORENSIC PATHOLOGY
MECEDONIA
Dejan Marolov Division International relations and EU law
"Goce Delcev" University
Macedonia
Highest Degree Obtained PhD
Field of highest degree obtained:
International law
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals 3
Number of book chapters published in
English 1
Number of books published in English 2
Primary areas of expertise: Law
MOROCCO
Professor Mabrouk BENHAMOU LPPPC, Physics Department, Sciences
Faculty Ben M’sik
P.O. 7955, Casablanca, Morocco
A prominent scientist with more than 100
publications. Chosen as TOP 100
SCIENTISTS 2008 by the International
Biographical Centre
NEPAL
Dr. Prakash Adhikari , M.S. Consultant and President of NGO of
Nepalese doctors (Healthy Human Society)
Department of ENT and Head and Neck Surgery and Research Director of Healthy Human Society, Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital, Institute of Medicine, Kathmandu, Nepal Field of highest degree obtained: ENT and
Head and Neck Surgery
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 58.
Number of book chapters published in
English: 6 published.
Editing or peer review experience (for
English-language journals): in 13
international journals and editor of
international journal entitled: RARE
TUMORS
Primary areas of expertise: ENT and Head
and Neck Surgery and Research
NIGERIA
AGBABIAKA, LUKMAN ADEGOKE Principal Lecturer
FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC,NEKEDE
OWERRI, IMO STATE, NIGERIA
EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS:
(Ph.D ANIMAL NUTRITION)IMO STATE
UNIVERSITY, OWERRI-2005-DATE
(MSc. ANIMAL NUTRITION), THE
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF
TECHNOLOGY, OWERRI, IMO STATE-
1999
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals:: 12
Number of book chapters published in
English: 1
Dr. ANJOV, Kahaga Terfa Department of Religion and Philosophy,
Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria
ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS
OBTAINED WITH DATES
Ph.D Ethics & Philosophy 2011
M.A. Metaphysics (Master of Arts,
Philosophy) 2011
M. A. Religious Studies 2004
Books Published: 6
Research Publication: 7
PAKISTAN
Dr. Zeeshan Nawaz
Technical Director, LEADS Pakistan, Lahore PhD in Chemical Engineering &
Technology, Beijing Key Laboratory of
GreenReaction Engineering & Technology
(FLOTU), Department of Chemical
Engineering,
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China. *Best
Researcher Award (Sept. 2007-June 2010)
PHILIPPINES
DUMALE, Wilfredo Jr., Arellano Department of Plant Science, College of
Agriculture,
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, 3700 Nueva Vizcaya, THE
PHILIPPINES
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Biological
and Environmental Engineering, 2009
Graduate School of Agricultural and Life
Sciences
The University of Tokyo
Field of highest degree obtained: Biological
and Environmental Engineering
Dr. John Anthony A. Domantay, M.D., FPSP, Ph.D. Dean, College of Medicine, Saint Louis University, Baguio City, Philippines *Postgraduate Certificate in Epidemiology
and Biostatistics,Drexel University,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
*Postgraduate Diploma (PG Dipl) in
Epidemiology, University of London
External Programme, United Kingdom
Dr. Ruben Castillo Umaly, Ph.D. Vice President for Research, Development and Special Projects, University of the Cordilleras, Philippines Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Foundation
Curie, University of Paris, France(Radiation
Immunology) (French Government Fellow,
3 years)
Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Institute for
Tropical Medicine, University of
Hamburg,Germany (Immunology of
Tropical Parasites) (Alexander von
Humboldt Research Fellow, 3 years)
Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Medical
Malacology, University of Michigan, Ann
Harbor,USA (WHO Fellow) – one term
Postdoctoral Research Fellow in
Immunology of Parasites, Leiden
University(WHO Fellow, one term)
Postdoctoral Training in Applications of
Radioisotope Techniques in Parasitic
Immunology,Mahidol University, (WHO
Fellow) one month
Postdoctoral Training in Molecular
Genetics: National Institute of
Genetics,Mishima Japan (Asian Molecular
Biology Association Fellow) (one month)
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 40
Areas of Expertise: Radiation Biology
(Biophysics),
Professor Dr. Jimmy T. Masagca Doctor of Philosophy Units in Science
Education (Major in Biology), De La Salle
University-Manila, Philippines and
Philippine Normal University, Manila
Doctor of Education (Major in Educational
Management), Meritissimus/ Outstanding
Doctoral Dissertation, Catanduanes State
Colleges, Virac, Catanduanes, Philippines
President Pacific Island Institute for Pedagogy,
Technology, Arts & Sciences
Inc.Constantino Street, Virac City
Catanduanes, Philippines
Dr. Nenita I. Prado Professor VI, Central Mindanao University,
Philippines
Executive Director, Central Mindanao
University Admission Tests Board
President, Philippine Association for
Graduate Education Region 10, Cagayan de
Oro City
Board of Directors, Philippine Association
for Graduate Education (National)
Senior Accreditor, Accrediting Agency of
Chartered Colleges and Universities of the
Philippines
Assessor, Commission on Higher
Education’s Institutional Monitoring and
Evaluation for Quality Assurance
Author: Methods of Research
Research Project Leader: Effectiveness of
Instructional Materials in Mathematics,
Statistics and Methods of Research
Extension Project Leader: Adopt-A- School
to Sinangguyan National High School on
Learning Assessment
Member: Central Mindanao University
Publication Board
Member, Central Mindanao University
Instructional Material Development Board
Highest Degree Obtained: Doctor of
Philosophy in Education major in Research
and Evaluation
Field of highest degree obtained: Education
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 5
Number of book chapters published in
English: 10
Number of books published in English: 6
Your primary areas of expertise: Curriculum
and Instruction, Assessment, Mathematics
Education, Research and Evaluation
Vicky Discaya Isonza, PhD Professor, Graduate School
Holy Cross of Davao College
Highest Degree Obtained: PhD
Field of highest degree obtained: Education-
Research and Evaluation
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 1
Editing or peer review experience (for
English-language journals): 1 with
Philippine Association of Institutions for
Research, Inc. and International Association
of Multidisciplinary Research
Primary areas of expertise: Counselling,
Psychology and Research and Evaluation
DR. MARIA RIO ABDON NAGUIT Director for Research
Jose rizal Memorial State University
Highest Degree Obtained: Doctor of
Philiosphy in Marine Biology
Field of highest degree obtained: Marine
Biology
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 12
Editing or peer review experience (for
English-language journals): 5
Primary areas of expertise: marine biology,
population genetics, mariculture,coastal
resource management,
DR. Evelyn R. Campiseño Vice President for Research, Extension and
Development/University Professor
Jose Rizal Memorial State University
Highest Degree Obtained: Doctor of
Education
Field of highest degree obtained:
Educational Management
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 21
Number of book chapters published in
English:
Number of journals published in English: 4
volumes
Primary areas of expertise: Education
SPAIN
Dr. Ángel F. Tenorio
Senior Lecturer Applied Mathematics Division. Dept.
Economics, Quantitative Methods and
Economic History. Polytechnic School.
Pablo de Olavide University. Spain
Certificado de Aptitud Pedagógica
(equivalent to the Postgraduate Certificate in
Education). Institute of Learning Sciences.
University of Seville, March 2001.
Doctor (Ph.D.), University of Seville,
December 2003
SRILANKA
Dr. Balasundaram Nimalathasan Senior Lecturer
Department of Accounting, Faculty of
Management Studies & Commerce,
University of Jaffna, Jaffna, Sri Lanka
Academic Degree
· Doctor of Philosophy.
· Higher National Diploma in Accountancy
(HNDA) Advanced Technological Institute
of Jaffna, Sri Lanka.
· Post Graduate Diploma in Management
(PGDM), University of Rajarata, Sri Lanka.
Number of refereed articles published in
English-language journals: 27
Number of book chapters published in
English:3
Number of books published in English: 3
THAILAND
Wichian Sittiprapaporn, Ph.D.
Senior Lecturer Department of Educational Psychology and
Guidance
Faculty of Education, Mahasarakham
University
THAILAND
Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Cognitive
Neurosciences
Seoul National University College of
Medicine, Funded by the Korea Foundation
for Advance Studies (KFAS), Seoul, Korea,
2007
Certificate in Cognitive Neurosciences
Helsinki Winter School of Cognitive
Neurosciences, Organized by the Cognitive
Brain Research Unit (CBRU), University of
Helsinki, Finland, 2005
Ph.D. in Neurosciences
Neuro-Behavioural Biology Center, Institute
of Science and Technology for Research and
Development, Mahidol University,
Thailand, 2002
USA
Dr. Prasanna G. Alluri, M.D., Ph.D. Resident Surgeon
Department of Surgery
University of Michigan Medical School
Highest Degree Obtained : M.D., Ph.D.
Field of highest degree obtained : Medicine
Primary areas of expertise : Medicine,
Biological Chemistry
Dr. Karni Singh Moshal, PhD NIH T32 Fellow
Cardiovascular Research Center, RI
Hospital
1 Hoppin Street, Coro West, Rm# 5100
Alpert Medical School of Brown University
Providence, RI
Dr. Ravinder Kodela Research Assistant Professor
Department of Physiology and
Pharmacology
City University of New York Medical
School, New York, USA
Field of highest degree obtained
Organic/Medicinal Chemistry
Primary areas of expertise
Organic/Medicinal Chemistry related
Cancer Research
Murali Gururajan, Ph.D. Research Scientist (Research Assistant
Professor)
Uro-Oncology Research Program Atrium 103, 8750 Beverly Blvd, Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA- USA Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D-
Immunology &Toxicology
Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA –Post
Doctoral Fellow
Mohan Goli, Ph.D. Senior Researcher
Department of Biochemistry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX-75235 Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D.
(Synthetic Organic Chemistry)
*Best Process Development Scientist from
Genentech Pharma Inc, USA(2007)
*Chemistry of the year 2010 from American
Chemical society at San Francisco C.A,
USA (2010)
Dr.Vicky Mody, Ph.D - Organic Chemistry University of Houston- Houston, TX
Co-Founder, Novaphene Inc.,
Associate Editor for Internet Journal of
Medical Update, and
Assistant Professor of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Basic Sciences,
Appalachian College of Pharmacy,
Oakwood, VA, 24631
Ms. Mingyan Chu
Senior Chemist Boehringer Ingelheim Chemicals, Inc.
Analytical Methods Development,
Petersburg VA 23805
Master of Chemistry, Queen’s University
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Yuehua Wei, PhD
Research Scientist
University of California, San Francisco
Field of highest degree obtained: Molecular
Pharmacology
Primary areas of expertise: molecular
biology, biochemistry, genetics, aging, cell
growth
2010, Ph.D. in Molecular bioscience,
Rutgers & Robert Wood Johnson Medical
School-UMDNJ, New Jersey;
2005, M.S. in Molecular Biology and
Biochemistry, Graduate University of
Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
YEMEN
Dr. Ali Saleh Alarussi PhD in International Accounting (University
Utara Malaysia UUM),2008
Title of the PhD thesis
( Determinants of voluntary Financial and
Environmental Disclosure on the Internet by
Malaysian Companies)
MSc in International Accounting (University
Utara Malaysia UUM), 2005
Title of the Master thesis
( Voluntary Financial Disclosure on the
Internet)
Dean of Business and Finance Faculty
Faj Attan 60 street
Sana'a, Sana
Yemen
International University Twintech
Technology (IUTT)
Field of highest degree obtained:
International Accounting
Primary areas of expertise: Accounting
(online reporting)
EDITORIAL POLICY
Papers must be submitted with the understanding that they have not been published
elsewhere (except in the form of an abstract or as part of a published lecture, review, or
thesis) and are not currently under consideration by another journal published by EISRJC
Ventures or any other publisher. The submitting (Corresponding) author is responsible
for ensuring that the article's publication has been approved by all the other coauthors. It
is also the authors' responsibility to ensure that the articles coming from a particular
institution are submitted with the approval of the necessary institution. Only an
acknowledgment from the editorial office officially establishes the date of receipt. It is a
condition for submission of a paper that the authors permit editing of the paper for
readability. All enquiries concerning the publication of accepted papers should be
addressed to [email protected]
ABOUT PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism is the use or close imitation of the language and ideas of another author and
representation of them as one's own original work. Duplicate publication, sometimes
called self plagiarism, occurs when an author reuses substantial parts of his or her own
published work without providing the appropriate references. This can range from getting
an identical paper published in multiple journals, where authors add small amounts of
new data to a previous paper.
Plagiarism can be said to have clearly occurred when large chunks of text have been cut
and pasted. Such manuscripts would not be considered for publication in EISRJ Journals.
But minor plagiarism without dishonest intent is relatively frequent, for example when an
author reuses parts of an introduction from an earlier paper. The editors will judge any
case of which they become aware (either by their own knowledge of and reading about
the literature, or when alerted by referees) on its own merits.
The paper containing the plagiarism will be obviously returned back to the author/s for
review, but we earnestly request the authors to avoid submitting plagiarized articles.
Editorial Policy
Disclaimer
E-International Scientific Research Journal Consortium (EISRJC)
make every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in its publications. However, the EISRJC and
its agents make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness or suitability for any purpose of the
Content and disclaim all such representations and warranties
whether express or implied to the maximum extent permitted by
law. Any views expressed in this publication are the views of the
authors and are not necessarily the views of the Editor/s or E-
International Scientific Research Journal Consortium (EISRJC)
Disclaimer
1. ANTIMICROBIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY PATTERN OF Staphylococcus aureus
ISOLATED FROM SURGICAL WOUND OF PATIENTS IN JOS UNIVERSITY
TEACHING HOSPITAL, NORTHCENTRAL NIGERIA
………Idighri, M. N. and Nedolisa, A.C., Egbujo, E.C
…1
2. SEROLOGICAL EVALUATION OF IMMUNITY AGAINST MEASLES IN
CHILDREN ATTENDING MURTALA MOHAMMED SPEACIALIST
HOSPITAL, KANO-NIGERIA
……Hamid, K.M, Mukhtar, M.D, Arzai, A.H, Yusuf,I, Mohammed, A.H,
Mainasara, A.S and Tofa, U.A
…8
3. OVERVIEW OF SYNTHESIS AND ACTIVITY OF COUMARINS
……….Monga Paramjeet K., Sharma Dipak, and Dubey Arti
…16
4. STUDY OF ZOOPLANKTON DIVERSITY AND SEASONAL VARIATION
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS IN
TULSHI RESERVOIR OF KOLHAPUR DISTRICT (M.S.), INDIA
……….. K. B. Koli, D. V. Muley.
…38
5. SPECIES DISTRIBUTION OF SPIDERS IN BARPETA DISTRICT OF ASSAM:
A DIVERSITY MEASURE
……… Suruchi Singh , A. Borkotoki and C. K. Sarmah
…47
6. EXISTING AND EMERGING RISKS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS GEO-
HYDROLOGICAL HAZARDS IN HINDU KUSH HIMALAYA REGION:
A COMPLEMENTARY STUDY
… Pradeep K. Rawat and Hari Krishna Nibanupudi
…58
Table of Contents
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
1
ANTIMICROBIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY PATTERN OF
Staphylococcus aureus ISOLATED FROM SURGICAL
WOUND OF PATIENTS IN JOS UNIVERSITY
TEACHING HOSPITAL, NORTHCENTRAL NIGERIA
Idighri, M. N.
1 and Nedolisa, A.C.
2Egbujo, E.C
3
1Solat Women Hospital, Jos Plateau State Nigeria.
2 Department of Microbiology Jos University Teaching Hospital.
3 Meena Histopathology Laboratory Services, Jos.
Author for correspondence: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from 200 cases of surgical
wounds of patients attending Jos University Teaching Hospital were examined. Out of the 200
samples examined Staphylococcus aureus was isolated in 61(30.5%). Others isolated were
Proteus spp 38(19%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa 34(17.5%), Escherichia coli 29(14.5%),
Klebsiella spp 25(12.5%), Streptococcus spp 3(1.5%) and Alkagenes 1(0.5%). No bacteria were
isolated in nine (9) samples. The age group with the highest number of isolate was (21-30) with a
frequency of 50%. Females (32%) were more infected than male (30%). The overall profile of
susceptibility pattern showed that Gentamycin and Erythromycin were more sensitive 89% and
74% respectively and Penicillin was the least sensitive 26%. The result of the study shows that
Gentamycin and Erythromycin are more effective in the management of Staphylococcus aureus
in this locality.
Keywords: Staphylococcus aureus, surgical wounds,
INTRODUCTION:
Wound is defined as a bodily injury caused by physical means with disruption of the continuity
of structures (Baker, 1980). Micro- organisms which are responsible for wound infections
depends on the surgical site, the study population and antimicrobial use within the hospital. The
most common organism in wound infection is Staphylococcus auerus (Taylor, 1992 and
Buwembo, 1990).Staphylococcus auerus remains a significant cause of mortality and morbidity
in tropical countries (Rasoul, et al, 2010; Onile et al, 1985). The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention estimates that approximately 500,000 surgical site infections occur annually in the United States
(Perencevich et al., 2003). If this figure is anything to go by, it then means that in third-world country
like Nigeria where such health statistical data are hardly documented calls for attention. Apart
from the increased discomfort to the patient and damage to certain surgical procedures, the
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
2
duration of hospital stay is prolonged, this adding to the financial burden of surgical management
(Hiramatsu et al, 1997). More recently, the problem has further been compounded by the
emerging cases of microbial resistance to Staphylococcus aureus (Akpaka et al,2006 and
Douglas, et al., 1998). The aim of the present study is to establish the incidence of
Staphylococcus aureus in surgical wounds, among male and female and its antibiotic sensitivity
pattern to various antibiotic in different age groups in this locality.
Staphylococcus aureus is a gram-positive cocci, catalase and coagulase positive bacterium.
MATERIALS AND METHOD:
This study was conducted in Jos University Teaching Hospital (JUTH) Plateau state Nigeria. A
total of 200 specimens obtained from patients who had undergone surgical operations in the
various surgical wards of the hospital comprising Casualty, Orthopedics, appendicitis and
Prostate operation.
Patients were enrolled after obtaining informed consent from them or guardians/attendants. Each
specimen was accompanied by such information as patients’ name, hospital number, ward
number, sex, age, date and clinical prognosis on admission, site and type of surgery and
antibiotic prophylaxis if any. Samples were collected with assistance of medical officers or ward
nurses during ward-rounds and before dressing. The specimens (Pus, Exudates or aspirates) were
aseptically obtained from surgical sites using sterile swab stick and sterile syringe.
The specimens were cultured on blood agar, chocolate agar and MacConkey agar plates. The
chocolate plate was incubated with increased carbon dioxide jar at 370 in the incubator. Culture
plates were examined after 24 hours incubation for growth and culture characteristic for
identification of the isolate by gram stain, catalase and coagulase testing according to standard
bacteriological procedures (Cheesbrough, 1993) each confirmed Staphylococcus aureus isolate
was prepared in peptone water to match 0.5 Macfarand turbidity standards.
A sterile well dried nutrient agar plate was inoculated by flooding with 6hours incubated broth.
Excess was drained off the plate, allowed to dry and using a sterile forceps the appropriate gram-
positive sensitivity disc was placed on it pressed gently to ensure contact with medium. The
zones of inhibition were measured and compared with national committee for clinical laboratory
standards guidelines (NCCLS, 1995).
RESULTS
The following results were obtained. Out of 200 patients with surgical wound attending Jos
University Teaching Hospital that were examined for bacterial growth and antibiotic
susceptibility pattern. The following results were obtained.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
3
Table I. The frequency of Staphylococcus aureus and other bacterial isolates in Jos University
Teaching Hospital
Bacterial species No. of Isolates (%)
Staphylococcus aureus 61(30.5)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 34(17.0)
Klebsiella specie 25(12.5)
Proteus specie 38(19.0)
Echerichia coli 29(14.5)
Streptococcus specie 3(1.5)
Alkaligenes specie 1(0.5)
Sterile culture(No growth) 9(4.5)
Total 200(100)
Table II. The Age group Distribution of the Staphylococcus aureus Isolates in Jos University
Teaching Hospital
Age Range (yrs) Number Tested Number
Positive (%)
0-10 45 17(38)
11-20 76 20(26)
21-30 20 10(50)
31-40 20 8(40)
41-50 24 2(8)
51-60 15 4(27)
Table III. Distribution of Staphylococcus aureus among Male and Female surgical patients in
Jos University Teaching Hospital
Sex Number Tested Number
Positive (%)
Male 116 34(30)
Female 84 27(32)
Total 200 61
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
4
Table IV. Age group Susceptibility patterns of Antibiotics tested on Staphylococcus aureus
isolated in Jos University Teaching Hospital
Age Isolates PEN GEN CHL AMP TE ERY STR
CLO 0-10 17 4(24) 12(71) 4(24) 8(47) 11(65) 12(71) 10(59)
7(41) 11-20 20 6(30) 19(95) 13(65) 6(30) 14(70) 15(75) 9(45)
11(55) 21-30 10 3(30) 10(100) 5(50) 4(40) 7(70) 8(80) 5(50)
5(50) 31-40 8 3(38) 7(88) 6(75) 6(75) 4(50) 5(63) 6(75)
6(75) 41-50 2 0(0) 2(100) 1(50) 2(100) 1(50) 1(50) 0(0)
1(50) 51-60 4 0(0) 4(100) 4(100) 2(50) 3(75) 4(100) 2(50)
3(75)
Key: PEN – Penicillin; GEN – Gentamicin; CHL – Choramphenicol; AMP – Ampicillin; TE –
Tetracycline; ERY – Erythromycin; STR – Streptomycin; CLO – Cloxacillin
Table V: Antibiotic sensitivity and resistant pattern of Staphylococcus aureus in Jos University
Teaching Hospital
Type of Antibiotic No. tested No. sensitive %Sensitive %Resistant
Penicillin 61 16 26 74
Gentamicin 61 54 89 11
Choramphenicol 61 33 54 46
Ampicillin 61 28 46 54
Tetracycline 61 40 66 34
Erythromycin 61 45 74 26
Streptomycin 61 32 53 47
Cloxacillin 61 33 54 46
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
5
DISCUSSION
This study shows the occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus from surgical wounds of in –patients
admitted in Jos University Teaching Hospital, North Central Nigeria in which two hundred (200)
samples were analyzed, table 1 shows the frequency of occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus
and other bacterial isolates in pure cultures. Staphylococcus aureus had the highest number of
occurrence 30.5%(61) while Streptococcal species and Alkligenes species had the least frequency
occurrence of 1.5%(3) and 0.5%(1) respectively. These findings agree with previous findings
(Amrita Shriyan, et al.,2010; Anguzu and Olila, 2007) who reported that the most single cause of
post-operative wound infection was Staphylococcus aureus. A high frequency of occurrence was
recorded among the female patients 32% than male patients with 30% (Table III). The
difference seems to be too small although statistical difference was not determined.
However, the result shows an increased prevalence of the gram negative bacterial organism in
the surgical wounds analyzed compared to the gram positives. This is in line with other findings
(Anguzu and Olila, 2007; Anbumani et al.,2006), indicating increase or equal prevalence of
gram negative to gram positive organisms in hospital wound infection. Hence, suggesting the
need to also look at antibiotic susceptibility pattern of gram negative organisms in future studies.
Staphylococuss aureus has been documented to be most liable to infect new born babies, surgical
patients, old and malnourished persons and patients with diabetes and other chronic disease (Tou
et al, 1995).Table II which shows that age group of 21-30 has the highest percentage of isolate of
50%, and followed closely by the age group of 31-40 with 40%. This result disagrees with the
findings of Law and Wrong, (1980) that patients in the age group greater than 40 years were
associated with higher surgical wound infection and that of (Nwankwo and Nasiru, 2011) that
observed higher frequency in age group (0-10) and older children. Although this study
concentrated on surgical wound infections only while (Nwankwo and Nasiru, 2011) worked on
isolation of Staphylococcus aureus on different samples. However, a relatively high positive
culture was equally observed in patients within the age group of 0-10years (36%) in this study.
Looking at Table IV and V, the antibiotic susceptibility test revealed that in all the age groups,
the isolates showed a marked sensitively to Gentamycin followed by Erythromycin.
Staphylococcus aureus sensitivity to Gentamycin in this study was 89% which agrees with
(Nwankwo and Nasiru, 2011; Paul et al 1982 and Ndip et al 1997). A marked resistance to some
of the commonly used and relatively safe antibacterial agents was also observed (TableIV and
V), for example Staphylococcus aureus shows some level of resistance to all the antibiotics used
with penicillin(Table V) having the highest resistance in this work which could be attributed to
interplay of many factors ranging from abuse of drugs by patients, unrestricted use of broad
spectrum antibiotics for prophylactic measures prior to surgery or operatively without resorting
to sensitivity testing. The compromise by some surgeon substituting antibiotic prophylaxis and
chemotherapy for basic surgical principle has been revealed. For example, it was noted that out
of 218 post-operative patients studied 180(82%) received antibacterial agents immediately post-
operatively, 120(68.33%) of which receive antibacterial agents containing Cloxacillin (Njoku-
Obi and Ojiegbe 1986). They therefore suggested that such practice while necessary, might
seriously affect the number and the type of organisms isolated from wound infections and their
antibiotic susceptibility patterns. The resistance of Staphylococcus aureus to Penicillin and other
antibiotics can be due to the production of beta-lactamase or possession of extra chromosomal
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
6
factor, R-factor or plasmids. In this study, beta-lactamase was not tested for in the
Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated. It is essential that this should be done from time to time
to determine the best drug for treatment. Several workers have observed that the prevalence of
Beta-lactamase producing Staphylococcus aureus vary greatly in different countries and at
different time. In the United State, Nafcillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus accounted for 0.1%
of the isolates in 1970s while in the 1980s, it constituted 10-30% of isolates from nosocominal
infection (Basker et al., 1980) and (Haley et al., 1982). In contrast in Denmark Nafcillin
resistant Staphylococcus aureus constituted 40% of isolates in 1970s but only 10% in the 1980
without notable changes in the use of Nafcillin or other Beta-lactamase stable antimicrobial
drugs.
REFERENCE:
Amrita S, Sheetal R Narendra N. (2010). Aerobic Micro-Organisms in Post-Operative Wound
Infections and Their Antimicrobial Susceptibility Patterns. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic
Research, (4):3392-3396.
Anbumani N, Kalyan J, Mallika M(2006). Epidemiology and Microbiology of Wound
Infections. Indian Journal for the Practising Doctor. Vol. 3, No. 5 (2006-11 - 2006-12)
Anguzu J.R and Olila, D (2007). Drug sensitivity patterns of bacterial isolates from septic post-
operative wounds in a regional referral hospital in Uganda. African Health Sciences Vol 7.,148-
154.
Baker (1980). Medical Microbiology Techniques staining pp. 213-234
Basker M.J. Edmonden R.A, Sutherlande R. (1980) Comparative stabilities of Penicillin and
Cephalosporins to Staphylococcus beta-lactamase and activities against Staphylococcus aureus.
J. Antimicrobal chemotherapy 6: 34-41.
Cheesbrough M. Medical laboratory manual for Tropical countries. Vol 2, 1993, pp225-227
Douglas S.K, David C.C.; Charles W.S and Allen B.K (1998). Association of Bordeline
Oxacillin-Susceptiblity Strains of Staphylococcus aureus with Surgical Wound Infections.
Journal of Clinical Microbiology. P.219-222.
Hairamatus K, Hanaki H, Ino T, Yabuka K, Oguri T, Tenover F.C. (1997). Methicillin-resistant
Staphyloccus aureus clinical strain with reduced vancomycin susceptibility. Journal of
Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 40:135-136
Haley R.W (1982). The emergence of methicilline resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in
United States Hospital. Ann. International Medicine. 97:297
Lau W.Y and Wong S.H (1981): Randomized, prospective trial of tropical infection. High risk
factor American Journal of Surgery Vol. 142:393-7
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
7
NCCLS (1995). Perfomance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing, Sixth international
supplement. NCCLS documents M100-S6,Villanova, Pa.
Ndip R.N, Ebah L.M.E, Onile B.A.( 1997). Antibiogram of Staphylococcus aureus from clinical
Syndromes in Ilorin. Nigeria. J Med Lab Sci. 6:24-26.
Njoku-Obi A.N.U and Ojiegbe G.C. (1989): Resistance patterns of bacterial isolated from wound
infections in a University Teaching Hospital West African. Journal of Medicine. Vol. 8(1): 185-
189
Nwankwo E.O and Nasiru M.S (2011). Antibiotic sensitivity pattern of Staphylococcus aureus
from clinical isolates in a tertiary health institution in Kano, Northwestern Nigeria. Pan African
Medical Journal. 8:4
Onile B.A, Odugbemi T.O, Nwofor C.( 1985). Antibiotic susceptibility of Bacterial agents of
Septicemia in Ilorin. Nig Med Pract. 9(4): 16-18
Patrick E. A, Shivnarine K, William H .S and Michele M (2006). Prevalence and antimicrobial
susceptibility pattern of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from Trinidad&
Tobago. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials, 5:16
Paul M.O, Aderibie D.A, Sule C.Z.( 1982). Antimicrobial sensitivity patterns of hospital and non
hospital strains of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from nasal carriers. J Hyg Camb. 89:253-260.
Perencevich E.N, Sands K.E, Cosgrove S.E,(2003). Health and economic impact of surgical site
infections diagnosed after hospital discharge. Emerg Infect Dis.9(2):196-203.
Rasoul S. Hossein K, Mehrnaz R, Alireza A and Kheirollah G (2010).Antimicrobial
Susceptibility Pattern of Staphylococcus aureus Strains Isolated from Hospitalized Patients in
Tehran, Iran. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 6(2):125-132
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
8
SEROLOGICAL EVALUATION OF IMMUNITY
AGAINST MEASLES IN CHILDREN ATTENDING
MURTALA MOHAMMED SPEACIALIST HOSPITAL,
KANO-NIGERIA
*Hamid, K.M1, Mukhtar, M.D
2, Arzai, A.H
2, Yusuf,I
2, Mohammed, A.H
1, Mainasara, A.S
1and
Tofa, U.A3
1. School of Medical Laboratory Science, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, NIGERIA
2. Biological sciences Department, Bayero University Kano, NIGERIA
3. Microbiology Department, Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, Kano, NIGERIA
*Author for Correspondence: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Measles immunity status in Kano state has never been assessed, this study serve as relevant
serological evidence and a source of data for future references on measles immunity among
children in Kano. It was the interest of this research to determine the measles immunity status of
500 children aged less than 10 years. Blood sample from 500 children aged<10 years attending
Murtala Mohammed Specialist Hospital, Kano, Nigeria was collected and process to obtain a
serum. The serum was used to determine Haemagglutination Inhibion (HI) antibody using
Haemagglutination Inhibition Assay. Questionnaire was used to obtain demographic data of the
children relevant to the study. The protective titer in this study was ≥1:40. Of the 500 children
studied, 44 (8.8%) children had undetectable HI antibody titer, 128 (25.6%) children had HI
antibody titer <1:40 and 328 (65.6%) children had HI antibody titer ≥ 1:40. Of the 224 children
with history of measles infection, 123 (54.91%) were vaccinated and protected against measles
infection, 21 (9.38%) were vaccinated but unprotected, 43 (19.20%) were unvaccinated but
protected and 37 (16.52%) were unvaccinated and unprotected. Of the 276 children with no
history of measles infection, 148 (53.62%) were vaccinated and protected, 40 (19.49%) were
vaccinated but unprotected, 14 (5.07%) unvaccinated but protected and 74 (26.81%)
unvaccinated and unprotected. Statistically, there was significant association between measles
infection and protection against measles and also between measles vaccination and protection
against measles (P>0.05). The study found that a majority of the children had protective level of
HI antibody which implies that they were safe, few had undetected or low level of HI antibody,
and this means they were at risk of measles infection.
Key words: Measles, Haemagglutination Inhibition, Antibody, Immunity, vaccination,
Kano.
INTRODUCTION
Measles is a disease that harms children and spreads fast. It is preventable by vaccination.
Measles is still endemic in Nigeria and is a major cause of childhood illness and death.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
9
Elimination of measles has been achieved in some regions of the world; however, this has so far
been unattainable in the African continent (CDC, 2006). More than 20 million people are
affected each year by measles (WHO, 2008). In 2006 there were 242,000 measles death globally.
This translates to about 663 deaths everyday or 27 deaths every hour (WHO, 2008). In African
countries, there has been a remarkable increase in measles cases among children in recent years.
In Nigeria, there is an indication of general rise in the incidence of the disease in most of
northern Nigeria. A report from the Voice of America (VOA) indicates that many hundreds of
children have died in northern Nigeria since December, 2007. In the same report it was estimated
that in Katsina State, some 165 children had died and 3000 cases were reported in the preceding
three months. In Zaria City of Kaduna State over 200 children died and many more were
hospitalized (Gilbert, 2008).
The international medical organization, "Medicins sans frontiers "(MSR) reported that measles
infection rose by 670% in Kano in the first 21 weeks of 2001 over the same period in 2000.
Measles epidemic killed over 200 Children in Kano in December 2007(IRIN, 2008).
Development of immunity to this disease is either by congenital transfer of protective antibodies,
vaccination or infection by wild type (Anne et al., 1977).
The immunity status of children against measles in kano has never been assessed. It is the
interest of this study to carry out study on measles immunity among children using
Heamagglutination Inhibition (HI) test. Certain viruses posses the capacity to bind red blood
cells (RBC) of specific animal species at defined temperature. This binding produces visible
agglutination and is known as viral heamagglutination (Ochei and Kolhatkar, 2007). Measles
virus Heamagglutinate Monkey erythrocytes particularly patas or African green monkeys.
Heamagglutination inhibition of measles virus is an indication of the presence of antibodies
against the virus (Hsiung, 1982). In this study, measles immunity status of 500 children attending
the Murtala Mohammed Specialist Hospital, Kano was assessed using Haemagglutination
inhibition (HI) assay.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area: The study was carried out at the Murtala Mohammed Specialist Hospital, Kano.
The Hospital was selected for the study because it is one of the referral centers for pediatric cases
in Kano State.
Subjects: The subjects for the study were children under 10 years who were attending the
Hospital for treatment of measles and other diseases. Before collection of blood samples,
permission was sought from the Kano state Hospital Management Board.
Sample Collection and Distribution of Questionnaires
Sample Collection: A total of 500 blood samples were collected by vene puncture. The blood
was dispensed into a labeled screw capped container. It was then centrifuged at 2000g for
5minutes to obtain a serum. The serum was separated into a cryovials and stored at -20oC until
tested. However, before collection of blood samples from children, due consent from the children
was sought and after explaining the purpose and concept for the study.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
10
Demographic details of the subjects: Questionnaires were used to obtain demographic data of
the children, these includes age, sex, address, and history of measles and vaccination status.
Sourcing of Measles antigen: The measles antigen was obtained from Public Health Centralized
Immunization Clinic, University College Hospital Ibadan, Nigeria. The antigen was prepared by
the Serum Institute of India Limited.
Treatment of Patas monkey blood: Blood of Patas monkey was collected and dispensed into
Alserver’s solution and washed 3 times by centrifugation at 3000g for 10 minutes in Phosphate
buffer saline (PBS) (pH 7.0). A 10% stock suspension from the packed cells was prepared and
stored at 4ºC for not more than 1 week prior to use. A 0.5% suspension of packed cells was made
from the 10% stock just before use (Hsiung, 1982).
Serum treatment
Heat inactivation: - The serum samples were heated at 56ºC for 30 minutes to inactivate
compliment and hemolysin(Hsiung, 1982 and Ochei and Kolhatkar, 2007).
Removal of Naturally Occurring Unspecific Agglutinin: Each serum was diluted 1:5 with
phosphate buffer saline (pH7.0), and then mixed with 0.1 ml of 50% packed cell (washed and
packed). The mixture was placed in a refrigerator for 1 hour and then centrifuged for 10 minutes
at 2000g to remove the unspecific agglutinins which could give false negative result (Hsiung,
1982).
Kaolin treatment: This was done to remove non specific inhibitors present in the serum. A 25%
suspension of kaolin (acid washed) in phosphate buffer saline (pH 7.0) was prepared. One
milliliter of each serum diluted 1:5 was mixed with 1ml of the kaolin suspension, shaked
vigorously and allowed to stand at room temperature for 20 minutes, with intermittent shaking.
Centrifuged at 2000g for 30 minutes, the supernatant represent the treated serum at 1:10 dilution
(Hsiung, 1982).
Haemagglutination (HA) Test: About Twenty five microliter of PBS (pH 7.0) was dispensed
into each microtiter well plate using a micro dropper. Twenty five microliter of undiluted
measles antigen was added to the first well, and then 2-fold serial dilution followed, the last well
served as control. Twenty five microliter of 0.5% PRBC was added to all the wells and allowed
to settle at 37ºC for 1 hour (Ochei and Kolhatkar, 2007).
Haemagglutination Inhibition (HI) Test: About Fifty microliter of 1:10 dilution of the treated
serum was dispensed into first well of the microtiter plate and twenty five microliter of PBS (pH
7.0) was dispensed into the remaining wells. 2- Fold serial dilution was made up to 9th
well to
gives a range of 1:10-1:2560, last wells served as controls. Twenty five microliter of the 4HAU
of the measles antigen was added to each well except the 10th
and 12th
wells. The plate was
shook and the mixture was incubated at 37ºC for 1 hour. Twenty five microliter of 0.5% washed
packed cell in PBS was added to each well and the mixture was incubated at 37ºC for 1 hour or
when the cells in the control wells settled at the bottom. The result was then read (Ochei and
Kolhatkar, 2007).
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
11
Data Analysis: Identification of factors that may associate with protection or unprotection was
carried out by the chi-square using SPSS 16.0 version.
RESULTS
Haemagglutination Inhibition (HI) antibody titers’ obtained in this study were 1:10 to 1:320.HI
antibody titers < 1:40 were non-protective while HI antibody titers ≥ 1:40 were protective.
Overall result Showed that out of the 500 children surveyed, 65.6% had protective titer while
34.4% had non-protective titer (Table 1). This means that a majority of the children had a
protective antibody titer against measles (i.e. ≥ 1:40).
Table1: Measles immunity status of children in Kano- Nigeria
Sex Protected children (%) Non-protected children (%) Total
Male
181(68.56) 83(31.44) 264
Female
147(62.29) 89(37.71) 236
Total 328 172 500
Table 2 shows the level of Haemagglutination Inhibition antibody titer among the children by
age. Ten (40%) out of 25 children aged <1 year had no detectable HI antibody, while 4 (16%)
had 1:40 HI titer. None of the children aged less than 1 year had a HI titer above 1:80. Of 274
children aged 1-5 years, 31 (11.31%) had no detectable HI antibody, 77 (28.10%) had HI titer of
1:40 and 63 (22.99%) had HI titer of 1:20 and 6 (2.19%) had HI titer of 1:320. Of 201 children
aged 6-10 years, 3 (1.49%) had no detectable HI antibody titer, 43 (21.39%) had HI titer of 1:40,
36 (17.91%) of had HI titer of 1:20 and 16 (7.96%) had HI titer of 1:320.
Table 2: Haemagglutination Inhibition (HI) antibody titer among children in Kano-Nigeria
Age
group
(yrs)
HI titer
(%)
Total
Nil 1:10
1:20
1:40 1:80
1:160
1:320
<1 10 (40) 3 (12) 4 (16) 4 (16) 4 (16) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 25
1-5 31(11.31) 11(4.01) 63(22.99) 77(28.10) 50(18.25) 36(13.14) 6(2.19) 274
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
12
6-10 3 (1.49) 11(5.47) 36(17.91) 43(21.39) 39(19.40) 53(26.37) 16(7.96) 201
Total 44 25 103 124 93 89 22 500
Out of the 500 children, 224 had history of measles infection and 123 (54.91%) of the 224
children were vaccinated and protected, 21 (9.38%) were vaccinated but non-protected, 43
(19.20%) were non-vaccinated but protected, while 37 (16.52%) were non-vaccinated and non-
protected. Among the 500 children, 276 had no history of measles infection, 148 (53.62%) were
vaccinated and protected against measles, 40 (14.49%) were vaccinated but non-protected, 14
(5.07%) were non-vaccinated but protected, while 74 (26.81%) were non-vaccinated and non-
protected (Table 3)
There was significantly statistical association between measles infection and protection against
measles among the children at P>0.05. Similarly, there was significant association between
measles vaccination and protection against measles at P>0.05.
Table 3: Measles immunity status of children based on history of measles infection and
vaccination in Kano-Nigeria
Measles
infection
Vaccinated children Non-vaccinated children Total
Protected
(%)
Non-protected
(%)
Protected
(%)
Non-protected
(%)
Yes 123 (54.91) 21 (9.38) 43 (19.20) 37 (16.52) 224
No 148 (53.62) 40 (14.49) 14 (5.07) 74 (26.81) 276
Total 271 61 57 111 500
.
DISCUSSION
Result of the study indicate that a majority of the children had a protective antibody titer against
measles (i.e. ≥ 1:40) and few had non-protective antibody titer (i.e. <1:40).The study revealed
8.8% with undetectable HI antibody titer in their serum. While 5.0% and 20.6% had HI antibody
titer of 1:10 and 1:20 respectively. This implies that the level of HI antibody titer is low (i.e. <
1:40) which means it will not confer protection against measles. This undetectable level of
antibody may be attributed to some factors such as age, vaccination success, exposure to wild
type of measles virus, intercurrent illness, malnutrition etc. According to Zhuji (1987) for
children whose antibody levels fall to undetectable or low levels, re-infection and viral
replication may occur after subsequent exposure to wild virus which may boost the antibody
levels.
Among the vaccinated children that had history of measles infection, 21 (9.38%) were
unprotected, despite the measles infection and vaccination. The non protection was probably due
to poor potency of the vaccine, intercurrent acute illness, passive immunity, age of vaccination
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
13
and nutritional status. This is in line with the study of Cutts et al., (1995) who reported that the
proportion of children who develop protective antibody levels following measles vaccination
depends on the presence of inhibitory maternal antibody and immunologic maturity of the
vaccine recipient as well as the dose and strain of the vaccine virus. Frequently cited figures are
that approximately 85% of children develop protective antibody levels when given one dose of
measles vaccine at 9 month of age and 90% to 95% respond when vaccinated at 12month of age.
It has also been reported that very young infants (six month or younger) do not develop high
levels of neutralizing antibodies after immunization with attenuated measles virus vaccines even
in the absence of passively acquired maternal antibodies (Siegrist 2001). In a study by Krober, et
al. (1995). It was found that lower seroconversion rates after measles vaccine in 15 to 18 month
old febrile children with rhinorrhea compared to controls without rhinorrhea.
Among the vaccinated children without history of measles infection, 40 (14.49%) were
unprotected (Table 3). This is true because an earlier study showed that the antibody induced by
vaccination decline overtime and may become undetectable. Nevertheless, immunological
memory persists and following exposure to measles virus most vaccinated persons produce a
measles virus-specific immune response without clinical symptoms (Moss et al., 2007). Also the
duration of immunity following measles vaccination is more variable and shorter than following
wild type measles virus infection, but persists for decades (Flugstrud et al., 1997).
The study showed that there are a significant number of children (19.20%) that suffered measles
based on their history and were unvaccinated and they were also protected against measles
impliedly due to the exposure to measles virus. The duration of protective immunity following
wild type measles virus infection is generally thought to be lifelong. This reason and the
observation made by Peter Panum (1940) that during the epidemic on the isolate Faroe Islands
demonstrated the long-term protective immunity conferred by wild type measles virus infection.
Two measles epidemics occurred in this community decades apart. Adults with a history of
measles infection as children did not acquire measles after re-exposure 65 years later. Also the
possibility of re-exposure with the wild type of measles virus is high because of the location of
the sampled children. Studies in the Republic of Senegal suggested that subclinical boosting of
antibody levels may result from frequent exposure in regions where measles virus is circulating
(Whittle et al., 1999).
The study also showed that 14 (5.07%) of unvaccinated children that have no history of measles
infection, were protected (Table 3). This is probably due to passive immunity acquired from
mother, which is enough to confer immunity against measles. Black and Yannet (1960) had
earlier reported protective efficacy of antibodies to infants from passively- acquired maternal
antibodies.
Also from Table 3, 37 (16.52%) children that have history of measles infection and were non
vaccinated and non protected. This is probably due to low titer because the significant titer in this
study is ≥ 1:40, and also the children probably were not re-exposed to the wild type of measles
virus after the first exposure. Consequently, the antibody level may become undetectable or
lower until when re-exposed again. This is in agreement with the suggestion by Schuederberg et
al., (1973) that when measles antibody falls to low levels, re-exposure to measles virus (wild or
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
14
vaccine virus) stimulate memory cells, which remain dormant after the initial infection and
primed to produce a measles specific response.
In comparison with the above findings, Janal et al., (2011) had conducted a serological survey of
measles immunity among 479 elementary school children. Their finding confirms durable
immunity and low rate of vaccine failure following live attenuated measles vaccination. They
suggested that maternal antibody interferes with the active immune response in children
immunized when <1year of age because the group of children had significantly lower titer and
significantly were more susceptible than the children immunized when ≥ 2 years.
Also a community – based survey to determine the prevalence of measles HI antibodies among
children in Santa Cruz Bolivia was conducted by Bartoloni et al., (2004) reported that measles
vaccine coverage in the children was 77% and 1439 (87%) had detectable HI antibody, but a
high proportion had antibody levels below 200miu (30-40%).They associated measles
seronegativity with not being vaccinated against measles, negative history of measles disease and
young age. Of 212 children without detectable measles antibody, 123 (58%) had a positive
history of vaccination or measles disease, they noted that historical information was not
sufficiently reliable to identify susceptible. These findings are in line with the finding of this
study. However, there is disparity pertaining protective titers which depends on country.
CONCLUSION
The study revealed that majority of the children had protective HI antibody titer (65.6%), while
few (34.4%) had either undetectable antibody or low levels of HI antibody titer (i.e. <1:40),
which will not confer protection. The protection was due to passive immunity, vaccination with
potent vaccine and /or exposure to the wild type of measles virus. The lack of protection was
perhaps due to non-vaccination, loss of passive immunity, loss of vaccine potency, intercurrent
acute illness, age, immune compromised condition or malnutrition.
REFERENCES:
Anne, S.Y., Joseph, H.D., Lawrence, A.R., Biot, H. Measles Immunization success and failure
JAMA 1977, 237-35
Bartoloni, P., Cutts, F.T., Guglielmetti, F.G., Brown, M.L. and Roselli, M. Prevelence of
measles antibody among children under 15 years of age in santa cruz, Bolivia; implications for
vaccination strategies.January-febuary 1995,pp 119-122
Black, F.L. and Yannet, H. Inapparent Measles after gammaglobulin administration. JAMA 1960,
73:1183-8
Centers for Disease Controls and Prevention. Vaccine preventable deaths and global
immunization vision and strategy. MMWR 2006, 55:511-5
Cutts, F.T., Grabowsky, M., Markowitz, L.E. The effect of dose and strain of live attenuated
measles vaccine on serological responses in young infants. Biologicals 1995, 23:95-106.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
15
Flugsrud, L.B., Rid, T.O., Aasen, S., Bendal, B.P. Measles antibodies and herd immunity in 20-
and 40-year –old Norwegians scand. J Infect Disease 1997, 29:137-40
Gilbert Da Costa. “Measles outbreak hits northern Nigerian State” 2008
Voice of America (V.O. A)
Hsiung, G.D. Diagnostic virology. 3rd
edition, 1982 Yale university press, U.S.A pp 40-41
Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN) NIGERIA: Measles Cases increases by nearly
700% in Kano.2001 UN’s IRIN Humanitarian information unit.
Janal, M.K., Paul, G.Q. and Henry, H.B. Measles susceptibility among elementary school
children. Am. J. Epidemiol 2011, 173:2
Krober, M.S., Stracener, C.D., Bass, J.W. Decreased Measles antibody response after Measles-
Mumps-Rubella vaccine in infants with colds. JAMA 1991, 265:2095-2096.
Moss, W.J., Scott, S., Mugala, N., Ndhlovu, Z., Beeler, J.A., Audet, S.A. et al. Immunogenicity
of standard-titer measles vaccine in HIV –infected and uninfected Zambian children, an
observational study. J. Infect. Disease 2007, 196:347-55.
Ochei, J. and kolhatkar, A., Medical laboratory science theory and Practice .6th
ed 2007 Tata
McGraw Hill publishing company Ltd pp 864
Panum, P.L. Observation made during the epidemic of measles on the Faroe Islands 1940. New
York. Delta Omega society.
Schluderberg, A., Lamm, S.H., and Landrigan, P.J. Measles immunity in children vaccinated
before one year of age. Am J Epidemiol 1973, 97:402-409
Siegrist, C.A. Neonatal and early life vaccinology. Vaccine 2001, 19:3331-46.
Whittle, H.C., Aaby, P., Samb, B., Jensen, H., Bennett, J., Simondon, F. Effect of subclinical
infection on maintaining immunity against measles in vaccinated children in West Africa. Lancet
1999, 353:98-101.
World Health Organization (2008): ‘Measles’. WHO Media Center
Zhuji, YY. Epidemiologic Examination of immunity period of Measles vaccine (Chinese). Chin
Med J 1987, 67:19-22
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
16
OVERVIEW OF SYNTHESIS AND ACTIVITY OF
COUMARINS
Monga Paramjeet K.1, Sharma Dipak
2, and Dubey Arti
1Department of chemistry, Shreeneelkantheshwar Govt. P.G. College, Khandwa, M.P. India
2Department of chemistry, Maharaja Ranjit Singh College of Professional Science, Indore, M.P.,
India
Author for Correspondence: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Coumarins is well known plant derived natural product which is extensively used as a biological
active compound. Natural and synthetic coumarins were verified to have antioxidant, anti
inflammatory, anticoagulation, estrogenic, dermal photosensitizing, vasodilator, molluscicidal,
anti helmentic, sedative, hypnotic, analgesic, hypothermic and antiulcer activities. The utility of
microwaves in coumarins synthesis is now receiving considerable attention. Formation of
coumarin derivatives using microwave irradiation in excellent yields, solvent free reactions
condition with good purity. Dietary exposure to benzopyrones is quite significant, as these
compounds are found in vegetables, fruits, seeds, nuts, coffee, tea and wine. It is estimated that
the average western diet contains approximately 1 gm day of mixed benzopyrones. This review
is based on recent studies of coumarins and coumarin related compounds. Therefore the focus
will be on these relevant compounds and their pharmacological importance along with the
various microwave synthesis method and its comparison with conventional method of synthesis.
Key words: Coumarin, microwave synthesis, pharmacological activities, SAR, various
synthesis.
INTRODUCTION:
Coumarin agents (known as 1,2-benzopyrone), consisting of fused benzene and α-pyrone rings
are present in significant amounts in plants and more than 1300 coumarins were identified from
natural sources1. These natural compounds serve as important models for advanced design and
synthesis of more active analogous coumarins that possess were shown to have potent
antioxidant and radical- scavenging properties in various experimental models2.
The synthesis of coumarins and their derivatives has attracted considerable attention from
organic and medicinal chemists for many years as a large number of natural products contains
this heterocyclic nucleus3. They are widely used as additives in food, perfumes, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals4 and optical brighteners
5 and dispersed fluorescent and laser dyes
6. Thus the
synthesis of this heterocyclic nucleus is of much interest. Coumarins have been synthesized by
several routes including pechmann7, perkin
8, knoevenagel
9, reformatsky
10 and wittig
11 reactions.
Coumarins also exhibits anticoagulant activity and some coumarin drugs are widely used as
anticoagulants- warfarin and acenocoumarol12-16
. In recent years researchers have applied
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
17
microwave as a tool in order to minimize reaction time, avoid side products, increase yield and
simiplify the course of reactions for combinatorial chemistry17
. These investigation have
revealed their potentials as versatile biodynamic agent for example 3-heteroaryl substituted
coumarins and benzocoumarins of potential interest as pharmaceutical and, photochromic dyes18
.
Similarly aromatic chalcones and heteroaromatic chalcones synthesized from 3-acetyl coumarin
with aromatic and heteroaromatic aldehyde exhibit high potency as antibacterial agent19
.
Introduction of fluoro and sulfonamide moieties into coumarin side chain improve the biological
activity of compound20
. Specifically 1,5 substituted benzothiazepine21
are well known
compounds for diverse therapeutically properties like antimicrobial22
, antihypertensive23
,
calcium channel blocker24
, blood platelet aggregation inhibitory25
, and coronary vasodilatory
effects26
. Furthermore isoxazoline derivative of coumarins and chalcones possesses antibacterial
activity against bacteria (gram+ve) and (gram-ve) and antifungal activity27
and also 3-
bromoacetyl coumarin with thiazo group (Schiff bases) possess a broad spectrum of biological
importance28
. The coumarins containing a Schiff base are expected to have enhanced antitumor
and other biological activity29
. In the same the presence of a quinoline nucleus in the frame work
of various pharmacologically active compound and they are valuables synthons used for the
preparation of nano and meso structures with enhanced electronic and photonic properties30
. It is
well known that the biological activity associated with the hydrazone compounds attributed to
the presence of the active pharmacophore (-CONH-N=C-). Hence many hydrazone compounds
containing this active moiety showed good anticancer bioactivities29
. This is an attempt has been
made to compare both the system of synthesis at various stages, so that it can spark new thoughts
on synthetic methodologies, reactivity pattern and biological activities.
Table No 1 : Pharmacological activities of Coumarins
S.
No.
Authors Structure
Pharmacological
Activity
Catalyst
1 J.T. Desai
at.el. 2008
Ref.No.27
OO
N
S
NH
ON
R
Anti microbial,
anti fungal, anti
inflammatory
agent, anti HIV
Hydroxyla
mine
hydrochlo
ride
NaOH –
catalyst
Methanol-
solvent
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
18
2 Bhanvesh
Naik
et.al.2006
Ref.No.28
O O
N
S
N CH R
Antimicrobial,
fungicidal,
antibacterial, anti
coagulant, anti
allergic
Methanol
3 Bhanvesh
Naik
et.al.2006
Ref.No.28
N
S
N
Cl
R
O
Antimicrobial,
fungicidal,
antibacterial, anti
coagulant, anti
allergic
DMF
4 V.S.V.
Satyanara
yana et. al.
2008
Ref.No.29
R N
NH
O O
CH3
O
O
Antibacterial,
antifungal, anti
tumor activity
Solvent
free
5 I.R.
Siddiqui
et.al.2010
Ref.No.30 N
R1
R2
R3 CH3
N
O
NH
O
R4
Anti asthmatic,
antibacterial, anti
fungal, anti
malarial, anti
viral, anti
inflammatory
InCl3 in
ethanol
6 F.
Matloubi
Moghadd
m et. al.
2009
Ref.No.31
R O O
R1
Antimicrobial and
anti chemo
therapeutics
Solvent
free
condition ZrOCl2.8H2O
Catalyst
7 DH More
et.al. 2011
Ref.No.32
OR
1
R2
R
O
Cancer therapy,
anti
inflammatory,
antiviral
H2SO4
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
19
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Microwave Synthesis:
Solvent free synthesis of 3-substituted coumarins:The ZrOCl2.8H2O shows high catalytic
activities for the synthesis 3-subsituted coumarins via knoevenagel condensation under solvent
free conditions by microwave heating. The procedure offers several advantages including the
low loading of catalyst, high yields clean reaction and the use of a variety of substrate which
makes it a useful of attractive strategy for the synthesis of 3-substituted coumarins31
.
ROH
H
O
+R
1
OEt
OZrOCl2.8H2O
MW 6 min.
RO O
R1
Synthesis of thiazole derivative of coumarins: Substituted 2-amino-4-(coumarin-3-yl) thiazole
was synthesized from the reaction of 3-bromoacetyl coumarin with thiourea. The condensation
of this compound with substituted aldehydes was carried out both conventional and microwave
method to get 2- N-(substituted benzylidine) imino-4-(coumarin-3-yl) thiazoles (schiff base). In
conventional method the reaction was carried out in methanol and it took 5 to 6 hr. but it took
only 2 to 3 min. under microwave irradication28
.
OO
S
N
NH2
OHC
R
+
conventional
5-6 hr.
methanol
microwave
2 to 3 min.
O O
S
N
N CH
R
MWI using InCl3 catalyst:Synthesis of highly subsituted 1-H-quinolin-2-one derivatives based
on the MCR of isatin, hydrazine and coumarins under microwave irradiation in the presence of
10 mol% of InCl3 using ethanol as a solvent, The usual work-up gave the corresponding 1-4-
quinoline-2- one in excellent yields30
.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
20
O O
CH3
R1
R2
R3
+ NH2-NH2 +NH
O
O
R4
10 mol % InCl3
MWNR1
R2
R3 CH3
N
O
NH
O
R4
Synthesis of coumarin derivative under solvent free condition:The ethyl 2[(4-methyl-2-oxo-
2H-chromen-7-yl)oxyl]acetate is obtained by Hydroxy -4-methyl-2H- chromen- 2-one and ethyl
chloro acetate in solvent free condition under microwave irradiation29
.
OOH
O
CH3
+ C
CH2
O
C2H5
Cl
O
O
CH3
OO
H5C2O
O
Natural coumarins possessing anti-HIV activity
Dipyranocoumarins-Calanolides(+)-Calanolide A, (+)-[10R, 11S, 12S]-10, 11-trans-dihydro-
12-hydroxy-6,6,10,11-tetramethyl-4-propyl-2H, 6H-benzo[1,2-b:3,4-b’:5,6b”] tripyran-2-one, is
a novel nonnucleoside RT inhibitor (NNRTI) with potent activity against HIV-1.
CostatolidesTwo isomers of calanolide A, (-)-calanolide B (costatolide) and (-)-
dihydrocalanolide B (dihydrocostatolide), possess antiviral properties similar to those of
calanolide A. Each of these three compounds has properties of NNRTIs. The calanolide
analogues, however, exhibit enhanced antiviral activity against drug-resistant viruses after
NNRTI treatment. Costatolide and dihydrocostatolide are highly effective inhibitors of clinical
strains, including those representing various HIV-1 clades, Sis, NSIs, T-and M-tropic isolates.
InophyllumThe seeds of Calophyllum cerasiferum vesque (Family-clusiaceae) and calophyllum
inophyllum linn.(Family-clusiaceae) contain several known coumarins, among them the potent
HIV-1 RT inhibitors costatolide and inophyllum P. calophyllum cerasiferum contained (-)-
calanolide B33
.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
21
Table No 2: Comparison between microwave-assisted and conventional method of synthesis
in terms of yield and time: 27
S No Structure Microwave
Irradiation
Conventional
Heating
Ref.
No.
Time
(min)
Yield
(%)
Time
(hr.)
Yield
(%)
1 O O
N
SNH
ON
O
OCH
3 92 7.5 _ 34
_ 34
2 O O
N
SNH
ON
CH
2.5 90 6.5
3 O O
N
SNH
ON
Cl
2.5 90 7.0 _ 34
4 OO
N
SNH
ON
Cl
2.5 91 6.0 _ 34
5 OO
N
SNH
ON
Cl
Cl
3.0 92 8.0 _ 34
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
22
6 O O
N
SNH
ON
H3CO
2.5 94 7.5 _ 34
7 O O
N
SNH
ON
OCH3
2.5 91 8.0 _ 34
8 O O
N
SNH
ON
OCH3
OCH3
OCH3
3.5 92 9.0 _ 34
9 O O
N
SNH
ON
N(CH3)2
3.5 94 8.5 _ 34
10 O O
N
SNH
ON
O
3.0 91 7.5 _ 34
Table No 3: Comparison between microwave-assisted and conventional method of
synthesis in terms of yield and time: 28
S.
No Structure Microwave
Irradiation
Conventional
Heating
Ref.
No.
Time
(min)
Yield
(%)
Time
(hr.)
Yield
(%)
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
23
1 OO
N
SN CH OH
OCH3
2.0 89 5 82 35
2
OO
N
SN CH
OCH3
OCH3
OCH3
2.0
80
5.0
76
35
3 O O
N
SN CH N(CH3)2
2.0 83 5.5 74 35
4 O O
N
SN CH
OH
1.5 88 5.5 80 35
5 O O
N
SN CH Cl
2.5 77 5.0 71 35
6 OO
N
SN CH
Cl
2.5 75 6.0 68 35
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
24
7 OO
N
SN CH
H3CO
2.0 86 5.5 78 35
8
O O
N
SN CH OCH3
1.5
90
6.0
81
35
9
OO
N
SN CH
Cl
Cl
2.5 81 6.5 72 35
10 OO
N
SN CH
NO2
2.5 78 6.0 70 35
11 O O
N
SN
O Cl
OH
OCH3
4.0 79 15 70 35
12 O O
N
SN
O ClOCH3
OCH3
OCH3
3.5 74 15.0 66 35
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
25
13
OO
N
SN
O Cl
N(CH3)2
3.5
78
16.0
60 35
14
OO
N
SN
O Cl OH
3.5 80 15 69 35
15
OO
N
SN
O Cl
Cl
3.0
77
15.0
65
35
16 OO
N
SN
O Cl Cl
3.5 70 16 60 35
17 OO
N
SN
O Cl
OCH3
3.5 75 16 68 35
18 O O
N
SN
O Cl OCH3
3.0 81 15.0 71 35
19
4.0
70
15.0
64
35
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
26
O O
N
SN
O Cl
Cl
Cl 20 O
O
N
SN
O Cl NO2
4.0 70 16.0 62 35
Table No 4: Comparison between microwave-assisted and conventional method
of synthesis in terms of yield and time: 29
S.
No Structure Microwave
Irradiation
Conventional
Heating
Ref.
No.
Time
(min)
Yield
(%)
Time
(hr.)
Yield
(%)
1
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
2 92.3 1.0 86.2 36
2
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
Cl
2 91.7 1.0 83.5 36
3
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
NO2
2.5 86.4 1.30 81.6 36
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
27
4
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
OH
2.5 87.6 1.0 84.3 36
5
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
OH
OCH3
3 80.5 2.0 76.8 36
6
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
NCH3 CH3
3 80.1 2.0 69.7 36
7
H3CO
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
OCH3
3 88.2 2.0 77.5 36
8
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
Cl
2.5 93.5 1.0 83.2 36
9
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
OCH3
OCH3
3 87.8 2.0 79.3 36
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
28
10
SBr
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
2 93.6 1.0 89.4 36
11
OCl
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
2.5 86.2 2.0 69.6 36
12
OO2N
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
2.5 83.5 2.0 64.8 36
13
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
O
2.5 84.7 2.0 66.1 36
14
S
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
2 92.7 1.0 86.1 36
15 NH
N
CH N NH
O
O
O
CH3
O
3 74.2 2.30 61.2 36
16
CH CH CH N NH
O
O
O O
2.5 81.3 2.0 72.6 36
Table No 5: Comparison between microwave-assisted and conventional method of synthesis
in terms of yield and time: 30
S.
No Structure Microwave
Irradiation
Conventional
Heating
Ref.
No.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
29
Time
(min)
Yield
(%)
Time
(hr.)
Yield
(%)
1
N
N
NH
H
HH
OH
CH3
O
O
5 87 _ _ 37,38
2
N
N
NH
H
H CH3
O
O
OH
H
5 83 _ _ 37,38
3
N
N
NH
H
OH CH3
O
O
H
OH
4 86 _ _ 37,38
4
N
N
NH
H
H CH3
O
O
H
H3CO
4 83 _ _ 37,38
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
30
5
N
N
NH
NO2
H CH3
O
O
H
OH
5 85 _ _ 37,38
6
N
N
NH
NO2
H CH3
O
O
OH
H
6 81 _ _ 37,38
7
N
N
NH
NO2
OH CH3
O
O
H
OH
5 84 _ _ 37,38
8
N
N
NH
NO2
H CH3
O
O
H
H3CO
6 81 _ _ 37,38
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
31
9
N
N
NH
CH3
H CH3
O
O
H
OH
6 82 _ _ 37,38
10
N
N
NH
CH3
H CH3
O
O
OH
H
5 84 _ _ 37,38
11
N
N
NH
CH3
OH CH3
O
O
H
OH
6 91 _ _ 37,38
12
N
N
NH
CH3
H CH3
O
O
H
H3CO
5 89 _ _ 37,38
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
32
Table No 6: Comparison between microwave-assisted and conventional method of synthesis
in terms of yield and time: 31
S.
No Structure Microwave
Irradiation
Conventional
Heating
Ref.
No.
Time
(min)
Yield
(%)
Time
(hr.)
Yield
(%)
1
O O
COOEt
5 86 1 55 39
2
O O
COOMe
5 84 1 55 39
3
O O
COPh
5 90 1 55 39
4
O O
CN
5 62 1 55 39
5
O O
COOEt
H3CO
5 88 1 55 39
6
O O
COPh
OCH3
5 92 1 55 39
7
O O
CN
OCH3
5
60
1
55
39
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
33
8
O O
COOEtBr
5 76 1 55 39
9
O O
COPhBr
5
84
1
55 39
10
O O
CNBr
5 66 1 55 39
11 EtOOC
O
O
5 69 1 55
39
12 PhOC
O
O
5 79 1 55 39
Table No 7: Comparison between microwave-assisted and conventional
method of synthesis in terms of yield and time: 32
S.
No Structure Microwave
Irradiation
Conventional
Heating
Ref.
No.
Time
(min)
Yield
(%)
Time
(hr.)
Yield
(%)
1 O
CH3
CH3 O
H
2-10 90 _ _ 40,41
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
34
2 O
CH3
CH3 O
H
2-10 89 _ _ 40,41
3 O
CH3
Cl O
CH3
2-10 95 _ _ 40,41
CONCLUSION
Coumarin and coumarin-related compounds have proved for many years to have significant
therapeutic potential. They come from a wide variety of natural sources and new coumarin
derivatives are being discovered or synthesized on a regular basis. Coumarin is a simple
molecule and many of its derivatives have been known for more than a century. However, their
vital role in plant and animal biology has not been fully exploited. It is evident from the research
described that coumarin and coumarin-related compounds are a plentiful source of potential
drugs candidate in relation to its safety and efficacy. New coumarin derivatives have been
synthesized using conventional and microwave heating mathodology and characterized. The
advantages in the use of microwave methodology are shorter reaction times, higher yields and
simplified work up procedures for the point of purification of the prepared compound. The
combination of solvent free reaction condition and microwave irradiation leads to significantly
reduced reaction times, enhanced conversions and sometime higher selectivity with several
advantages. The microwave irradiation is used for carrying out chemical transformations which
are pollution free and eco friendly so MAOS is considered as an “green” technology.
REFERENCES
Hoult J.R., Paya M., Pharmacological and biochemical action of simple coumarins: Natural
product with therapeutic potential, Gen. Pharmacol, 27, 713-22, 1996
Lin Mei-Hsiang, Chou Yu-shiang, Tsai Yan-Jyu, Chou Duen-suey, Antioxidant properties of
5, 7-dihydroxy coumarin derivatives in vitro cell-free and cell-containing system, Journal of
experimental and clinical medicine, 3(3), 126-131, 2011
3.Rajitha B., Kumar V. Naveen, Someshwar P., Madhav J. Venu, Reddy P. Narsimha and
Reddy Y. Thirupathi, Dipyridine copper chloride catalyzed coumarin synthesis via pechmann
condensation under conventional heating and microwave irradiation, ARKIVOC, (XII), 23-
27, 2006
O’kennedy R., Thornes R. D., /Coumarins: Biology application and mode of action ,John
wiley and sons, chichester, 1997
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
35
Zabradnic M., The production and application of fluorescent brightening agents, John wiley
and sons, Newyork, 1992
Murreey R.D., Mendez J., Brown S.A., The natural coumarins: occurrence, chemistry and
biochemisrtry, John wiley and sons, Newyork, 1982
Von pechmann H., Quisberg C., Ber., 17, 929, 1884
Johnson J.R., Org. React., 1, 210, 1942
Jones G., Org. React., 15, 204, 1967
Brafola G., Fringuelli F., Piermatti O., Pizzo F., Heterocycles, 43, 1257, 1996
Shringer R.L., Org. React., I, 1, 1942
Mazumder A., Wang S., Neamati N., Nicklaus M., Sunder S., Chen J., Milne G., Rice W.,
Burke T., Pommler Y., J. Med. Chem., 39, 2472, 1996
Kathuria A., Gupta A., Priya N., Singh P., Raj H.G., Prasad A.R., Parmar V.S., Sharma S.K.,
Bioorg. Med. Chem., 17 (4), 1550, 2009
Musicki B., Periers A.M., Laurin P., Ferroud D., Benedetti Y., Lachaud S., Chatreaux F.,
Haesslein J.L., IItis A., Pierre C., Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett., 10, 1695, 2000
Inoue Y., Kondo H., Taguchi M., Jinbo Y., Sakamoto F., Tsukamoto G., J. Med. Chem., 37,
586, 1994
Abdolmohammadi S., Balalaie S., Tetrahedron Lett., 48, 3299, 2007
Rafael martinz-palou, Ionic liquid and microwave assisted organic synthesis : A green and
synergic couple, J. Mex. Chem. Soc., 51(4), 252-264, 2007
Khadijah M. Al- Zaydi, Microwave assisted synthesis, part 1: rapid solventless synthesis of
3- substituted coumarins and benzocoumarins by microwave irradiation of the corresponding
enaminones, Molecules, 8, 541-555, (2003)
Olayinka O. Ajani and Obinna C. Nwinyl, Microwave assisted synthesis and evalution of
antimicrobial activity of 3 -{3- (s- aryl and s- hetero aromatic) acryloyl} -2H – chromen- 2-
one derivatives, Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 47, 179-187, (2010)
Hua Zuo, Geo Jose, Zhu-bo Li, Bu- Hyun Moon, Dong-Soo Shin and Manjunath Ghate,
Microwave assisted synthesis of fluorinated coumarino sulfonamides, ARKIVOC, (ii), 233-
244, (2008)
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
36
Jignesh P. Raval, Jignasu T. Desai, Chintan K. Desai and Kishor R. Desai, A comparative
study of microwave assistad and conventional synthesis of 2,3-dihydro- 2-aryl-4-[4-(2-oxo-
2H-chromen-3-yl)-1,3-thiazol-2-ylamino]-1,5-benzothiazepines and its antimicrobial
activity, ARKIVOC, (xii) 233-244, (2008)
Karal, B. K., Chavan V. P., Mame A. S, Hangarage R. V., Korean J. Med. Chem., 10 84,
(2000), Chem. Abstr., 134, 147581, (2001)
Kinoshita K., Mitani A., Hearse J. D., Braimbridge V. M., Manning S. H., J. Surg.Res. 97,
166, (1989), Chem. Abstr., 111, 126689, (1989)
Belusa J., Hruskova V., Haas Z., Kaminska Z., Picha F., Dusek J., Trefulka M., Kysilka V.,
Wojnar V., Chem. Abstr., 118, 2459706, (1992)
Padwad M., Ingle V.N., J Indian chem.. Soc., 76, 161, (1999)
Nikalje A. G., Ingle R. D., Bhingolikar V. E., Mane K. A., Indian J. Heterocycl. Chem., 13,
33, (2003)
J. T. Desai, C. K. Desai and K. R. Desai, A convenient, rapid and eco-friendly synthesis of
isoxazoline, heterocyclic moiety containing bridge at 2`-amine as potential pharmacological
agent, Journal of The Iranian chemical Society.5(1), 67-73, (2008)
Bhanvesh Naik and K. R. Desai, Novel approach for rapid and efficient synthesis of
heterocyclic shchiff bases and azetidinones under microwave irradiation, Indian Journal of
Chemistry, 45(B), 267-271, (2006)
V. S. V. Satynarayana, P. Sreevani, Amaravadi Sivakumar, and V. Vijayakumar, synthesis
and antimicrobial activity of new schiff bases containing coumarin moiety and their spectral
characterization, ARKIVOC, (xvii), 221-233, (2008)
I. R. Siddiqui, Shayna Shamin, Archana Singh, Vishal Srivastava and Sanjay Yadav, Moiture
compatible and recyclable indium (III) chloride catalyzed and microwave assisted efficient
route to substituted 1H-quinoline-2-ones, ARKIVOC, (xi), 232-241, (2010)
F. Matloubi Moghaddam, Z. Mirjafary and H. Sacidian, Microwave assisted synthesis of 3-
subsituted coumarins using ZrOCl2.8H2O as an effective catalyst, Scientia Iranica, 16(1),
12-16, (2009)
D. H. More and P P Mahulikar, Microwave assisted one-pot synthesis of nitrogen and
oxygen containing heterocycles from acyl meldrum’s acid, Indian Journal of Chemistry,
50(B), 745-747, (2011)
Nachiket S Dighe, Shashikant R Patton, Santosh S Dengale, Deepak S Musmade, Madhuri
Shelar, Vishal Tambe and Mangesh B Hole, Synthetic and pharmacological profiles of
coumarins : A review, Scholard Research Library, 2(2), 65-71, (2010)
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
37
K. G. desai, K. R. Desai, J. Iran Chem. Soc., 3, 233, (2006)
Sahu S. K., Mishra A. and Behera R. K., Indian J Heterocycl. Chem., 6, 91, (1996)
Miyano M., Clifford R. D., J., Org. Chem., 37, 259, (1972)
Al-Bayati, R. I., Al-Amiery A. A. H., Al Majedy Y. K. Afr. J. Pure. Appl. Chem.
4(6), 74, (2010),
Bishnoi A., Saxena R. Indian J. Hetreocyolic Chem., 11, 4750, (2011)
Ghosh R., Maiti S. and Chakraborty A., Facile catalyzed acylation of alcohols, phenols, amines
and thiols based on ZrOCl2.H2O and acetyl chloride in solution and in solvent free conditions,
Tetrahedron Lett., 46, 147-151, (2005)
More D. H., Powar N. S. and Mahulikar P. P., J. Sci. Ind. Res., 62, 1024, (2003)
More D. H., Powar N. S. and Mahulikar P. P., Russian J. Gen .Chem., 74(2), 244, (2004)
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
38
STUDY OF ZOOPLANKTON DIVERSITY AND
SEASONAL VARIATION WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO PHYSICOCHEMICAL
PARAMETERS IN TULSHI RESERVOIR OF
KOLHAPUR DISTRICT (M.S.), INDIA
K. B. Koli*, D. V. Muley.
Department of Zoology, Shivaji Univesity Kolhapur- 416004
Author for correspondence:: [email protected]
ABSTRACT:
Zooplanktons are microscopic organisms, acts as integral components of aquatic food web and
contribute significantly to productivity of freshwater ecosystems. They are performing at second
trophic level in energy flow and switch over to conversion of detritus matter into edible animal
food. In this study, we tried to assess the zooplankton species richness, diversity, evenness and to
predict the state of Tulshi reservoir according to physico-chemical parameters. The water
samples were collected fortnightly from different sites and studied the zooplankton diversity.
During present study, the physico-chemical parameters like atmospheric temperature, water
temperature, turbidity, pH, dissolved oxygen, salinity, total dissolved solids, chlorides, hardness,
biological oxygen demand and the plant nutrients like phosphates and nitrates were determined.
A total 39 species of zooplanktons have been found, of which 15 species of Rotifer, 12 species of
Copepod, 10 species of Cladocera and 2 species of Ostracoda have been found. Zooplankton
population showed positive significant co-relation with physico-chemical parameters like
temperature, alkalinity, phosphate, hardness and BOD. Whereas negatively correlated with
rainfall and salinity. Seasonal variations in zooplanktons was observed. The physico-chemical
parameters of Tulshi reservoir were suitable for the growth of aquatic biota and represent a
resource for scientific management of pisciculture practices by taking some precautions.
Key Words: Tulshi reservoir, Zooplankton diversity, seasonal variation, Physico-chemical
parameters.
INTRODUCTION:
Zooplankton constitute important food item of many omnivorous and carnivorous fishes. The
larvae of carps feed mostly on zooplankton (Dewan et al., 1977) because zooplankton provides
the necessary amount of proteins. The principal source of food for fish within the water body;
Zooplankton also plays a very important role in the food chain as they are in the second trophic
level as primary consumer and also as contributors to the next trophic level. Both the qualitative
and quantitative abundance of plankton in a fish pond are of great importance in managing the
successful aquaculture operation, as they vary from location to location and pond to pond within
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
39
the same location even within similar ecological conditions. Michael (1968) worked in detail on
the ecology of zooplankton population from different waters of India. Rotifers, Cladocerans,
Copepods and Ostracods constitute the major groups of Zooplanktons. They occupy an
intermediate position in the food web and mediate the transfer of energy from lower to higher
trophic levels (Waters, 1987). Being heterotrophic in nature, they play a key role in cycling of
organic materials in an aquatic ecosystem (Gupta and Sharma, 2007). Zooplankton communities
are typically diverse and are highly sensitive to environmental variation. Due to short life cycle,
zooplankton communities often respond quickly to environmental change (Sharma et al., 2007)
the changes in physico-chemical conditions of water can be reflected directly on the biotic
community of ecosystem. Zooplankton has great significance as pollution indicators. As a major
element in aquatic biota, the zooplankton community often exhibits dramatic changes in
response to the changes in the physico-chemical properties of the aquatic environment. Hence
zooplankton association, abundance, seasonal variation, richness and diversity can be used as for
the assessment of water pollution and for pisciculture management practices. The present study
analyses the one year data. (January 2010 to December 2010) of the zooplankton community
structure. Special attention is paid at analyzing species composition and seasonal pattern,
diversity and evaluating the relationships among different zooplankton groups and physico-
chemical parameters.
MATERIAL AND METHODS:
Collection of sample and sampling period: Water samples were collected fortnightly around
9.00 to 10.00 a.m. from selected four sites of Tulshi reservoir from January 2010 to December,
2010.
Zooplankton sampling and analysis: Zooplankton samples were collected by filtering 50 liters
of water through standard plankton net (77 mesh bolting silk) and the samples were fixed in 5%
of formalin. Zooplanktons were identified by keys given by Ward & Whipple (1959), Mellanby
(1963), Needham & Tonapi (1980) and Bhouyain & Asmat (1992). Analysis involved by
transferring of 1 ml sub sample from each of the samples to the Sedgewick-Rafter counter and
counting of cells within 10 squares of the cells, chosen randomly and Analysis was done on a
Sedgwick-Rafter counting cell, under compound microscope.
N = A × 1000 × c
V × f ×c
Where,
N= Number of zooplankton cells or units per liter of original water, A= Total number of
zooplankton counted, C= Volume of final concentration of the samples in ml, V=Volume of a
field in cubic mm, F= Number of fields counted, L= Volume of original water in liters, Statistical
analysis was done using SPSS programme.
Identification and calculation:
Zooplankton species identification was done with the help of standard references Moniruzzaman
(1997), Zheng Zhong et al.,(1984) Adoni et al.,(1985). Analysis of zooplanktons was carried out
using Sedgwick Rafter plankton counting cell quantitatively in accordance to Welch (1948).
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
40
Number of Zooplankton in the S-R cell was derived from the following formula APHA (1976).
No. of Species/ L= C × 1000 mm3
L × D × W × S
Here,
C = No of organisms counted, L = Length of each stripe (mm), D = Depth of each stripe (mm)
W= Width of each stripe (mm), S= Number of stripes.
Community structure analysis: To obtain the estimation of species diversity and species
richness by two indices.
1) Shannon and Weaver (1949) and Simpson (1949) diversity index value was obtained using the
following equation:
D = Σ Pi2 (log Pi) (Shannon’s index)
i = I
D = Σ Pi2 (Simpson index)
i = I
Where
Pi = is the proportion of the first species, the proportions are given Pi= ni/N
2) Species richness (R1 and R2) was obtained using the equation.
R1 = (S - 1) / log N (Margalef, 1951)
R2 = S √n (Menhinick, 1964)
Where:
R = is the index of species richness, S = total number of species, N = total number of individuals
Physico-chemical parameters:
Sample was taken from the selected pond and measured various types of physico-chemical such
as Temperature, turbidity and pH, DO, hardness etc. Water temperature was measured at each
station (four sites) using a Mercury thermometer. Water PH was measured by a bench top
electrometric pH meter. Transparency of water was measured by using Secchi disc. The sample
was taken from four different sites of the pond was measured and analysed by using relevant
equipments and chemicals in the laboratory. Different titrometric method was applied to
experiment, according to standard methods (APHA, 1989, 2005, 2008). Trivedi and Goel (1986).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
The monthly variations population dynamics of zooplanktons in Tulshi reservoir is shown in
table 1 and the monthly variations of the physico-chemical parameters are shown in Table 2. The
list of diversity Zooplankton species found during sampling in Tulshi reservoir and their
monthly variations in percent composition and percentage of zooplankton is shown in Tables 3
and 4.This study was conducted for a period of one year from January to December 2010 for
investigating the zooplankton diversity , abundance in relation to physico-chemical
characteristics of Tulshi reservoir . The fluctuations in the physico-chemical parameters, the
biological diversity are affected. So physico-chemical environment mainly controls the
biological diversity, species richness and population dynamics of zooplanktons.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
41
During this study the average water temperature of 4 sites of Tulshi reservoir recorded during
January to December 2010 was site I- 30.020
c (S.D = ±0-26), site II- 29.130c (S.D= ± 19 ), site
III- 27.96 0c(S.D= ±0.26) and site IV -28.1
0c (S.D=±24.23) respectively. The variation in water
temperature may be due to different timing of collection and the influence of season (Jayaraman
et al., 2003).Temperature controls behavioral characteristics of organisms,. No other factor has
so much influence as temperature (Welch, 1952).The rise in atmospheric temperature caused
enhancement in the evaporation rate and the positive correlation of Copepods with temperature
indicated that the copepods develop better in warm periods after winter. (Winkler, 2002). The
better development of copepods during warmer and of rotifers during colder years coincides with
the investigation of Heerkloss et al., (2005) and significantly higher for copepods and lower for
rotifers in warm years.
Transparency is a physical parameter in aquatic ecosystem and thus directly affects productivity.
Transparency was observed to be lowest 167cm) in January, 2005 and highest (178cm).
The pH recorded during the present study was generally of near neutral to alkaline range
suggesting that the lake water was well buffered throughout the period. During this study,
rotifers were found mostly at sites II (pH 9.0) and site III (pH 8.8) as compared to site I (pH 9.2),
and 4 (pH 9.2). This indicates the positive correlation of pH- value with rotifers. While as
Copepods were indicating a negative correlation of pH value with copepods. Relatively high
values of DO have been recorded in the present study. There are no drastic effects on planktons
because fluctuations in DO are less.
The highest total alkalinity was recorded at site IV and III site in the month of April and the
lowest in September at site I and II. Bhuiyan (1970) recorded the total alkalinity of medium
productive water body ranging from 25-100 mg/l. Chloride values in the present study were not
alarming in Tulshi reservoir.
Zooplankton diversity:
About 39 species of zooplanktons belonging to four major groups i.e Copepod, Rotifers
Cladocera and ostracods. Out of which 12 species of Copepods, 15 species of Rotifers, 10
species of Cladocera and 2 species of Ostracoda were identified and recorded in Table 5. During
the study period in Tulshi reservoir. Among the Zooplankton copepoda an Rotifera are dominant
group than the Cladocera and Ostracoda. Copepoda > Rotifera > Cladocera > Ostracoda.
Due to the presence of diverse Planktonic forms indicates good ecological condition of the
reservoir.
CONCLUSION:
Huge diversity of planktons in Tulshi reservoir indicates there is no pollution and play a pivotal
role in aquatic ecosystem and shows proper biogeochemical cycles. So Tulshi reservoir is very
good for natural pisciculture practices. The Physico-chemical environment mainly controls the
biological diversity. The positive correlation of Copepods and Rotifers with temperature
indicated that they develop better in March and April (warmer period). The positive correlation
of Copepods and Rotifers with pH- value indicated that they mainly prefer the alkaline medium
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
42
for their growth. Zooplankton abundance v/s transparency and also abundance of plankton v/s
total alkalinity shows positively correlations. Plankton abundance is negatively correlated with
water current velocity and free CO2.
Table 01.Monthly variations population dynamics in 1 ml. concentrate of Zooplankton
at Tulshi tank (Jan 2010-Dec 2010)
Months Rotifera Cladocera Copepoda Ostracoda
SITES SITES SITES SITES
I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV
Jan-
2010 564 419 534 329 423 393 324 543 765 678 876 657 321 145 786 654
Feb 543 324 548 453 432 239 235 214 983 876 821 657 214 77 324 234
Mar 734 654 231 436 438 456 432 235 987 765 765 675 328 543 129 176
April 543 521 437 432 211 342 475 435 1054 986 768 987 322 64 65 45
May 312 432 546 453 214 213 321 532 876 872 876 435 231 329 231 310
Jun 235 343 231 214 132 156 345 326 342 432 435 564 237 126 213 127
Jul 154 543 342 84 89 77 123 146 123 452 654 765 67 98 87 76
Aug 29 348 324 432 120 205 234 278 125 163 197 657 64 63 97 86
Sept 98 231 236 324 125 178 153 209 87 321 345 876 55 97 35 72
Oct 345 391 121 654 502 427 502 412 145 654 704 342 178 209 239 187
Nov 543 329 237 432 429 397 431 323 264 324 435 453 298 234 176 197
Dec 2010 432 530 439 254 456 411 398 549 862 765 879 765 343 325 198 205
Table 02. Annual average of physico-chemical parameters at site І, ІІ, ІІІ, ІV of Tulshi
tank(Jan 2010 to Dec 2010).
Physico-chemical Parameter Site I Site II Site III Site IV
Temperature (oc)
30.02
± o.26
29.13
±0.19
27.96
±0.26
28.01
±0.24.23
Turbidity (NTU) 12.05
±0.11
9.93
±1.23
9.23
±0.72
9.18
±0.94
Transparency (cm) 178.25
±1.45
167.58
±1.32
-
-
-
-
pH 9.2
±1.34
9.0
±1.45
8.8
±1.74
9.2
±1.65
D.O (mg/l) 7.42
±0.12
8.02
±0.13
7.68
±0.14
8.24
±0.14
Free co2 (mg/l) 0.49
±0.06
0.39
±0.07
0.42
±0.07
0.40
±0.07
Alkalinity (mg/l) 138.23
±2.65
132.54
±2.78
134.18
±3.54
139.23
±3.54
Hardness (mg/l) 113.24
±1.7
110.46
±1.9
104.56
±1.05
108.23
±1.9
Phosphate (mg/l) 0.07
±0.01
0.067
±0.01
0.8
±0.012
0.8
±0.016
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
43
Nitrate (mg/l) 0.65
±0.064
0.71
±0.o54
0.53
±0.059
0.63
±0.071
Chlorides (mg/l) 38.54
±0.54
37.98
±0.45
42.76
±0.44
39.65
±0.052
All the values presented in the table are average ± SD
Table 03. Average Monthly variations in percent composition of zooplankton in 1 ml.
Concentrate at Tulshi tank (Jan 2010-Dec 2010).
Months Rotifera Copepoda Cladocera Ostracoda
Jan-2010 36.48 30.40 22.04 15.06
Feb 27.90 42.41 13.14 18.53
Mar 31.41 42.41 12.59 15.57
Apr 26.30 51.77 10.85 13.06
May 21.21 51.26 10.94 18.56
Jun 24.86 50.35 1.89 24.88
Jul 36.60 28.41 16.15 17.82
Aug 12.78 35.85 37.84 21.51
Sept 36.08 2.35 55.91 2.13
Oct 29.86 9.45 40.40 18.27
Nov 34.95 14.41 27.47 22.15
Dec 2010 26.69 36.09 23.10 17.10
Table 04. Average Percentage of Zooplankton of Tulshi Tank
Zooplankton 2010
Rotifera 27.34
Copepoda 32.93
Cladocera 22.69
Ostracoda 17.05
Table 05 Diversity of Zooplankton in Tulshi Reservior at selected sites
Sr.
No
Zooplanktom species Sites
Rotifera I II III IV
1 Brachionus falcatus. +++ + ++ ++
2 Brachionus caudatus. + ++ ++ +
3 Brachionus forticula. + ++ ++ _
4 Brachionus calyciflorus +++ + + +
5 Brachionus angularis. + + ++ +
6 Brachionus vulgaris. + + _ +
7 Brachionus rubens. ++ + + _
8 Keratella tropica. _ + +++ +
9 Kellicottia sp. + ++ + +
10 Filinia terminalis. + + + _
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
44
11 Filinia branchiate + + + +
12 Asplanchana pilinia. + ++ + ++
13 Asplanchana brightwelli + + + +
14 Asplanchana priodonta + + + _
15 Testidinella mucronata + _ + ++
Copepoda ++ + + +
16 Diaptomus nauplius +++ + + +
17 Heliodiaptomus viddus + + ++ +
18 Neudiaptomus diaphorus ++ ++ + _
19 Rhinediaptomus indicus + + +++ +
20 Cyclopoid sp. + + ++ +
21 Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi ++ ++ + ++
22 Heliodiaptomus viduus + + + +++
23 Mesocyclop hyalinus. + ++ + +
24 Calanoid sp. ++ + _ _
25 Eucyclops sp. + ++ + +
26 Paracyclops fimbricatus. + + + +
27 Thermocyclops sp. + ++ + +++
Cladocera + + +++ +
28 Daphnia pulex + + + +
29 Daphnia caritiata +++ + + _
30 Diaphanosoma brachyarum + ++ + +
31 Macrothrix laticornis ++ + +++ +
32 Moina macrocopa + + + _
33 Lyneus sp. +++ + + +
34 Bosmina sp. + +++ + +
35 Allona sp. + + _ +++
36 Macrothrix laticornis + + + +
37 Euryalona oriantalis + + + _
Ostracoda ++ + _ _
38 Cypris sp. + + _ _
39 Stenocypris sp. + _ + +
REFERENCES:
Adoni, A.D., 1985. Work book of limnology. Pritibha Publication, Sagar, M.P., India.
APHA, 2008. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (21st ed.)
American Public Health Association AWWA,WEF, Washington, DC.
APHA, 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water (4 th ed.)
American Public HealthAssociation, Washington. 1125pp.
Bhouyain, A.M. & Asmat, G.S.M., 1992. Freshwater zooplankton from Bangladesh. Gazi
Publishers, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 32-151.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
45
Boyd, C.E., 1982. Water quality Management of Pond Fish Culture. Elsvier Sci. Pub. Co.
Amsterdam- Oxford, NewYork.318pp.
Brooks, J.L. and S.J. Dodson, 1965. Predation, body size and composition of plankton. Sci.
150: 28-35.
Dewan, S., Ali, M. & Islam, M.A., 1977. Study on the size and pattern of feeding of fries and
fingerlings of three major carps, eg. Labeo rohita (Ham), Catla catla and Cirrhina
mrigala.Bangladesh J. Agri. 2(2):2
Gupta, M.C. and L.L. Sharma, 2007. Trophic status and zooplankton of Amarchand
reserviour, Udaipur, Rajastan. C.P. 02: NSL 2007.
Jayaraman, P.R., T. Ganga Devi and T. Vasudena Nayar, 2003. Water quality studies on
Karamana river, Thiruvananthapuram District South Kerela, India. Poll. Res. 22(1): 89-100.
Margalef, R., 1951.Diversidad de especies en las comunidales naturales. Publ. Inst. Biol. Apl.,
9, 5-27.
Mellanby, H., 1963. Animal life in Freshwater. (6th edition). Cox and Wyman Ltd. London.78-
101.
Menhinick, E.P., 1964. A Comparison of some species - Individuals diversity indices applied
to samples of field insects. Ecol., 45, 859-881.
Michael, R.G., 1968a. Studies on the zooplankton of a tropical fish pond. Hydrobiologia, 32:
47-68.
Michael, R.G., 1968b. Seasoinal trend in physico-chemical factors and plankton of a fresh
water fish pond and their role in fish culture. Hydrobiologia, 33:144-160. Waters, T.F. 1987.
Adv. Ecol. Res. 10: 11-164.
Moniruzzaman, K., 1997. Practical limnology and systematics of freshwater hydrophytes,
Dhaka University. Dhaka .Bangladesh, 55-203.
Shannon, C.E. and W. Weaver, 1949. The mathematical theory of communication Urban.
Univ. Illinois Press. Illinois. p. 125.
Sharma, M.S., V. Sharma and H. Malara, 2007. Biodiversity of zooplankton in relation to
different types of aquatic pollution. C.P. 46. NSL 2007. pp. 300-302.
Tonapi, G.T., 1980. Freshwater animals of India. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. New
Delhi.110001.
Trivedi R. K. and Goel P. K., 1986. Environmental Publication, Karad.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
46
Wanganeo, A., R. Wanganeo and S. Pani, 1997. Summer dissolved oxygen regimes in tropical
Vindhyan lake in relation to its conservation strategy. Strategy Bionature 17(1): 7-11
Ward, H.B. & Whipple, G.C., 1959. Freshwater Biology. (2nd
edition). Jhon Willey and Sons.
Inc. New York,London.1248pp.
Welch, P.S. 1948. Limnology. McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc.New York.218pp.
Welch, P.S. 1952. Limnological methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Winkler, H.M., 2002. Effects of eutrophication on fish stocks in Baltic lagoons. In Baltic
Coastal Ecosystems (Eds. G. Schernewski and U. Schiewer), Springer-Verlag, Berlin. pp. 65-
74.
Zheng, Z., 1984. Marine Planktology, China Ocean Press. Beijing.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
47
SPECIES DISTRIBUTION OF SPIDERS IN BARPETA
DISTRICT OF ASSAM: A DIVERSITY MEASURE.
Suruchi Singh 1, A. Borkotoki
2 and C. K. Sarmah
3
1. Assistant Professor, Dept. of Zoology, B.H. College, Howly, Barpeta, Assam.
2. Retd. Professor, Dept of Zoology, Gauhati University, Assam.
3. Assistant Professor, Dept. of Statistics, B. H. College, Howly, Barpeta, Assam.
Author for Correspondence: [email protected]
ABSTRACT:
The study of spider fauna of state Assam has not been comprehensively carried out. Our present
work has been an attempt to provide relevant information regarding spiders, which would be the
baseline documentation for the future studies in the state Assam or for Northeastern part of the
nation. The study area, Barpeta district of the state Assam, lies between Latitudes 2605’ N to
26049’ N and Longitudes 90
039’E to 91
017’E covering an area of 3245 sq Km. A survey was
carried out during June 2008 to May 2011 in different ecosystem of this area to assess the spider
diversity. Many specimens were collected by visual search methods and preserved in 70% ethyl
alcohol .The specimens were identified in Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. This paper has
been started with the spider distribution in the district and concluded with the alpha, beta and
gamma diversity estimation. It is documented that 69 spider species from different habitats of the
different blocks of Barpeta District.
Keywords: Barpeta, spider distribution, diversity estimation, web.
INTRODUCTION:
Northeastern region of India is one of the richest hotspots of the world, has remained poorly
explored, and much of its diversity is being lost without any record. Spiders, of class Arachnida,
order Araneae under Phylum Arthropoda, vary considerably in size, shape and behavior. The
basic characteristics shared by them are- body divided into cephalothorax and the abdomen,
presence of eight legs (made up of seven segments each) and pedipalps, capacity to produce silk
and possess no antenna. They are identified for their webs and web silk with future prospects. All
spiders can make silk but many don’t spin web, they may use the silk to wrap the prey, to hang
from and to make egg sacs and nests. They are ubiquitous in terrestrial ecosystems and abundant
in both natural and agricultural habitats (Turnbull, 1973; Nyfeller & Benz, 1987). They play a
significant role in the regulation of insect and other invertebrate populations in most ecosystems
(Wise, 1993; Russell-Smith, 1999; Raghavendra, 2001).Spider surveys may provide an effective
means for measuring the impact of habitat degradation or land use change on biodiversity.
Baseline studies involving spiders as biological indicators have been conducted elsewhere; e.g.
Allred (1969) and Allred & Gertsch (1976) documented spider diversity in Arizona and Utah
after new power plant installations and in Nevada at the Nevada Nuclear Test Site. In spite of
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
48
several applied values, spiders have received cursory attention. In conservation efforts, often
“charismatic” species like birds and mammals draw most attention and ecological significant
groups like spiders are often neglected. Ironically, the spider diversity in Assam is still not fully
explored or understood. Manoranjan Barman (Barman, 1975, 1979) has done a work on spider of
Khasi and Jantia hills of Meghalaya, N.E. region in seventies of last century. B.K.Tikader
(Tikader,1970) and B.K.Biswas (Biswas,2000a,b,2003,2004,2006,2007) also collected some
information on diversity of spiders of Northeastern states like Tripura, Meghalaya, Sikkim ,
Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram except Assam. As spiders species of Assam are
poorly documented & no research has been done so far for the applied use of spider & its related
product in this region. The proposed study was carried out with the objectives to document the
spider diversity of Barpeta District of Assam.
Objective:
The present study has been carried out with the objective of documentation of the spider fauna of
Barpeta District of the state Assam through quantification of spider density and diversity
estimation.
Study Time:
The study was carried out during the year June 2008 to May 2010. The year was divided into
four seasons - June to September, October to November, December to February and March to
May. Most collection were made between the hours of 9 A.M. to 6 P.M. Sampling occurred
under suitable weather conditions for spider collection, temperatures between 15–38 °C.
Sampling:
Visual search sampling methods used by Sebastian et al. (2005) was adopted in this study to
sample the spider fauna from selected study sites. Random sampling was done from the same
selected study sites in all the seasons. A total of 36 hours was spent in each site across the four
seasons. We have taken all 10 political blocks of the district and in each block’s 3 plots were
selected. As a whole, we have divided whole district in 30 different plots. Each plot is again
divided into 4 different types of habitat i.e. Grassland cum bushy, Marshy, Residential and
agricultural area.
COLLECTION METHODS:
The following collection methods carried out according to Coddington et al. (1991); Toti et al.
(2000) -
1) Aerial hand collection i.e. collecting spiders found above knee level for that a sweep net was
used to capture spiders seen high in the vegetation.
2) Ground hand collection i.e. collecting spiders found below knee level in the vegetation or leaf
litter.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
49
3) The beat-sheet method of collection performed by stretching out a light-colored cloth under
the tree branch or other low vegetation and grabbing the branch and shaking it vigorously.
Spiders resting or nesting in this vegetation fall onto the cloth.
Preservation technique:
The spiders collected from each site was preserved together in 70% ethyl alcohol with proper
labeling of locality, date of collection and other notes of importance.
Identification:
The preserved specimens were observed under a stereo-zoom microscope for some of its minute
characteristics. The spiders were identified to the species level except the immature ones, which
could be identified only to the generic level. All specimens were identified in Zoological Survey
of India, Kolkata and with the help of available literature like Handbook of spiders’ by
B.K.Tikadar(1987) and ‘Spiders of India’ by P.A.Sebastian and K.V.Peter(2009).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
The percentage distribution of spider family in the Table 1 tells us that the Araneidae spider
family is found significantly in Barpeta district contributing 28.14% of the total spider family
found in the district, whereas the spider family Hersilidae being almost rare in the district. From
the Table 2 we observed that Barpeta Block of the district consist of large number of individuals
of spider i.e.14.20% and Bhabanipur showing only 6.02% of individual 0f observed spider.
From the Table 3 of percentage distribution of spider species found in Barpeta district, we have
observed that Argiope pulchella, the spider species are significantly available covering 11.96%
of the total spider population in the entire district. On the other hand the spider species like
Asemonea tenuipes, Olios milleti, Argyrodes argentatus, Argyrodes gezedes and Misumena
chrysanthemi are found to be almost rare in the district just covering 0.09% contribution to the
spider families. The Pie diagram (refer to Figure 1) given below shows that more than half of the
total species observed in the Barpeta district are web less spider. Almost one/3rd
of the observed
spiders is Orb weaver.
Table 4 reveals that spider of Araneidae family are found in large number as residential habitat.
Whereas the families Tetragnathidae, Lycosidae etc are found widely as wild spider in the
district Barpeta. More over a few numbers of marshy spiders are also found in the district. From
the Figure 2 (bar diagram) shown below we have observed that wild spiders are found in large
scale than domestic spiders and a few no. of marshy spiders are found in the district.
From the table 5 we have found that Aerial collecting method of spider is more significant than
all other trapping techniques. By Aerial method, we have collected more than half of the sample
spiders in our study.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
50
From the table 6, we found that maximum families and species were abundant during the
summer season and least during monsoon and winter. Thus, clarifies that they are more active
during summer.
Alpha diversity usually expressed as species diversity or number of species (diversity) of a
particular area or ecosystem. The table 7 shows that Block 2 (Rupsi) is rich in spider species with
alpha diversity as 56 whereas the Block 3(Bajali) and Block 4 (Bhabanipur) consist of least
spider species with alpha diversity calculated as30 and 29 respectively. Beta diversity is the total
number of species unique to each area or ecosystem, when compared with between them. The
table 8 shows that the beta diversity is more when comparison is done between Block 2/3
(Rupsi/bajali) i.e. 28 and least in Block 6/7(Mandia and Jamaphulbari) with 6. Table 9 below
shows that Gamma diversity is the measure of overall diversity of the region i.e. the total number
of spider species in the Barpeta District of Assam is 69.
Table 10 shows that the number of species found per sample unit are 0.58, which shows workers
effectiveness.
CONCLUSION:
From the results and data, a preliminary status of spiders in Barpeta district of Assam is much
clear. The study documented 69 species of spiders and highest of Araneidae family with Argiope
pulchella as the dominant species. The largest individuals collected were in summer season. The
spider weaving orb webs are in majority among web weavers. Rupsi block recorded highest
number of species. There is an urgent need for updating the database. Exploration of species
diversity understanding the habitat ecology, behaviour, etc. culminating into a database for the
Assam is an imperative.
Acknowledgement:
Our sincere thanks to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for granting permission
to do the taxonomic works with Dr. A. K. Sanyal, S. Talukdar and Dr. B. K. Biswas, utilizing the
facilities there.
REFERENCES:
Allred, D.M. 1969. Spiders of the National Reactor Testing Station. Great Basin Naturalist
29:105-108.
Allred, D.M. and W.J. Gertsch. 1976. Spiders and Scorpions from northern Arizona and
northern Utah.Journal of Arachnology 3: 87-99.
Barman, M. (1975).Studies on Spider fauna of Khasi and Jantia Hills.(Aranea:Arachnida),
PhD Thesis, Department of Zoology, Gauhati University.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
51
Barman, M. (1979). Studies on some spiders of the genera Tegenaria and Agelena from
Khasi and Jaintia hills,India (Araneae: Agelenidae).Journal of the Bombay Natural History
Society. 75:454-457.
Biswas, B. & S.C.Majumder 2000a. Arachnida: Araneae. Fauna of Tripura (Part-2), State
Fauna Series7, Zoological Survey of India. 113-122.
Biswas, B. & S.C.Majumder 2000b. Araneae: Spider. Fauna of Meghalaya, (Part-2), State
Fauna Series 4, Zoological Survey of India. 93-128.
Biswas, B. & K. Biswas 2003. Araneae: Spiders. Fauna of Sikkim (Part-2), State Fauna
Series 9, Zoological Survey of India. 67-100.
Biswas, B. & K. Biswas 2004. Araneae: Spiders. Fauna of Manipur, State Fauna Series 10,
Zoological Survey of India. 25-46.
Biswas, B. & K. Biswas 2006. Araneae: Spiders. Fauna of Arunachal Pradesh, State Fauna
Series 13(Part-2), Zoological Survey of India. 491-518.
Biswas, B. & K. Biswas 2007. Araneae: Spiders. Fauna of Mizoram, State Fauna Series 14,
Zoological Survey of India. 455-475.
Coddington, J.A., C.E. Griswold, D. Silva, D. Penaranda & S. Larcher. 1991. Designing and
testing sampling protocols to estimate biodiversity in tropical ecosystems. Pp. 44–60. In The
unity of evolutionary biology: Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of
Systematic and Evolutionary Biology. (E.C. Dudley, ed.). Dioscorides Press, Portland,
Oregon.
Nyffeler, M. & G. Benz. 1987. Spiders in natural pest control: a review. Journal of Applied
Entomology 103:321–329.
Raghavendra, N. 2001. ‘Diversity of arboreal spiders in cashew orchards’ M.Sc.
dissertation, Department of Applied Zoology, Mangalore University.
Russell-Smith, A. 1999. The spiders of Mkomazi Game reserve. In: Coe, M. et al. (eds).
Mkomazi: The ecology, biodiversity and conservation of a Tanzanian savanna. Royal
Geographical Society, London.
Sebastian, P.A., M.J. Mathew and S. Pathummal Beevi. 2005. The spider fauna of the
irrigated rice ecosystem in central Kerala, India across different elevational ranges. The
Journal of Arachnology 33:247–255.
Sebastian P.A. and Peter K.V.(2009). Spiders of India, Universities press, India.
Tikader, B.K. (1970). Spider fauna of Sikkim. Records of the Zoological Survey of India.
64:1-83
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
52
Tikader, B .K. 1987. Handbook of Indian Spiders, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,
India.
Toti, D.S., F.A. Coyle & J.A. Miller. 2000. A structured inventory of Appalachian grass bald
and heath bald spider assemblages and a test of species richness estimator performance.
Journal of Arachnology 28:329–345.
Turnbull, A.L. 1973. Ecology of the true spiders (Araneomorphae). Annual Review of
Entomology 18:305–348.
Wise, D.H.1993. Spiders in Ecological Webs, Cambridge Univ. Press, London 342 pp
(Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science. Volume 56— 1976)
Table 1: Percentage distribution of spider on the basis of their family
Sl.No. Family Percentage abundance of different families
1. Araneidae 28.14
2. Hersiliidae 0.17
3. Linyphiidae 1.98
4. Lycosidae 11.45
5. Nephilidae 0.95
6. Oxyopidae 12.65
7. Philodromidae 0.34
8. Pholcidae 10.24
9. Pisauridae 4.22
10. Salticidae 17.82
11. Sparassidae 4.39
12. Tetragnathidae 4.39
13. Theraphosidae 0.26
14. Theridiidae 2.32
15. Thomicidae 0.34
16. Uloboridae 0.34
Total 100
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
53
Table 2: Percentage distribution of the individual spider by block of the district.
Sl.No. Name of the Block Percentage of the individual
1 Gobardhana 13.08
2 Rupsi 15.49
3 Bajali 9.90
4 Bhabanipur 6.02
5 Paccabetbari 7.74
6 Mandia 7.5
7 Jamaphulbari 8.7
8 Chenga 7.05
9 Sorukhetri 10.32
10 Barpeta 14.20
Table 3: Percentage distribution of spider species found in Barpeta Dist.
Sl.no. Species % of
species Sl.no. Species
% of
species
1 Araneus mitificus 1.72 36 Smeringopus pallidus 0.34
2 Araneus inustus 3.18 37 Uthina atrigularis 0.17
3 Argiope aemula 2.15 38 Perenethis venusta 1.98
4 Argiope anasuja 1.38 39 Polyboea vulpine 0.34
5 Argiope catenulate 0.34 40 Thalassius albocinctus 1.89
6 Argiope pulchella 11.96 41 Asemonea tenuipes 0.09
7 Cyclosa bifida 0.17 42 Carrhotus viduus 0.86
8 Cyclosa confraga 0.34 43 Epeus tener 0.52
9 Cyclosa
hexatuberculata 0.6 44 Hasarius adansoni 3.1
10 Cyclosa spirifera 0.52 45 Hyllus semicupreus 0.26
11 Cyrtophora cicatrosa 0.52 46 Menemerus bivittatus 0.52
12 Cyrtophora moluccensis 0.6 47 Phidippus yashodharae 0.6
13 Gasteracantha kuhli 0.6 48 Plexippus paykulli 5.16
14 Neoscona mukerjei 3.79 49 Plexippus petersi 4.32
15 Parawixia dahaanii 0.26 50 Telamonia dimidiate 2.41
16 Hersilia savignyi 0.17 51 Heteropoda leprosa 0.69
17 Lepthyphantes sp. 1.03 52 Heteropoda nilgirina 1.8
18 Lynyphia striata 0.95 53 Heteropoda venatoria 1.8
19 Lycosa mackenziei 2.84 54 Olios milleti 0.09
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
54
20 Lycosa tista 1.64 55 Leucauge decorate 2.75
21 Pardosa birmanica 3.18 56 Leucauge tessellata 1.12
22 Pardosa
pseudoannulata 1.46 57 Tetragnatha javana 0.17
23 Pardosa sumatrana 2.32 58 Tetragnatha
andamanensis 0.17
24 Herrennia multipuncta 0.26 59 Tetragnatha mandibulata 0.17
25 Nephila kuhlii 0.34 60 Ischnocolus khasiensis 0.26
26 Nephila pilipes 0.34 61 Achaearanea 0.17
27 Oxyopes birmanicus 3.96 62 Argyrodes andamanensis 0.26
28 Oxyopes javanas 2.15 63 Argyrodes argentatus 0.09
29 Oxyopes lineatus 1.81 64 Argyrodes flavescens 0.09
30 Oxyopes shweta 2.5 65 Argyrodes gezedes 0.09
31 Oxyopes sunandae 2.24 66 Theridion manjithar 1.64
32 Tibellus elongates 0.34 67 Camaricus formosus 0.26
33 Artema Atlanta 2.32 68 Misumena chrysanthemi 0.09
34 Crossopriza lyoni 6.11 69 Uloborus danolius 0.34
35 Pholcus phalangioides 1.3 Total 100
Table 4 : Proportion distribution of spider families
on the basis of their habitat
Family
Habitat Proportion of
observed
individuals residential agricultural jungle marshy
Araneidae 0.40 0.17 0.34 0.09 0.281
Nephilidae - - 1.0 - 0.009
Tetragnathidae 0.08 0.31 0.55 0.06 0.044
Uloboridae 1.0 - - - 0.003
Hersiliidae - - 1.0 - 0.002
Oxyopidae - 0.56 0.44 - 0.127
Philodromidae - - 1.0 - 0.003
Thomicidae 1.0 - - - 0.003
Pisauridae 0.04 0.12 0.41 0.43 0.043
Salticidae 0.21 0.27 0.41 0.11 0.178
Sparassidae 0.55 - 0.45 - 0.044
Lycosidae 0.10 0.11 0.64 0.15 0.114
Theraphosidae - - 1.0 - 0.002
Theridiidae 0.07 - 0.93 - 0.023
Pholcidae 0.54 0.03 0.43 - 0.103
Linyphiidae 0.26 - 0.74 - 0.021
Total - - - - 1.00
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
55
TABLE 5: NUMBERS OF INDIVIDUALS, ADULTS AND SPECIES OF ADULT
SPIDERS ACCORDING TO THE COLLECTING METHOD.
Collecting
Methods
No. of
sampl
e
units
No.of
adults
Mean no.
of adults
per sample
unit
% of
total
adults
No.of
species
Mean No.
of species
per
sample
unit
% of
total
species
Aerial 120 525 4.375 45.18 39 0.33 56.52
Ground 120 477 3.975 41.05 28 0.23 40.58
Beating 120 160 1.333 13.77 26 0.22 37.68
Total 120 1162 9.683 100 69 0.58 100
Table 6: Status on different collecting seasons
Sl.
No.
Collecting
Seasons
No. of
families
% of
family
No. of
species
% of
species
No. of
Observed
individuals
% of
individuals
1 Monsoon 11 68.75 26 37.68 84 7.23
2 Post-
Monsoon
15 93.75 57 82.61 430 37.00
3 Winter 10 62.5 23 33.33 63 5.42
4 Summer 16 100 69 100 585 50.34
TOTAL - - - - 1162 100
Table 8: Beta diversity estimates of spider species in the Blocks of Barpeta district.
Diversity
Indices
Blocks of Barpeta District
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Beta
Diversity
1/2=17 2/3=28 ¾=11 4/5=15 5/6=16 6/7=6 7/8=10 8/9=11 9/10=16 10/1=17
Table 9: Gamma diversity estimates of spider species in the Blocks of Barpeta district.
Diversity
Indices
Blocks of Barpeta District
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Gamma Diversity 69
Table 7: Alpha diversity estimates of spider species in the Blocks of Barpeta district.
Diversity
Indices
Blocks of Barpeta District
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Alpha Diversity 54 56 30 29 36 36 34 34 37 46
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME
Figure 1: Showing proportion of spider on the basis of web characteristics
52%
Diagram represents spider proportion on
the basis of web characteristics
Table 10 : Worker’s Effectiveness
No. of
sample
unit
No. of adults
collected
120 1162
Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094
proportion of spider on the basis of web characteristics
34%
2%
12%
Diagram represents spider proportion on
the basis of web characteristics
Orb weaver
Sheet weaver
Irregular weaver
Webless
Table 10 : Worker’s Effectiveness
No. of adults No. of
species
No. of adults per
sample unit
No. of species per
sample unit
69 9.7 0.58
1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
56
proportion of spider on the basis of web characteristics
Orb weaver
Sheet weaver
Irregular weaver
Webless
No. of species per
sample unit
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME
Figure 2: Represents the proportion of spider families in different habitat.
Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094
Figure 2: Represents the proportion of spider families in different habitat.
1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
57
Figure 2: Represents the proportion of spider families in different habitat.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
58
EXISTING AND EMERGING RISKS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS GEO-HYDROLOGICAL
HAZARDS IN HINDU KUSH HIMALAYA REGION: A COMPLEMENTARY STUDY
Pradeep K. Rawat and Hari Krishna Nibanupudi
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), GPO Box 3226, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Nepal
Author for Correspondence: [email protected]; [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region is highly vulnerable for tectonic and hydrological hazards
and cause great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development
with have far-reaching economic and social consequences. Neo-tectonic activities along several
active thrusts and faults responsible for earthquake disasters whereas climate change and land
use degradation accelerating the water-induced disasters such as flash flood, river-line flood,
erosion, wet mass movement during monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period as
drying up of natural water springs and streams. The main objective of the study was to assess the
existing and emerging risks of climate change and its geo-hydrological hazards in Hindu Kush
Himalaya (HKH) region. The study carried out using secondary data on disasters and their
impacts within the countries in HKH region (i.e. Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan, China, India,
Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan). Data have been obtained from some international leading
database management agencies (EM-Data etc.) and also through some pioneer published
research work on disasters. Result of the present study shows that the region experienced
increasing frequency of tectonic and hydrological hazards. Hydrological hazards are among the
more devastating types of hazard as they occur rapidly with little lead time for warning, and
transport tremendous amounts of water and debris at high velocity. Disasters affect thousands of
people in the HKH region every year by losing their lives, homes, and livelihoods along with
expensive infrastructure. Data analysis suggesting that out of total annual disaster in HKH
region 14% are earthquake and landslide disaster, 48% are hydrological disasters (i.e.36%
flood, 9% mass movement, 3% drought) whereas 38% are other types of disasters such as storm
(23%), wild fire (1%), extreme temperature (6%), epidemic (8%). Results concluded that hazard
events increasing with the growth rate of 6% each year in the region. Subsequently human
casualties increasing with the rate of 9% each year whereas affected people and infrastructural
loss increasing with that rate of respectively 6% and 4% each year. Because of the high growth
rates of the existing risks level expected that the emerging risk has the potential to evolve into
extreme events.
Keywords: Tectonic Hazards, Hydrological Hazards, Socio-economic Risks, HKH
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME
INTRODUCTION Hindu Kush Himalaya region lies 112°5"E on the globe and encompasses a geographical area of 3,441,719 kmor part of eight Asian countries from west to east Bangladesh Bhutan, China, Indiamountainous part and source of ten large Asian river systems Brahmaputra (Yarlungtsanpo), Irrawaddy, Salween (Nu), Mekong (Lancang), Yangtse (Jinsha), Yellow River (Huanghe), and Tarim (Dayan), basis for livelihoods to a population of around 210.53 million people in the region. About 95% population of the total population depends on agriculture and forest resources but the is decreasing 0.36 km2 per year and the agricultural production decreasing due climate change and several natural disasters (Rawat et. al., 2011sheer height, Hindu Kush Himalaya is the youngesttectonic movement due to prevailing geological conditions. Though each and every part of the world is more or less susceptible to natural calamities, but the Himalaya due to its complex geological structures, dynamic geomorphology, and seasonality in hydroconditions experience natural disasters very frequently, especially earthquake and water induced hazards (Rawat et. al., 2011-b).
Fig. 1:Neo-tectonic activities in HKH region along the several active thrusts and faults responsible for earthquake disasters (Fig. 2) whereas climate change and land use degradation accelerating the
International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094
Hindu Kush Himalaya region lies between the latitude 15°42"–40°8"N and longitude 59°34"encompasses a geographical area of 3,441,719 km2 including
or part of eight Asian countries from west to east (Fig. 1). These countries are Bangladesh Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. Topographically it is mountainous part and source of ten large Asian river systems – the Amu Darya, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra (Yarlungtsanpo), Irrawaddy, Salween (Nu), Mekong (Lancang), Yangtse (Jinsha),
he), and Tarim (Dayan), - and provides water, ecosystem services, and the basis for livelihoods to a population of around 210.53 million people in the region. About 95% population of the total population depends on agriculture and forest resources but the
per year and the agricultural production decreasing due climate change and several natural disasters (Rawat et. al., 2011-a). Dwarfing all other mountains of the world in sheer height, Hindu Kush Himalaya is the youngest mountain system, which is still undergoing tectonic movement due to prevailing geological conditions. Though each and every part of the world is more or less susceptible to natural calamities, but the Himalaya due to its complex
amic geomorphology, and seasonality in hydroconditions experience natural disasters very frequently, especially earthquake and water induced
Fig. 1: Location of HKH Region tectonic activities in HKH region along the several active thrusts and faults responsible for
earthquake disasters (Fig. 2) whereas climate change and land use degradation accelerating the
1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
59
40°8"N and longitude 59°34"–including over all
(Fig. 1). These countries are Afghanistan , Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. Topographically it is
the Amu Darya, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra (Yarlungtsanpo), Irrawaddy, Salween (Nu), Mekong (Lancang), Yangtse (Jinsha),
and provides water, ecosystem services, and the basis for livelihoods to a population of around 210.53 million people in the region. About 95% population of the total population depends on agriculture and forest resources but the forest cover
per year and the agricultural production decreasing due climate change a). Dwarfing all other mountains of the world in
mountain system, which is still undergoing tectonic movement due to prevailing geological conditions. Though each and every part of the world is more or less susceptible to natural calamities, but the Himalaya due to its complex
amic geomorphology, and seasonality in hydro-meteorological conditions experience natural disasters very frequently, especially earthquake and water induced
tectonic activities in HKH region along the several active thrusts and faults responsible for earthquake disasters (Fig. 2) whereas climate change and land use degradation accelerating the
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
60
water-induced disasters such as flash flood, river-line flood, erosion, wet mass movement during monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period as drying up of natural water springs and streams (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Earthquake induced Landslide (1 km Height) along active fault in Dabka watershed
District Nainital in HKH region There are several anthropogenic factors that may contribute to water induced hazard acceleration, including poorly managed agriculture, forest fire, overgrazing, and substandard construction of roads and buildings. These environmental disasters cause great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development with have far-reaching economic and social consequences. Although the Himalaya is highly vulnerable for all type of water-induced hazards such as flood, erosion, land slide in monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period (as drying up of natural water springs and streams) but recent past its observed that flood hazard causing a major threat for the entire Himalaya tract (Bajracharya et al. 2007a; Rawat et. al., 2012). Mainly two types of floods are common throughout the Himalaya i.e. flash flood and river-line flood which are among the more devastating types of hazard as they occur rapidly with little lead time for warning, and transport tremendous amounts of water and debris at high velocity (Fig. 3). Flash floods and river-line floods affect thousands of people in the Himalayan region every year by loosing their lives, homes, and livelihoods along with expensive infrastructure. There are several different causes of flash flood and river-line flood in HKH region such as intense rainfall (IRF); glacial lake outburst (GLO), landslide dam outburst (LDO), rapid snow melt (RSM) and failure of dams and other hydraulic structures (Jonkman, 2005,
Kunja
Maniya
Badhanthaly
Binayak
Ghughukhan
Baghani
Chhara
Salba
Jalna Malla
Dola
Fethepur
Aniya
Saur
Ranikota
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
61
Rawat et. al., 2011-d). But intense rainfall (IRF) is very frequent cause for flash flood and river-line flood in the Himalaya which play a key role for flash flood and river-line flood. Fig. 4 llustrating a example of landslide dam outburst (LDO) in Pareechu River 2004 which analyzed through satellite imagery.
Fig. 3: Flash flood and River Line Flood in HKH region: Respectively Upper and Lower Picture Sources: ICIMOD
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
62
Fig. 4: Satellite image of the Pareechu River: a. about one month after the landslide damming
(15 July 2004); b. about 2.5 months after damming (1 September 2004); and c. after the outburst Sources: ICIMOD
The main meteorological phenomenon causing intense rainfalls in the region are cloudbursts, stationarity of monsoon trough and monsoon depressions. Flash flood in the region cause great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development with have far-
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
63
reaching economic and social consequences. About hundreds of peoples are losing their life each year due to flash flood hazard in Himalaya region such as in a recent incidence of flash flood hazard occurred at midnight of 6 Aug 2010 due to cloudburst hit the Himalayan town of Leh in the frontier region of Ladakh Himalaya killing at least 93 people and more than thousands of peoples loosed their houses and property. On the other hand the river-line flood triggering several environmental socio-economic problems in many ways. River-line flood is undercutting of valley sides which causes the mountainsides to become unstable and ultimately ends in landslides and slope instability which demolished the infrastructural development (road network, buildings, canals, communication connectivity etc) and natural resources specially forest, land and water. During floods, tremendous amounts of erosion occurs on the banks of rivers and streams and washed away the crops and productive land whereas some time moreover, unsorted sediments are deposited over agricultural fields and settlements especially during monsoons. Hundreds of lives and billions of dollars worth of property and investment in high-cost infrastructure are lost in the region every year due to landslides, debris flows, and floods, along with the destruction of scarce agricultural lands. In the last decade of the 20th Century, floods killed about 100,000 persons and affected about 1.4 billion people worldwide and the number of events as well as deaths is increasing (Jonkman 2005). Statistics show that the number of people killed per event on average is significantly higher in Asia than elsewhere, and among all water-induced disasters this number is much higher for flash floods (Jonkman 2005). In Nepal, landslides, floods, and avalanches destroy important infrastructure worth US $9 million and cause about 300 deaths annually (DHM 1998 an IIDS 2001). In Afghanistan, 362 people were killed or reported missing and 192 people were injured as a direct consequence of flash floods in 2005 (Xu et al. 2006). In total, about 100,000 people were displaced by these events. Exceptional events can exceed these numbers by many times — in 1998 the Yangtze flood in China caused an estimated US $31 billion of damage (Kron 2005). Despite the destructive nature and immense impact they have on the socio-economy of the region, flash floods have not received adequate attention. This is mainly because of poor understanding of the processes of flash floods and lack of knowledge of measures to manage the problem in the HKH region. Thus, the impacts of natural hazards are multi-dimensional, affecting environmental, social and economic systems. There is an urgent need to produce quantitative, reliable model that can be used for disaster risk reduction to formulate a sustainable development plan for the HKH region which could be equally implement other similar mountainous parts of the world. Consequently the present report provides existing and emerging risks potential of disasters in the HKH region.
METHODOLOGY As mentioned in introduction section that the HKH region is highly vulnerable for several tectonic hazard (earthquake and landslide), hydrological hazards (flash flood, river-line flood, erosion, wet mass movement during monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period) therefore we need to investigate integrated risks of all these tectonic and hydrological hazards. In order to that the study carried out through desk work and complementing the data with the help of several previous case studies have been done on different hazards in HKH region by ICIMOD and other research institutions. Beside that EM-DATA also used to assess the decadal and annual trends of natural hazards and their impact and risks in HKH region. In order to that the ICIMOD
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
64
facilitating the data through several case studies on water induced disasters in HKH region (Ives, 1986; Bruijnzeeel and Bremmer, 1989; Dhital et al, 1993; ITECO, 1996; Khanal, 1999; Chalise, 2001; Mool et al, 2001; ICIMOD, 2002; ICIMOD, 2002a; Li and Behrens, 2002; Narendra et al, 2007; Shrestha et al, 2008; Shrestha, 2008 and 2010). Some other pioneer studies on water induced hazard in HKH region carried out by Kumaun University, Nainital India have been also considered to achieve the high accuracy level of hazard, vulnerability and risks assessment (Valdiay and Bartariya, 1989; Rawat, 1994; Tiwari, 2000; Rawat et al 2011-a,b,c,d,e,f and Rawat et al 2012). To analyze existing and emerging risks of hydrological disaster in HKH region the present study focused on three types of data:
• Climate change data
• Hazard data
• Vulnerability data
• Data on environmental and socio-economic elements at risk, Climate Change Data: Climate change data provides a summary about spatial distribution of temperature, rainfall, humidity and evaporation science last several decades carried out by some pioneer studies in Hindu Kush Himalaya region. Rawat et al (2011) carried out a comprehensive study on hydro-meteorological study during 2005-2010 and detected trends of climate change through compare the results with previous hydro-meteorological study carried out by Bisht (1990) in the same study area. Singh et. al. (2011) provided a comprehensive report on climate change in Hindu Kush Himalaya region using the climate records collected by Shrestha (2009a). Present study established the co-relation between climate change and acceleration of geo-hydrological hazards beside their environmental and socioeconomic impacts in the HKH region. Hazard Data: This data deals about the events of several hazards in HKH region, cause great loss of life and property and pose a serious threat to the normal life as well as to the process of development. Although previous studies providing some hazard data in HKH region but the EM-DAT data also analysed for HKH region. This analysis includes defining hazard intensity or the strength of a hazard event based on the hazard scenario and the hazard probability level. Vulnerability Data: Vulnerability data informs the hazard of place, which encompasses biophysical risks as well as social response and action. Biophysical risks include analysis of the distribution of hazardous conditions, human occupancy of hazardous zones, degree of loss due to hazardous events, and analysis of the characteristics and impacts of hazardous events (Heyman et al 1991; Messner and Meyer 2005) whereas social response and action comprises of hazards and relates social vulnerability to coping responses of communities, including societal resistance and resilience to hazards (Blakie et al. 1994; Watts and Bohle 1993; Messner and Meyer 2005). The vulnerability to a given element at risk is subjected during a hazard event depend on the hazard. These stresses include shaking in the case of earthquakes, moisture stress in the case of drought, inundation during floods, and so on. A given element may be severely challenged by one hazard but completely unaffected by another. A building, for example, may collapse when subjected to seismic shaking or incur damage due to floods, but may suffer little or no impacts in a drought. Similarly, the fertility of agricultural land may benefit directly as a result of flooding, whereas exposed infrastructure may be severely damaged. For a given hazard, vulnerability will vary across a set of similar elements and from one element to the next. Hazard data used to assess the vulnerability in HKH region following above methodology.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
65
Data on Environmental and Socio-economic Elements at Risks: A risk-level scale is a combination of hazard level and total vulnerability (both environmental and socioeconomic). The scale is obtained by subjective judgment, similar to the hazard-level scale (Table 1). The integrated risks of all hydrological hazards have been investigated considering and overlaying the available hazard and vulnerability data of several case studies have been done in HKH region as sited above. Data Complementation: The data carried out by previous studies on climate change, hazard, vulnerability and their risks has been integrated through HVRA-model to understand a wider view of the existing and emerging risks of the natural disasters in Hindu Kush Himalaya region. The HVRA-model suggesting a GIS based effective and essential hazard-vulnerability-risks assessment model (HVRA-model) for disaster risks reduction (DRR) in the Hindu Kush Himalaya region (Table 1). The HVRA model consists of comprehensive existing geo-environmental information of the HKH region through three GIS module: i.e. Geo-informatics, Hydro-informatics and Socio-economic informatics module with their 16 hazard and risks controlling factors and total 90 sub-factors for HKH region (Table 1). Geo-informatics: The geo-informatics module consists of the attribute data for its seven different geo-sectors of the Hindu Kush Himaya region, i.e. geology (rock types), rock dip direction, structural lineaments, geomorphology (emphasizing particularly fluvial landforms), slope, soils, and landslide density. Table 1 suggesting that those seven geo-factors comprises of their 47 hazard controlling sub-factors to assess the vulnerability and several types of risks. Hydro-informatics: The hydro-informatics module consists of the attributed data for its seven different hazard controlling hydrological factors of the Hindu Kush Himaya region, i.e. precipitation, spring density, stream frequency, ground water, erosion rate, runoff and flood magnitude. Those seven factors comprised of total 28 hazard controlling sub-factors (Table 1). Socioeconomic-informatics: The socioeconomic-informatics module consists of the attributed data for its two different hazard controlling socioeconomic factors of the Hindu Kush Himaya region, i.e. land use land cover pattern and demographic profile comprised of total 15 hazard controlling sub-factors as illustrated in Table 1.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION Trends of Climate Change in HKH region Rawat et al (2011) advocating that all the climatic zones (i.e. sub-tropical, temperate and moist temperate) spreading towards higher altitudes due to global climate change and degrading the natural favorable climatic condition of the existing land use land cover pattern and accelerated several hydrological hazards. Shrestha (2009a) and Singh et al (2011) reported that during year 1975-2006, average temperatures increased over most of the region, as indicated increases in average temperature ranged from 0.6 to 1.3ºC; the differences in the maximum temperatures across the stations ranged from 1.1 to 2.0ºC and the minimum from 0.2 to 0.5ºC.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
66
Table 1: Integrated Hazard, Vulnerability and Risks Assessment (HVRA) model overlaying 90 controlling factors under three GIS module in HKH region
Geo-environmental Parameters of HKH Region
Integrated Hazard Assessment
Integrated Vulnerability Assessment
Integrated Risk Assessment
Low Moderate High V. High Low Moderate High V. High Existing Emerging
Geo
-in
form
ati
cs
Geology or Major Rock types
1. Dolomites Low Low
2. Limestone Low Low
3. Quartzite Moderate High
4. Quartzwacke Moderate High
5. Slates Moderate High
6. Shales Moderate High
7. Sand stone High Very High
8. Shattered material Very High Extreme
Rock Dip Direction
9. Along slope Very High Extreme
10. Anti slope Low Low
Lineament
11. Thrusts Very High Extreme
12. Faults Very High Extreme
13. Joints Moderate High
14. Fractures Moderate High
Geomorphology
15. Structural/Denudational hills Moderate High
16. Pediments Moderate High
17. Valley fill shallow High Very High
18. Valley fill moderate Very High Extreme
19. Weathered pediplain High Very High
20. Erosional terraces Very High Extreme 21. Depositional terraces Very High Extreme 22. Alluvial fans Very High Extreme 23. Fluvial fans Very High Extreme 24. Screed slops Very High Extreme 25. Gulling Moderate High
26. Rills Moderate High
27. Flooded areas Very High Extreme 28. Old river channels Very High Extreme 29. Flood plains Very High Extreme 30. Moist area Very High Extreme 31. Sites of debris flow Very High Extreme 32. Inundation Very High Extreme 33. Bank cuts Very High Extreme
Soil
34. Stony hilly soil Low Low
35. Loumous and podzolic Moderate High
36. Crushed salty soil Moderate High
37. Conglomeratic Moderate High
38. Fine sandy soil Very High Extreme
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
67
39. Fluvial sandy soil Very High Extreme
Active Landslide Density
40. Low (<4 landslide/km2) Low Moderate
41. Moderate (4-8 landslide/km2) Moderate High
42. High (8-16 landslide/km2) High Very High
43. Very High (>16 landslide/km2) Very High Extreme
Slope
44. Gentle (<10°) Low Moderate
45. Moderate (10°-20°) Moderate High
46. Steep (20°-30°) High Very High
47. Very Steep (>30°) Very High Extreme
Hy
dro
-in
form
ati
cs
Spring Density
48. Low (<4 spring/km2) Low Moderate
49. Moderate (4-8 spring/km2) Moderate High
50. High (8-16 spring/km2) High Very High
51. Very High (>16 spring/km2) Very High Extreme
Stream Frequency
52. Low (3 streams/km2) Low Moderate
53. Moderate (3-6 streams/km2) Moderate High
54. High (6-12 streams/km2) High Very High
55. Very High (>12 streams/km2) Very High Extreme
Rainfall
56. Low (<600mm/year) High Very High
57. Moderate (600-1200 mm/year) Moderate High
58. High (1200-2400 mm/year) High Very High
59. Very High (>2400 mm/year) Very High Extreme
Groundwater
60. Low High Very High
61. Moderate Moderate High
62. High High Very High
63. Very High Very High Extreme
Erosion Rate
64. Low (<.40 mm/year) Low Moderate
65. Moderate (.40-.80 mm/year) Moderate High
66. High (.80-1.60 mm/year) Very High Extreme
67. Very high (> 1.60 mm/year) Very High Extreme
Runoff (Average)
68. Low (<20 l/s/km2) Low Moderate
69. Moderate (20-40 l/s/km2) Moderate High
70. High (l/s/km2) (40-60 l/s/km2) High Very High
71. Very High (>60 l/s/km2) Very High Extreme
Flood Magnitude (Peak flood rate)
72. Low (<100 l/s/km2) Moderate High
73. Moderate (100-200 l/s/km2) Moderate High
74. High (200-400 l/s/km2) High Very High
75. Very High (>400 l/s/km2) Very High Extreme
So
cio
-in
form
ati
cs
Land Use
76. Snow cover Very High
77. Forested area Moderate High
78. Shrubs land Moderate High
79. Barren land Moderate High
80. River beds Moderate High
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
68
81. Agricultural land Very High Extreme
82. Settlements & Built-up areas Very High Extreme
83. Road network, canals Very High Extreme
84. Transmission lines Very High Extreme
Demography
85. High population density Very High Extreme
86. Low Population density High Very High
87. Male population High Very High
88. Female Population Very High Extreme
89. Poor people Very High Extreme
90. Rich people Moderate High
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
69
Integrated Multiple Hazard Assessment in HKH Region The Hindu Kush Himalaya region highly vulnerable for earthquake and water-induces disasters because neo-tectonic activities along the several active thrusts and faults triggering earthquake and landslide disasters whereas climate change and land use degradation accelerating the water-induced disasters such as flash flood, river-line flood, erosion, wet mass movement during monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period as drying up of natural water springs and streams. Consequently we have to investigate integrated risks of all existing tectonic and water-
induced hazard in the region (Table 2 and Fig. 5). Data analysis suggesting that out of total annual disaster in HKH region 14% are earthquake and landslide disaster 48% are hydrological disasters (i.e.36% flood, 9% mass movement, 3% drought) whereas 38% are other types of disasters such as storm (23%), wild fire (1%), extreme temperature (6%) and epidemic (8%). Table 2: Distribution of Several Disasters in HKH region
Hazards % of Total Hazards
Tectonic Hazards
Earthquake 14
Landslide 4
Hydro-Hazard
Flood 36
Mass Movement 5
Drought 3
Other types of Hazards
Storm 23
Wild Fire 1
Extreme Temperature 6
Epidemics 8
Total 100
Fig. 5: Bar Diagram Showing the Distribution of Several Disasters in HKH region.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Eart
hquake
Landslid
e
Flo
od
Mass
Movem
ent
Dro
ught
Sto
rm
Wild
Fire
Extr
em
e
Tem
pera
ture
Epid
em
ics
Tectonic Hazards Hydro-Hazards Other Hazards
In P
erc
ent
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
70
Although the HKH region experience several natural disasters but the water induced disasters have major part of total disasters because they occurred in each rainy season very frequently whereas other disasters are occasional disasters. Water-induced disasters are flash flood, river-line flood, erosion, wet mass movement during monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period as drying up of natural water springs and streams. There are several different causes of flash flood, river-line flood and wet mass movement in HKH region such as intense rainfall (IRF); glacial lake outburst (GLO), landslide dam outburst (LDO), rapid snow melt (RSM) and failure of dams and other hydraulic structures (Jonkman, 2005, Rawat et al 2011b). But intense rainfall (IRF) is very frequent cause for flash flood and river-line flood in the region which play a key role for flash flood and river-line flood. The main meteorological phenomenon causing intense rainfalls in the region are cloudbursts, stationarity of monsoon trough and monsoon depressions. Flash flood in the region cause great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development which have far-reaching economic and social consequences. About hundreds of peoples are losing their life each year due to flash flood hazard in Himalaya. Through data complementation of previous case studies on several hazards total 90 hazard controlling factors have been identified throughout the HKH region (Table 1). These 90 hazard controlling factors have been categorized as geo-informatics factors, hydro-informatics factors and socio-informatics factors and used to assess the level of hazard in a particular location (Table 1). Consequently four level of hazard determined and categorized as low, moderate, high and very high hazard zone in HKH region. The results suggested that out of total 90 hazard controlling factors 25 have very high level intensity of hazard, 11 have high level intensity of hazards whereas 11 and 12 factors respectively moderate and low level intensity of hazards (Table 1). Integrated Multiple Vulnerability Assessment in HKH Region After determined the hazard intensity for each 90 controlling factors the vulnerability of each factor for Geo-environmental and socio-economic elements has been carried out. The integrated hazard vulnerability suggesting two types of vulnerability: Geo-environmental Vulnerability: Geo-environmental vulnerability deals the susceptibility of geo-environmental elements that comprises of geo-elements (i.e. geology, rock dip, geomorphological landforms, slope, soil types, landslide etc) and hydro-elements (i.e. precipitation springs density, stream frequency, groundwater potential, snow cover, runoff, flood magnitude and erosion rate etc). The result suggested that there are total 47 geo-elements out of them 26 geo-elements are very high vulnerable, 19 geo-elements are highly vulnerable whereas 19 geo-elements and 11 geo-elements respectively moderate and low vulnerable for several natural hazards in HKH region (Table 1). Socio-economic Vulnerability: Socio-economic vulnerability deals the susceptibility of socioeconomic elements that comprises of land use pattern (i.e. snow cover, forest area, shrubs land, barren land, agricultural land, settlement and built up areas, road network, canals, and Transmission lines etc.) and demographic pattern (i.e. precipitation springs density, stream frequency, groundwater potential, snow cover, runoff, flood magnitude and erosion rate etc). The result suggested that there are total 42 socioeconomic elements out of them 8 are very high vulnerable, 2 are highly vulnerable whereas 3 and 2 respectively moderate and low vulnerable for several natural hazards in HKH region(Table 1).
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
71
Integrated Multiple Risks Assessment in HKH Region The environmental and socio-economic elements are associated with vulnerable areas of several hazards have been determined for risks assessment. The raw database of the EM-DATA (country profile) also analyzed to assess the trends of risks in HKH region. Accordingly the result suggests several existing and emerging risks of natural hazards for environment, society and economy of the Hindu Kush Himalaya region. A brief description on existing and emerging risks is given as below: Existing Risks Assessment: All the environmental and socio-economic elements having direct impacts of hazards within the vulnerable areas determined as existing risks. Table 1 shows four levels of existing risk respectively very high, high, moderate and low level. A GIS based risks level map can be easily delineate after hazard and vulnerability mapping. Generally following environmental and socio-economic risks of several natural hazards have been experiences in the HKH region: Human Casualties: In average more than thirty six thousand people loses their life each year due to natural hazards in Hindu Kush Himalaya region as the results carried out by last ten years data analysis (Table 3). The spatial distribution of human casualties suggests that Myanmar, China, Pakistan and India have very high annual human casualties rate that’s accounts respectively 12644 people, 9532 people, 7200 people and 5309 people each year. Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Nepal have high to moderate casualty rates respectively accounts about 1080, 864 and 220 people each year whereas Bhutan recorded as a low human casualty rate about 20 people by each year (Table 3). Affecting People: The natural hazards affecting more than one hundred seventy eight million people each year in Hindu Kush Himalaya region as the results carried out by last ten years data analysis (Table 4). The average annual result of the data analysis suggests that maximum people affects in China (120748236), Bangladesh (6409000), Myanmar (288992), India (46643291) and Pakistan (3447604) whereas Nepal (271085), Afghanistan (338112) and Bhutan (92) comparatively recorded moderate to low (Table 4). Fig. 6 illustrating that how hazard affecting human life and their home in HKH region
Fig. 6: Hazards affecting Human Life and his Settlement in HKH Region
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
72
Table 3: Spatial Variability of Human Casualties due to Hazard Events in Hindu Kush Himalaya Region
Years Person Killed due to Natural Hazards in HKH Region
Afghanistan Bhutan Bangladesh China India Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Total
2001 485 - 253 922 21045 51 170 257 23183
2002 4083 - 928 1426 2991 21 564 220 10233
2003 4220 - 529 1092 2251 13 287 493 8885
2004 18 200 1034 807 17947 307 185 31 20529
2005 582 - 332 1074 4997 17 51 74240 81293
2006 382 - 154 2098 1431 59 157 513 4794
2007 296 - 5721 1161 2236 35 214 911 10574
2008 350 - 92 7164 1417 113 223 2186 11545
2009 101 23 348 575 2149 24 459 102 3781
2010 1334 - 68 88450 1808 138366 115 249 230390
2011 25 - 50 81 122 74 - 2 354
Total 11876 223 9509 104850 58394 139080 2425 79204 405561
Ave/year 1080 20 864 9532 5309 12644 220 7200 36869
Table 4: Spatial Variability of Effected People due to Hazard Events in Hindu Kush Himalaya Region
Years Person Effected by Natural Hazards in HKH Region
Afghanistan Bhutan Bangladesh China India Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Total
2001 204695 - 730750 40366434 27017741 3750 21261 1324983 69669614
2002 313670 - 1701304 285289179 342028850 50000 266065 159943 629809011
2003 318424 - 553145 219552435 8098047 59254 1268780 229850085
2004 5540 1000 36889954 52949587 33960512 40700 800015 13248 124660556
2005 44720 - 1186606 83943283 28667616 16 31600 12655683 126529524
2006 2233910 - 94149 88739422 7384478 70106 280000 8230 98810295
2007 30255 - 23215116 120116276 38143033 166664 640706 1652711 183964761
2008 452964 - 636090 136975954 13989068 2420000 250003 366084 155090163
2009 65857 12 4504550 128762751 8996639 1351 619660 75080 143025900
2010 46200 - 887340 145656674 4790168 405049 13372 20397901 172196704
2011 3000 - 100000 25878599 50 21277 - 1000 26003926
Total 3719235 1012 70499004 1328230594 513076202 3178913 2981936 37923643 1959610539
Ave/year 338112 92 6409000 120748236 46643291 288992 271085 3447604 178146413
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
73
Table 5: Spatial Variability of Infrastructural Loss due to Hazard Events in Hindu Kush Himalaya Region
Years Damages or Loss due to Natural Hazards in HKH Region (US$ Million)
Afghanistan Bhutan Bangladesh China India Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Total
2001 0.01 - - 4449 2984.924 - - 493.5 7927.434
2002 - - - 6156.8 961.91 - - 0.03 7118.74
2003 - - - 16368.511 889 - - 11120 28377.511
2004 - 200 2700 4327.48 3522.8 500.688 - - 11250.968
2005 5.05 - - 11822.775 7240 - - 110 19177.825
2006 - - - 12463.691 3390 - - - 15853.691
2007 - - 2414 8004.698 376.151 - 2.4 - 10797.249
2008 - - - 111233 145 4000 0.029 327.118 115705.147
2009 20 - 270 9031.552 2734 - 60 103 12218.552
2010 - - - 20305.436 2149 57 - - 22511.436
2011 - - 7008.466 - 3.6 5200 12212.066
Total 25.06 200 5384 211171.409 24392.785 4561.288 62.429 17353.648 263150.619
Ave/year 2 18 489 19197 2218 415 6 1578 23923
Table 6: Spatial Variability of Hazard Events in Hindu Kush Himalaya Region
Years Frequency of Natural Hazard Events in HKH Region
Afghanistan Bhutan Bangladesh China India Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Total
2001 6 - 4 21 12 1 3 5 52
2002 9 - 7 19 11 1 3 8 58
2003 9 - 8 25 14 - 2 5 63
2004 4 1 13 23 11 5 4 8 69
2005 10 - 11 19 21 1 2 10 74
2006 12 - 5 31 17 2 4 8 79
2007 11 - 6 18 27 9 1 10 82
2008 9 - 8 37 22 1 5 7 89
2009 11 2 14 32 26 1 10 8 104
2010 11 - 13 36 27 8 14 12 121
2011 1 - 1 8 2 1 1 1 42
Total 101 3 90 273 196 35 49 86 833
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
74
Ave/year 9 1 8 25 18 3 4 8 76
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME
Infrastructural Loss: Infrastructural loss comprises of both private and public property loss in terms of US$ (Table 5 and Fig. 6 & 7). The results carried out through recent past eleven year data analysis suggests that China, India and Pakistan have the natural hazards that is respectively 19197 US$, 2218 US$ and 1578 US$ each year. Myanmar, Bangladesh and Bhutan have respectively 415 US$, 489 US$ and 18 US$ average annual loss whereas Nepal (6 US$) and Afghanistan (2 US$) recorin Hindu Kush Himalaya region (Table 5).
Fig. 7: Flood Demolished the Highway Bridge and the newer one have been established just
Degradation of Land Resources:
is the erosion of soils in the area. It has been estimated that the average rate of soil erosion in Kumaon Himalaya ranges between 1 and 1.7 mm/year (Rawat and Rawat 1994; Rawat 2011). Each ton of sediment generated through erosion removes 12.50 to 19.90 kg of organic carbon, 0.82-1.44 kg of nitrogen, 0.41 to 0.49 kg of phosphorus and 0.64 to 0.71 kg of potassium (Bhatnagar and Kundu 1992). The study showed that agricultural land, forests, scrubland and barren land have been degraded by the soil erosion, landslides and floods in the region. It was established that the annual rate of degradation of the land resources in the region was about 12.60 hectare/year for each 70Km
International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094
Infrastructural loss comprises of both private and public property loss in terms of US$ (Table 5 and Fig. 6 & 7). The results carried out through recent past eleven year data analysis suggests that China, India and Pakistan have the maximum annual loss due to natural hazards that is respectively 19197 US$, 2218 US$ and 1578 US$ each year. Myanmar, Bangladesh and Bhutan have respectively 415 US$, 489 US$ and 18 US$ average annual loss whereas Nepal (6 US$) and Afghanistan (2 US$) recorded low annual loss due to natural hazards in Hindu Kush Himalaya region (Table 5).
Flood Demolished the Highway Bridge and the newer one have been established just
above of that Sources: ICIMOD
Degradation of Land Resources: The main process leading to the degradation of land resources is the erosion of soils in the area. It has been estimated that the average rate of soil erosion in Kumaon Himalaya ranges between 1 and 1.7 mm/year (Rawat and Rawat 1994; Rawat
generated through erosion removes 12.50 to 19.90 kg of organic 1.44 kg of nitrogen, 0.41 to 0.49 kg of phosphorus and 0.64 to 0.71 kg of potassium
The study showed that agricultural land, forests, scrubland and ren land have been degraded by the soil erosion, landslides and floods in the region. It was
established that the annual rate of degradation of the land resources in the region was about hectare/year for each 70Km2 area (Rawat et. al., 2011). That includes
1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
Infrastructural loss comprises of both private and public property loss in terms of US$ (Table 5 and Fig. 6 & 7). The results carried out through recent past eleven year
maximum annual loss due to natural hazards that is respectively 19197 US$, 2218 US$ and 1578 US$ each year. Myanmar, Bangladesh and Bhutan have respectively 415 US$, 489 US$ and 18 US$ average annual loss
ded low annual loss due to natural hazards
Flood Demolished the Highway Bridge and the newer one have been established just
ding to the degradation of land resources is the erosion of soils in the area. It has been estimated that the average rate of soil erosion in Kumaon Himalaya ranges between 1 and 1.7 mm/year (Rawat and Rawat 1994; Rawat et. al.,
generated through erosion removes 12.50 to 19.90 kg of organic 1.44 kg of nitrogen, 0.41 to 0.49 kg of phosphorus and 0.64 to 0.71 kg of potassium
The study showed that agricultural land, forests, scrubland and ren land have been degraded by the soil erosion, landslides and floods in the region. It was
established that the annual rate of degradation of the land resources in the region was about cludes 31.11 % (3.92
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
hectare) agricultural land, 22.78 % (2.87 hectare) forest land, 20.16 % (2.54 hectare) scrub land and 25.95 % (3.27 hectare) barren land. Livestock Loss: Livestock is back bone of the mountain agro-economy because they not only play a important role for agricultural production but also provide milk and meat food. Therefore people use milk and meat for their own consumption as well as commercial purpose to make money to mange other market needs. But unfortunately annual livestock casualty is about ten times more than human casualty due to hazard events in the Hindu Kush Himalaya region. Food Deficiency: As initially mentioned that about 95% population of the region depends on agriculture and forest resources but both are decreasing due to very high rate of land degradation through natural hazards. Decreasing forest cover accelerating hydrological hazard extremely as floods in monsoon period whereas drought in non-monsoon period which are effecting agricultural production. Consequently the annual agricultural production decreasing about 16% by each year and poses a serious threat of food deficiency in the region (Rawat et al 2011-h). Changing Rural Livelihood and Migration: The effects and risk of the natural hazards are multidimensional in HKH region. Therefore it’s observed that the trends of livelihood changing and people preferring secondary and tertiary sectors livelihood than primary sector (i.e. mainly agricultural and forest related). But unfortunately due to lack of resources people do not fulfill their desires in the mountain region and ultimately they migrated to down-stream plain areas for better livelihood in big cities, towns and other similar places. As a result this trends of migration not only danger for mountain ecosystem and socio-economic setup but also emerging several risks in the down-stream plain areas due to increasing population density and there needs etc. Emerging Risks Assessment: It’s observed by this study that due to lack of effective joint inter-governmental risks reduction policies and low level community awareness the risks level of the hazard increasing (Table 1). In order to that emerging other new types of risks in HKH region and its adjoining least low vulnerable areas as discussed below: Increasing Spatial Variability in Hazard Events: The spatial distribution of the natural hazard has been analyzed for the HKH region. The results suggested that although the total annual hazard events are increasing but beside that the spatial variability of the events also increasing. It means somewhere hazard taking place with high to extreme events whereas some places it’s recorded with low level events (Table 6 and Fig. 8). The middle part of the HKH region comprises of Bangladesh, China, India Nepal and Pakistan experiencing very high frequency of hazard events. Myanmar and Afghanistan have moderate frequency of hazard events whereas the land of Bhutan experiencing low hazard vents (Table 6 Fig. 8). The region having average 76 hazard events each year and highest found for china (25) and India (18). Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan have average respectively about 9, 8 and 8 hazard events each year whereas Nepal, Myanmar and Bhutan respectively have about 4, 3 and 1 natural hazard each year (Table 6 Fig. 8).
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
Fig. 8: Spatial Variation of Average Annual Hazard Events in HKH Region
Rising Growth Rate of Risks: The emerging risks of the hazards accelerating the intensity of the risks and increasing the consequences of the hazards in Hindu Kush region. The result of the data analysis suggests that all four aspects of the risks increasing with very high rates. Table 7 and Fig. 9 showing that the hazard event increasing with the growth rate of 6% each year, human casualties increasing with the rate of 9% each year whereas effected people and infrastructural loss increasing with that rate of respectively 6% and 4% each year. Because of the high growth rates of the existing risks level expected that the emerging risk has the potential to evolve into
extreme events. Table 7 demonstrates that there are total four levels (i.e. low, moderate, high, very high) of existing risks and expected to convert into five levels of emerging risks (i.e. low, moderate, high, very high and extreme) due to accelerated risk potential of the hazard events in the region. It’s also observed that all most of the elements converting in upper risks level from existing risk level (Table 7 and Fig. 9).
Table 7: Trends of Decadal and Annual Growth Rates of Several Risks in HKH Region
Hazard Impacts and Risks
Years Gross Change Growth Rates in %
2001 2010 2001-2010 Decadal Ave. Annual No. of Events 52 121 69 57 6
Human Casualties 23183 230390 207207 90 9
People Effected 69669614 172196704 102527090 60 6
Infrastructural Loss 7927.434 12212.066 4284.632 35 4
0
5
10
15
20
25
Avera
ge A
nn
ual
Hazard
Even
ts
Afg
hanistan
Bhu
tan
Ban
glade
sh
Chin
aIn
dia
Mya
nmar
Nepa
l
Pak
ista
n
HKH Region
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
Fig. 9: Trends of Decadal and Annual Growth Rates of Several Risks in HKH Region Triggering Trans-Boundary Risks: It means the hazard event affects not only the HKH region but also affecting adjoining plain ecosystem. The HKH boundary covers mainly the mountainous part. This mountainous region comprises of ten river basin’s upstream parts. Consequently the risks of the hazards could affect the down-stream river basin’s ecosystem equally. It means if the natural hazards take place in HKH region accordingly it will have several direct or indirect socio-economic and environmental impacts on plain ecosystem because all the down-stream basins of the HKH region are highly populated area of the world and have dense socio-economic infrastructural setup (Fig. 10). So it causes great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development. Accelerating Climate Change Related Risks: Accelerated Deforestation is a major responsible factor to increase global climate change that’s why all the national, regional and international climate change adaptation agencies suggests to protect and increase the forest cover of the earth but unfortunately all the disaster events such as earthquake, slope failure, landslide, slumps, erosion, wet mass-movement, flash flood and river-line flood etc devastates hectares of forest land each year in Hindu kush Himalya region. It has been estimated that active Himalayan terrain is being deforested at the rate of 0.36km2/year. Out of total annual deforestation 78% accounts for several natural hazard events in the region whereas 22 % decreasing due to another anthropogenic factors such as increasing agricultural land, growing urbanization, industrialization, cutting of trees, road construction etc. (Rawat et al 2011). Consequently the high annual rates of deforestation makes the region more vulnerable for each next coming years hydrological hazards and also emerging climate change related risks such as seasonal variability,
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Gro
wth
Ra
te (
in %
)
No. of Events Human Casualties People Effected Infrastructural
Loss
Disaster Risks
Decadal Growth Annual Growth
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
Fig. 10: Probable Emerging Risks (b) in Down Stream Basins of HKH Region (a)
Amu Darya
Yellow
Yangtze
Mekong
Safween
Irrawaddy
BrahmaputraGanges
Tarim
Indus
Indus Sea
Hindu Kush Himalaya Region
Down Stream River Basins
Asia
River Basins
HKH Region
Index
Amu Darya
Indus Sea
Yellow
Yangtze
Mekong
Safween
Irrawaddy
BrahmaputraGanges
Tarim
Indus
Moderate Risk
Low Risk Zone
HKH Region
Index
Very High to Extereme
High Rik
Hindu Kush Himalaya Region
Emerging Risk Zones in Down Stream Basins
b
a
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
extreme meteorological and hydrological events, increasing water discharge rate in glacial-fed river basins due to high glacier melting rate and decreasing water discharge in rain-fed river basins due to drying up springs and perennial streams. In order to that the other impacts of the disaster induces climate change in HKH region investigated are decreasing crop and fruit production, food deficiency, water deficiency, decreasing livestock, migration and changing livelihood etc. (Rawat et al 2011). Risk of National and International Disputes: Some times it experienced that the areas, countries and regions which are associated along the down-streams they suffers by flood hazards and blamed on the administrative system of up-stream areas, countries and regions. Such kinds of flood hazards take place because of poor risks reduction strategy and management in up-stream and down-stream areas. It’s also occurred some times due to extreme precipitation as a result of climate change and high rates of deforestation. This phenomenon causes a great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development because of down-stream areas have dense socio-economic infrastructure as mentioned previously. Rising Sea Level: Already it has been established that all the glaciers are melting with high rates due to climate change and providing high water volume in sea throughout the year. But during monsoon season several hydrological hazards take place in the mountain and its adjoined plain areas and accelerate high runoff and erosion and bring the sediment in the streams which ultimately reached and deposited in the sea. Consequently both process (climate change and hydrological hazards) would increase the rising rate of sea level and will have great impacts on costal ecosystem.
Conclusion and Recommendations The report concluded that the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region is highly vulnerable for tectonic and hydrological hazards and cause great loss to life and property and poses serious threat to the process of development with have far-reaching economic and social consequences. Neo-tectonic activities in HKH region along the several active thrusts and faults responsible for earthquake disasters whereas climate change and land use degradation accelerating the water-induced disasters such as flash flood, river-line flood, erosion, wet mass movement during monsoon period and drought in non-monsoon period as drying up of natural water springs and streams. The results also suggested that the hazards not only accelerating the existing risks but also emerging new risks in HKH region and adjoins down stream plain and costal ecosystem such as increasing spatial variability in hazard events, rising growth rate of risks, triggering trans-boundary risks, accelerating climate change related risks, risk of national and international disputes, rising sea level etc. The study recommended a comprehensive GIS database (DBMS) modeling for existing and emerging disaster risks reduction (DRR) in Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region. The DBMS comprises of comprehensive existing geo-environmental information of the HKH region through three GIS module: i.e. Geo-informatics, Hydro-informatics and Socio-economic informatics. Theses three GIS module will provide the spatial and attribute data for hazard-vulnerability- risk assessment (HVRA) model. This HVRA model will be suggest spatial distribution of existing and emerging risks level (i.e. low to extreme level) throughout the Hindu Kush Himalaya region. Than accordingly the necessary measures could be apply for disaster risk reduction (DRR) in HKH region.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
Acknowledgements
This study constitutes part of a research report on “Understand and Analyze the Existing and Emerging Risks in the Hindu Kush Himalaya Region” funded to Dr. Pradeep K. Rawat (corresponding author) by International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal. Authors are indebted to ICIMOD for financial support to conduct this study.
Reference Bajracharya, B.; A.B. Shrestha an L. Rajbhandari, 2007a. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in the
Sagarmatha Region: Hazard Assessment Using GIS and Hydrodynamic Modelling. Mountain Research and Development, 27: 336-344.
Bhatnagar, V.K. and S. Kundu, 1992. Climatological analysis and crop water use studies for sustainable improved rainfed agriculture in Mid hills of UP’. Vivekananda Pravatya Krishi Anusandhan Sala Almora.
Blakie, P., T. Cannon, I. Davis and B. Wisner, 1994. At Risk -- Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disaster’s. London: Routledge.
Bruijnzeel, L.A. and C.N. Bremmer, 1989. Highland-Lowland Interaction in the Ganges Brahmaputra River Basin: A Review of Published Literature’. Occasional Paper No. 11. Kathmandu: ICIMOD.
Carson, B. 1985. Erosion and Sedimentation Processes in the Nepalese Himalaya’. Occasional Paper No. 1. Kathmandu: ICIMOD.
Chalise, S.R., 2001. An Introduction to Climate, Hydrology and Landslide Hazards in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region’. In Li Tianchi; Chalise, S.R; Upreti, B.N. (eds) Landslide Hazard Mitigation in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas, pp 51-62. Kathmandu: ICIMOD.
Chalise S.R. and N.R. Khanal, 2001. Rainfall and Related Natural Disasters in Nepal’. In Li Tianchi; Chalise, S.R; Upreti, B.N. (eds) Landslide Hazard Mitigation in the Hindu Kush- Himalayas, pp 63-70. Kathmandu: ICIMOD.
DHM, 1998. Flood Risk Mapping of Lakhandehi River’. Kathmandu: Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, Ministry of Science and Technology, HMG/Nepal.
IIDS, 2001. Flood Forecasting and Warning and Disaster Management’. Kathmandu: Institute of Integrated Development Studies.
Dunning, S.A., N. J. Rosser, D. N. Petley, C. R. Massey, 2006. Formation and Failure of the Tsatichhu Landslide Dam, Bhutan’. Landslides, 3:107-113.
Dhital, M.; N. Khanal, K.B. Thapa, 1993. The Role of Extreme Weather Events, Mass Movements and Land-use Changes in Increasing Natural Hazards’. Kathmandu: ICIMOD.
Heyman, B.N., C. Davis, P.F. Krumpe, 1991. An Assessment of Worldwide Disaster Vulnerability. Disaster Management, 4: 1-23
ICIMOD, 2002. Hazard and Risk Mapping (Internal Report). Kathmandu: Participatory Disaster Management Programme’. (Nep 99/014) and ICIMOD.
ICIMOD, 2002a. Community Risk and Vulnerability Assessment. (Internal Report). Kathmandu: Participatory Disaster Management Programme (Nep 99/014) and ICIMOD.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
ITECO Engineering Ltd., 1996. Hazard Mitigation in Northern Sunkoshi and Bhotekoshi Water Catchment Areas (HMWA), Central-Eastern Nepal: Final Report. Kathmandu: Nepal- Switzerland Cooperation Project, ITECO Engineering Ltd., Switzerland, ITECO Nepal (P) Ltd, and ICIMOD.
Ives, J.D., 1986. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods and Risk Engineering in the Himalaya’. Occasional Paper No. 5. Kathmandu: ICIMOD.
Jonkman, S.N., 2005. Global Perspectives on Loss of Human Life Caused by Floods. Natural Hazards, 34:151-175.
Khanal, N.R., 1999. Study of Landslide and Flood Affected Areas in Syangja and Rupandehi Districts of Nepal’. Unpublished report submitted to the Mountain Natural Resources Division, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Li Tianchi and J. Behrens, 2002. An Overview of Poverty, Vulnerability and Disaster Management in Nepal. Kathmandu: ICIMOD.
Messner, F. and V. Meyer, 2005. Flood Damage, Vulnerability and Risk Perceptions – Challenge for Flood Damage Research’. Leipzig: UFZ-Umweltforschungszentrum Leipzy-Halle.
Mool, P.K.; S. Bajracharya, S. P. Joshi, 2001. Inventory of Glaciers, Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods: Monitoring and Early Warning System in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region, Nepal’. Kathmandu: ICIMOD.
Narendra, R. Khanal, Mandira Shrestha and Motilal Ghimire, 2007. Preparing of flood disaster mapping and assessing hazard in the Ratu watershed Nepal. ICIMOD.
Rawat, J. S. and M.S. Rawat, 1994. Accelerated erosion and denudation in the Nana Kosi Watershed, Central Himalaya. Part I: sediment load. Mountain Research and Development, 14(1):25–38
Rawat, Pradeep K., P.C. Tiwari, C.C. Pant, A.K Sharama, P.D. Pant, 2011. Climate change and its geo-hydrological impacts on mountainous terrain: A case study through Remote Sensing and GIS modelling. E-International Scientific Research Journal, 3 (1): 51-69.
Rawat, Pradeep K., P.C. Tiwari, C.C. Pant, 2011a. Modeling of Stream Runoff and Sediment output for erosion hazard assessment in Lesser Himalaya; Need for sustainable land use plane using Remote Sensing and GIS: A case study. International journal of Natural Hazards, Vol. 59:1277–1297.
Rawat, Pradeep K., P.C. Tiwari, C.C. Pant, A.K Sharama, P.D. Pant, 2012. Spatial Variability assessment of
river-line floods and flash floods in Himalaya: A case study using GIS. International Journal of
Disaster Prevention and Management, 21 (2):
Rawat, Pradeep K., P.C. Tiwari, C.C. Pant, A.K Sharama, P.D. Pant, 2011b. Climate change and its geo-hydrological impacts on mountainous terrain: A case study through Remote Sensing and GIS modelling. International Scientific Research Journal, 3 (1): 51-69.
Rawat, Pradeep K., P.C. Tiwari, C.C. Pant, A.K Sharama, P.D. Pant, 2011c. Morphometric analysis of third
order river basins using high resolution satellite imagery and GIS technology: special
reference to natural hazard vulnerability assessment. International Scientific Research
Journal, 3 (2): 70-87.
Rawat, Pradeep K., P.C. Tiwari, C.C. Pant, 2011d. Climate Change and Drought Hazard in Hills: A Burning
Hydro-Meteorological Problem Investigated through Remote Sensing and GIS Modelling.
International Journal of Current Research and Review, 3 (6): 116-133.
Rawat, Pradeep K., P.C. Tiwari, C.C. Pant, 2011-e. Climate Change accelerating Hydrological Hazards and
Risks in Himalaya: A Case Study through Remote Sensing and GIS Modeling. International
Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences, 1 (4): 678-699.
E-International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME – IV, ISSUE- 1, 2012, ISSN 2094-1749
Rawat, Pradeep K., P.C. Tiwari, C.C. Pant, 2011f. Climate Change accelerating land use dynamic and its environmental and socio-economic risks in Himalaya: need a sustainable land use. International Journal of Climate Change Strategy and Management, in Press.
Shrestha, A.B., H.S. Shah, R. Karim, 2008. Resource manual on flash flood risk management Module 1: Community-based management. Kathmandu: ICIMOD.
Shrestha, A.B., 2008. Resource manual on flash flood risk management, Module 2: Non-structural measures. Kathmandu: ICIMOD.
Shrestha, A.B. 2009a. Climate Change in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas and its impacts on water and hazards. Asia Pacific Mountain Network Bulletin 9: 1–5
Shrestha, A.B. 2010. Managing Flash Flood Risk in the Himalayas. ICIMOD. Singh, SP; Khadka I Bassignana; B.S. Karky, E. Sharma (2011) Climate change in the Hindu
Kush-Himalayas: The state of current knowledge. Kathmandu: ICIMOD Tiwari P. C., 2000. Land Use Changes in Himalaya and their Impact on the Plains Ecosystem: Need for
Sustainable Land Use. Land Use Policy, 17:101-111.
Valdiya K. S. and S. K. Bartarya, 1989. Problem of mass-movement in part of Kmaun Himalaya. Current Science, 58:486-491.
Watts, M.J., H. G. Bohle, 1993. The Space of Vulnerability: The Casual Structure of Hunger and Famine. Progress in Human Geography, 17:43-67
Xu, D., 1985. Characteristics of Debris Flows Caused by Outburst of Glacier Lakes in Boqu River in Xizang, China, 1981. Geo Journal, 17:569-580
Top Related