scert telangana

SCERT TELANGANA

CHILDREN’S BILL OF RIGHTS

A child is every person under the age of 18 years. Parents have the primaryresponsibility for the upbringing and development of the child. The State shallrespect and ensure the rights of the child.

• I have the Right to express my views freely, which should be taken seriously, andeveryone has the Responsibility to listen to others. [Article-12,13]

• I have the Right to good health care and everyone has the Responsibility to helpothers get basic health care and safe water. [Article- 24]

• I have to Right to good education, and everyone has the Responsibility to encourageall children to go to school [Article- 28,29,23]

• I have the Right to be loved and protected from harm and abuse, and everyonehas the Responsibility to love and care for others. [Article-19]

• I have the Right to be included whatever my abilities, and everyone has theResponsibility to respect others for their differences. [Article- 23]

• I have the Right to be proud of my heritage and beliefs, and everyone has theResponsibility to respect the culture and belief of others. [Article- 29,30]

• I have the Right to safe and comfortable home and everyone has the Responsibilityto make sure all children have homes. [Article- 27]

• I have the Right to make mistakes, and everyone has the Responsibility to acceptwe can learn from our mistakes. [Article- 28]

• I have the Right to be well fed and everyone has the Responsibility to preventpeople starving. [Article- 24]

• I have the Right to a clean environment, and everyone has the Responsibility notto pollute it. [Article- 29]

• I have the Right to live without violence (verbal, physical, emotional), and everyonehas the Responsibility not to be violent to others. [Article- 28, 37]

• I have the Right to be protected from economic exploitation, and everyone has theResponsibility to ensure that no child is forced to work and is given a free andsecure environment. [Article- 32, 34]

These rights and responsibilities are enshrined in the United Nations Convention on theRights of the Child, 1989. It contains all the rights which children and young people haveall over the world. The Government of India signed this document in 1992.

5%5 % DO YOU KNOW DO’S AND DON’TS

FOR FACING THESE

NATURAL DISASTERS !

SCERT TELANGANA

Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21

5 %5%

SOCIAL STUDIESClass VII

Published by Government of Telangana, Hyderabad.

Respect the LawGet the Rights

Grow by EducationBehave Humbly

i

Textbook Development Committee

Smt. B. Seshu Kumari, Director,SCERT, Telangana,

Hyderabad.

Sri B. Sudhakar, Director,Govt. Textbook Printing Press,

Telangana, Hyderabad.

Dr. N. Upender Reddy,Professor & Head C&T Dept.,SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.

Prof. G. Omkarnath, Dept. of Economics,University of Hyderabad. Hyderabad.

Prof. S. Padmaja, Dept.of Geography,Osmania University, Hyderabad.

Prof. A. Satyanarayana (Retd.), Dept. ofHistory, Osmania University, Hyderabad.

Dr. K.K. Kailash, Dept. of Political Science,HCU, Hyderabad.

Sri Aravind Sardana, Director,Eklavya, Bhopal, M.P.

Dr. K. Narayana Reddy,Asst.Prof. Dept.of Geography, O.U., Hyd.

Sri Rammurthy Sharma,Dept. of Education, Govt. of Punjab.

Sri Alex. M.George,Eklavya, Bhopal, M.P.

Sri C.N. Subramanyam,Eklavya, Bhopal, M.P.

Prof. I. Laxmi, Dept.of History,Osmania University, Hyderabad.

Prof. M.Kodandaram, Dept. of PoliticalScience, P.G. College, Sec’bad, Hyd.

Prof. K. Vijaya Babu, Dept. of History,Kakatiya University, Warangal.

Dr. M.V. Srinivasan, Asst. Prof.DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi.

Dr. M.V.S.V. Prasad, Asst. Prof.DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi.

Dr. C. Dayakar Reddy, Asst. Prof.University College for Women, Koti, Hyd.

Sri K. Suresh,Manchi Pustakam, Hyderabad.

Editors

SCERT TELANGANA


© Government of Telangana, Hyderabad.

First Published 2012New Impressions 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, storedin a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or byany means without the prior permission in writing of thepublisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any form ofbinding or cover other than that in which it is publishedand without a similar condition including this conditionbeing imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

The copyright holder of this book is the Directorof School Education, Hyderabad, Telangana.We have used some photographs which are undercreative common licence. They are acknowledge atthe end of the book.

This Book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. Maplitho,Title Page 200 G.S.M. White Art Card

Free Distribution by Government of Telangana 2020-21

Printed in Indiaat the Telangana Govt. Text Book Press,

Mint Compound, Hyderabad,Telangana.

–– o ––

ii

SCERT TELANGANA


Prof. J. Raghavulu, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.Sri M. Papaiah, Lecturer, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.Sri S.Vinayak, Coordinator , C&T Dept. SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.Dr. Racharla Ganapathi, S.A., ZPHS Ladella, Warangal.Sri Ayachithula Laxman Rao, S.A., GHS Dhangarwadi, Karimnagar.Sri P. Srinivasulu, S.A., ZPHS Bandaposanipally, Medak.

Coordinators

Sri K. Laxminarayana, Lecturer, DIET, Angalur, Krishna Dist.Sri M. Narasimha Reddy, GHM, ZPHS Peddajangampally, Y.S.R.Kadapa.Sri K. Subramanyam, Lecturer, DIET, Kurnool.Sri M. Papaiah, Lecturer, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.Dr. B.V.N. Swamy, S.A., GHS Huzurabad, Karimnagar.Sri P. Srinivasulu, S.A., ZPHS Bandaposanipally, Medak.Sri Ayachithula Laxman Rao, S.A., GHS Dhangarwadi, Karimnagar.Smt S. Suvarna Devi, Lecturer, Govt. Degree College, Narsapur, Medak.Dr. Racharla Ganapathi, S.A., ZPHS Ladella, Warangal.Sri Korivi Srinivasa Rao, S.A., MPUPS, P.R.Pally, Tekkali, Srikakulam.Sri Ch. Radha Krishna, S.A., ZPHS Venkatapuram, Srikakulam.Sri T. Rama Krishna, S.A., ZPHS Deva Penugonda, West Godavari.Sri K. Kumara Swamy, S.A., ZPHS Dowdepally, Adilabad.Smt B. Sarala, S.A., ZPGHS Indukurupet, Nellore.Sri P.V. Krishna Rao, LFL HM, P.S. Mohalla No. 16, Yellandu, KhammamSri A.R. Ramesh Rao, S.A., ZPHS Roddam, Anantapur.Sri Gaddmeedi Rathanga Pani Reddy, SA, ZPHS Janampet, Moosapet, Mahabubnagar.Sri Vanguri Gangi Reddy, SA, ZPHS Kondurg, Mahabubnagar.Dr. Chakinala Srinivas, GHM, GHS Durgammagadda, Karimnagar.Sri U. Anandkumar, S.A, Z.P.H.S, Sujatha Nagar, Khammam.Sri NC Jagannath, GHS Kulsumpura, Hyderabad.Smt. Hemakhatri, IGNIS, Hyd. (Proof reading)

5 %

Sri Kurella Srinivas, S.A., ZPHS, Pochampally, Nalgonda.Sri B. Kishore Kumar, SGT, MP UPS, Alwala, Anumula, Nalgonda.Sri P. Anjaneyulu, Geomapper, CESS-DCS, Hyderabad

Illustrators

5%

iii

Kishan Thatoju, Computer Operator, C&T Dept., SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.Kannaiah Dara, Computer Operator, C&T Dept., SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.

Smt. K. Pavani, Graphic Designer, Hyderabad.

DTP & Design

SOCIAL STUDIESClass VII

Writers

SCERT TELANGANA


Letter to students

“As my mother lies down too tired to move after a full day of work in the fields and at home,I sit beside her and wonder,why is life so difficult for women? If I set out of my home I find somany different people – people who speak such different languages and follow such differentcustoms, I wonder who they are and why there are such different kinds of people.

I read newspapers and find out that so many of our farmers who grow our food with sucheffort are committing suicide out of desperation. I wonder, what has made them so desperateand feel so hopeless. As I walk in the streets of a town, I see such large and beautiful buildingsand roads and temples, mosques and churches. I wonder who built them and at what cost. I alsosee slums in which thousands live in conditions most unfortunate and I wonder, why don’t theyhave a good place to live in cities with such beautiful buildings.

My elders too discuss some of these problems and talk of voting and electing the right peopleto rule and I wonder who rules us and how do they rule us? My grandparents tell me tales ofolden days when there were kings and queens and of times when gods and saints walked amongus people. I wonder if such things were really possible.

I have so many questions that I often wonder if anyone has answers to them at all. Perhaps noone person knows all the answers and perhaps no one may know the answers to some of thequestions. Perhaps I need to find out myself. How can I find out? Who will help me?”

Dear Friends,The questions that are arising in your minds are some of the most important questions

which everyone needs to find some answers. They are not at all easy to answer for most of themdo not have any one definite answer. In fact many questions will be answered differently bydifferent people. So perhaps you too will have your own answer after you have studied theproblem carefully. Social Sciences try to understand the society we live in – by asking questionsand working out methods for answering them. It also seeks to help us to understand why differentpeople answer the questions differently- for example if you ask anyone, why are there very fewgirls in colleges compared to schools, you will get different answers from different kinds ofpeople. If you ask why the slums are not cleaned like the colonies of the rich, you will again getvery different answers. Why do people answer these questions differently? Social Sciences tryto understand this problem too.

Social Sciences do not merely compile different answers to a problem. They try to bringa rigorous method to study them. They try to understand the problem by seeing how it developed– and how and why it has changed; they try to see if it is similar all over the earth or it changes indifferent parts of the world; and they try to understand the different points of view about it. Havethere been fewer girls in colleges in the past? Is it that all over the world there are fewer girls incolleges? Why? What prevents girls from attending colleges? What do parents who don’t sendtheir daughters say? What do parents who send their daughters say? What do the girls say?What do the teachers say? Social Scientists put together all these before answering the mainquestion. But no Social Scientist can give you the final or definite answer and it is you who haveto decide which answer you find more convincing and useful for you to act.

– Editors

iv

SCERT TELANGANA


About this bookThis book is a part of your Social Science Curriculum or a part of various things you would be

doing to study the society around you. However, remember that it is only one small part of that curriculum.The Social Science Curriculum requires you to analyse and share in the classroom what you know. Itrequires you above all to ask questions – think why things are the way they are. It also requires you andyour friends to go out of the classroom to the market, to the Panchyat or municipality office, to thevillage fields, to temples and mosques and museums and find out various things. You will have to meetand discuss with a number of people, farmers, shopkeepers, officials, priests, and so on.

This book will introduce you to a range of problems and enable you to study them and arrive atyour own understanding of them. So, the most important thing about this book is that it does not haveanswers. In fact, this book is not really complete. It can only be completed when you and your friendsand teachers bring their own questions and experiences and discuss everything threadbare in the class.You may disagree with many things in this book - do not be afraid to say so - only give your reasons.Your friends may disagree with you, but try to understand why they have a different view. Finally arriveat your own answers. You may not even be sure of your answer - you may want to find out more beforeyou make up your mind. In that case list your questions carefully and request your friends, teachers orelders to help you to find out.

This book will help you to study different aspects of our social life - about diversity of land andpeople, about how people get their livelihoods, how people provide for their common needs and managethem, how all people in our society are not equal and how people try to bring about equality, how peopleworship different gods in different ways, and finally how they communicate with each other and builda culture which is shared by them. It also helps the children in seeking protection and security.

To understand some of these matters you may have to study about the earth - the hills, plains andrivers and seas; to understand others you may have to know what happened hundreds or even thousandsof years ago; but most of all you may have to go out and talk to different kinds of people around you.

As you study this book in the class room, you will come across many questions - do stop and try toanswer those questions or do the activity suggested before you proceed ahead. It is not so important tofinish the lesson fast as it is to discuss the questions and do the activities.

Many lessons will suggest projects which may take a few days to do. These projects will enableyou to develop skills of social science enquiry and analysis and presentation - these are more importantthan remembering what is written in the lessons.

Please remember that you don't have to memorise what is given in the lesson, but think about themand form your own opinion about them.

We can use content related maps, tables & graphs other than text book for practice and evaluation.Discussions, conducting interviews, debates and projects are given in the middle of the runninglesson and after the improve your learning. To develop social consiousness, sensitivity and positiveattitude among the children is the purpose. Hence these must be taken up.

Director, SCERT,Telangana, Hyderabad.

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTWe would like to acknowledge the contributiojn of Dr. K.N. Anandan, linguist, Kerala, Sri. P. Dakshina Murthy,

Rtd. Dy.director, Telugu Academy, Deepa Srinivasan, Krithika Viswanath, K. Bhagya Lakshmi, R.V. Vyas, RamamurthySarma, Roy Sinai, who participated in our workshops and contributed in improving the quality of the text book. Ouroutmost respects to Dr.Upinder Singh, University of Delhi, Archaeological Museum Dept, Govt. of Telangana, Layoutand designers. We are also thankful to the photographers used in the book are taken from flickr, wikipedia or otherinternet sources.

We gratefully acknowledge the feedback received from a large number of school teachers, academics and others,which has helped us to update and revise the books. In particular we would like to acknowledge the detailed review ofthe textbooks by Indian History Awareness & Research (IHAR), Houston Taxas, USA which enabled us to improve thetextbook.

SCERT TELANGANA

Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 vi

Subs. by the constitution [Forty-second Amendment] Act, 1976, Sec.2, for “Sovereign DemocraticRepublic” (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)

Subs. by the constitution [Forty-second Amendment] Act, 1976, Sec.2, for “Unity of the Nation”(w.e.f. 3.1.1977)

SCERT TELANGANA


CONTENTS

Theme - I: Diversity on the Earth

1. Reading Maps of Different kinds2. Rain and Rivers3. Tanks and Ground Water4. Oceans and Fishing5. Europe6. Africa

Theme - II: Production Exchange and Livelihoods7. Handicrafts and Handlooms8. Industrial Revolution9. Production in a Factory - A Paper Mill10. Importance of Transport System

Theme -III: Political Systems and Governance

11. New Kings and Kingdoms12. The Kakatiyas - Emergence of a Regional Kingdom13. The Kings of Vijayanagara14. Mughal Empire15. Establishment of the British Empire in India16. Making of Laws in the State Assembly17. Implementation of Laws in the District

Theme - IV: Social Organisation and Inequities

18. Caste Discrimination and the Struggle for Equalities19. Livelihood and Struggles of Urban Workers

Theme - V: Religion and Society

20. Folk - Religion21. Devotional Paths to the Divine

Theme -VI: Culture and Communication22. Rulers and Buildings

Revision & Annual Examinationsvii

Page No

1-6 7-21 22-32 33-41 42-57 58-68

69-77 78-85 86-94 95-100

101-109110-116117-125126-134135-146147-157158-164

165-171172-180

181-187188-196

197-207

S.No Content Month

JuneJuneJulyJulyJuly

August

AugustAugust

SeptemberSeptember

SeptemberOctober

NovemberNovemberNovemberDecemberDecember

JanuaryJanuary

FebruaryFebruary

February

March

SCERT TELANGANA

Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 viii

OUR NATIONAL ANTHEM

- Rabindranath Tagore

Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka, jaya heBharata-bhagya-vidhata.

Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-MarathaDravida-Utkala-Banga

Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-GangaUchchhala-jaladhi-taranga.

Tava shubha name jage,Tava shubha asisa mage,

Gahe tava jaya gatha,Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he

Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.Jaya he! jaya he! jaya he!Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he!!

PLEDGE

- Pydimarri Venkata Subba Rao

“India is my country; all Indians are my brothers and sisters.I love my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.

I shall always strive to be worthy of it.

I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect,and treat everyone with courtesy. I shall be kind to animals.

To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion.

In their well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.”

SCERT TELANGANA

1Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21

CH

APT

ER Reading Maps ofDifferent Kinds

The world we live in is so full of variety – mountains, hills, sea coasts, deserts,forests, snow-covered regions.... Why is there so much variation? How does this affectthe lives of people who live in those parts? To study and understand these questions,we need to take the help of maps of different kinds. Some maps tell us about howhigh or low the places are, some tell us about how much it rains there or how hot orcold it gets, some tell us about crops that grow there or the kinds of forests that arefound in those areas. By studying them, we can know many things about the world.

Fig 1.1 Evergreen forest in Westernghats of Karnataka

Fig 1.2 Cocana Beach in Brazilof South America

Fig 1.3 An Oasis in the Sahara desert of Libyain Africa

Fig 1.4 Ice covered continent -Antarctica

1

SCERT TELANGANA

2 Diversity on the Earth Social Studies

Bring copies of School Atlas and see how many different kinds of maps are there. Makea list of the maps you would like to read and understand. Last year, we learnt to read somesimple maps. This year, we will learn to read maps that show height. But let us first revisewhat we learnt last year. Hang a political map of India in the class. Look at the map carefully and answer

the following questions:i. Mehar went to Bhopal from Hyderabad. In which direction did he travel?ii. Ashok went to Chennai from Lucknow. In which direction did he travel?iii. Regina went to Bhubaneshwar from Mumbai. In which direction did she

travel?iv. Weprechu went to Jaipur from Kohima. In which direction did he travel?

Make such questions and ask each other.

Look at the symbols shown on the map. Now try to find out the boundary ofTelangana. Trace your finger along the boundary.Draw the symbol for the boundary of a state and the symbol for the boundary ofIndia (international boundary) in your notebook.Can you make a list of states which lie to the north, south, west and east ofTelangana?In class VI, you have learnt to measure the distance between places with the help of the‘scale’ given in the map. Now try to find out the distance between Hyderabad and variousstate capitals like Jaipur, Imphal, Gandhinagar and Tiruvananthapuram.

SymbolsPoint, Line, Area: We use symbols to show physical objects on the map. You have seen

some of them in class VI.If we are asked to show Delhi in the map of India, we will mark a point ( ) and label it

as Delhi. To show the river Manjeera, we draw a line ( ) along its course.For theRailway line, we will draw a track line ( ) to represent it. In Telangana map, if wewant to show the area of Medak or Hyderabad district, we demarcate its boundary and markit with some colour or pattern, which is known as a real symbol. Thus, all physical objectsare shown on the map with the help of a point, line or an area symbol.

Look at a few maps in the later chapters of this book and list out the objects inthe given map in the following table:

Point Symbol Line Symbol Area Symbol1. Delhi 1. River 1. Playground2. 2. 2.

3. 3. 3.

SCERT TELANGANA


Lakshadweep

Reading Maps of Different Kinds

Scale1 centimeter = 200 kilometers

Map-1 : States and Capitals

Srinagar

ChandigarhDehra Dun

New Delhi

JaipurLucknow

Patna

Gangtok

Dispur KohimaShillong

Imphal

AizawalAgartalaRanchi

Bhuvaneswar

Raipur

BhopalGandhinagar

Mumbai

Panaji

Thiruvananthapuram

Bangalore

Chennai

Itanagar

Kolkata

Shimla

N

Hyderabad

IndexThe external

boundary of India

Boundary of States

Capital of States

Amaravati

Jammu

SCERT TELANGANA


Physical MapsYou will find some maps in your Atlas called ‘Physical Maps’. In these maps, you will

usually find different parts of the land coloured in green, yellow or brown. Actually, theyshow the variety of landforms (mountains, plateaus, plains etc.) and depict the height ofplaces.

How can we represent the heights of land on flat paper? Of course, we can make a drawinglike the one below:

As you can see this is apicture and not a map. Herethe height of the hills hidewhat is behind them. A mapshould show all the placeswithout hiding them. Canyou think of a way in whichwe can draw a map of thisplace?

One way in which we canshow heights on maps isthrough the use of colour.Let us see how this is done.

Measuring Height on LandAll heights on the land are calculated from the sea level. Since all the seas in the world

are connected to each other, the sea level (the top surface) all over the world is taken to beroughly the same. Look at the picture of Nimpur village given below to understand thisidea.

You can see from the picture that Nimpur village is fifty meters above the sea level.

How many meters above the sea level is the temple?How many meters above the sea level is the top of the hill?

Fig 1.6 Heights in Nimpur Village

Temple

Nimpur Village

Fig 1.5 Drawing of “Nimpur” Village

TempleNimpur

River

SCERT TELANGANA


Showing Height on a MapLook at the map of Nimpur village area

given here (Fig 1.7).Can you see that the map shows three

height zones – firstly, areas which arebetween 0 meter to 50 meters height, areaswhich are between 51 meters and 100meters and then finally, areas which arebetween 101 meters and 150 meters? Thus,any place which falls in the height zone 51-100 meters will have a height of above 50meters but below 100 meters. Height isshown in different shades of colours.

Look at the map of Nimpurshowing height. What is the colourgiven to the area adjacent to thesea?What is the colour given to thehighest region in this map?

Now, look at the Physical Map of Indiaor Telangana in your atlas or wall map. Findout the range of heights and colours for theplaces given below by reading the index.Contour Lines

A contour is a line joining places withequal heights on the map. On the map ofNimpur, you would have seen a line passingthrough the village, this is the 50 metercontour line. All places on this line willhave the same height of 50 meters. Contourlines are shown in irregular shapesdepending upon the land form. These linescannot cut with each other. The distancebetween two contour lines will dependupon the landscape. If the land has a steepclimb then the contour lines will be neareach other. If the slope of the land is gentle,then the contour lines will be quite far fromeach other.

Uses of Maps showing HeightsThese maps help us to understand the

nature of the terrain, where the mountainsare, where the valleys are, etc. If you lookat the physical map of Telangana, you canidentify the Godavari slopes in the Easternpart. If you travel westwards from theslopes, you will reach the hills in thePlateau region. The plateau region itself iscut by many rivers like the Krishna and theGodavari, which form deep and broadvalleys in them.

Maps showing height are very essentialwhen roads or dams have to be

constructed. If we have to lay roads in anundulating region between two places, suchmaps help us in deciding the route to betaken by the road. Similarly, when dams areplanned, it is necessary to know how muchland will be submerged by the water of thedam.

Fig 1.7 Figure of Nimpur Village showing heights

0 to 50Meters

51 to 100Meters

101 to 150Meters

Reading Maps of Different Kinds

31 to 40Meters

0 to 20Meters

21 to 30Meters

41 to 50MetersFig 1.8

SCERT TELANGANA


Telangana Plateau

Map-2 TELANGANA -SEA LEVEL

Look at figure 1.8 and answer thefollowing questions:Mark the direction of flow of theriver.The height of the lowest land isbetween ____ meters and _____meters.There are two high points in thismap. What are their heights?

Improve your learning1. Why are the levels of all the seas equal in the

world?2. How is the sea level measured?3. What are the uses of maps showing height?4. What differences do you find between the life

style of people living on high altitudes and lowaltitudes?

5. How are maps helpful to people?6. Read the para ‘Contour Lines’ on page 5 and

comment on it.7. Observe the Telangana map given and list out

the areas of districts which are below150 MSL.

Mean Sea LevelThere are high tides and low tides on

the level of the sea, and they never standstill. As a result of this phenomenon, thelevel of the sea keeps on either rising orfalling. Which of these heights do wetake as the sea level or 0 meter height?In order to solve this problem, the levelof the sea is carefully measured atfrequent intervals and the mean level ofthe sea is calculated. Over a period,scientists observed the high and lowlevels of the sea and they have come toone calculated average level, which isknown as Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.).

If you live near a Railway station,find out the height of that place withthe help of display board. The heightis mentioned as “________ M.S.L.”.Note it down in your note book.

Look at figures 1.6 & 1.7 and tellwhether Nimpur would besubmerged if sea waters were toflood up to 30 meters?

R Pranahita

R Penganga

R Wainganga

R Godavari

R Musi

R Dindi

R Krishna

R Tungabhadra

R Krishna

R Manjeera

R Godavari

MAHARASHTRA

CHHATTISGHARH

ANDHRAPRADESH

KA

RN

ATA

KA

R ManairSCERT TELANGANA


Sun, Clouds and RainfallAfter the unbearable heat of April, May

and June comes the rainy season, whichlasts for a few months. Do you know whatcauses rains? Where do the rain bearingclouds come from? Discuss whatever youknow or think about these things in theclass.Evaporation

Pranavi woke up early in the morning.She needed to take bath in hot water, soshe heated water in a dish over fire. As

2CH

APT

ER

Rain and Rivers

All life on earth is very cruciallydependent on water. As you know, over71% of the earth’s surface is coveredwith water. We depend on water forgrowing crops. But we do not get wateruniformly over the year. It is also notavailable uniformly all over the earth.Nor is the quality of water the sameeverywhere.

Discuss the following in the class: inwhich months you get rain, in which partof the village or town do you have morewater or less water, where do you getgood drinking water and where do you

the water heated up, water vapours touchedthe lid and with the help of outside cool air,vapour became water drops and stuck tothe lid of the dish. When she removed thelid, some of the water drops fell down intothe dish. By observing this, she realisedthat the water evaporates and latter itbecomes condensed into water bycooling.

The story of rain begins with watervapour. What is water vapour? When youdry your wet clothes in the open, you see

PART - I

get salty or hard water. In the followingchapters, we will study about thediversity in water availability and itsconsequences.

SCERT TELANGANA


that the water disappears after a while andthe clothes dry. Similarly, if you keep somewater in a plate, it dries up in a couple ofdays. Actually, water in the clothes or inthe plate becomes water vapour and mixeswith the air through a process called‘evaporation’. So, even when water is notboiling there is evaporation.

There are several water bodies on theearth’s surface – oceans, rivers, lakes etc.There is constant evaporation of water fromthese water bodies. In fact, wherever thereis moisture, evaporation will take place.There is evaporation from our bodies, fromtrees, plants and soil. The process ofevaporation speeds up with the increase intemperature.

In which season would there bemore evaporation, summer orwinter?When will the evaporation be more,during the day or night?Look at the figure 2.1 and make a listof the places from where evaporationtakes place.Where do you think the maximumevaporation would take place – fromplants, rivers, oceans or soils?

Formation of Clouds and RainWhen there is rise in temperature, water

vapour rises and reaches high up in the sky,and it gets cooled. This is because theatmosphere gets cooler as we rise abovethe surface of the earth. With the cooling,water vapour is transformed into tiny waterdroplets. These droplets gather aroundminute dust or smoke particles in the airand gradually increase in size. These smalldrops of water gather to form the clouds.

Fig 2.1 Evaporation

Make a diagram toexplain how vapouris transformed intoclouds in the boxgiven above. Labelyour diagram withthese terms – earth,sky, rising vapour,dust particles,water droplets,clouds….

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As the clouds continue to rise upwards,it gets cooler and more droplets areformed. The droplets come together toform bigger drops. As they get heavier, itgets more and more difficult for them toremain in the air and so they begin to fallas rain drops.

Why do you think is it necessaryfor the clouds to rise in order tocause rain?Have you ever observed dew?Where is it formed?In which part of the day do you seefog?In which season do you have morefoggy days?Have you ever seen snow fall? Howis it different from rain fall?Have you ever seen the hail storm?

Winds and CloudsSince evaporation takes place all over

the earth’s surface, clouds are also beingformed all over. However, it is on thesurface of the oceans that maximumevaporation and cloud formation takesplace. After all, oceans are vast waterbodies extending upto thousands ofkilometres. As a result, it also rains veryFig 2.2 Water cycle

Some Important TermsEvaporation: Change of waterinto vapours is known asevaporation. The process in whichwater vapour changes into water iscalled condensation. Clouds aretiny droplets of water hanging in theair above.

Water Cycle : The process ofwater evaporating from the seas,forming clouds in the sky, comingdown as rain, flowing down theslopes on land in the form of riversand finally joining the sea, is calledthe water cycle.

Precipitation: Different forms ofcondensation of water vapours isknown as precipitation. This may takeplace in the form of dew, fog, rain,snow or hail.Humidity: The amount of invisiblewater vapours present in theatmosphere is known as humidity.When temperature and humidityrise, we feel uncomfortable. Weperspire and the sweat does notevaporate quickly. We feel stickyand such weather is called sultry.

Rain and Rivers

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heavily on the oceans. Clouds also travel inland for thousands of kilometres to bring rain tous. Do you know what brings them deep inland?

From which direction does the wind blow during the rainy season?

These winds come all the way from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal and they transportthe rain clouds. They are called ‘Monsoon winds’. They are also called ‘south- west monsoonwinds’ as they blow from that direction. These winds blow only in the summer.

There are two arms of the monsoon winds: one blows from the Arabian Sea and the otherfrom the Bay of Bengal. The arrows in Map 1 show us the direction of winds.

Map 1: Monsoonwinds in India

Imphal

Dispur

THE

THE

Index :Areas of Heavy Rainfall

Wind direction

N

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Towards which parts of the countrywould the winds take the cloudsfrom the Bay of Bengal?Towards which parts of the countrywould the winds take the cloudsfrom the Arabian Sea?From which direction would thewinds blow to bring monsoon rainsto West Bengal, Lucknow andDelhi?From which direction would thewinds blow to bring monsoon rainsto Mumbai, Hyderabad, andBangalore?

Rainfall in TelanganaIn which months does it rain themost in your place? List the threerainiest months.Name the three driest months.Do you have ‘normal’ rainfall everyyear or does it vary every year?Have you ever experienceddrought?Have you ever experienced floods?

In Telangana state, the temperature riseshigher every day between March and June.When the South West Monsoons setsaround the beginning of June, The windscarrying the clouds reach Telangana. Theimmediate effect of the rains is that thereis suddenly a big difference of temperatureafter a week’s rain. See map 1.

The South West Monsoons bring normalrains to Telangana. The North and Easternparts of Telangana receive heavy rainfall.Large areas in the Telangana Plateau receivelow rainfall. Mahabubnagar and Jogulambadistricts receive very little rainfall inTelangana State. See map 2.

The mountain ranges like the WesternGhats come in the path of rain-bearing windsand cause them to rise. Rising air cools downand the water vapour condenses faster, whichleads to rainfall. This type of rainfall iscommon in the mountainous regions.

From May to October, cyclones formin the Bay of Bengal. These cyclones mayor may not bring rain to our region. Itdepends upon the intensity of the cyclonein the Bay of Bengal and the direction ofthe cyclone after crossing the Coast.Sometimes, monsoons and cyclones bringtogether wide spread rainfall in this regionand cause damage to the crops also.

The direction of the winds reverses afterOctober as the winds begin to blow fromthe Bay of Bengal towards south west . Thiscauses very little rains in October andNovember in Telangana region. This iscalled North East Monsoons or theRetreating Monsoons.

10 Years Rainfall in Sircilla town:Year Rainfall Year Rainfall

in M.M in M.M1996 933 2001 7631997 695 2002 6051998 926 2003 8191999 823 2004 6192000 895 2005 891

Source: Tahasildar office, Sircilla

What is the average rainfall ofSircilla town?Observe the above data. In whichyear did Sircilla recieve the highestand the lowest rainfall?During which two years did it gethigh rainfall?

Rain and Rivers

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Look at the map given above showing rainfall received in different parts ofTelangana:

i. Does your district receive heavy, moderate or low rainfall?

ii. Which town has the least/highest rainfall – Nalgonda, Jogulamba, Komrambheem,Yadadri, Hyderabad?

iii. Make some more questions and ask each other.

Look at the physical map of India in your Atlas and identify Western Ghats andEastern Ghats. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences.

Western Ghats are spread across the following states _____, _____, _____.

Eastern Ghats are spread across the following states _____, _____, _____.

In which region do Western and Eastern Ghats intersect ?

First, create rough outlines of India in a note book; then draw Western Ghats andEastern Ghats; after that, roughly mark the areas of Telangana; Finally, label themwith months in which it rains.

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Rain gauge An instrument by which the rainfall is measured is known as ‘Rain gauge’. The amount

of rainfall for a unit area is measured in centimeters. How do we measure the amount ofrainfall? How do we find out if Nizamabad has more rain or Rangareddy?

Collect the above items tomake a rain guage (pic 1).

Cut the top of the bottle like this.This ensures the top of the bottle and

bottom of the bottle has the samecircumference (pic 2).

Turn top of the bottle upsidedown like this, and fix it to

the bottle. (pic 3).

Fill the bottle with sand and water till thespot where you can mark zero. (pic 4)

Make your own Rain gauge

Now ensure that you keep this bottle in an open place. Make sure that there are nowalls or trees that can block the rain water from falling into the bottle. You can use ascale to measure the water. If you leave the bottle in the open for a few days, you canknow how much it rained in a week or a month.

When it rains, the water level in the bottle rises. Measure the height of water withthe help of a scale and you will get the rainfall in Centimetres for your area during theperiod you had kept the bottle in the open.

Rain and Rivers

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PART -II

Flow of RiversWhat happens to the water that falls on

the earth? Some of it percolates into thesoil, some flows on the surface of the landand the rest becomes water vapour andmixes with air. You will read about the waterthat percolates down into the soil in thenext chapter. In this part, we will discussthe water which flows on the surface ofland.

RiversHave you seen rain water flowing in

small streamlets on sloping land? Waterflows in small streams from the mountainslopes during the rainy season. However,these streams dry up after some time.Nevertheless, water also cuts channels onthe mountains.

When it rains again, water flows downthe same channels. In this way, river coursesand river valleys are formed. This processis shown in figure 2.3.

Study the figure below:

Mark the flow of the river witharrows.Mark the slope of the land witharrows.Does the river flow in the samedirection as that of the slope of theland?

Transformation of a stream into abroad river

At its source, a river usually starts inthe form of a thin stream. As it flowsfurther, it gets bigger and broader. Thishappens because many small streams joinit as the stream flows. Smaller rivers orstreams which join a large river are called‘tributaries’.

As the river becomes bigger andbroader, its flow gets slower. It startsdepositing the silt and sand it has carried,on its bed and banks. This causes theformation of plains.

Fig 2.3 Slope andthe formation of

Rivers

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As it nears the sea, the speed of water inthe river decreases and is no longer able tocarry the silt and sand. It deposits them onits own course, which then gets filled up.When flood waters come again, they haveto cut through new channels to reach thesea. Thus, towards the end of its journey tothe sea, the river forms a delta. RiverKrishna and Godavari form deltas in theEastern Coast. They have water through outthe year. However, we also have a numberof small rivers that have water only duringthe rainy season. Why is this so?

Rivers like Krishna and Godavari startsfrom the Western Ghats, which receiveheavy rainfall. The rain water slowlypercolates into the ground and flows intothe river all through the year. On the otherhand, many rivers which start from the dryregions like Dindi, Manjeera, Musi are fedby scanty rainfall. Others, which start in theEastern Ghats, receive only moderaterainfall and the water flows rapidly into thesea. That is why they go dry during the non-rainy season.

Map -3 Rivers of Telangana

Godava r i

Pranahitha

Manair

Godavari

Manjeer

a

Musi

Dindi

ThungabhadraKrishna

Based on map prepared byTelangana State Remote Sensing Applications Centre

Planning Department,Govt. of Telangana.

Rain and Rivers

Kadem

Peddavagu

N

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Map 3 marks only major rivers of the Telangana state. Take note that some parts ofriver Krishna form boarder to the Southern side and Godavari forms border to theNorth Eastern side.Make a list of important streams in your district and identify the major river itjoins.Mark whether the stream in your district flows round the year or only during rainyseason.

What do you think is the directionof the slope in Telangana map.From north to south, east to westor west to east?

Flood-Plains and FloodsA river does not contain the same

amount of water all year round. While theriver is full during the rainy season, itusually shrinks during the dry season. Lookat figures 2.4 and 2.5. You can see that theriver trough is very wide and it has highbanks. This valley is filled with sand andgravel. The river flows in a small streamamidst them. You will notice that there areno trees here. This is because every yearwhen it rains heavily, this valley is filledwith water allowing no permanent trees orplants to grow here. This treeless bed iscalled the flood-plain of the river. Allmajor rivers have their flood plains.

You must have heard that during the rainyseasons some parts of the country getflooded due to excess rainfall. You mayhave read about floods occurring in riverslike Krishna, Godavari, Brahmaputra or theGanga.

Figure 2.5 depicts a flood situation.Look at it carefully and answer thefollowing questions:Has the river water covered theentire flood-plain or confined tothe tiny stream that was flowing inthe dry season?Is the water confined to the flood-plain or overflown to the banks of theriver?In what way have the floodsaffected the villages, agriculturalfields and trees?How are floods beneficial toagricultural fields?

District Name of the Stream Joins the River

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Floods have become a major problemin India in recent years. Some part or theother is flooded every year during the rainyseason. This causes severe damage topeople, crops and livestock. Let us find outif we have contributed to this in any way.

Vegetation cover on the land (trees,plants, grass etc.) obstructs the run off ofrainwater and slows down the speed of itsflow. This slowing down helps the rainwaterto percolate into the soil. Floods are oftencaused by sudden increase in the volumeof water reaching a river. Vegetation allowsthe water to flow slowly into the river, thuspreventing sudden flooding. It also helpsto increase the amount of water which goesinto the soil.

Vegetation also helps to prevent floodsin another way. It reduces the erosion ofsoil by rainwater. If there is little or novegetation, rainwater cuts and carries withit a lot of top soil. This soil is deposited onthe riverbed, which reduces the depth of theriver. This results in the reduction ofcapacity of the river to carry water. Thus,with even a little rain, the rivers are floodedand they overflow their banks, causingdamage. If the surface of the land iscovered with vegetation, then soil erosionis greatly reduced.

Fig 2.4 Flood Plains

Riverbank Water level during flood

MainstreamFlood Plains

Pebbles andSanddeposit

Fig 2.5 Flood

Rain and Rivers

Massive tree plantationWith this aspect as the main focus,

majority of the governments are initiatingthe afforestation programmes in the nameof Greenery. Teleangana state is inforefront with massive tree plantationprogramme.

The government is implementingplantation of 230 crore saplings all overthe state. It is aimed to plant 40,000seedlings in each village and 40 lakhseedlings in each assembly constituencyevery year. Representatives of the people,officials, villagers and all communitypeople are trying to make it a successfulprogramme by planting trees on all roadsides, on barren hills, tank bunds, housingcolonies and community lands etc.

Preventing soil erosionForest cover controls floods and soil

erosion. Tree roots with their holdingcapacity of the soil, not only lessen erosionbut also reduce the flow of surface waterwhich otherwise resulting floods. Toconstruct roads, big trees of more than fiftyyears old, are being cut down. Henceplantation of trees has become mandatory.

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Facing the challenge in Cyclones andFloods

India has a long coast line and it isfrequently faced with destructive cyclonesfrom the Bay of Bengal. When heavy windsblow from the sea, heavy rains lash thelands, and high waves make the sea veryunsafe. These usually occur between Juneand December. The worst cyclone hit theEast Coast in November 1977. When six -metre high tidal waves swept across villagesin coastal area, killing 9941 people. Atleast, 100 villages were washed away by thecyclonic storms and the ensuing floods.Seen from air, it seemed like a sheet ofwater drawn over the affected areas floatingin the swirling waters.

Formation of cyclones may seemnatural over which human beings have nocontrol. However, the impact of thesedisasters are heightened or lessened due tohow our society is organised and prepared.For example, if you see who lives in themost vulnerable part of the land which ismost affected by cyclones, you will findthat it is the people who live there with leastresources to defend themselves. The seacoasts are lined with the huts of poor fisherfolk and the low lands of the towns andvillages, which get flooded, are usuallyinhabited by the slums of the poor. Thepeople who live in high cement concretebuildings are able to store food, water etc.for many days. Thus, we can see thatdisasters affect the poorest the most.

Usually, immediately after the floodwaters recede, all sources of water arepolluted and become unsafe for drinking.But, the poor are forced to use the pollutedwater and face the risk of several diseases

For the effective implementation of theprogramme, the protection andsafeguarding the plants and to monitor theprogramme, the village level HarithaRakshaka Committees are formed under thechairmanship of sarpanch. In the same way,district and state level committees are alsoformed.

What are the activities taken upunder tree plantation programme inyour school?Why is it necessary to take up theinitiation of massive plantation ofsaplings?

Let us take the case of the Ganga. Earlier,there were dense forests on the Himalayasfrom where Ganga and its tributariesoriginate. In the recent years, there hasbeen a large scale felling of trees andhence, the forest cover in the Himalayashas reduced considerably. As a result,whenever there is heavy rainfall, therainwater rapidly flows down the slopes ofthe mountains and fills up the floodplainof the river. The waters also bring a verylarge quantity of silt and deposit it on theriverbed. This results in frequent floodswhich cause heavy damage to life andproperty along the river.

All this tells us about the importance ofprotecting our forests and increasing thevegetative cover over other lands.

Can you explain how forests andvegetation help in preventingfloods?Can forests and vegetation help inreducing droughts? How?

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19Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Rain and Rivers

Fig 2.6 Cyclone in the Bay of Bengal

like cholera, dysentery, jaundice etc. Onlythose with resources are able to arrange forsafe bottled water to drink. Since roads aredamaged and it rains heavily, bringing inrelief to the worst affected areas is not easy.Here, people are forced to rely on their ownresources to save themselves.

While the immediate damage of thecyclones is also heavy – like loss of lives,crops, houses property etc., more importantlythey also cause long term damages.

For example, the life savings of most ofthe poor stored in the houses in the form offood, tools, cattle, small shops, vehicles,boats, nets, etc. are destroyed. To go back totheir work, they need to buy all these again.Many families may lose their workingmembers. Daily wage workers face loss ofwork for several weeks till normalcy returnsand therefore, loss of livelihood. Farmers toonot only face loss of crops but also permanentdamage to their lands.How can people meet the challenge ofdisasters like cyclones and floods?

This can be done through long termplanning by governments and closecooperation between the people and thegovernment agencies.Today, with theinstallation of early warning systems by thegovernment, it is possible to predict thepossibilities of natural disasters likecyclones and floods. Governments thus putthese systems in place and inform peopleabout the possibility of disasters.

Governments are also responsible forproviding long term security to all thepeople by building strong roads which arenot easily destroyed, safe pucca houses forthose living in vulnerable areas like seacoast or along the rivers or in low lands.Food, water and medical emergency teams

should be kept ready whenever there is aforecast of cyclone.How can the people prepare fordisasters?

1. Cyclones and floods are a seasonalphenomenon. During the cyclone,listen to the radio or TV weatherreports. In case of a cyclone/floodwarning, ensure that everyone isalerted. This is usually done throughloudspeakers or by going from doorto door.

2. Keep an emergency kit ready athome. These kits should containimportant papers, some food, somemoney and emergency telephonenumbers.

3. The nearest available place whererefuge could be sought in case of acyclone should be identified inadvance.

4. Wherever necessary, the walls of thehouse, roofing, doors and windows

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should be strengthened.5. When you get a cyclone warning, store adequate drinking water and food grains in

waterproof bags.6. Do not venture outside, especially into the sea during and after the warning has been sounded.7. Close doors and windows and stay indoors.8. Move to a pucca building if you feel your house is not strong enough..9. If the cyclone strikes while you are in a vehicle, stop but keep away from the sea-

shore, trees, electric poles and other objects that may be uprooted during the gale.10. If the cyclone wind suddenly drops, do not go out, as it could be the eye of the

cyclone. Wait till the all clear declaration is made officially.11. Listen to Radio/TV for updates on the situation.12. Even after ‘all clear’ has been sounded, take necessary precautions while moving to

or out of your house. There may be partially uprooted trees or poles.13. Look out for snakes that may have come out of their holes.14. Do not enter flood waters. They may be too deep.15. As a student group, you can play a very significant role in spreading awareness about

the above precautions.If you need to Evacuate:

1. Pack clothing, essential medication, valuables, personal papers etc. in water-proofbags, to be taken to the safe shelter.

2. Put furniture, clothing, appliances on beds or tables.3. Turn off power.4. Whether you leave or stay, put sandbags in the toilet bowl and cover all drain holes to

prevent sewage back-flow.5. Lock your house and take the recommended or known evacuation routes from your

area to the safe-shelter.6. Do not get into water of unknown depth and current (stream).

During Floods:1. Drink boiled water.2. Keep your food covered and don’t eat too much.3. Use raw tea, rice water, tender coconut water etc. during diarrhoea.4. Do not let children remain on empty stomach.5. Use bleaching powder and lime to disinfect the surroundings.6. Avoid entering floodwaters. If you have to enter, wear proper protection for your feet

and check the depth and current with a stick. Stay away from water with over knee-deep depth.

7. Do not eat food that got wet in the flood waters.8. Boil tap water before drinking in rural areas. Use halogen tablets to purify water

before drinking (ask Village Health Worker for details).9. Be careful of snakes. Snakebites are common during floods.

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1. Explain how water changes into water vapours and how clouds are formed from it?2. Where do evaporation and cloud formation take place on a large scale?3. How do the clouds reach deep inlands ?4. Where does it rain the most? Choose the correct option :

a) sea coasts that are in the direction of the windsb) mountains that are in the direction of the windsc) lands far away from the seas.

5. The Godavari flows from the west to the east. Why?6. Describe the main stages of the water cycle.7. There may be streams and rivers flowing near your village or town. Find out about them and

fill in the table below:

No. Name Source Which river Which seadoes it join? does it meet?

8. Do the rivers/streams in your area contain water throughout the year? Find out from yourelders if they had more water in earlier times.

9. How can the people be prepared to face the disasters?10. Collect the pictures showing cyclones and floods and prepare an album.11. Make a poster on the floods devastation.

Project:Observe in your village/locality where the water is being wasted, furnish the details in a table,discuss the reasons, suggest the ways how water can be saved.

Sl. The place where the Reason Ways to prevent/No. water is being wasted save the water

Improve your learning

Rain and Rivers

Keywords:1. Rivers and Tributaries 2. Condensation 3. Annual rainfall 4. Flood plain

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Tanks (Cheruvulu)For thousands of years, our ancestors

have tried to utilize run-off rain-water bybuilding tanks. We have evidence of tanksbeing built and used for agriculture fromthe times of the Megaliths. You will alsoread about the Kakatiya kings who built alarge number of tanks in Telangana. Thisenabled the extension of agriculture intodry regions. To this day, most of the villagesin these regions have at least one or twomajor tanks.How were the tanks built?

The tanks were usually built by buildinga strong wall of stones and mud across asmall stream in such a way that with a wallon just one side, a large lake could beformed. Look at the picture below:

Tanks were sometimes built by a king,sometimes by a military leader or nayakaor often by the people of the villagethemselves. Usually, every village preservedthe memory of those who were responsiblefor building the tank through stories ortemples or festivals. In building the tank,everyone in the village contributedtowards the expenses and labour. All thepeople of the village maintained the tanktogether by repairing the tank bund (wall) orremoving silt from the tank bed. They alsoensured that no one stopped the water fromflowing into the tank. They also appointeda person to regulate the use of the water fromthe tank. This particular person is called‘Neerati’ or ‘Neeru Katte manisi’.

PART - I

CH

APT

ER

Tanks and Ground Water

Fig 3.1(a) Tank and fields

3

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How did the Tanks Help?Tanks helped the people not only by giving

them and their animals drinking water, butalso in irrigating their fields in such a waythat even during drought years, they couldraise at least some crops. The tanks alsohelped to increase the water level in the wellsnearby.

After the rain stopped and the tank waterdecreased, the tank bed could be used forraising some crops.

The most important thing is that tankshelped to prevent run-off of rain-water andthe erosion of top soils. Every year, peoplewould collect tank silt and use it in theirfields to fertilise the soil.

We should remember that no one personowned the tanks and they belonged to all thepeople of the village. Thus, they benefittednot one or two people but all the villagers.

Decline of Tanks in Our TimesDuring the last twenty or thirty years,

tanks have been neglected and have beenallowed to break down. Repairs to thetanks, desilting etc. have not been doneregularly. People also have gradually taken

over the tank land for building houses orfor agriculture. As a result, in almost everypart of the state, we see the sad state of drytanks lying uncared for. Instead of caringfor the tanks, we have been digging deeperand deeper tube wells at a great expense.But they only benefit a few, and in the longrun, deplete the water resources. On theother hand, tanks build resources for all.

Project

Prepare a report with the followingdetails about the tank in yourvillage or town.

Prepare a sketch map of the tankand its nearby areas.

Find out from where does the watercome into the tank and where doesthe excess water go.

Find out the names of the river orstream across which it has beenbuilt or the names of the hills nearwhich it has been built.

Find out what is the tank bund madeof and who maintains it.

Find out who built the tank andwhen it was built.

If there are any stories related to thetank, write them down

Prepare an illustration of the tankwith various things around it or getphotographs of the tank.

Find out what crops are grown, whocontrols the water, and how is itregulated.


Fig 3.1(b) Ramappa Cheruvu-Jayashankar DistrictSCERT TELANGANA


Mission Kakatiya (Our Village - Our Tank)After the formation of the new state, the government

of Telangana has started a programme for minor irrigationtanks in the state. This programme, called ‘MissionKakatiya, mana uru mana cheruvu”, aims at removal ofsilt from tank beds and repair and construction of tankbunds on about 47000 tanks.

Find out about the implementation of this programmein your area. How many tanks have been improved andwhether people have benefitted from this.

Fig 3.1 (c) : Veerala Devi Tank

Fig 3.1 (d) : Goddess of Katta Maisamma

Fishing in TanksTanks not only provide drinking water

and water for irrigation of fields, but alsoprovide livlihood for fisherfolk. Many ofthe fisherfolk are from traditional fishingcommunities like Besta (Gangaputra),Goondla and Mudiraj (Tenugu) Communitydepend upon these tanks and rivers forleading their lives. Let’s find out moreabout their lives by visiting a village inSuryapet district.Bhethavolu village

This village is 16 kilometers fromKodada near Suryapet.

According to village elders ‘Bhethavolu’got its name from Bhethala Reddy, thesubordiante of Kakatiyas. He got the tank

built in the name of his wife, Veerala Devi.Thus the villagers call the large tank asVeerala Devi tank or Eerla Devi Tank. Thetank irrigates about 1900 acres in thevillage today even though originally it wasmeant to irrgate about 3000 acres. Theayakat (command area of tank) has been

reduced due to illegal encroachementson the tank bed and due to silting.

On the tank bund is situated theshrines of Katta Maisamma andGangamma, who considered theguardian dieties of the tank. Fisherfolkand other villagers worship in theseshrines before fishing and alsocelebrate annual festivals in theirhonour.

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Fig 3.1 (e) : Throwing net Fig 3.1 (f) : Fishing


There are about 600 families of Besta(Gangaputra) and Mudiraj Community inBethavolu village. Out of which 60-70households are leading their lives byfishing. However, they fish in the tank onlyduring the months of March and April.During the rest of the year they work assmall farmers or labourers.Fishes in the tanks

Earlier, different kinds of fishes likeBuddaparakalu, Jellalu, Kodipelu,Chandamamalu, Kuntumukkulu, Pulishalu,Isuka dondulu, paperalu, Gandraparakalu,Guriyopillalu, Koraminulu, Valugalu etc.,were easily available in the streams, smallrivers and canals. When these waters flowedinto the tanks the fishes bred in them. Butduring the recent times these fishes aredisappearing due to heavy usage ofpesticides and chemical fertilizers in theagricultural fields. So now, the young fishare bred artificially in fish farming centresand are let out as seedlings into the tank.When they grow big they are fished andsold. The important among these areMerige, Ravvu, Bochche (Katla) andBangaru Theega.These fishes are mainlyavailable in the market nowadays. Each fishhas its own special taste. Have you tastedthe above mentioned fishes?

Why do we eat only a few types offish?Why is the cat fish banned?

Net Types

The fishermen use nets of differentkinds to catch the fish. There would be 30‘Kannulu’ (holes) in small parisha (thinnernet) whereas 60 Kannulu in big Parisha(thicker net). These nets are also called as‘Sannapu vala and Doddu vala’ in someareas. The nets contain the beads made byeither iron or lead. The Sannapu vala weighsless. They catch fish and prawns by Sannapuvala. Doddu vala is used to catch the fish ofweight 100 grams to 5 kilos. Doddu valaweighs more. Can you think why….. ?

Visit the fishermen families ofyour area and see how they catchfish.

Find out which types of nets areused in your region and discuss inthe class.

Fisherfolk use two methods to catch fish- one in shallow waters and one in deepwaters. Visire vala is used when there is lesswater in the tank. Kachchu vala weighs less.Fisher men go farther in to the stable water

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Fig 3.1 (g) : Fish Market

into the tanks. They are supposed to poolthe produce and share the earnings equallyamong all members.

Meet the members of Co-operativesociety of your village and findabout the Functioning of thesociety.Why do you think the fisherfolkhave to make payments to theFisheries Department?

Recently a new practice can be seen inmany fishing tanks. The fishermen are toopoor and need loans for running theirhouseholds. They cannot afford to buy thefish seedlings from the fish farms. Hencethey are forced to take loans from traders.Traders give advance loans and also take theresponsibility of putting seedlings in thetank. In return the fisherfolk have to sellall their produce to the trader at a pricefixed by him which is usually about 10 to20 percent of the actual market price. Inthis way the trader makes a huge profit. Ifbanks could give loans to the Cooperativesocieties, the fishermen could becomeindependent of the trader-contractors.

Why do you think the banks arereluctant to give loans to thefishermen?

and spread the Kachchu vala. These are usedmostly in the occasions where the water isdeep.

Discuss why the nets are selectedbased on the depth of water.

Fishing:Fishermen start for fishing early in the

morning. Some use Visire vala for the fishingon the banks where the water is not deep.Others go into the lake on a ferry made withthermocol and reach a place where water isvery deep and spread the Kachchu vala.Fishing is done twice a day. They catch thefish from 4‘0’ clock to 8‘0’ clock in themorning and take them to market. Again theycatch fish from 1 to 4‘0’ clock in theafternoon and take them to market. Theydon’t care for cold, rains and heat and do thefishing. The fish left over after the sale arewashed neatly and dried under the sun. Whenthe catch is small they take them to Kodador Suryapet for selling and when it is largethey take it to cities like Hyderabad. Usuallyit is the men who do the fishing and it is thewomen who do the selling in the market. Seefigure 3.1(g)

Cooperative Society of FishermenA family needs to have a membership in

the Cooperative Society for fishing. Themembership is decided on the basis of theayakat. Usually the Society takes onemember per one hectare (two and halfacres). There are 339 members in thesociety today. The Society paysRs.2,35,000 to the Department ofFisheries for fishing in the tank. The Societyhas to purchase fish seedlings and put them

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GroundwaterRainwater not only flows down the

streams or rivers but also slowly goes downinto the soil. This water accumulates belowthe ground in the gaps between rocks,pebbles, sand etc. This is the groundwaterwhich we reach through wells and borewells.

Rocks which have cracks or pores(minute holes) in them and can containwater are called pervious rocks. InTelangana, there are some areas wheresuch rocks like sandstones are found. Somerocks like granite, Kadapa limestone etc.are very compact and do not have pores inthem. Water cannot enter into them.Groundwater usually accumulates abovesuch rocks. Since the water cannot gobeneath them, these are called impervious

PART - II

Do you thinkgroundwater wouldaccumulate if therewere no imper-vious rocks?

What wouldhappen if thepervious rock isbelow the imper-vious rock? Wherewould the groundwater accumulate?

Fig 3.2. Rocks and Water below the ground level


rocks. Most of the rocks underlying the soilin telangana are of this kind. A small portionof land in Telangana, which is next to rivers,has deep layers of sand, soil and pebbles.Water also accumulates in these layers.

The layer of water which accumulatesunder the ground among rocks is calledaquifer. The thickness of the aquiferdetermines the availability of groundwaterin the area.

Visit the wells in your area and try tofind out how many feet below the groundis the water level. Find out if there is anyrocks underneath and if so, what kind ofrock it is. Also find out about who ownsthe well, when was it dug and how muchmoney was spent. Add up all theinformation about the wells and preparea small booklet.

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Fig 3.3. Groundwater level

Water Table or GroundwaterLevel

Look at the wells in figure 3.3 givenbelow carefully, the water level is the samein all these wells. This is the water level inthe wells after the rains. You can see that inall these wells, water is available at thedepth of 5 meters, this means that if youwere to dig a new well in the same regionyou would strike water at the same depth.This is the level of groundwater, which is alsocalled the water table.

Water level is never stable. It goesdeeper in summer months and comes upduring the monsoons.

Rocks and Groundwater inTelangana

Most of the rocks under the soil inTelangana consist of granites, which arehard and impervious. However, the topportion of these rocks (about 20 meters)are broken (weathered) and they carrywater. Many of these rocks also have deepcracks going down to 50-100 metersdepth. These cracks too contain water.Normally, with ordinary wells that we dig,we tap the water present in the topweathered layer. Bore wells, which are dugwith the help of drill machines, reach thedeep cracks and draw water from them.

Look at the figure 3.4 and answerthe following questions:

Can you find out how water enteredthe level below the imperviousrock and reached the crack in therock below?

During summer, which well will godry first? Give reasons.

Will there be water in the well evenif there is no crack in the rock?

Look at figure 3.3 and answer thefollowing questions:

i. The groundwater level is .......meters below the ground level.

ii. In summer, if water level goesdown to 10 meters below theground level which of the fourwells will go dry?

iii. Which well will have themaximum water available?

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In many mandals of Telangana, thepredominant rocks are not granites. Smallquantity of ground water goes in thesestructures. Rocks of the Kadapa type oflimestones are avilable in some areas. Theyare also hard but are greatly broken and havea lot of gaps between them allowing waterto accumulate in them. In the cracks of therocks, ground water is available in someareas.

The areas adjacent to the great rivers likeKrishna and Godavari have deep layers ofsand and silt. The water level here dependsupon the water in the river. Usually, thereis plenty of water. It is nearly five to sevenmeters below the ground in these areas andit is very easy to dig wells in them.

Can you recall the wells and borewells in Penamakuru, Dokur andPenugolu villages you had studiedin class VI?

Recharging GroundwaterWater flows swiftly on naked ground

which has no cover of trees or grass, asthere is nothing to stop the flow. However,if the flow of the rain water is checked byvegetation or bunds, then there is a greaterpossibility of it percolating into the soilto join the groundwater. Grass is plantedon the hill slopes from where a stream startsand small check dams are also built acrossstreams to store water for a longer time.All of these help to increase or rechargethe groundwater.

However, it is seen in most parts ofTelangana that we are extracting morewater than the recharging rate. This meansthat we are over using the groundwater. Theamount of water that percolates into thesoil has also declined due to the cuttingdown of forests. Consequently, there is arapid fall in the water table or water levelby half to two meters every year.

Fig 3.4. Rocks and Water below the ground level


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Are there any watersheddevelopment projects in your area?Try to visit the site and study howthis is done. Try to draw a sketch-map of the project area.

Quality of GroundwaterGroundwater is usually mixed with many

minerals. Sometimes, the water is salty andsometimes it is sweet.

Collect the water from variousplaces like dug well or bore well,lake or pond. Can you explain whythe taste of the water taken fromsome dug wells is sweet, while thatof others is salty or brackish?

This difference is because of theminerals which are dissolved in thegroundwater. These minerals come fromthe rocks and soils underneath. Hence,depending upon the minerals which mixwith the water, the taste and nature of waterchanges. In many mandals of Telangana,there is excess quantity of certain mineralslike Sodium, Fluoride, Chloride, Iron,Nitrate, etc. Drinking such water is notgood for our health and can cause diseases,which affect our bones, teeth etc. (Fig 3.5).In such situations, the drinking water shouldbe properly treated to remove the excessminerals.

Many times, water is polluted due to theexcessive use of fertilisers, pesticides orpoor drainage. In our country this problemis increasing day by day. Unless we take thepreventive steps, most of the wells or riverwater soon will become unsafe for drinkingor even for bathing.

If we draw more water than whatpercolates down, the groundwater willdecrease over time. Finally, there may belittle groundwater left for us. This has beenhappening during the last few years.

Can you think of ways in whichgroundwater can be used lesswithout wastage?

In our part of the country, it rains onlyfor about three to four months. For the restof the year we are dependent upongroundwater. Rivers, wells and ponds all gettheir water from these groundwatersources.

Can we increase the ground water? Youmay observe that water quickly flows whenthey are no trees, vegetation stones etc.Then water quickly flows into streams andrivers. However, if the flow of the rainwaterwere to be checked by vegetation andbunds, there would be a greater possibilityof the water percolating into the soil to jointhe groundwater. This is why vegetation liketrees, grasses and bunds are used toenhance groundwater.

Over the last few years, great efforts havebeen made to ‘harvest’ rainwater by thesemeans. These measures are usually takenfor a stream or a river. Such efforts arecalled ‘watershed development projects’.Under these projects, trees and grasses areplanted on the hill slopes from where astream starts. Also, small bunds are builtacross streams to stop the flow of water.Small check dams are also built acrossstreams to store water for a longer time.All of these help to increase or ‘recharge’groundwater.

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Fig 3.5 Person affected by excessivefluoride in drinking water

1. Correct the incorrect sentences.

a. Water flows from the plains to the plateau.

b. There is a thick deposit of sand and gravel in the plateau.

c. Groundwater will never dry.

d. It is easy to dig wells in Mahabubnagar.



Use of GroundwaterGroundwater like the rivers, is the

common resource of all people and not justof those who have land over aquifers.However, at present, it is being used onlyby those who have such lands.

Those who own land over aquifers tendto over use the water, which decreaseswater table for all the neighbouring people.Some of them dig deeper tube wells, whichcause further decline in the water level. As

a result, the wells in the neighbourhood aregoing dry. Unless we use the groundwateras a common resource and in a restrainedmanner, can we ensure that everyone is ableto benefit from them? In fact, after a fewyears, even those who dig deeper tube wellswill not have any water left to pump.

Can you think of a way in which thegroundwater in your village can beused equitably so that all families– including those who do not haveany land, get water? Draw up sucha plan and discuss them in the class.

Today’s generation has received waterfrom the past as a sacred asset. We shouldpass it on to the future generation just aswe received it. We should also developways of using and conserving water in arestrained manner. Otherwise, futuregenerations will fight destructive wars overwater and we will be responsible for it.

Keywords :

1. Pervious rocks

2. Impervious rocks

3. Vegetation

4. Aquifers

5. Megalithic ageSCERT TELANGANA


2. The wells shown in this figure are situated on the slopes of the Godavari. But thereseems to be a mistake in the figure. Can you correct it?

3. In which of these places do you expect maximum percolation to take place?

4. When the owners of some wells in Pallerla started using high-powered motors todraw water from the wells, the owners of other wells noticed that their wells weredrying up. Discuss the possible solution to the problem.

5. In areas where there is a shortage of groundwater, should there be any restrictions ondigging bore wells? Why?

6. Think about the ways to restore the groundwater in your area.7. Observe the figure 3.1(a) and compare it with your locality.8. Draw the map of your village and locate the water resources of your village in it.9. Read the third paragraph under “Quality of Ground water” in page no. 30 and

comment on it.

Weathered Rock Weathered RockWeathered Rock Weathered Rock

Soil Soil Metalled Road

Soil

Project:Collect the following information about the tanks/Kuntas.

Sl. Name of the Ayacut (in acres) Other uses Reasons for Benefits, itNo. Tank/Kunta Previously at present of tanks not repairing repaired

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Is the water found in your village/town saline or potable? Is itdifferent in different parts of thevillage/town?What names do you know fordifferent water bodies? Do large orsmall waterbodies have differentnames?In a map of the world or on theglobe, find the names of five seasand five oceans. Run your fingersover the areas they cover.

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Oceans and Fishing

The earth is known as a watery planet as it is the only planet containing water inabundance. It is estimated that about 71% of the earth‘s surface is covered by oceansand seas. What is your image of a sea or an ocean? What have you seen or heardabout oceans and seas? An extension of saline water on earth is called sea. Largesea areas are called oceans. Oceans are huge bodies of water generally separatedby continents.

PART - I

Fig 4.1 Relief features of an Ocean

Continental Slope

Trench

Deep sea plain

Sea level

It will be interesting to find out what liesunder the water. The surface of water does nottell us about what lies under it. You may havehad the opportunity to notice or feel what thebed of a river or stream or pond is like.

Please share what you have seen orfelt about what lies under thesurface of waterbodies.How many meters deep are thewater bodies that you have seen?

Ocean ReliefThe floor of the ocean

is just like the surface ofthe earth. The bottom ofthe sea is not a flat surface.It consists of hills,mountains, plateaus,plains, trenches etc. Manytrenches on the oceanfloor are so deep that evenif the Mount Everest wasplaced in them, it would

4

Continental ShelfSCERT TELANGANA


2) Currents: In the oceans, watermoves from one part to another in bigstreams. These streams which flowconstantly in a definite direction on thesurface of the ocean are called oceancurrents. The ocean currents are of twotypes - the warm currents and the coldcurrents. The warm currents flow from theequatorial region towards the poles. Thecold currents flow from the poles to theequatorial regions. They are mainly causedby the prevailing winds, difference intemperature and salinity of the ocean water.

3) Tides: Tides are the rhythmic riseand fall in the level of the water in theoceans every day. All places on the coastexperience some hours of low tide andsome hours of high tide. Tides do not riseto the same height every day. When the tideis high, water comes up to the coast forsome distance. Then as low tide begins, thewater moves back from the land. The tidesare of great help for fishing. Tides at someplaces take away the mud brought down byrivers and prevent silting.

drown completely. Amajor part of oceanfloor is about 3-6 kmsbelow the sea level.

Figure 4.1 is a sketchof the different kind ofland forms that can befound under the surfaceof an ocean. Fig 4.2shows the relieffeatures of what liesbelow the surface of theoceans around India.

In figure 4.2 ,observe the land massof India and then go over to the floor of theBay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea and theIndian Ocean. Try to point out the areas looklike hills, plains and trenches on the oceanfloor.

The waters of the oceans are never still.There are different kinds of movements inthem.

Have you experienced the differentmovements of water in a river? Youmay be aware of waves, currentsand the coming and receding offloods. Discuss these experiencesin the class.

Ocean waters have three kinds ofmovements. They are:

1) Waves: When the water on thesurface of the ocean rises and falls, theyare called waves. Waves are formed whengentle winds scrape across the oceansurface. The faster the wind, the bigger willbe the waves.

Fig 4.2 Relief features of Indian Ocean

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Fishing Village on the CoastalPlains

Ocean water is always saline. It containsseveral mineral salts dissolved in it. Oceansare the main source of rainfall. Oceans arealso storehouses of fish and other seafoods.Oceans provide natural highways forinternational trade. Let us visitBhavanapadu, a fishing village near thecoast of Andhra Pradesh and study the lifeof people living near the ocean.

Find the districts that lie on thecoastline of Andhra Pradesh.Find the district in whichBhavanapadu village is located.Look at the image of Bhavanapaduvillage (Fig 4.4) and find thefollowing:

i) Identify the water bodies in theimage.

ii) Identify the land that is used foractivities other than agriculture inthis village. If so, for what purpose?

FishingIt is four in the morning. Appalakonda’s

wife, Dhanamma, wakes him up and giveshim some rice gruel to eat by 5.00 am afterwhich Appalakonda is ready to go out tothe sea. His friends wait for him on thebeach. All of them are poor fishermen. Theydon’t own any boats or nets. They work onTata Rao’s mechanical boat. Altogetherthere are 20 members on a boat. Tata Raoalso joins them and works along with them.The boat had already been made ready theday before, with all the necessary thingsproperly loaded in it.

PART - II

Fig 4.3 Bhavanapadu village settlement

Oceans and Fishing

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Before launching into the sea, theycheck the engine, the rope puller, theadditional stock of diesel and also put theirfood packages down. They pray to thegoddess in whom they have a strong faith.

Tata Rao owns this boat, which hepurchased from Markonda in Odisha. Itcost him around Rs. 6 lakhs. He borrowedthe money from private lenders at a high rateof interest. He couldn’t get a bank loan as hehad no fixed assets. Even for daily fishingexpenses, he has to get advances frommiddlemen. He has to invest a minimum ofRs. 5,000/- per trip for diesel, wages andother expenses. Since he borrowed moneyfrom a middle man, Tata Rao has to sellthe day’s catch of fish to the middleman atthe rate he fixes. By this time, the boat isready for sailing and all the twenty

members are on the boat. They go up to15-20 kilometers in the sea.

Dhanamma, wife of Appalakonda attendsto domestic work after he leaves for workand finishes this work by 9 am. Then, shegoes to work in the salt pans. Sometimes,she also attends to agricultural work. Asthey don’t possess any agricultural land orsalt pans, their family depends on the dailywages they get. While labouring in the saltpans, Dhanamma eagerly waits for herhusband’s phone call. She remains anxiousabout her husband’s safety and also aboutthe catch. If there is a good catch, they willget more money for the household.

The fishermen return any time between1 pm and 8 pm or sometimes even late inthe night. On the day we visited the village,they came back at 3 pm with a good catchof a type of fish known as “para”.

Fig 4.4 Aerial view of Bhavanapadu village settlement

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Some middlemen temporarily store thefish, segregate them and carry them in coldcontainer tanks to faraway places likeKolkata, Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad,Kerala and so on. These people get fourtimes more money than the catcher does.Observe the following pictures of thePotaiah adda (4.9), the local middleman.

What makes the middlemen in thefish business to earn much moremoney than the fishermen?

For what purpose are the thermocolboxes shown in the photo lined upin the middleman’s adda?

So far we discussed the big fishingbusiness but there are also small fisher folkin this village. Karrateppa is a countrymade boat which goes up to 5 kilometersinto the sea and brings small catch of fish.This fish can be taken by the wives of thefishermen known as Berakatthelu. Theysell this fish in nearby towns like Naupada,Tekkali, Pundi and Palasa.

Compared to the Karrateppa, there isfar more risk of life in Marapadava(mechanised boat) because it goes far intosea and it is difficult to swim over to theshore in times of trouble. Apart from that,there is no first aid available in the bigboats, nor any life jacket. Fishing is a riskyand brave occupation.

Fig 4.5 Anchored Boat withneatly packed net heap,

Fig 4.6 Engine of the boat,lunch carriers, diesel cans and

picture of the goddess

Fig 4.7 Unloadedfish being carried to

Auction hall.

Fig 4.8 Fish spread inthe Auction hall,Middlemen arealready there.

Fig 4.7

Fig 4.5

Fig 4.6

Fig 4.8

Oceans and Fishing

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NetsAfter reaching home in the afternoon,

Appalakonda had his lunch, came to thecyclone shelter with the broken nets, andstarted repairing them. It is an activitycommonly seen everywhere inBhavanapadu.

The fishermen have a special tool kit forrepairing the nets which consists ofNulukarralu (net repairing fork) (Fig 4.12),Nulukanda (Thread) and a flattened stickthat determines the net ring size.

Nets are of different types based ondifferent sizes of the Kannulu (Rings) andthe layers of the net. Now a days, a netknown as Ring Net which helps in gettinga better catch is being increasingly usedby the fishermen. This has helped toreduce migration from the village. Earlier,the nets were made of cotton thread. Nowcotton nets have been almost completelyreplaced by plastic, nylon and othersynthetic material. A net lasts for 4-5years. Nets are purchased by weight andthe type of rings they contain. Nets cost

Fig 4.9 Middleman’s addastorage tanks.

Fig 4.10 Loading at the middle man’s adda to sell the fish in thebig cities.

Fig 4.11 ‘Berakatthelu’,waiting for their turn to loadfish in their Thattalu to sell at

nearby towns.

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around Rs. 250-300 per kg. Ring nets weigharound 500 kgs. The fishermen of this areausually buy nets from Barhampur (Odisha).

Agriculture and AnimalHusbandry

Fishing is not the only occupation of thepeople in Bhavanapadu village but they alsocultivate the land to grow crops. They alsorear animals and birds.

The village soil is mainly loamy and riceis the principal crop grown on it. Only a fewacres of land are irrigated. Bhavanapadu liesat the tail end of Vamshadhara canal. Watercomes to Bhavanapadu only after thefulfilment of the needs of the nearby village,Marripadu. Hence, most of the agriculturein Bhavanapadu depends on the rain.

There are no landlords in the village. Alarge number of cultivators ofBhavanapadu are small farmers. They don’tgrow any commercial crops. Some of themrear cows and buffaloes. There are twopoultries in this village running profitably.Rice production is not sufficient for theirneeds, so the people get rice from theration shops through their ‘white cards’ andsometimes buy it from the market.

Salinity and Drinking WaterThe water in the village is saline. If one

digs upto 8 or 10 feet near the beach, onecan get potable water. But in summers,these wells dry up. And it takes a long timefor the water to fill up again. Sometimesyou have to wait for an hour to get anotherpot of water. So, women have to wait longto fetch water or have to walk upto 2 kmto collect fresh water.

C D E

Fig 4.12 (A) Repairing nets, (B) Fisherman stitches (C) Nulukarralu.(D) Floating beads-Lead, (E) Floating beads-Plastic.

A B

Oceans and Fishing

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There is an open stage, where the dramas,burrakathas, harikathas and recorddances are performed. All these activitiesare led by the caste headmen called Pillas.They determine customs and traditions ofthe people. They even resolve disputes andimpose fines. The money collected goesto common good fund.

Fig 4.15 An old woman fetchingwater from a faraway place

Fig 4.13, 4.14 Salt pan levelingwork known as ‘Adugetha’, which

makes the pan impervious

The government has sanctioned aprotective water project that pumps waterfrom the nearest village known asSuryamanipuram. This project providedsome relief for some time. But cleaning ofoverhead water tank and frequent repair ofpumping motor is a hurdle. For some time,a youth organisation helped in keeping thewater project active. But it has stoppedfunctioning now.

Social LifeA large number of people of

Bhavanapadu worship Gangamma, Gowri,and Shiva. They perform puja of their boatsand nets. The most important festival isGowri Purnima. They spend common goodfund of the village on these festivals. Observethe Fig. 4.16. Most men, like Appalakonda ,wear tattoos like this.

Fig 4.16 Why do you think people weartattoos? What is the symbol on

Appalakonda’s hand? What does it signify?

Fig 4.14

Fig 4.13

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1. Does Bhavanapadu look like the place you live in? What differences and similaritiescan you think of? Compare them in the following aspects:

a. Sources of livelihood b. Types of employmentc. Water sources d. Agricultural practices

2. How many types of ocean movements are there? Which of them is useful to the fishermen?3. What is the difference between fishing with mechanical boats and with Karrateppa?4. Write the process of getting a mechanical boat ready for fishing.5. What does the tool kit of fishermen contain?6. What are the similarities that you find between the surface of the earth and the bottom of the sea?7. Collect information about the aquifers of your village / town and fill in the table.Analyse the

benefits.

S.No. Name of the aquifer Uses Limitations

8. Make an album of pictures that reflects the life of fishermen.9. What solutions can you suggest to the fishermen so that they do not have to depend on the

middlemen for money?10. In the last 4 chapters, we studied many different aspects of water. Here is more information about

the availability of water on Earth. Look at them carefully and explain the availability of waterresources on Earth.

11. How do you support the statement ‘The life of fishermen is tied up with seas’?12. Read the first paragraph under the heading “fishing villages on the coastal plains” in page 35 and

comment on it.

Keywords :1. Tool kit 2. Kannulu 3. Burra Katha 4. Mechanical Boat


Oceans and Fishing

Distribution of fresh water Distribution of water on earth Distribution of freshsurface water

Ice caps and Glaciers 68.7%Groundwater 30.1%Surface water 0.3%Other 0.9%

Saline water (Oceans) 97%Fresh water 3%

Lakes 87%Swamps 11%Rivers 2%

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Europe

Location of EuropeIn order to find out the location of

Europe and to see how far it is from India,you will need an atlas or a globe. To beginwith, look at Map 1 in which Europe hasbeen shaded. Identify the boundaries ofEurope. There is an ocean to its north.Identify its name on the map. This ocean isfrozen for most of the year.

Name the ocean to the west ofEurope.

This ocean separates the two continentsEurope and North America. About 500years ago, the people of Europe discoveredthe sea route to America and millions ofEuropeans migrated to the continent ofAmerica and settled down there.

Look at the atlas and find the nameof the sea just south of Europe.

This sea separates Europe in the northfrom Africa in the south. The name of thissea means ‘middle of the world’. Do youknow why it is called by this name? Inancient times, the people of Europe did notknow about other continents like America

In this chapter, we will try to find out about how the people of Europe have beenusing their distinct natural environment and resources.

5or Australia. They only knew about Europe,western parts of Asia and northern parts ofAfrica. You can see that all these regionsare situated around the Mediterranean Sea.That is why Europeans thought that this seawas in the centre of the world and named itso. It has been known by this name eversince.

Name the mountains to the east ofEurope.

The Eural mountains are easternboundaries of Europe. These mountains arenot very high. Asia is on the east of these

Europe

Arctic Ocean

Asia

Ura

lM

ount

ains

PacificOcean

Africa

EquatorIndianOcean Australia

Map 1: Location of Europe

Atla

ntic

Oce

an

Mediterranean

Sea

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Fig 5.1 Budapest, capital of Hungaryby the river Danube in Eastern Europe

mountains while Europe is to their west. Infact, Asia and Europe are one continuouslandmass. This landmass is therefore calledEurasia.

Now you are familiar with thelocation of Europe. You can alsolook at the countries of Europe.Look at Map 2 to find out theirnames. Have you heard the namesof some of these countries before?Map 3 has been left blank for youruse. Write the names of thecountries of Europe on this mapand colour them. See that no twoneighbouring countries have thesame colour.

Mountains, Plains and RiversLet us learn more about the mountains,

plains and rivers of Europe with the helpof Map 4. Europe has several snow-coveredmountains. Look for the Alps and thePyrenees in the map. The Alps, the mostimportant mountain ranges of Europe, arecovered with snow all year round.

The Alps stretch across severalcountries. Find out the names ofthese countries by comparing Maps2 and 4.Write the names of the two riversstarting from the Alps.Name the countries across whoseborders the Pyrenees stretch.Name the mountains stretching tothe Eastern Europe.Identify the other mountains inEurope and prepare a table.

The Caucasian Mountains, which liebetween the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea,

form the southern boundary of Europe.They too are very high and covered withsnow all year round.

There is a lot of diffference betweenAsia and Europe. We can see many plateausin Asia. But, there are no large plateaus inEurope. There are only some smallplateaus in France, Germany and Spain.There are vast plains in Europe. EasternEurope is a vast plain, which stretchesacross several countries like Russia,Ukraine, Poland, Bylorussia etc. Theseplains experience heavy snowfall and bittercold in winters. When the snow melts insummer, small streams start flowing. Theyjoin to form mighty rivers. It is from theseplains that rivers like the Dnieper and theVolga (the longest river in Europe)originate.

European rivers are used not only forirrigating the fields but also as majorwaterways; ships and barrages ply on theserivers and transport people and goods fromone place to another. Since these riversflow across several countries, they alsofacilitate international trade and transport.In this respect, the Rhine is one of the mostimportant rivers as it flows through severalcountries and empties itself into the North

Europe

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ATLANTIC OCEAN

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ains

Alp

sm

ts

Apennines

Pyrenees

mountains

Loir

e R

Adriatic Sea

Pennine Range Seine

R

Rhine RElbe R

Oder R

Vistula R

Danub

e RPo

RDniper

RDon

R

Volga RW

Dvi

na R

N Dvin

a

Med

iterr

anea

n Se

a

ASIA

Caspian

Sea

Map

4: E

urop

e P

hysic

al

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PeninsulaBay

Sea

Land

Sea. There are several major industrial andmining cities on the open sea and thus linkedto intercontinental trade. Unlike the Rhine,the Volga drains into the Caspian Sea, whichis a vast lake. Transport to the open seathrough this river-way is not possible.Thus, the cities on the Volga are not linkedto transcontinental trade throughwaterways.

Study Maps 2 and 4 to answer thefollowing questions:Names of countries through whichthe Rhine flows: 1……. 2…..…3….…. 4…..… 5..……Names of countries through whichthe Danube flows: 1……. 2…..…3….…. 4…..… 5..……Names of two mountain ranges onthe border of the Hungarian plains.1……… ................ 2…………Names of countries which ring theBlack Sea. 1……. 2…..… 3….….4…..… 5..……

Names of oceans or seas into whichthe following rivers emptythemselves:

River Ocean/Sea

1. Seine2. Rhine3. Oder4. Po5. Danube6. Vistula7. Volga

8. Dnieper9. Don10. Dvina

Peninsulas, Islands, Bays andGulfs

The sea coast of Europe is very jagged.In several places, it appears that the sea hascut deep into the land as in the case of theBaltic Sea. Elsewhere, it would appear thata part of the land has stretched far into thesea as in the case of Italy.

Italy is surrounded on three sides by thesea. Land masses that are surrounded by thesea on three sides and connected to themainland on the fourth side are called‘peninsula’. Norway and Sweden are alsopart of a peninsula. You can check this outin the map. This peninsula is called theScandinavian Peninsula.

Fig 5.2 Peninsula and Bay

Which of the following is apeninsula: Greece or France?

Are Spain and Portugal peninsulastoo?

Name the mountain range in theScandinavian Peninsula.

The sea surrounds some of the Europeancountries, not just on three sides but on allfour sides! These are island countries.Great Britain is one such island country.

Europe

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Find out the names of some otherisland countries of Europe.

Since ancient times, the seas have playedan important role in the lives of the peopleof these islands and peninsulas. Central andsouthern Europe is largely mountainous.Travel and transport over them is bothdifficult and expensive. In comparison, seatransport is easy and less expensive. Thisis the reason why Europeans have beenextensively using sea routes since ancienttimes.

The presence of a large number of baysand gulfs has also facilitated the use of searoutes. Bays and gulfs are parts of the seaenclosed by land on three sides. In a bay,the land curves inwards and the mouth ofthe bay is usually wide as in the Bay ofBengal. A gulf is a narrow inlet of the seaand has a narrow mouth. The entire BalticSea as you can see in the map is a largegulf. Since the bays and gulfs are protectedfrom the storms of the high seas, they arevery useful for building harbours whereships can be safely anchored and cargoesloaded or unloaded. Deep gulfs or bays arepreferred for building harbours as largeships can be anchored in them. Ships needdeep waters so that their bottoms do nottouch the sea floor.

Find out the names of the countrieson the three sides of the Baltic Seafrom Map 4.

ClimateEurope has a cooler climate than ours.

Most of its countries experience snowfall inwinter. Their summers too are not as warmas ours.

Why is the climate of Europe sodifferent from ours? Discuss in theclass.

Distance from the EquatorThe regions near the Equator remain

warm all round the year. As we movenorthwards or southwards away from theEquator, it gets cooler and cooler. Indeed, thePolar Regions are covered with ice all roundthe year.

Look at a globe or refer to map 1 tosee how far is north Europe from theEquator.Is Europe farther than India from theEquator?Norway and Italy are two Europeancountries. Which country do youthink is warmer? Why?

The Atlantic OceanThe climate of Europe is influenced

by another factor – the Atlantic Ocean andthe winds blowing from it. This impact is feltmore by the regions along the AtlanticOcean than the ones which are far inland.

Locate the regions of Europe alongthe Atlantic Ocean and statewhether they are on eastern side orwestern to the Atlantic Ocean?

In the winters, it is quite cold in WesternEurope but it is even colder in EasternEurope. Thus, countries like Poland andRussia have severe winters while Franceand Great Britain are comparativelywarmer. Russian winters are so cold thatthe rivers and the nearby seas freeze.However, this does not happen in thecountries of Western Europe that arelocated along the sea coast.

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southAmerica

northAmerica

Africa

Europe

Equator

Map 6: Gulf Strean

southAmerica

northAmerica

Africa

Europe

Equator

Map 5: The Westerlies

Look at the map and tell whichcountry is warmer, Spain orSlovakia?

You would have guessed that thisdifference must be because of the nearnessof Western Europe to the Atlantic Ocean.Let us see exactly how this ocean affectsthe climate of Europe.

WesterliesWinds blow all the year round from the

Atlantic Ocean towards Europe. Since theyblow from the west, these winds are called‘Westerlies’ (Actually, they blow from thesouthwest towards the northeast). Thesewinds are warmer than the land temperatureand are moist too. The climate of WesternEurope is affected by these warm and moistwinds all year round as they blow throughoutthe year.

Can you guess the impact ofWesterlies on Europe ?

Warm Ocean CurrentsThe waters in the oceans are not static.

They keep flowing from one place to

another along the continents. These are theocean currents, which flow for thousandsof kilometers in the ocean just as riversflow on land.

One such ocean current is to be foundin the Atlantic Ocean. This currentoriginates near the Equator where thewaters are warm throughout the year. Thiscurrent flows westward to North America.It flows towards the north along the easterncoast of America under the impact ofthe Westerlies and then advances towardsEurope. Moving northeast wards, it hits thewestern coast of Europe. This current iscalled ‘Gulf Stream (The ocean watercurrent which flows speedly is called astream)’ in America, while in Europe, it iscalled ‘North Atlantic Drift (The oceanwater current which flows slowly is calleda drift)’.

The coastal waters of the east coast ofNorth America and the west coast ofEurope do not freeze in winters, thanks tothe Gulf Stream. Thus, it is possible forships to visit the ports on these coasts evenduring winter.

Europe

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Why do you think is the climate ofEastern Europe not so stronglyaffected by the warm currents?

Fill in the blanks:The waters near the Equatorare…… (warm / cool / icy cold)Starting near the Equator, the GulfStream reaches the …….. coast ofAmerica. (eastern / western /northern)The Gulf Stream flows in the………. (Atlantic Ocean /Mediterranean Sea / Black Sea)The waters of the Gulf Streamwhich hit the European coast are…….. (cold / warm / icy cold)The Westerlies blow from theAtlantic Ocean towards Europe………….. (in winter / in summer/ all round the year)These winds are ……….. (dry /moist / icy)

Western Europe: Showers all YearRound

The Westerlies, which blow throughoutthe year, also bring ample moisture tonorthern and western Europe. Since thesewinds blow from the sea, they carry a lot ofmoisture and regularly cause rainfall.Therefore, it rains throughout the yearin northern and western Europe. While itrains only for a few months in our country,there are light showers all round the year inWestern Europe. The sky is usuallyclouded. While we, in India, eagerly awaitcool showers, the people of WesternEurope await bright sunny days.

What differences did you noticebetween the climates of India andWest Europe?

Western Europe also benefits in otherways from the Gulf Stream. The warmcurrents are very good for fish breeding asthey contain ample food material for thefishes. As a result, the fishery industry iswell developed in the North Sea nearBritain. This part of the North Sea is called‘Dogger Bank’. Fish is an important partof the food of the Europeans and fishing isa very important industry in Europe.

Name the countries which wouldbenefit from the Dogger Bank.

Mediterranean Climate in SouthernEurope

Look at the countries of SouthernEurope. They have the Mediterranean Seato their south, so they are called‘Mediterranean Countries’. The lands alongthe Mediterranean Sea have a distinctclimate called the ‘Mediterraneanclimate’.

Look at Map 2 and name fourMediterranean countries.

The Mediterranean countries are thesouthernmost countries of Europe. As aresult, the winters here are not too coldand summers are warm. It does not rain allthrough the year as in Western Europe. TheWesterlies blow here during the wintermonths only. These winds bring rain to theMediterranean countries. In other words,it rains here only in winter. Such rainywinters and dry summers are termed as‘Mediterranean climate’. Several regionsin other continents too have a

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Mediterranean climate. This climate is verygood for growing juicy fruits. Thus, regionswith Mediterranean climate are famous fortheir fruits. Fruits like olives, figs, grapes,oranges etc. are grown extensively insouthern Europe.

Compare Mediterranean andTelangana climates on the followingaspects:SeasonsRainfallWhen does it rain the most in yourstate, in summer months or inwinter months?Find out if your region gets lightwinter showers and the name givento it in the regional language.Fishing industry is importance in.…,whereas fruit growing is importantin ……

Four Seasons

In our country, we have three seasons,winter, summer and rains. However, mostEuropean countries have four main seasons.They are winter, spring, summer and autumn.The look of the land changes according tothe season and the agricultural routinechanges too. The transformation of a placeover these seasons can be seen in thepictures given in the next page.

Winter: As November approaches, itbegins to get cold. December onwards, itgets very cold and snow begins to fall oncein a while. It snows heavily on the mountainsand less on the plains. The sun shines oncein a while. The sun rises very late in the day,at about nine or ten O’ clock and sets by

four O’clock in the afternoon. The overcastsky makes it even darker. Broad-leavedtrees shed their leaves in winter and standentirely leafless.

Spring: The landscape begins to changeas March comes. The days get longer andthe nights shorter. The snow begins to meltand new shoots appear on trees. Freshgreen leaves appear and colourful flowersbloom everywhere. Lush green grassbegins to grow on the pastures.

The fields are ploughed in spring andsowing is done during this season. Wheat,rye, barley, corn, sugar beet and oats are theprincipal crops.

Which of these crops grow in ourstate and in which area?

Summer: It is summer from June toAugust. It does not rain much and there ismore sunshine. The days are longer - longerthan our country too. The sun rises as earlyas four O’clock in the morning and setsafter eight O’clock in the evening. In fact,in the northern countries like Sweden, theSun does not set at all. These countries arecalled lands of Midnight sun. Neverthelessit does not get very hot. This is becausethe Sun does not rise high on the sky andremains close to the horizon – where theearth and the sky seem to meet.

Summer is the season of agriculture inEurope. Crops mature in this season. Thereis no need for irrigation as the occasionalshowers are sufficient for the crops. At theend of summer, the crops are ready to beharvested.

Europe

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Look carefully at the pictures above.They belong to different seasons.What differences can you identify?

In our country, we have two agriculturalseasons: Rabi and Kharif (winter andmonsoon). Thus, it is possible to growcrops for nearly eight to ten months in a year.On the other hand, in France and otherEuropean countries, cultivation is possibleonly for six to seven months.

Autumn: The climate changes onceagain in September and October. Tree leavesturn red and yellow and begin to fall.Agricultural operations are wound up. Hayis cut and dried for feeding farm animals inwinter. Grapes and other fruits are pluckedand used for making wine, jams and juicesof various kinds and preserved in otherforms.

Land and AgricultureEuropean plains and river valleys are

very fertile. It rains here all through the yearand the rivers also do not dry up in anyseason. As a result, the plains are highlysuitable for agriculture. However, a largepart of Europe is mountainous and notsuitable for agriculture. Some countrieshave very little agricultural land. Forexample, only 3% of the land in Norway isavailable for cultivation. 30% of Englandis cultivable while in Germany, it is about40%. This is very different from ourcountry. In India, as much as 55% of theland is cultivable.

There is an acute shortage of land inHolland. The people of Holland (the Dutch)have reclaimed small portions of land fromthe sea by building embankments called

Winter

Summer

Spring

Autumn

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dykes to push back the sea. The land that isreclaimed is called ‘polder’.

In eastern and northern Europe, it is notpossible to cultivate the land in winter as snowcovers it for almost six months. The snowbegins to melt only in spring leaving verylittle time for crops to ripen. It is in springthat sowing takes place and crops ripen inthe summer months and are ready for harvestin autumn. As a result, it is possible to raiseonly one crop in a year in these parts.However, in southern Europe it is possibleto raise two crops a year.

Why is it possible to raise twocrops in the Mediterraneancountries?

Wheat is the main crop in the Europeanplains. It is grown extensively in France,Germany, Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Italy,Greece etc. We have seen that fruitcultivation is prominent in southernEurope. Fruits like grapes are used formaking wine. The Mediterranean countrieslike Portugal, Spain, Italy and southernFrance are famous for their wines.

Barley, oats, rye, sugar-beet, potato etc.are also important crops of Europe. Sugar

is manufactured from beet in Russia,Ukraine and Germany.

Agricultural RevolutionEurope was like Asia, a continent of

small farmers and landlords. However, overthe last two centuries this has changed sodrastically that only a very small sectionof the population practices agriculture andthere are no small farmers as in India. Thishappened due to technological revolutionwhich enabled farmers to cultivate largetracts of land with very little labour.Machines, chemical fertilisers etc came tobe used extensively in farming and theproduct of farming was now mainly for salein the market. At the same time, largelandowners and capitlists took over theagricultural land from small farmers whoabandoned agriculture and tookemployment in the cities in industries orother services.European Farms today

Most of the cultivation in Europe iscarried out in large farms - more than 50to 100 acres in size. Generally, farmersbuild their houses in their own farms. Thefarmhouses are usually very large and havea number of rooms for different purposes

- sheds for animals, godownsfor storing grains, coops andsties for poultry and pigs.

These big farmers hirelabourers to work on theirfields. They also use heavymachines like tractors andharvesters. Almost the entireproduct is sold in the market.Sometimes the farmers alsohire machines from nearbycooperative societies.

Fig 5.3 Hay bales after the harvest whichwill be stored as fodder for winter.

Europe

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Find out the average size of thefarmer’s land in your area.Do farmers in your area too hiretractors and harvesters?

Large holdings and mechanized farmingenable European farmers to earn a goodincome. They live in comfortable housesequipped with modern amenities. They usegas and electric stoves for cooking. Aboutfifty years ago, most European farmersbaked their own bread. Now, they sell offmost of their produce and buy their breadfrom the market daily. Several varieties ofbread and cakes are available in nearbytowns. Fresh meat, which is an essentialpart of French diet, is obtained frompoultry, cattle and pigs of the farm. Meat isalso preserved by smoking, drying orfreezing. All houses have larders or cellarsto store meat, cheese and wine. Now, theyare also stored in large cold storages.

The farmers obtain most of the thingsof their requirement from the nearby towns.Besides bread and other food items, theyalso obtain agricultural tools and machinesfrom nearby towns.Modern Agriculture

In Europe, agriculture is practised as acommercial enterprise, just as any industry.The farmers make his living by selling theirentire produce and getting all of theirrequirements from the market. Theagricultural technology they use alsorequires the use of hybrid seeds, chemicalfertilisers, pesticides etc.

However, compared to our country, veryfew people in Europe are dependent upon

agriculture. Most of them work in industryor service sector like banks, transport etc.Even those who work in the field ofagriculture are helped by the governmentwith a lot of subsidy to carry on farming asit gives them less income than other kindsof work. The government pays them forcarrying on agriculture in the villages.

Discovery of Sea RoutesNo part of western Europe is too far

from the ocean. In contrast, many countriesof Asia are thousands of kilometers fromthe sea.

Look at the wall map or atlas toidentify the names of at least sixcities of Europe which are situatedon the sea coast.

There are thousands of such seasidesettlements where seafaring people havebeen living for hundreds of years. Withcenturies of experience of sea travel, theEuropean sailors were famed for their skilland courage on the seas. They were alsoskilled in building boats and ships. Initiallyships were built and used for fishing in deepseas. Later on, they are used forinternational trade too.

From the very ancient times, the peopleof Europe have been trading with India andother countries of Asia like Indonesia andChina. From these countries, Europeobtained many goods like cotton and silkcloth, gems, ivory and spices such ascloves, pepper and cinnamon – that werenot available in Europe. The Europeans gotthese in exchange for gold and silver, whichthey brought from Europe. Do you know

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Route of Columbus

Index

Trade windsOld Land route to India

Map 7: Trade routes

0ο Equator

what route they took from Europe to India?Look at map 7 in which two major routesare given. Both the routes crossed theMediterranean Sea; while one of them tooka land route via the Middle East, Iran, andAfghanistan, the other route took a searoute via the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea.

About five hundred years ago, the WestEuropean sailors and traders began tosearch for new routes to India. This wasbecause both the routes mentioned abovepassed through countries ruled by the Arabswho were often at war with the Europeans.Further, most of the trade in theMediterranean Sea was controlled byItalian merchants who did not let in tradersof other countries. That is why the sailorsof the other countries began to look forroutes to India that did not have to passthrough the Mediterranean Sea or the Arabruled countries.

Looking at the map, can you tellwhat the new route could be?

Of course, these maps did not exist inthose days and people had just begun to

figure out that the earth must be round andnot flat. An Italian sailor named ChristopherColumbus thought: ‘If the earth is roundthen it should be possible to reach Indiafrom the west too. If we were to travelwestward across the Atlantic Ocean wewould reach China and India sooner orlater.’

Look at a globe to check whetherColumbus’s thinking was correct.

Columbus set out with three ships in1492 to cross the Atlantic Ocean. Afterthree months of sailing, he saw land ahead.Columbus thought that he had reached India.Actually, he was still far from India; he hadreached the country which we now call theWest Indies. These are a group of islandsnear America. In fact, Europeans did notknow of America before Columbus. In away, he ‘stumbled’ onto America. Soon,Europeans realized that Columbus had notreached India but a new unknown continent.After that, several Europeans went toAmerica to trade, conquer and settle there.

Europe

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The ships of those times had sails to harness wind-power. They sailed with ease with thewinds blowing westwards towards America. Were they the Westerlies? No, they were notthe Westerlies which blew towards Europe. These were different winds, which blew fromthe south of Europe towards the south-west direction. They blew throughout the year andtook ships from south-west Europe to the east coast of America. They are called ‘TradeWinds’ (Map 7).

The Westerlies blow from the south- west to the north-east to the south-west. In otherwords, the two winds blow in opposite directions all through the year (both these winds areshown on Map 7). This helped Europeans to travel to and from America easily. They couldgo to America using the Trade Winds.

Look at Map 7 and answer the following questions :

Which winds would help the sailors to return to Europe from America?

Could the sail driven ships use the Trade Winds to return to Europe? Give reasons.

After Columbus, the Europeans discovered several sea routes. They could now sail notonly to America but also to different parts of Africa, India and Australia. They traded withthese countries and amassed immense wealth, which was used to develop industries inEurope.

You will read about the industrial revolution in Europe in greater detail in a later chapter.

Keywords :1. Peninsula

2. Island

3. Bay

4. Currents

5. Gulf

6. Climate

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Improve your learning1. The Atlantic Ocean has a great impact on the climate of Europe as well as on the lives and livelihood

of the people of Europe. Collect relevant information and write an essay on the theme.

2. Answer these questions with the help of the maps given in the chapter:

• Which of the following is not a landlocked (surrounded by land) country – (Hungary / Romania/ Poland / Switzerland)?

• Which mountains lie between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea – (Alps / CaucasusMountains)?

• Which countries are on the shores of the Arctic Ocean – (Russia / Germany / Sweden / Norway)?

• Can a ship sail from the Black Sea to the Atlantic Ocean? If yes, trace the route it will have totake.

3. Why are harbours built in deep gulfs or bays?

4. Why are the winters less severe in Western Europe than in Eastern Europe?

5. Name four countries on the coast of the Black Sea.

6. How do the Westerlies benefit the people of Western Europe?

7. What are the characteristics of the Mediterranean climate? Name the countries whichhave a Mediterranean climate.

8. What are the factors that limit European agriculture?

9. Name the important crops of southern Europe.

10. How can you say that the trade and cultural relations have developed among the countries dueto the discovery of new sea routes by European sailors?

11. “However, as times changed, ...... trading with them” Read the above paragraph in page no: 56and comment on it.

12. How is agriculture similar or different in Europe from that of our country?

Europe

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CH

APT

ER

Africa

To the west of India lies a large continent.On this continent, there are extensivedeserts, dense forests, long and broad rivers, numerous large lakes and grasslandsstretching over thousands of miles. There are certain wild animals which we do notfind in our country. The world’s largest gold and diamond mines are located here.The name of this continent is Africa. Perhaps, you will be surprised to know thatAfrica is the cradle of the humankind. Human beings first evolved in Africa and thenmoved to other continents.

Fig 6.3 The city of Cairo by the River Nile

Fig 6.2 Savanna in KenyaFig 6.1 Equatorial forest in Uganda

6

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Look for Africa on the world mapand name the oceans that surroundit. Which are its neighbouringcontinents?

Africa - A Vast PlateauLook at the physical map of Africa. Do

you see any large plains in the interior ofthe continent? Only on the coast do we finda narrow plain? The rest of the continent isa vast plateau of varying height. Look forthe valleys of the Nile and the Congo. Thereare also several mountains on this plateau.The highest peak in Africa is MountKilimanjaro in Tanzania.

Look at Map 1 and answer thefollowing questions:

There are long and narrow valleys in thehigh plateaus. There are several large lakesin these valleys.

Identify two lakes in Africa otherthan Lake Victoria and write downtheir names.

Locate the following rivers on amap of Africa. Use map 6 to locatethe countries of Africa. Whichcountries do the following riversflow through, and which oceans dothey empty themselves into?

What is theaverage heightof the narrowcoastal plains?

What is theheight of amajor portionof the plateau?

The height ofthe high plateausin the south andeast of Africa is…...............

In the north arethe ...............Mountains.

River Country Ocean

Nile Niger Congo Zambezi

Map 1: Relief map of Africa

SAHARA DESERT

Atlasmountains

Lake VictoriaKilimanjaro Park

Lake TanganyikaLake Nyasa

KalahariDesert

River

Zambezie

THE INDIANOCEAN

THEATLANTIC

OCEAN

ASIAMediterraneanSea

River Niger

River Volta

RiverChad

River N

ile

River Congo

Plain 0 -200 Mts

Plateau 200-1000 Mts.

Hills 1000 Mts andabove

Africa

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There is a region in the north where norivers are to be seen. This is the SaharaDesert which receives very scanty rainfall.There is only one river, Nile, which crossesthe Sahara Desert.

Look for some of the large lakes on theplateau. Lake Victoria is the largest lake inAfrica. It is one of the largest fresh waterlakes in the world. The Nile originates fromthis lake.

The region where Nile has its sourcereceives such heavy rainfall that there isenough water to flow across the desert intothe Mediterranean Sea. The Nile also flowsthrough Egypt. Most of Egypt is a desert.

The Nile has helped civilization todevelop in this desert. Egyptian civilizationis several thousand years old. The watersof the Nile have helped to irrigate the fieldsof Egypt for thousands of years (look atMap 3).

Climate

If you look at Africa on the globe youwill find that the Equator passes throughits middle. Thus, Africa is divided intonorthern and southern parts.

Try to recognise the Tropic ofCancer on the wall map of Africaand label Map 2. To the south ofthe Equator is the Tropic ofCapricorn. Locate it and write itsname in the correct place on themap.

Does the Equator pass through themiddle of any other continent?

The zone between the Tropic of Cancerand Tropic of Capricorn is the hottest regionof the world. There is hardly any winterhere. This is also known as the Tropicalregion.

Locate this zone on the map ofAfrica, colour it and label it as the‘Tropical Region’. Colour the zonenorth of the Tropic of Cancer andsouth of the Tropic of Capricorn indifferent colours.

These zones – south and north of thetropics experience summer as well aswinter. They are called ‘TemperateRegions’.

So far we have been talking only aboutsummer and winter. However, regions thatare hot but receive heavy rainfall have adifferent climate from hot regions that getscanty rainfall.

Equator

Map 2: Africa - Out line

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Map 3: Distribution ofRainfall in Africa

High rainfall

Medium rainfall

Low rainfall

Equatorial forests

Broad leaved trees and grass

Savanna

Soft grass of high plateau

Mountainous vegetation

Desert vegetation

Map 4: NaturalVegetation in Africa

Africa

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Regions with Heavy RainfallA large part of Africa, on both sides of

the Equator, receives heavy rainfall. Lookat the regions with heavy rainfall on Map3. They are in Central and Western Africa.They have dense forests due to heavyrainfall and warm climate.

Regions with Moderate and ScantyRainfall

Look for regions with moderate rainfallin Map 3. It surrounds the zone of heavyrainfall. In the region with moderaterainfall, it rains only in the summer, whereasit rains throughout the year in the equatorialregions.

As in our country, dry and wet seasonsare distinct in the zones of moderate rainfallin Africa. Due to moderate rainfall, tallgrasses grow in this region. In some places,these grasses are so tall that even elephantscan hide in them! Some trees also growbetween the grasses. This region is known asthe ‘Savanna’. Look at this region in Map4. Different kinds of wild animals inhabit thisregion. You will read about them later.

A very large part of Africa is extremelyarid (dry), where the rainfall is scanty orthere is no rainfall at all for several years.

Locate these arid zones in Map 3.

Almost half of the northern part ofAfrica is an arid region and is called theSahara desert. Thorny bushes and shortgrasses grow in some parts of this desert.In other parts, there are large stretches ofsand, bare hills and rocks, stones andpebbles. In the south, there is another aridregion called the Kalahari Desert.

Study Map 2 and 4 and answer:Zones of heavy rainfall have ......vegetation.Zones of moderate rainfall have….. vegetation.Zones of scanty rainfall have …..vegetation.

Pictures of different areas of Africahave been shown in the beginning of thechapter. Somewhere, there are denseforests, in another area, trees and grassgrow together, elsewhere there are grassesand shrubs, and in still other areas, there isno vegetation at all.

The People of AfricaPeople with different languages,

lifestyles and habits live in differentregions of Africa. Since ancient times,people have lived in small tribes, carryingout hunting gathering, animal husbandry andagriculture. Hunters have inhabited theequatorial regions and the deserts.Pastoralists inhabited the high plateaus andSavanna, grazing their animals on theextensive grasslands. Agriculture has longbeen carried out on river banks as well ason the margins of forests. There are severalcities on the coasts where traders fromdistant countries come to trade.

Fig 6.4Boabab tree

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Africa, Europe and AsiaFor a long time, people from other

continents were largely ignorant aboutAfrica. Europeans were familiar only withthe northern coastal regions of Africa whilethe Indian and Arab traders knew about theeastern coast.

Look at the world map and guesshow Europeans would have reachedthe northern coastal areas. How canone reach Africa from Europe?Which sea has to be crossed toreach Africa?

Apart from these coastal areas, neitherthe Europeans nor the Indian or Arab tradershad much knowledge about the interior partsof Africa.

About 500 years ago, Europeans begantheir attempts to reach India by the searoute by going around Africa. Traversing theAtlantic Ocean, they used to stopover on theislands of St. Madiera and Azores. They wereapprehensive about going south of theseislands. They thought it would be so hotfurther south that the sea would be boiling.Then, in 1498, a Portugese sailor namedVasco da Gama went around the southern tipof Africa and reached India.

Look at the map to answer these questions:How can one reach India fromAfrica? Which ocean has to becrossed?Are Asia and Africa connected byland?

The African Coast

While studying Europe, you must havenoticed its broken coastline. You have readabout the gulfs and bays of Europe. Try torecall how these helped the Europeans intheir ocean travel.

Now look at the African coast. Doyou see a broken coast or a smoothcoastline?Do you find many bays and gulfshere, as in Europe? Name a bay anda gulf near Africa from Map 6.

Initially, when Europeans tried to goinland, many African tribes came in directconflict with them. Europeans indulged inunfair trade, tried to enslave the Africanpeople and sold them abroad. They wantedto establish their rule over Africa andexploit its resources. Hence, the Africanpeople resisted the efforts of foreignersto establish themselves in their land.

Slave Trade

In the 16th century, many Europeansbegan migrating to America and startedcultivation there. There was plenty of landin America, but not enough people to workon the fields. To fill the gap, the slave tradefrom Africa began.Fig 6.5 Cape of Good Hope in South Africa

Africa

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A f r i c a n swere capturedand enslavedmainly from thecoastal areas ofGuinea as wellas easternAfrica. Thecaptured peoplewere brought tothe coast andsold to theEuropeans. Inexchange for the slaves, the African triballeaders accepted guns, iron objects, liquorand clothes.

The slaves were greatly oppressed. Manyof them died by the time they reached theports. The ships were stuffed with slaves.There were no proper arrangements forfood or medicine. In those days, it took

several days to reach America. Many slavesdid not survive the journey due to illnessand malnutrition.

Even in America, inhuman treatment wasmeted out to them. Despite working hard,they were not given proper food or livingquarters. In this manner, millions ofAfricans were enslaved and taken to North andSouth America and the nearby islands. Lakhsof people died after they were made slaves.In the 16th and 17th centuries, numerouscompanies were engaged in slave trade.Eventually, the slave trade ended in the 19th

century and the slaves were declared freecitizens in America in 1860.European Colonies

Earlier, you had read that Europeanshad reached India by going around Africa.Subsequently, these Europeans startedhalting at African ports. Slowly the

Portuguese, Dutch,English, French andGermans gained afoothold in the interior andcolonized these areas. Thepolitical map of Africa atthe close of the 19th

century is given in Map 5.The regions colonized bythe European colonieshave been indicated on thismap.

Can you locate thecountries thatcolonised Africa on amap of Europe?Which Europeancountries colonizedSudan and Zaire?

Map 5: European colonies in Africa in 1913

Liberia

BelgiumBritainFranceGermanyItalyPortugalSpainIndependent

Ethiopia

Fig 6.6 A Slave

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Can you point out any area of Africawhich was not colonised?

Along with attempts to build theircolonies in Africa, the Europeans continuedto explore the interiors of the continent.They travelled to the source of the Nile inthe north. In the west, they explored the entirevalley of the Niger and in the south, they movednorthwards from Cape Town. They exploredthe region around the river Zambezi.

The Europeans exported African timber,minerals etc. on a very large scale to Europe.In fact, the gold and diamond mines insouthern Africa are still under the controlof European companies. Zambia andZimbabwe have priceless mines of copper.This mineral has long been an importantexport item.

The Europeans did not stop withexporting the resources of Africa. Theyestablished plantations to grow tea, coffee,rubber, tobacco etc. These products werealso exported to Europe.

Plantations in Nigeria

You may be fond of eating chocolates.They are made of cocoa, which grows inNigeria. In southern Nigeria, apart fromcocoa, there are also rubber plantations.Oil-bearing palm trees are also found there.Oil is extracted from its fruit. People reachthese forests after crossing the Niger byboat to collect palm fruit. Earlier, all thesetrees were found in wild forests. When thedemand for them increased, patches offorest were cleared and these trees wereplanted there. Cocoa, rubber, palm and palmoil are being exported and this enablesNigeria to earn foreign exchange.

Locate the areas where these cropsgrown on the map of Nigeria (asper map 4).

Plantations were started by the Britishwho were not satisfied with the quantity ofwild products collected from the forests.They wanted to produce more and exportthem.

Plantations made many things easy forthem. First of all, it was no longer difficultto go into the forest and locate the trees. Itwas easy to look after the trees since theywere all in one place. Harvesting theproduce became much easier. Therefore,the production increased. Nigerian peoplestarted working in these plantations, whilethe British were their managers. In this way,commercial agriculture of palm, cocoa andrubber began in Nigeria.

Not only this, a number of processingunits were also set up near plantations, suchas units to separate seed from the cocoafruit, to dry it, extract oil from palm fruit,extract milk from rubber plants and so on.

Most of the profit from trade of palm,cocoa and rubber went to the British. TheNigerian people worked there only asagricultural labourers. Even in India, duringthe British times, plantations of tea andcoffee were started for trade purposes.Nigeria was under the British rule until1960 when it won independence. After that,the plantations and trade in plantationproducts have gradually come under thecontrol of the Nigerians and they are ableto benefit from these.

Africa

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1. From Europe, which sea does one have to cross to reach northern Africa?2. State three difficulties that the Europeans faced in reaching the interior parts of Africa.3. Name the two large deserts of Africa.4. Two political maps of Africa have been given in the chapter. Compare the two to find out which

European country controlled the present day countries of Nigeria and Zimbabwe.5. Name two countries of Africa where equatorial forests are found.6. What goods did Europeans trade with Africa? What kind of agricultural produce did they

promote for trade purpose?7. Who benefited from the slave trade? Why did America need slaves?8. How can you say that the slave trade is highly heinous?9. Read the last para of this lesson and comment on it.


Independent AfricaDuring the last century, African

countries gained independence from thecontrol of European powers. New nationscame up with their own governments. Ofcourse, many Europeans are still settled inAfrican countries. But slowly, the Africanpeople are acquiring control over their land,forests, mines, and agricultural productionand benefiting from them.

Minerals of AfricaThe continent is very rich in minerals

like coal, copper, tin etc. Besides, it isperhaps the largest producer in the worldof precious minerals like gold anddiamonds. One of the main aims ofEuropeans in Africa was to exploit theseresources by using servile labour of theAfricans. Many of these countries and theircompanies control most of the mineralresources of even the independent Africancountries till date.

For example, mineral oil or petoleumis the most important natural resource ofNigeria. The Dutch companies establishedcontrol over the oil mining and refining in

Nigeria. Since 1958, mineral oil has beenexported from Nigeria. Oil refineries havebeen set up at Harcourt and Vari port.

This industry is mostly in the hands offoreign companies to this day. The Nigeriangovernment has only a small share in thisindustry. This is the same with many otherminerals mined from Africa.

The foriegn companies do bring in newtechnologies and investments into themining and processing industries, thuscreating employment for the local people.However, they use cheap labour to makehuge profits which are taken away from theAfrican people. Most of these companiesare also careless about environmentalprotection and have caused immensedamage to the natural environment. This hasaffected the quality of land and life of thepeople adversly.

Familiarise yourself with thecountries of Africa, by colouringand labelling - Map -7.

Keywords :

1. Colonies 2. Slave 3. Plateau

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67Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Africa

The Indian Ocean

Map 6: Countries of Africa

MOR

OCCO

ALGERIA LIBIYATU

NIS

IA

EGYPT

WES

TERN

SAHA

RA

MAURITANIA

SENEGAL

GUINEA

LIBERIA

COASTIVOIRE

GHANA

NIGERIA

NIGER

BURKINAFASO

MALICHAD

CAM

EROO

N

CENTRAL

AFRICAN REP

SUDAN ERITHRIADJIBOUTH

ETHIO-PIA

SOMALIA

KENYAUGANDA

SOUTHSUDAN

GABON

REP. OFCONGO

DEMO-CRATIC REPCONGO BURUNDI

MALAWI

ZAMBIA

TANZANIA

MOZAMBIQUE

MA

DA

GA

SCA

R

ZIMBABWE

BOTSWANA

NA

MIB

IA

SOUTHAFRICA

LESOTHO

SWAZILAND

AN-GOLA

EQUATO-RIALGUINEA

THEGAMBIA

GUINEABISSAU

RAWANDA

SIERRALEONE

TOGOBENIN

The Atlantic Ocean

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First, label this map with the help of Map 6. Then colour all the countries with differentcolours. Take care not to colour two neighbouring countries with the same colour.

Map 7: Countries of Africa

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Basket Maker of AndugulaPolaiah is a basket maker from Andugula

village in Madugula Mandal, Ranga Reddydistrict. He is about 35 years old. Hebelongs to Yerukala, a tribal community.His family has been weaving basketsfor generations. Bagyamma, his wife, alsoworks as a basket maker. They have threechildren. Polaiah’s father along with 25other families came to the city about 30years ago as the demand for baskets haddeclined in their native village. He sellsbaskets on the pavements of Chaderghatin Hyderabad.

Polaiah uses the spines of wild datepalm (eatha chettu) leaves to makebaskets. Using a knife, he shaves off theleaves and keeps them in hot sunshine todry them. The raw material, wild datepalm leaves, are brought in bundles fromAndugula, their native village. Hisrelatives in Andugula collect the spinesfrom bushes around their villages and sellthem to basket makers like Polaiah.Andugula is about 60 km from Hyderabad.

What do you understand about rawmaterial in the context of basketmaking? Who collects them?

What are the tools used by thebasket makers?

Each bundle of date palm spines costsRs.120. Polaiah and other basket makersusually bring 10 bundles for two months.Polaiah’s family makes 25 baskets fromone bundle. Ten bundles of spines wouldgive them about 250 baskets. It takes 30minutes to make a basket. He weavesbaskets from 10 am to 5 pm with a fewbreaks to eat and rest.

Polaiah sells each basket for Rs. 20.Sometimes, customers ask for a biggerbasket for family rituals. These are sold ata higher price depending on the amount ofraw material used. He sells basketsthroughout the year. In two months, he can

Handicrafts and Handlooms

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PART - I

Fig 7.1 Basket shop with bamboo products

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70 Production, Exchange and Livelihoods Social Studies

sell Rs.5000 worth of baskets. The costprice is Rs. 1200 excluding thetransportation charges of Rs.100 for everyvisit to his village. So, the income of hisfamily is Rs.3700 for 2 months. He doesnot earn sufficient money to meet hisfamily’s expenditure. To supplement hisincome, Polaiah buys and sells bambooproducts like trays and stands.

Basket making is a craft work thatinvolves the use of wild date palm leaves,cane and bamboo which are found inforests. There has been depletion offorests due to their extensiveexploitation for big industries. Thisaffects the livelihoods of people whohave traditionally depended on forest.Further, the demand for such productshas reduced considerably. This forcesthem to move out of rural areas andmigrate to urban areas for survival. This

is true for many involved in traditionalactivities. However, they often have to live inurban areas without basic amenities.

Urban SlumPolaiah lives in a slum, which does not

have proper drainage, so it emits foul smelland breeds mosquitoes and flies. There isno electricity connection or safe drinkingwater. Polaiah’s hut is made of bamboo,mats and recycled plastic bags and tarpaulin.During the rainy season, their roofs oftenleak and the huts are flooded. Sometimesthe Municipal Corporation officials evictPolaiah and other basket maker families.

Despite struggling hard, people likePolaiah have been denied voting rights inthe city. In fact, they have been denied rationcards as they don’t have any proof of identityor proof of residence.Thus, they cannoteither participate in the democraticprocesses of the city or avail the facilitiesmeant for the poor.

Basket MakersPeople of Yerukula tribe are usually

involved in basket making and live indifferent parts of Telangana and AndhraPradesh. They are called ‘Yerukula’ after

Fig 7.2 Basket weaving

Fig 7.3 Basket weaving

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their women’s traditional profession offortune telling ‘Eruka chepputa’ (Sodhi).People of this tribe speak ‘Yerukula basha’. Words from Telugu, Tamil and Kannadalanguages are used in this language.

Choose the correct option:a. Forests are depleting largely

because of the usage by (basketweavers / big industries).

b. Polaiah buys bamboo items from(a trader in mandi/a village inAndugula).Make a table showing Polaiah’sexpenditure for raw material andincome from the produce.

Do you think people like Polaiahshould be given ration card andallowed to vote in Hyderabad?

By now, you have learnt that goods suchas baskets made of bamboo and etha chetturequire simple production – using very fewmaterials mostly made of naturalresources. There are many other goodswhich require raw material to be processedin a more complex way with complex tools.Cloth materials made of cotton and silk areexamples of such goods. Cloth can bemanufactured today either in hand-operatedlooms or by power looms or in large mills.We will study here how it is produced byhandloom weavers.

PART - II

Handloom Weavers inPochampally

Pochampally is a small town in Yadadridistrict in Telangana. The weavers hereproduce unique sarees called Ikkat sarees,which are world famous. Ikkat is a termused for the particular style in which clothis dyed, also often referred to Bandhini orPochampally itself. They are high qualitysilk sarees containing simple geometricaldesigns and available mostly in threecolours and shades. There are nearly10,000 weaving families in 100neighbouring villages involved in this craft.

Pochampally sarees have a unique designand colour which is quite distinct fromother silk sarees. That is why it is the firsthandloom cloth patented in India. This

means, no other producers of handloomsarees in the world can sell sarees in thename of “Pochampally Ikkat Sarees”. Onlythose sarees that are produced inPochampally and its surrounding villages canbe sold with this brand name. These sareesare sold in India and abroad at high prices.

To make silk sarees, you need rawmaterial like silk yarn, colours and cottonthread. They are not produced by weavers.They buy them from the market. Silkworms,from which silk yarn is made, grow onmulberry leaves. Rearing of silkworms istaken up by small farmers. Cotton isproduced in farms and is made into threadeither in factories or as a household craft.Colours are often made in factories.Weavers buy yarn and colours from themarket.

Handicrafts and Hanlooms

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Tools:Weavers own the wooden loom, which

is the main tool required for weaving. Apartfrom it, they also use small knives. Forweavers, it is also important to know theplan of the design to weave the saree. Ifyou look at a saree, you will notice thatthere are very intricate designs on them.These designs are marked on specialsheets of paper with specific notations.Weavers follow them without makingerrors. With years of practice, they evendevelop new designs.

Look at a saree and draw any of thecommon designs on them in thebox below.

Stages of Weaving a SareeThere are different stages of weaving

a saree. The first is preparing the yarn. Silkyarn is wound on a bobbin. These yarns arethen marked with the design. Thesemarkings of the designs help the weaverto identify what colours need to be dyedinto which part of the yarn. Dyeing the yarnis a long repeated process. Each colourneeds to be dyed separately and dried one

after the other. Only when the colouring iscompleted, the thread can be used forweaving.

Dyeing yarnFor dyeing, the silk yarn is taken off, but

when it becomes dry, it is stretched, partlyopened and tied again for dyeing. Thisprocess is repeated several times. Formaking sarees in different colours andshades, different methods of dyeing arefollowed. The red and brown shades,between white and black colours, areprinted using alizarin dyes. For this, theyarn is first soaked in a mixture of castoroil and alkaline earth, then dried, soakedagain, dipped in alizarin paste and finallyboiled till it becomes red. For the brownshades, iron filings are added to the colour.Dissolving iron filings in vinegar producesblack colour.

Warp and WeftYou will notice that cloth has threads

passing from top to bottom andsideways as shown in the picturebelow. Warp is the yarn that goes fromtop to bottom and weft is the yarn thatgo from left to right.

Wef

t

Warp

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Let us look at the accountof a visit to a weavers’ housein Pochampally to know moreabout ikkat cloth materials.

Jagathayya is a resident ofPochampally. All of his familymembers – he, his wife, hisson and daughter-in-law workas weavers. When we visitedhis house, we found allmembers in the familyengaged in different tasks.While he was winding yarn,his son Murali was engagedin weaving on the maggam(pit loom) set up inside thehouse. Other tools such asChitkasu (is a curved framemade for weft ikkat with pegson which the weft threads aregrouped and tied for dyeing),panni (reed), Acchu (headshaft), thread and rubbertubing were used for differenttasks in producing ikkatsarees. Most of the tools aremade of wood. Since he hasgrown old, Jagathayyaspends most of the timewinding yarn and his sonweaves on the loom.

Jagathayya’s wife anddaughter-in-law do bobbinwinding. Jagathayya’s grandchildren are studying inschools. There is some worklike warping done collectivelyby group of weavers onstreets / outside the house.

Fig 7.4 At pit loom - weaving a saree

Fig 7.5 Winding thread


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His son Murali brings all the rawmaterial – dyed silk yarn, zari and designfrom master weaver and sometimesfrom cooperative society of which he is

a member. Jagathayyagets all the raw materialat a time to weave eightsarees. The whole familyhas to work for 12-15hours a day for nearly 50days to weave 8 sarees.They get about Rs.1200per saree for the work.

Weaving saree is ahereditary occupation forJagathayya’s family. Theincome Jagathayya’s familymakes from weaving ikkatsarees is insufficient to runthe family.

Between March and May, Jagathayya’sfamily is able to weave only for a few hoursa day. If the temperature is high, the threadwill get cut. The whole family works onlytill afternoon during these days. Womenare distressed as they have to do not onlyweaving but also the household chores likecooking food, fetching water and preparingchildren to go to school etc.

Earlier, Jagathayya’s family used toweave only for the cooperative society. Thecooperative societies provide financialassistance through insurance in case ofunexpected illness or death in the weaver’sfamily. They also help in getting loans forconstruction of houses. Now-a-days, thecooperative society does not givesufficient work, so they have to look foradditional sources of income to run theirfamilies. Since a master weaver inPochampally agreed to give work andremuneration, Jagathayya’s family beganweaving Ikkat sarees for the master weaver.

Fig 7.6 Bobbin winding

Fig 7.7 Marking design

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Jagathayya has not given up themembership of the cooperativesociety with a hope that it willimprove its functioning in thefuture.

Weaver’s Problems andCooperative Societies

Telangana is one of the statesin India which have a large numberof handlooms. During the last fewdecades, handloom weavers havebeen facing a serious problem.They face a stiff competitionfrom power loom and mill madeclothes - these clothes arecheaper as they are produced onmachines and also because theyuse synthetic yarn which ischeaper than cotton or silk. Eventhough it is popular due to its highquality and unique beauty, thePochampally saree seems to beexpensive. The weavers also donot get good rates due to middlemen’s involvement.

The buyers are spread all overthe world and weavers do not haveany direct contact with them.Fashions in cities change fast andit is difficult for the weavers toknow what kind of designs are indemand. Therefore, they have torely on middlemen to know aboutthe designs in vogue and changetheir designs accordingly. Theyalso have to depend onmiddlemen to the raw materiallike cotton or silk yarn as they Fig 7.9 Warping

Fig 7.8 Weaving in process

are produced in far away centres. This gives themiddlemen an important position in thehandloom industry and they try to get the largestshare of the saree price.


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In order to overcome these problems,the weavers are encouraged to formcooperative societies. The cooperativesocieties are meant to help the weavers inbuying raw materials at low prices andarrange for marketing of their cloth. Thisreduces their dependence upon middlemenand traders. The cooperative societiesshould help the weavers by training in newdesigns.

However, now-a-days, a large section ofweavers in Telangana do not get sufficientwork from cooperative societies. In somecooperative societies, weavers are notgiven any role in decision making regardingthe procurement of raw material and thesale of cloth and dress material. They donot provide opportunities for weavers toproduce sarees to suit the changingpreferences of consumers. This has onceagain pushed the weavers into the clutchesof the middlemen and traders.

A large amount of handloom clothmaterial in Telangana is produced andmarketed by master weavers and merchants.The master weavers and merchants procureall the raw material, supply it to weaversand collect the woven cloth. Then they sellthis material to wholesale cloth merchants.They pay a stipulated amount as wages forthe weaving work. Many master weaversalso provide loans to weavers to set up aloom, buy other tools and thus restrict themfrom weaving sarees for other masterweavers. They also decide the wages for thework done by the weavers. Since they areinterested in raising their own incomes, itis natural for them to look for ways to payless to the weavers. So, the cooperativesocieties should provide work and save thedistressed weaving families from themaster weavers.

List the raw materials and toolsused to make Ikkat sarees.

Why has Jagathayya’s family begunto weave for a master weaver?

Keywords :

1. Raw materials

2. Ikkat

3. Patent

4. Tie & Dye

5. Warp - Weft

6. Co-operative societiesFig 7.10 Folding the Ikkath Saree

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1. Do you think people earn enough money from work like basket making and weaving?2. Prepare a list of goods which could have substituted the basket. Discuss with your parents

before preparing the list.3. Many new products have replaced handicrafts – identify them and find out where they are

produced. Discuss how this could affect the lives of handicraft persons.4. Why did Polaiah’s family come to Hyderabad? Why does he have no right to vote in Hyderabad?5. You may find crafts persons like Polaiah producing goods other than baskets. Meet two such persons,

collect the following details and discuss them in the class. One sample is given below.

6. Why do you think patenting Pochampally Ikkat saree weaving would help weavers in Pochampally?7. Should weavers procure raw materials, weave Ikkat sarees and sell them directly to the people? What

are the challenges in it?8. Prepare a flow chart depicting the organisation of production in basket making and handloom

textile weaving.9. Mention the differences between basket making and Ikkat saree weaving and fill in the following

table:

10. List the various handicrafts with location in Telangana and prepare a chart.

Discussion: Invite any one artisan available in village/locality, to your school and discusstheir profession.

Project:1. Invite a craftsperson to your classroom or plan visit to a their work place. Make a wallpaper

showing different processes of their production.2. Meet different artisans in village/locality, fill in the following table and discuss in the class.Sl. Name of the Profession Continuing/ If discontinued, If continued,No. artisan discontinuing reasons whether they are

satisfied



Raw materials used Tools used How goods are sold

Basket makingHandloom weaving

Work

1 Polaiah Baskets Spokes of date palm leaves Andugula – native village

2

3

Sl.No.

Name of thecrafts person

Goodsproduced

One or two important rawmaterials used Source of raw materials

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Increasing Control of TradersFrom 1500 BCE to 1800 BCE, trade

between countries in America, Europe,Africa and Asia increased manifold. Textiletrade too began to expand. Now, Europeantraders began to use putting out system –that is, they gave advance to small farmersand artisans to produce textile goods.During this period, income from farmingwas low and many peasants lost their farmsand grazing lands. Therefore, textile workhelped them to make a living.

Under putting-out system, a cloth traderin Britain purchased cotton from a supplierand carried it to the spinners. Then, the yarnwas taken by the trader to the next stage ofproduction - the weavers. The cloth wasthen taken to the fullers and finally, to thedyers who gave it colour. These differentactivities could be done in different partsof the country. But, the finishing work wasdone in London before it was sold in othercountries. Thus, textiles goods were

In the previous chapter, you learned about the various ways in which thingsare made by artisans. We also read that many of them are not able to compete withmachine-made products and that many people have stopped practising theirprofessions. In this chapter, we shall explore how machines have come to dominatethe way in which products are made and how they impact the lives of people.

Industrial Revolution

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produced by a large number of producerswho were controlled by traders. There wasno system as in a factory - that is, thedifferent stages of producing cloth did nothappen in the same place but in differenthouseholds. Each trader engaged 20-25craftspersons at each stage of production.

Sometime later, the traders brought thecraftspersons under one roof so that theycould explain their requirements andorganise the production more effectively.They set up small workshops calledmanufactories. The craftsmen brought theirown tools and worked with raw materialsgiven by the trader. Then, the trader tookthe product and sold it in the market. Inthis way, slowly, the control of the traderover the craftpersons increased. This phaseis called ‘proto-industrialisation’ – a phasein which more and more people enteredcraft production, traders establishedcontrol over the workers, and a largemarket for craft products developed acrossthe world.

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Beginning of IndustrialRevolution - 1750-1850 BCE

Many changes took place during thisperiod. Around 1750, machines and steampower began to be increasingly used toproduce goods, to move goods and peoplefrom one place to another. Several peopleliving in villages moved to towns and citiesfor work. Today, we use many machines andmachine-made goods in our daily life. Thiswas the beginning of the ‘machine age’ inBritain.

As the demand for cloth, and otherhandicrafts increased multiple times, manyartisans wondered how they could increasethe production to keep up with the demand.Some of them began to think,‘These days,there is a great demand for our cloth, butwe are unable to produce more cloth tomeet this demand. Besides, the cloth madein our looms is expensive. If we can makemachines that can spin the yarn faster andweave cloth faster, we will be able toproduce more cloth at a lower price. Thenmore people would buy our cloth and wecould earn more money.’

As a result of the pressure of trade andwork, several people attempted to make

such machines. Then came the long awaitedinvention – a machine which could spin alarge amount of yarn in a short time.However, these machines were very heavyand the artisans thought, ‘It is so tiring toturn these machines with our hands or feet.How nice would it be if these machinescould turn by themselves!’ This dream alsocame true with the famous invention ofJames Watt’s steam engine.

James Watt’s InventionJames Watt was an English craftsman

who invented machines. He noticed thatsteam had so much strength that it couldmove enormous weight. To tap this energy,he made a machine which would run withthe help of steam and would not need menor animals to drive it.

He showed his invention to anindustrialist called Boulton and the twoentered into a partnership to make suchmachines. Boulton invested the necessarymoney and paid a salary to Watt . Watt madethe steam engine. They made an agreement

Fig 8.1 Spinning Jenny - A newmachine to spin yarn.

Fig 8.2 This is one of the steam enginesmade by James Watt. The piston under thepressure from the steam pushes the rod upand down which, in turn, turns the wheel.

Rodconnectingpiston andthe wheel


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between them to share the profits: twothirds to Boulton and one third to Watt.Together, they made a large number ofsteam engines, sold them and made hugeprofits. Once it was established thatmachines could run on steam, suchmachines were made for all kinds of work– spinning, weaving, making iron tools,driving vehicles and ships etc.

How did the need for self-drivenmachines emerge in England?Do you think the agreementbetween the scientist-inventor andthe capitalist fair ? Give reasons.

Factory System of ProductionBetween 1750-1850, a new system

called the ‘factory system’ emerged. Inplace of simple tools and manual power,new machines and steam power came to beused increasingly. Production was nowcarried out in a place called ‘factory’,unlike what we read earlier, whereproduction took place in houses. Hundredsof workers were brought together to workin these large factories. Machines becameimportant in place of minor tools andhandlooms. They produced goods on a verylarge scale.

All the facilities needed for productionwere owned and managed by individualscalled capitalists. They invested money onworkers, raw materials, machines, etc. andowned them. Unlike in guild system,workers worked for wages and did not ownthe things they produced.

The early factories were dreadful placesto work.

The Experience of a 19th

Century Child WorkerIn the 19th century, the industrial

workers of Europe had to face severalhardships. Let us read about theexperiences of a child employed in anEnglish coal mine.

“I have been working in these minessince I was four. Workers hew coal withpickaxes and fill the large wagons withit. Our job is to push these loaded wagonsto a point from where horses or mules canhaul them. This is a very difficult job.Hauling the loaded wagons throughwater and slush, and over very steepslopes, leaves us very tired. We have towork in this way for more than 12 hoursa day. By the time we return home, we areso tired that we don’t even feel likeeating. Yesterday, I fell asleep on my wayto home. My mother searched for me andcarried me home.”

Fig 8.3 Children pushing a cart inside acoal mine.

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Several movements were started toenforce a ban on employing children infactories and mines in such patheticconditions. In response to thesemovements, child labour was banned bothin Europe and US after 1936.

Inside Early FactoriesMajor changes swept the industries with

the coming of machines. Machines couldbe worked on by even unskilled persons.Thus, skilled artisans were no longerrequired. In their place, a large number ofwomen and children were employed andmade to work for meagre wages.

Machines cost a lot of money, andordinary artisans could not afford them.Only wealthy merchants could set upmechanised factories.

This is what the workers had to say abouttheir plight:

“Every day, we come for work at 6 am.and work till 8.30 pm. The lunch break isonly for an hour. By the end of the day,

we are too tired to work. But the factoryowner uses whips to goad us to keepworking.

These days, new machines are beingintroduced constantly. Since they can dothe work of several workers in the sametime, fewer workers are required. Everytime a new machine is introduced, manyof us are thrown into the street.”

Most of these workers had no otheroption as they had been expelled from theirlands and if they were small craftsmen,their shops had closed down. Gradually,workers of factories and mines formedtheir own organisations to fight against theconditions of work. In the beginning, theydemanded for 8 or 10 hours working day,higher wages, disallowing children under14 years of age from being employed inmines or factories etc. Over time, thestruggles and their conditions wereimproved.

Fig 8.4 Redrawing of an illustration of inside of a factory.


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Look at theseillustrations. They arecalled etching. Therewere no photograph,but the artists tried toshow the details inthem. They weremade during the timeof Industrialrevolution There isalso a redrawnillustration on theprevious page incolour. How are thesepictures different?Which illustrationshows more detail?Do you noticechildren in theseillustrations? Whatdetials of a factory doyou see in them?

Fig 8.5, 8.6 & 8.7

Fig 8.5

Fig 8.6

Fig 8.7

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Who were employed to work onmachines?Do you know any factory nearby?Compare its conditions of workwith that of English factories of150 years ago.

The factories too have changed by now.Almost all the work has become automated,with machines directed by computers. Theyrequire very few people and little manualwork to run them.Sources of Energy andIndustrial Development

You have seen that energy is needed torun machines in a factory. Energy isavailable from coal, electricity, petroleum,and so on. Initially, industries dependedupon the energy from coal and steam.Subsequently, they started using severalother sources of energy like thermal andhydroelectricity, petroleum, natural gas,nuclear energy and solar energy.

Transport RevolutionThe invention of steam engine boosted

the shipping industry. It also reduced thecost of transportation to one third of thecost of road transport. Yet people lookedfor better means of transportation. The nextbig thing in the context of transport wasadaptation of steam engine to locomotives.George Stephenson’s locomotive pulledheavy loads along a 64 kilometre track fromLiverpool to Manchester at a speed of 46kilometers per hour.

In 1840s, John Loudon McAdam deviseda method of laying the road using brokenstones. This created a hard surface, whichwas an important advancement in the

construction of roads. Within anotherdecade, bitumen-based binding, which wesee in our areas as tar(mac) roads,werebuilt. This was further followed by the useof motor cars.

In the early 20th Century, an aircraftwas developed by Wright Brothers andtoday, air transport is the fastest means oftransport.

Trade in Industrial ProductsIndustrial production increased so much

that it was not possible to sell all theproducts in their own countries. Thefactory owners began to sell them in othercountries too. Machine made goods werecheap and durable. Hence, the demand forthem increased all over the world. This gavea boost to the industries in England andother countries. However, the interestingthing about them is they did not have theraw materials required for the productionof these goods. For example, the cottonneeded for producing cloth was grown inIndia and America. English traderspurchased these raw materials from Indiaand other countries and sold them to factoryowners. Subsequently, the traderspurchased the finished products and soldthem in countries like India, America, etc.

In order to serve the interests of theirown trade and industry, the Europeanssought to subjugate these countries. Othercountries like France, Germany, Spain,Portugal, Belgium, Holland etc, whichconsidered themselves as mothercountries, conquered colonies in Asia,Africa, Australia and America (‘Colonies’are those countries whose resources are


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used for the benefit of another country).These European countries exploited thecolonies in other continents and grewwealthy in the process. Look at the mapgiven below showing the Europeancountries and their colonies around theworld in 1800.(map1)

Urbanisation and slumsIndustrial revolution led to gradual shift

of people from villages to towns. Industriesand other urban activities gave livelihoodto many people. As people moved to townswhich were newly emerging, they settleddown in makeshift houses and shelters

which were cramped and had littlesanitation or other facilities. Accidents,diseases and epidemics were common.Most workers’ residential areas lackedproper ventilation, health and sanitationfacilities. Slums became common scenarioin towns and cities especially near thefactories and mines. At the same time,distinct quarters came up for the rich andthe powerful. These areas well provided interms of open spaces, sanitation, watersupply, roads and other facilities. Slowly,people fought for their civic rights and theconditions of the workers quarters alsoimproved.

Map 1: A world map showing colonies of European countries in 1800. Do you notice at this timemost colonies were coastal areas including in India. Look at the map of Africa on page 61 and

describe the change?

Keywords :1. Revolution2. Production3. Factory4. Organisation

5. Nuclear Energy6. Urbanisation7. Child worker8. Slums

United KingdomFrancePortugalSpainNetherlands (Dutch)TurkeyIndependent Kingdoms & Countries

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1. Correct the false sentences:Under the putting-out system,a. Spinners took cotton to the weavers.

b. Unlike in guild system, traders controlled what product was to bemade.

c. All the work was done by the same group of people.

Under the Guild system,

a. All small farmers were allowed to learn weaving.

b. Weavers determined the prices and quality of the products.

2. Putting out system is better than factory based production of textiles. Do you agree? Givereasons for your answer.

3. If Kruthika argues, “Railways in India were built only for the benefit of the people by thecolonial rulers”, how can you counter this statement?

4. How will the increase in the wages of workers affect industrial production?5. Why did factory owners pay low wages and force workers to work for longer hours?6. Why do you think the working conditions in factories should be improved?7. Why is it necessary for government to enact laws to improve the working conditions?8. Why are children not allowed to work in factories?9. Transport system helps the industry – justify this statement in the context of Industrialisation.10. Locate the following countries in the world map.

a) England b) Portugal

c) France d) Spain11. Read the para ‘Urbanisation and slums’ of page 84 and comment on it.

Project:

1. You may recall the chapter on agriculture and trade in Class VI. Compare the nature of farmersand traders in Telangana with traders in Britain or Europe. You can use a few criteria andtabulate.

2. Do you know any child working in a factory or shop? If you find, how do you respond?



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Have you ever visited any factory?Describe it.Draw a picture of the factory youvisited and using your imagination,describe the activities inside afactory in 300 words.

We use so much of paper in our day today lives. Do you know how is the paperfound in books, records, registers, progressreports and newspapers made? There are

Handicraft production is done at home by small families with the help of somesimple tools. In contrast, factories produce goods on a large scale with the help ofmachines and a large number of workers. Let us find out how production is organisedin large factories.

CH

APT

ER Production in a Factory –A Paper Mill

two paper mills in Telangana - SirpurKagaznagar (Komrambheem district) andBhadrachalam (Bhadradri district).

Mark the two districts in a map ofTelangana. Why do you think arethey located there?

Raw MaterialsThe material required to produce a

commodity is called raw material.Factories require a large quantity and acontinuous supply of raw material.You will

Fig 9.1Factory from outside

9

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find dozens of lorries supplying rawmaterial to factories every day. Paper millsgenerally use wood from bamboo,eucalyptus and subabul trees. Subabul woodis most widely used now. Besides wood, anumber of chemicals like common salt andcaustic soda are also used in the differentstages of paper-making. Scrap paper is alsorecycled in paper mills.

Factories use heavy machinery that is runon electricity. For example, the paper millshown in the figure 11.1 requires nearly 25Mega Watts of electricity every year. Morethan half of the electricity requirement ismet through the factory’s own powergenerators. Besides electricity, the millrequires a large quantity of clean waterthroughout the year.Paper mills andDisappearance ofBamboo

Although raw material forpaper is available in the forests, itis not very easy to procure. Papermills are generally establishednear forests where bamboo andother soft wood trees areavailable.

Paper mills engagecontractors to supply bambooand other raw material. A fewdecades ago, contractorsemployed tribal people (likethose living in Penugolu hills youread about in Class VI) to cutbamboo from forests. Due toexcessive cutting in the past,there are no bamboos treesavailable in forests near the papermills now.

Hence, these mills are looking foralternative raw materials like subabul, treeswhich are grown in villages. This led thegovernment to encourage people to growsubabul trees on farmland. Now-a-days,paper mills bring wood from distant places.

What are the most important rawmaterial required for the paperindustry?Would you consider electricity asa raw material? Give reasons.Discuss with your teacher a fewmills or factories you know aboutand fill in the table.

Fig 9.3 Bamboo lifter

Fig 9.2 Lorries waiting with bamboo loads

Production in a Factory - A Paper Mill

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When we visited the paper mill, wefound 4-5 lorries with loads of subabulwood waiting outside the mill gate.Theywould be allowed to enter the mill onlyafter 9.30 a.m. There were separate gates– one for the workers and the other largegate for the vehicles. We had to take priorpermission from the paper mill authoritiesto visit the mill.

Process of Paper-makingInside the factory compound, we saw a

lifter crane lifting subabul wood from alorry and placing it on an iron platform. Aconveyor belt took the wood to the cuttingmachine. Paper is actually made in fivestages. This paper mill has separatesections for each stage which uses differentmachines and raw materials. The stages areas follows:

S.No. Product Name of the industry Raw Material

1 Shoe/Chappel Footwear industry Leather / rubber / canvas

2

3

4

Do you think if we use more paper, we need to cut more forests or reduce the areaunder cultivation? Discuss.

(i) Chipping: In the first stage, largepieces of wood are cut into small chips withthe help of large machines. They can cut alorry load of wood into chips in about 30minutes. There are about 15 to 20 workersin this section. The chips are then separatedaccording to size. The big chips are againcut into smaller chips. Work goes in thisway throughout the day. Can you imaginehow many trees have to be cut to run a papermill for just one day i.e. 24 hours?

(ii) Making of wood pulp: The smallwood chips are sent to fibre line section.In this section, the wood chips are boiledwith some chemicals in large vessels.Through this process, the wood chips areturned into a pulp of thin fibres (like cottonfibres). The liquid pulp is then whitened

Fig 9.5 Labourers at setting machineFig 9.4 Labourer at chipping machine

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using chemicals. It then becomes creamy.We found the liquid pulp in milky whitecolour without any dust particles.

(iii) Spreading the pulp: The liquid pulpis spread on thin screens over a cylinder.This is an important stage as the width,length and thickness of the paper is set atthis stage. The pulp dries up as the waterdrains out and evaporates due to heat. Oncethis is done, the pulp is forwarded throughthe conveyer belt.

(iv) Pressing, drying and rolling: Thedrying pulp is pressed by rollers tosmoothen it. When the pulp dries upcompletely, we get a sheet of paper whichis then rolled up.

(v) Cutting: The paper is cut in thecutting machines according to the sizerequired. Paper is made into rolls and sheetsas well. It is then packed and sent togodowns.

The production work takes placecontinuously in all the sectionssimultaneously.

Work in BatchesThe paper in the form of rolls

and sheets is preserved ingodowns. Each roll is labeled witha Batch / Lot no., weight etc. Whatis a batch? When a lorry load ofwood is brought into the factory,the entire quantity of wood isgiven a batch number. This batchis then sent to different sectionsone after the other. Raw materialof one batch would be processed

together at each stage. For example, whenbatch No. 201 is being cut into smallpieces, simultaneously the previous batch(No. 200) would be in the section formaking pulp and batch No. 199 would be inthe spreading section and so on. As soonas No. 201 is cut into pieces, it would besent to the next section and No. 202 wouldcome up for cutting into pieces.

Papers produced in one batch would havethe same inputs and processing, so theirquality will be the same. The batch systemallows a factory to produce continuouslythroughout the day. It also allows themanagers to trace any mistake in the productby checking what went wrong with a particularbatch.

Working Hours and ShiftsThis paper mill runs 24 hours a day. The

workers work in three shifts of eight hourseach. They are ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ shifts. In eachshift, about 800-900 workers are at work.

A Shift: 6 AM to 2 PMB Shift: 2 PM to 10 PMC Shift: 10 PM to 6 AM (Night Shift)Night shift workers get a special

allowance. Workers change their shift

Fig 9.6 Pulping machine (Fiber line)


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Wood isbroughtinto the

mill.

Wood iscut intosmallchips

Liquidwood pulpis cleaned

and coloursare added

Pressing,rolling,

andfinishing

cyclically. Workers of each shift have tomove from A shift to B and then to C everyweek. There is also a general shift for theadministrative staff which is from 9.30 amto 5 pm. Administrative staff look after themanagement, accounts, trade and sales of theproduct and workers’ welfare activities etc.Selling the Paper

This paper mill has marketing depots indifferent cities. It also sells paper to othercountries such as Sri Lanka, Bangladesh,Nepal, Malaysia, Singapore, Nigeria andSouth Africa. The paper is sold throughthese depots.

Developed railways and roadways makeit is easy to transport wood and paper toand from the mill.

Why is it necessary to put the Label/ Batch no. on the paper rolls?Why do you think does the papermill work round the clock?Compare this with agriculturalfield work.Fill in the blanks in the flow chartgiven below:

Why is there a security guard at thegate? Enact how the watchmanbehaves. Which persons orvehicles does he allow or not allowinside the factory?

Working in Paper MillA factory employs a large number of

workers of different kinds - some work onmachines, some help them, some take careof electrical fittings, some help intransporting the materials etc. Some ofthem are highly qualified engineers whileothers may have education from ITI andpolytechnic colleges. Still others may beilliterate doing manual work like cleaning.A factory also employs people on differentterms and conditions.

Some are regular ‘permanent’ workersof the factory, while some others may beemployed as casual workers when the needarises; still others are employed as contractworkers. Let us look at this in detail.

Suraj is a permanent worker in the papermill. You can see him in his uniform - blueshirt and khaki pant in the pressing section.

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He has been working in this mill formore than 10 years and gets a salary of Rs.15,000 per month. As a regular employee,he gets a number of benefits like ProvidentFund (that will be paid to him when heretires from service), medical insuranceetc. In addition, if, for any reason, hisemployment is terminated or he cannotwork due to an accident, he will be paid acompensation by the factory. He will alsoget an increment in salay every year. If heor his family members become sick, hetakes them to nearby Employees StateInsurance (ESI) dispensary and getsmedicines free of cost. He pays a smallamount and the paper mill pays someamount for availing this facility. Suraj getsregular holidays – one day every week, onfestivals, and some additional leaves. Heis also given allowances to buy the uniformand get it washed. In due course, Suraj getsbonus too, an additional amount paid toworkers when the paper mill earns profits.There are about 1800 such permanentworkers in the mill.

Chandu is not a permanent worker buthe comes daily and works in the factory.

He is a contract labourer. He is usuallyasked to help in unloading the trucks or inpacking and loading the paper. Last year, alabour contractor came to his village inMaharashtra and promised him a job in thismill. Workers like Chandu are paid a lowersalary than permanent workers (aboutRs.8000 a month). They do not getallowances, medical help, bonus and paidholidays. However, they get workthroughout the year and may becomepermanent workers after two or three years.

The women who work in this factoryusually clean the floors and paste lables onthe paper packets. Tara is working as a casualworker in this factory. Workers who areemployed on and off are called ‘CasualWorkers.’ Tara comes every morning to thefactory to see if there is work. Usually theyemploy her for four or five days in a week toclean the floors of the factory. In the sectionwhere wood is chipped, there is a lot of wooddust and chips all over the floor. All this hasto be cleaned and the machines are to be

dusted properly. Sheis paid about Rs.100-150 on a daily basis.Though she has beenworking for morethan three years,she earns only Rs.2500 a month. She isnot eligible for anyof the facilities thatare available topermanent workerslike Suraj.

Fig 9.7 Paper cutting machine


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Fig 9.8 Inside the factory

Fill the table comparing Suraj, Chandu and Tara’s work :S.No. Name Work Experience Income Other Benefits

1 Suraj

2 Chandu

3 Tara

Usually factory ownerstry to reduce their costs byemploying casual workerseven for regular work.Sometimes, they bring newmachines which requirefewer workers. In suchsituations, the workers andtheir unions resort toagitations and then bargainwith the managers toimprove their lot.

Besides the workers,the mill also employs anumber of accountants, clerks and managerswho are paid better salaries. The seniormanagers who are usually from the familiesof the owners of the mill get very highsalaries along with a number of allowanceslike free housing and free education forchildren.

Why do you think does a factoryemploy people on different terms- regular, temporary and casuallabourers?

What are the problems faced bytemporary/casual workers?

Why do you think people fromfaraway places come to work in thepaper mills in Telangana?

Who Owns the Paper Mill?This mill does not have a single owner.

Some people got together to form acompany which owns this mill. Thesepeople invested large amounts of moneyand also borrowed money from the banks

to set up this factory. They appoint themanagers, other administrative staff andregular employees. The workers, managersand administrative staff are paid salaries butnot the owners. The owners share amongstthemselves whatever money is left afterpaying wages and other costs of runningthis paper mill. That is, they get all theprofits from the factory. They also bear thelosses, if any.

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Fig 9.9 Rolls of papers


Can you summarise the mainfeatures of factory productionusing the following points?

1. Machines:2. Raw Materials:3. Energy and Water:4. Production:5. Workers:6. Managers:7. Market:8. Owners:

Some factories are owned not byindividual owners or group of owners butby the government. These are run by thegovernment for the welfare of all people

Most factories need raw materials insuch large quantities that natural resourceslike forests, rivers and mines are rapidlyexhausting. They also give out smoke andpollute the rivers and surrounding land withtheir chemical effluents. Thus, there is aneed to develop methods to control thedamage they cause to the environment.

Factories provide employment to alarge number of people. However, theworkers who work in these factories oftenfind the work very tedious and many ofthem become sick due to exposure to dustand chemicals. They also get paid verylittle. They are also often forced to live inslums with poor facilities.

One of the major challenges before usis to find out how to balance our need forvarious kinds of goods and the ill effectsof the factory system and how to make thelife of workers comfortable and dignified.

PollutionWhen we were going to the other

side of the paper mill, we found someunpleasant smell in the area. This wasdue to the use of chemicals. Aftercoming out of the paper mill, we talkedto a few residents living nearby. Theysaid that this stench was usual and it wascommon to find dust released from theindustry settle on the leaves of plants,in the farms, trees in the nearby areaand on garden plants. The mill alsodraws a lot of fresh water from the riverbut lets out waste water containingpoisonous chemicals, which eventuallyjoins the river.

Only last year, the paper mill got aneffluent treatment plant to which all thewaste water is sent. This machineremoves contaminants (substancescausing harm to living organismsthrough air, water, soil and food) andproduce environmentally safe water(treated effluent) and solid wastesuitable for disposal or reuse (whichis normally used as a fertilizer).Besides this, the paper mills use treatedeffluent to water their gardens. Somefarmers use this for irrigation too.

There are a large number offactories in our state and country,which produce diverse articles of use.They produce them in large quantitiesin a short time.SCERT TELA

NGANA


Keywords :1. Production process2. Conveyor Belt3. Fiberline4. Label5. Allowance


Project:You might have noticed some factories in your area causing pollution. Or imagine that a factory inyour locality is causing pollution. Write a letter to the editor of a local newspaper and discuss thecontents in the classroom.

6. Bonus7. Pollution8. Working hours9. Raw material

1. Imagine that you wish to start a leather or textile factory. What are the aspects you will have toconsider for setting up a mill?

2. Explain the process of paper-making in your own words.3. Do you think this paper mill will stop working one day? If it does, what will be the impact on

the labourers’ lives?4. Imagine a world without paper. What alternatives will you use instead of paper?5. What are your suggestions to stop the pollution caused by industries?6. Organise a debate in the classroom on the pros and cons of the paper mill.7. List the benefits and income received by a regular employee of the paper mill. Contrast them

with that of a temporary employee and a casual worker.8. Compare the production of baskets by craftspersons and production of paper with reference

to the following points: (i) Workplace (ii) Tools/machines (iii) Raw materials (iv)Workers (v)Market (vi) Owners.

9. There is a paper mill at Sirpur Kagaznagar in Komrambheem district. Why do you think it isnot established in the district headquarters? Discuss.

10. Locate the following countries on the world map.a) Sri Lanka b) Singapore c) Nigeriad) South Africa e) Nepal

11. Read the third para of page 91. Do you think that the factories are taking care of their workershealth? Why?

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CH

APT

ER Importance of TransportSystem

Transport System in TelanganaIf we look for a big picture about the

transport system in the state, we would notethe following :

Roads: In India, most roads are built andmaintained by the government. There aredifferent types of roads. Some roads areNational Highways which are built acrossdifferent states in the country. For instance,

a road network called National HighwayNo. 44 runs through Uttar Pradesh, MadhyaPradesh, Maharashtra, Telangana, AndhraPradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Whilethe state government maintains the roadsconnecting small towns and districts,Panchayats are responsible for the villageroads. These roads are made of gravel.Corporations and Municipalities areresponsible for urban roads. Roads laid

You already know a lot about transport systems.

Fill the table below with the given words. Some words could be placed more thanonce. Give reasons for your choice.

Pilgrims, Car, Fish, Cattle, Grain, Bullock-cart, Petroleum, Workers, Ship,Helicopter, Tanker, Lorry, Cycle, Tourists, Iron-ore, Goods Train, Mangoes .

10In our daily lives, we use various modes of transport to go from one place to another. Howpeople use transport facilities, roads, waterways, railways and airports and why peoplemake different choices to use transport services are discussed in this chapter. Besidesthese, we will also read about why and how people depend on transport for their sourceof earning and how markets use transport. You will learn more about the other means oftransport such as railways, waterways and airports in higher classes.

Roads

Waterways

Airways

Some products/groups of people –that could be using

Vehiclesused

Railways

Mode ofTransport

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along the inter-national boun-daries are calledborder roads.Roadways play animportant role inconnecting thepeople in remoteareas with the maincities.

Railways: Onefifth of travellers inIndia use trains.Railways are mainlyused to transportgoods like coal,iron ore, fertilizers, cement, food grains etc.Telangana has a well developed railwaynetwork connecting all the districts.Railways transport goods to and from seaports.

Airways: There is one InternationalAirport in Telangana. The InternationalAirport is situated in Hyderabad(Shamshabad). The International Airport ismeant for travel from Telangana orneighbouring states to foreign countries.This airport also connects Hyderabad withother cities & states within India.

Waterways: Almost all the goods tradedby Indian traders are transported to othercountries through its ports. Port cities ortowns are thus major trading centres. The stateof Telangana does not have any coast lines orports. Andhra Pradesh has 15 ports out ofwhich Visakhapatnam is the largest. Riverssuch as Godavari, Krishna and Penna inAndhra Pradesh and their canals are used aswaterways. Seaports are also crucial as mostof our foreign trade is done through them.

Locate the major airports and portcities on the map of India.

Use of Roads for productionand sale of goods

Most people in Telangana depend onroads for travel. Transport facilitiesavailable to villages in Telangana vary. In2001, nearly three fourth of the villages hadtransport facilities.

In earlier chapters, there weredescriptions about farmers, fisher folk, andindustries which depend upon transport forvarious reasons. Farmers take their produceto Rythu Bazar. Fisher folk need to take thecatch to the buyers before it gets spoiled.Paper industry uses lorries to get rawmaterial. Industries that produce goodsdepend on the transport system to reachtheir consumers. Let us take the exampleof cotton. Cotton produced by farmersmoves from fields to factories. Since thereare different processes through which clothis produced, it has to move from one placeto another until the finished product ismade. Markets are thus dependent ontransport facilities.

Fig 10.1: In 1932 road transport wasintroduced under the Nizam with 27

vehicles. You can also see the logo ofthe then transport company

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Read the following paragraph andsolve the problem given below:Farmers residing in Satyampally

sell their paddy mostly in the nearbytown, Nayapet, which is about 7 kmaway from the village. Bullock cartoperators can transport about 10 paddybags at a time and charge Rs. 50 perbag. Tractor owners charge Rs. 20 perbag. Each tractor can carry about 30-40 bags. Lorries charge Rs.10 per bagand can carry about 150 -170 bags in atrip. In the case of long distances,trucks charge more. For example, totransport paddy from a wholesaletrader in Nayapet to the district headquarter, which is about 100 - 120 kmsaway, truck operators charge Rs. 50 perbag. They charge Rs. 800-1000 pertonne to transport goods for 500kilometres.

There are three farmers in thevillage. They cultivated paddy andproduced 25 bags, 50 bags and 75 bagsrespectively. They wish to sell theirpaddy in the Agriculture Yard in anearby town, which is 25 kilometresaway. What mode of transport wouldyou suggest and why?

Employment in TransportActivities

There are two people who operate a bus-a driver and a conductor. For the overallmaintenance of transport facilities in astate, hundreds and thousands of people arerequired. For example, the Telangana StateRoad Transport Corporation is agovernment owned transport service whichemploys about 64,000 people to run about10,000 buses. These employees maintainaccounts, repair buses, or work in the busdepots. Some employees issue bus passesand tickets in bus stands or work as checkinginspectors.

Majority of the vehicles running onTelangana roads, that is about, three fourthof them, are two wheelers. The functioningof transport system also requires manysupport activities – petrol/diesel pumpstations, repairing shops, shops sellingtransport vehicles and spare parts.

Find out the fares for travelling inthe following types of buses andtime taken to travel between any twolocations you are familiar with.

Type of bus Time takenFare

Pallevelugu / Gramani

Express

Deluxe

Fig 10.2 Transporting Animals

Importance of Transport System

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Transport Services and ChoicesPeople could use a particular mode of

transport depending on the facilitiesavailable and affordability. Sometimes,options to use different types of transportare possible. For example, it is possible totravel by bus, train or flight to Bangalore.For centuries, ships were an importantmode of travel to far away countries to takepeople as well as goods. But today, thereare fewer people travelling by ships,whereas goods are mostly transported bythem.

It is possible that some of you come toschool by buses. People who are employedin factories, offices, households, shops etc.also depend on transport. Every city maynot have easy access to public transport suchas buses, so the people depend on their ownvehicles or hired vehicles like auto-rickshaws or taxies.

If the cost of travel is high, people maynot be able to move from one place toanother. For example, if the wages in oneplace are higher than in another place,people earning low incomes may wish tomove to get higher incomes. But if thetransport cost is high, they may not showinterest in moving to that place.

The cost of travel, especially for peoplewho earn lower income, is too much, asthey have to put away a larger share of theirearnings for it. Cycling and walking maynot be possible to travel long distances. Inbig cities, it also becomes important tohave enough place for people to walk orride a bicycle. Even when there arepavements, you may find them occupied byshopkeepers. Sometimes the height of theroad and pavement could be so different thatpersons who use wheelchairs cannot usethem and take the risk of riding them alongthe motorised vehicles.

Do you think the difference in these fares is justified? Give reasons.

Along with the difference in fares, there are also differences in facilities and journeytime. However, in your opinion, how would most people prefer to travel? If youwere responsible for increasing the facilities in them, which type of bus would yougive preference to?

Fig 10.4 Railway workers

Fig 10.3 Old and new modes of transport

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Umar and Ibrahim study in the sameclass. They live in different placesbut the distance from their houseto school is three kilometers.Ibrahim comes to school in city buswhereas Umar travels by schoolbus. What could be reasons forthese students to travel by differentbus services?

Congestion and PollutionMost cities in our

country are nowexperiencing congestionand traffic blocks. If thepublic transport system isnot efficient, people buyprivate vehicles, which canfurther increase the trafficblockages in urban areasbecause the roads may notbe broad enough toaccommodate all thesevehicles. Let us try to understand this withthe help of an example. The number ofpeople living in six big cities in Indiaincreased by two times during 1981 to2001 whereas the number of motorvehicles went up by eight times during thesame period.

Motorcycles and cars are used in a bigway. This has led to the increased use ofpetrol and diesel, which has increased airpollution. To reduce pollution, we shouldconsume less of these petroleum products.Public transport is more efficient in thisaspect as it carries more people withminimum cost.

Travelling safety

Road travel now-a-days has becomemore risky. The road accidents, deaths, andinjuries affect low income families as manyof those killed or injured tend to becyclists, pedestrians or pavement dwellers.Accidents can occur not on roads alone.There is risk involved in other means oftransport too. In places where roads andrailways cross (level crossing), there areoften gates to stop the vehicles while the

Fig 10.5 A train that climbsthe mountains in Ooty

trains are passing. These are called railwaygates. However, if there are no such gatesat level crossings, it is important for peopleand vehicles to stop and look in both thedirections before crossing the railway line.

Road Safety Week In the first week of every year, the Road

Transport departments all over the countrycelebrate Road Safety Week. On thisoccasion, they give guidelines to the peopleto follow traffic rules. The government-runcompanies such as the Telangana StateRoad Transport Corporation conduct

Importance of Transport System

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Fig 10.6 Visakhapatnam port


awareness campaigns among drivers and givethem training to drive safely. They also goto schools, to organise essay writing, debateand other competitions for students andencourage them to travel safely followingtraffic rules. Every person using the transportsystem – roads, railways or airways and thoseworking in them are required to followspecific safety rules. This will reduce thedeaths, injuries and other casualties that occurdue to transport.

Contact the nearest traffic policeoffice or driving school in yourlocality or a person who has adriving licence. Find out abouthow drivers are trained. Identifythe details of symbols & signsdisplayed in the driving schoolpremises.Discuss the basic rules andregulations in using roads andhow to travel safely on roads. Inyour classroom, display a list oftraffic rules & symbols.

Keywords :1. Safety travelling 7. State Highway2. Roadways 8. Village / Rural

roads3. Airways 9. Urban roads4. Waterways 10. Border roads5. Railways 11. TSRTC6. National Highway 12. Congestion

1. How is the transport system essential for producing agricultural goods? Illustrate with examples.2. How is the use of buses different from trains?3. Why is it important to provide transport facilities to villages?4. Why do you think are waterways important for a country?5. How does the transport system become a means of livelihood?6. What will happen if there is a rise in transport cost for goods made in factories? Illustrate with an

example.7. Write a few slogans on ‘Prevention of road/rail accidents’.8. Congestion and traffic blocks occur due to the use of vehicles in a big way. What measures do you

suggest to prevent this?9. Draw outline map of Telangana State and locate Hyderabad.Discussion: Organise a demonstration/discussion with the Police Inspector/Constable to the

students on the topic “ Road accidents-preventive measures”.Project:

Interact with a driver and obtain information about the dangers and other aspects of his job.

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Many new dynasties emerged after theseventh century. Map 1 shows the majorruling dynasties in different parts of thesubcontinent between the seventh andtwelfth centuries.

New Kings and Kingdoms

CH

APT

ER

Map 1: Major Dynasties of Northern, Central and Eastern India, c.700-1100 CE

Locate the Gurjara-Pratiharas,Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas andChahamanas (Chauhans).Can you identify the present daystates over which they exercisedcontrol?

11PART - I

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102 Political Systems and Governance Social Studies

The Emergence of NewDynasties

By the seventh century, there were manyinfluential landlords or warrior chiefs indifferent regions of the subcontinent.Existing kings often acknowledged them astheir subordinates or samanthas. Theywere expected to bring gifts for their kingsor overlords, be present at their courts andprovide them with military support. Assamanthas gained power and wealth, theydeclared themselves to be maha-samantha, maha mandaleshvara (thegreat lord of a “circle” or region) and soon. Sometimes, they asserted theirindependence from their overlords.

One such instance was that of theRashtrakutas in the Deccan. Initially, theywere subordinate to the Chalukyas of

Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century,Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, defeatedhis Chalukya overlord and performed aritual called hiranya-garbha (literally, thegolden womb). It was thought to lead to the“rebirth” of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya,even if he was not a kshatriya by birth.

Do you think being born in aparticular varna was important inorder to become a ruler during thisperiod?

In other cases, men from enterprisingfamilies used their military skills to carveout kingdoms. For instance, the KadambaMayurasharman and the Gurjara-PratiharaHarichandra were brahmins who gave uptheir traditional professions and took to

arms, successfully establishingkingdoms in Karnataka andRajasthan respectively.

Prashastis and LandGrants

The invocation part of aninscription is Prashasti.Prashastis contain details about theruling family such as theirpredecessors and the period towhich they belonged. They alsocontain encomiums of rulers andtheir achievements. But they tell usabout how rulers wanted to depictthemselves, for example valiant,victorious warriors. These werecomposed by learned brahmins, whooccasionally helped in theadministration.

Fig 11.1 Wall relief from Cave 15, Ellora,showing Vishnu as Narasimha, the man-lion. It

is a work of the Rashtrakuta period

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The “achievements” ofNagabhata

Many rulers described theirachievements in prashastis.

One prashasti, written in Sanskrit andfound in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh,describes the exploits of Nagabhata, aPratihara king, as follows:

The kings of Andhra, Saindhava (Sind),Vidarbha (part of Maharashtra) andKalinga (part of Odisha) fell before himEven as a prince …

He won a war over Chakrayudha (theruler of Kanauj) …

He defeated the king of Vanga (partof Bengal), Anarta (part of Gujarat),Malva (part of Madhya Pradesh), Kirata(forest peoples), Turushka (Turks), Vatsa,Matsya (both kingdoms in north India)

Find these areas in Map 1.

Kings often rewarded brahmins andothers who served them by grants of land.These were recorded on copper plates,which were given to those who received theland.

In the twelfth century, a long Sanskritpoem containing the history of kings whoruled over Kashmir, was composed by anauthor named Kalhana. He used a varietyof sources, including inscriptions,documents, eyewitness accounts andearlier histories, to write his account.Unlike the writers of prashastis, he wasoften critical about rulers and theirpolicies.

What was given with the land?This is a part of the Tamil section of a

land grant given by the Cholas:We have demarcated the boundaries of

the land by making earthen embankments,as well as by planting thorny bushes.

This is what the land contains: fruit-bearing trees, water, land, gardens andorchards, trees, wells, open spaces, pasture-land, a village, anthills, platforms, canals,ditches, rivers, silt-laden land, tanks,granaries, fish ponds, bee hives, and deeplakes.

He who receives the land can collecttaxes from it. He can collect the taxesimposed by judicial officers as fines, andthe tax on betel-leaves, woven cloth,vehicles etc.

He can build large rooms, with upperstoreys made of baked bricks, he can getlarge and small wells dug, he can plant treesand thorny bushes, if necessary, he can alsoget canals constructed for irrigation. Heshould ensure that water is not wasted, andthat embankments are built.

Fig 11.2 This is a set of copper plates recording a grantof land made by a ruler in the ninth century, written

partly in Sanskrit and partly in Tamil. The ring holdingthe plates together is secured with the royal seal, to

indicate that this is an authentic document


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Warfare for WealthYou may have noticed that each of these

ruling dynasties was based in a specificregion. At the same time, they tried tocontrol other areas. One particularly prizedarea was the city of Kanauj in the Gangavalley. For centuries, rulers belonging tothe Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Paladynasties fought for control over Kanauj.As there were three “parties” in this long-drawn conflict, historians often describe itas the “tripartite struggle”.

Look at Map 1 and suggest reasonsfor the rulers wanting to control Kanaujand the Ganga valley.

Mahmud Ghazni :One of the rulers, Sultan Mahmud of

Ghazni, Afghanistan, ruled from 997Common Era (CE) to 1030 CE, andextended control over parts of Central Asia,Iran and the north-western part of thesubcontinent. He raided Northern Indiamany times and plundered and destroyedwealthy temples, including that of Somnathin Gujarat. Much of the wealth that Mahmudlooted was used to build the capital city atGhazni.

Sultan Mahmud was also interested infinding out more about the people heconquered, and entrusted a scholar namedAl-Biruni to write an account of thesubcontinent. This Arabic work, known asthe Kitab al-Hind, is an important sourcefor historians. Al-Biruni consulted Sanskritscholars to prepare this account.Chahamanas (Chowhans)

Chahamanas, later known as theChauhans, ruled over the region aroundDelhi and Ajmer. They attempted to expandtheir control to the west and the east, wherethey were opposed by the Chalukyas of

List all the possible sources ofirrigation mentioned in theinscription, and discuss how theymight have been used.

Administration in the KingdomsMany of these new kings adopted high-

sounding titles such as maharaja-adhiraja(great king, overlord of kings),tribhuvana-chakravarti (lord of the threeworlds) and so on. However, in spite ofsuch claims, they often shared power withtheir samanthas as well as with theassociations of peasants, traders andbrahmins.

In each of these kingdoms, resourceswere obtained from the producers – thatis, peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans andtraders were made to surrender a part ofwhat they produced and sold. Sometimes,these were claimed as “rent” due to a lordwho asserted that he owned the land.Revenue was also collected from traders.

These resources were used to finance theking’s establishment, as well as for theconstruction of temples and forts. They werealso used to fight wars, which were in turnexpected to lead to the acquisition of wealthin the form of tribute, and access to land aswell as trade routes.

The functionaries for collectingrevenue were generally recruited fromruling families, and positions were oftenhereditary. This was true about the army aswell. In many cases, close relatives of theking held these positions.

In what ways was this form ofadministration different from thepresent day system?

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Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of westernUttar Pradesh. The best-known Chahamanaruler was Prithviraja III (1168 CE-1192CE), who defeated an Afghan ruler namedSultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191 CE, butlost to him the very next year, in 1192 CE.

Look at Map 1 again and discusswhy the Chahamanas may havewanted to expand their territories.

Map 2: The Chola kingdom and its neighbours

PART - II

The Cholas

Let us take a look at Southern India now.

Chola rule is one of the well documentedin the history of the South. Let us see howthey became successful rulers.

From Uraiyur to Thanjavur

How did the Cholas rise to power? Aminor chiefly-family known as theMuttaraiyar held power in the Kaveri delta.They were subordinates to the Pallava kingsof Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya, who belonged

to the ancient chiefly-family of the Cholasfrom Uraiyur,captured the deltafrom the Muttaraiyarin the middle of theninth century. He builtthe town of Thanjavurand a temple forgoddess Nishum-bhasudini there.

The successors ofVijayalaya conqueredneighbouring regionsand the kingdom grewin size and power. ThePandyan and thePallava territories tothe south and northwere made part of thiskingdom. Rajaraja I,considered the most


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powerful Chola ruler, became the king in985 CE and expanded his control over mostof these areas. He also reorganised theadministration of the empire. Rajaraja’s sonRajendra I continued his policies and evenconquered the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka andcountries of Southeast Asia, developing anavy for these expeditions.

Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture

The big temples of Thanjavur andGangaikonda-Cholapuram, built by Rajarajaand Rajendra, are architectural andsculptural marvels.

Chola temples often became the nucleiof settlements which grew around them.They were also the centres of craftproduction. Temples were also endowedwith land by rulers as well as by others. Theproduce of this land went into maintaining

Fig 11.3 The temple at Gangaikonda-Cholapuram. Notice the way in which the roof

tapers. Also, look at the elaborate stonesculptures used to decorate the outer walls Fig 11.4 A Chola

bronze sculpture.Notice how carefully it

is decorated

the specialists whoworked in the templeand very often lived nearit – priests, garlandmakers, cooks,s w e e - p e r s ,m u s i c i a n s ,dancers etc. Inother words,temples werenot only placesof wor-ship, butalso the hub ofe c o n o m i c ,social and culturallife as well.

Amongst thecrafts associatedwith temples, themaking of bronzeimages was themost distinctive.Chola bronzeimages are considered to be the finest inthe world. While most images were ofdeities, some images of devotees weremade as well.Agriculture and Irrigation

Many of the achievements of the Cholaswere made possible through newdevelopments in agriculture. Look at Map 2again. Notice that the river Kaveri branchesoff into several small streams beforeemptying into the Bay of Bengal. Thesestreams overflow frequently, depositingfertile soil on their banks. Water from thestreams also provides the necessarymoisture for agriculture, particularly thecultivation of rice.

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Although agriculture had developedearlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it wasonly from the fifth or sixth century that thisarea was opened up for large-scalecultivation. Forests had to be cleared insome regions; land had to be levelled inother areas. In the delta region,embankments had to be built to preventflooding and canals had to be constructedto carry water to the fields. In many areas,two crops were grown in a year.

In many cases, it was necessary to waterthe crops artificially. A variety of methodswere used for irrigation. In some areas,wells were dug. In other places, huge tankswere constructed to collect rainwater.Remember that irrigation works requireplanning – organising labour and resources,maintaining these works and deciding onhow water is to be shared. Most of the newrulers, as well as people living in villages,took an active interest in these activities.

Fig 11.5 A ninth century sluice gate in Tamil Nadu. It regulated theoutflow of water from a tank into the channels that irrigated the fields

The Administration of the Empire

How was the adminis trat ionorganised? The king had a council ofministers to help him. He had a strong armyand navy. The empire was divided intomandalams or provinces, further sub-divided into valanadus and nadus.

Settlements of peasants, known as ooru,became prosperous with the spread ofirrigated agriculture. Groups of suchvillages formed larger units called nadu.The village council and the nadu performedseveral administrative functions includingdispensing justice and collecting taxes.

Rich peasants of the Vellala casteexercised considerable control over theaffairs of the nadu under the supervisionof the central Chola government. The Cholakings gave some rich landowners titles likemuvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving


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three kings), araiyar (chief) etc. as markersof respect, and entrusted them withimportant offices of the state at the centre.

Types of land

Chola inscriptions mention severalcategories of land:vellanvagailand of non-brahmin proprietors

brahmadeya

land gifted to brahmins

shalabhogaland for the maintenance of a schooldevadana, tirunamattukkaniland gifted to templespallichchhandamland donated to Jaina institutions

We have seen that brahmins often re-ceived land grants or brahmadeya. As aresult, a large number of Brahmanasettlements emerged in the Kaveri valleyas in other parts of South India.

Each brahmadeya was looked after byan assembly or sabha of prominentBrahmana landholders. These assembliesworked very efficiently. Their decisionswere recorded in detail in inscriptions,often on the stone walls of temples.Associations of traders known asnagarams also occasionally performedadministrative functions in towns.

Inscriptions from Uttaramerur inChingelput district, Tamil Nadu, providedetails of the way in which the sabha was

organised. The sabha had separatecommittees to look after irrigation works,gardens, temples etc. Names of thoseeligible to be members of thesecommittees were written on small ticketsof palm leaf; these tickets were put into anearthenware pot from which a young boywas asked to take out the tickets, one byone for each committee.

Inscriptions and texts

Who could be a member of a sabha?The Uttaramerur inscription lays down:

All those who wish to become membersof the sabha should be owners of landfrom which land revenue is collected.

They should have their own homes.

They should be between 35 and 70 yearsof age.

They should have the knowledge of theVedas.

They should be well-versed inadministrative matters and be honest.

If anyone has been a member of anycommittee in the last three years, hecannot become a member of anothercommittee.

Anyone who has not submitted hisaccounts, including details of hisrelatives, cannot contest the elections.

Do you think women participatedin these assemblies? In your view,are lotteries useful for choosingmembers of committees?

While inscriptions tell us about kingsand powerful men, here is an excerpt

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from the Periyapuranam, a twelfth-century Tamil work, which informs usabout the lives of ordinary men andwomen.

On the outskirts of Adanur was a smallhamlet of Pulaiyas, studded with smallhuts under old thatches and inhabited byagrarian labourers engaged in menialoccupations. In the thresholds of the hutscovered with strips of leather, littlechickens moved about in groups; darkchildren who wore bracelets of blackiron were prancing about, carrying littlepuppies … In the shade of the marudu(arjuna) trees, a female labourer put herbaby to sleep on a sheet of leather; therewere mango trees from whose branches

1. Who were the parties involved in the “tripartite struggle”?

2. What were the qualifications to be a member of a committee of the sabha in the Chola empire?

3. Which two major cities were under the control of the Chahamanas?

4. How did the Rashtrakutas become powerful?

5. What did the new dynasties do to gain acceptance?

6. What kind of irrigation works were developed in the Tamil region?

7. What were the activities associated with Chola temples?

8. Contrast the “elections” in Uttaramerur with the present-day panchayat elections.

9. Collect the pictures of ancient temples and make an album.

10. Read the first two paragraphs of the section titled ‘Agriculture and Irrigation’ and comment onthem.

Project:1. Look at Map 1 and find out whether there were any kingdoms in Telangana.

2. Compare the temple shown in this chapter with any present-day temple in your neighbourhood.

3. Find out more about taxes that are collected now a days. Are these in cash, kind, or labourservices?


drums were hanging; and under thecoconut palms, in little hollows on theground, tiny-headed female dogs layafter whelping. The red-crested cockscrowed before dawn calling the brawnyPulaiyar (plural) to their day’s work; andby day, under the shade of the kanji treespread the voice of the wavy-hairedPulaiya women singing as they werehusking paddy …

Describe all the activities that weretaking place in the village.

Keywords :1. Samantha 2. Temple 3. Nadu4. Sabha 5. Kingdom 6. Sultan


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Fig 12.1 Kirti Torana entrance of SvayambhuSiva Temple - built by Kakatiya kings in

Warangal.

CH

APT

ER The Kakatiyas - Emergenceof a Regional Kingdom

Find out from your parents andelders about the stories of thePalnati Virulu, Sammakka-Sarakkaand Katama Raju. Relate thesestories in the class.

All these stories relate to the periodfrom 1000 to 1350 CE. This was a veryimportant period in our history. In theprevious chapter, we read about the newruling families that emerged all over India.These rulers sought to establish smallkingdoms over agricultural villages and toenable their herder-followers to settledown as agriculturalists. These ambitiouswarriors and kings fought against each otherconstantly. Amidst this situation, theKakatiya kingdom arose in Warangal.

This was also the time when the firstbooks in Telugu were written. Accordingto the tradition, Srimad-Andhra Maha-bharatam is the first poetic work in Teluguwhich was composed by Kavitrayamu, theTrinity of Poets - Nannaya, Tikkana and ErraPragada between 1000 and 1400 CE.

We have a large number of inscriptions(Bayyaram, Thousand Pillars temple,

You may have listened to many ballads and stories about the bravery and martial skill ofBrahma Naidu, Balachandrudu and the 66 heroes. You may also have participated inJataras dedicated to Sammakka and Sarakka - they fought against armies of kings toprotect the rights of the tribal people. You might have enjoyed the popular story of KatamaRaju who fought with the Kings of Nellore in defence of the right of animal herders.

Nagulapadu, Pillalamarri, Palampet,Kondaparthi, Bhuthpur) which tell us aboutthe activities of the kings, queens, chiefs,farmers, herders and traders. There are alsoa number books written about them inSanskrit and Telugu. Vidyanatha wrotePrathaparudra Yashobhushanam duringthe Kakatiya rule. Some works were alsowritten after the end of their rule(Vinukonda Vallabharaya’s Kridabhi-ramamu, Ekamranatha’s PrataparudraCharitramu).

12

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Kakatiyas emerged as independent rulersafter the fall of the Western Chalukyas.

During Rudradeva’s rule (1158-1195CE), the capital was shifted fromAnmakonda (Hanumakonda) to Orugallu(Warangal). The new city was laid out witha plan to accommodate the growing citypopulation and to address the needs of animperial capital. Rudradeva built a big fort,a tank and a temple called ThousandPillared Temple in Anmakonda(Hanumakonda) .

Look at the map of Orugallu Fort. Youcan see an outer fort wall with four gates.This wall protected the agricultural landsand several water tanks within it. In thisarea, there were huts of many artisans likebasket weavers. After crossing these, wecome to the centre where there was anothermoat and a fort wall made of mud.

Map 1: Orugallu Fort

Inner Rampart

Outer Rampart

Stone walland Moat

The Kakatiyas - Emergence of a Regional...

Having read the abovepassage, can you identify thetwo important sources ofinformation about the Kakatiyakings?

According to inscriptions andliterature, the Kakatiyas tracedtheir lineage to certain Durjaya.They also adopted Telugu as thefavoured language of the court.Most of their inscriptions are inTelugu and they calledthemselves as ‘Andhra Rajas’.They also sought to bringtogether the three regions inwhich Telugu was spoken - thepresent coastal regions,Telangana region andRayalaseema region. In thismanner, the Kakatiya kings tried to build aTelugu regional consciousness. To someextent, they were also successful, as evento this day, they are remembered fondly inthese regions.

Important Kakatiya RulersProla II 1116 - 1157CERudradeva 1158 - 1195CEGanapati Deva 1199 - 1262CERudramadevi 1262 - 1289CEPrataparudra - II 1289 - 1323CE

The early members of the dynasty begantheir career as warriors and samanthas ofRashtrakuta and Chalukya kings who wereruling in Karnataka. They held the posts ofvillage heads called Rattadi and throughtheir military skills became army chiefs,samanthas etc. and gradually gainedcontrol over Anmakonda in Telangana. The

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Further towards the centre was anothermoat and fort wall made of stone. The citybuildings and palaces were within this stonewall. It had four gates opening out into theeast, west, north and south. From each gate,a main road went to the centre of the city,where there was a temple of Svayambhu Siva.This temple too had four gates in the fourdirections.

The city itself was divided into severalquarters or vadas. People of oneprofession lived in one distinct vada.

Can you draw a rough map of yourvillage or town and compare it withthe map of Orugallu?What are the main differencesbetween modern towns and thecities of the past, like Orugallu?Use the scale shown on the map tofind out the breadth of the outer wallfrom East to West.Also, find out the breadth of the citywithin the inner stone wall fromnorth to south.If you have ever been to Warangal,describe it to your classmates.Svayambhu Siva was the family godof the Kakatiyas. Why do you thinkdid they build a temple and not apalace or market place in the middleof the city?

As Kakatiya kings became powerful,they were able to persuade many chiefs toaccept them as their kings. The Kakatiyasprotected their samantha subordinatesfrom other warriors and chiefs. They tookalso the samanthas with them when theywent to conquer other kingdoms. Many of

the samantha chiefs attempted to becomeindependent but the Kakatiya kings sentarmies to subdue them.Rudrama Devi

Have you heard of a brave woman rulerby the name of Rudramadevi? She was apowerful and successful ruler whoimpressed one and all with her abilities.Rudramadevi ruled from Orugallu (modernWarangal) and belonged to the famousKakatiya family. She ruled from 1262 CEto 1289 CE for nearly 27 years. In ourcountry, there have been very few womenrulers. In distant Delhi too, there was awoman ruler called Raziya Sultana someyears before. But her nobles did not like tobe ruled by a woman and had killed her. Afamous traveller from Italy, called MarcoPolo visited Rudramadevi’s kingdom andsaid that she was fearless, dressed herselflike a man and rode horses with ease. Infact, in inscriptions, Rudramadevi wasknown as Rudradeva Maharaja. Like Raziya

Fig 12.2 Rudramadevi - Riding the Horse.(Modern representation in Hyderabad)

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Sultana, she too faced the opposition of manyimportant chiefs who had been under herfather, but Rudramadevi succeeded insubduing them. Rudrama and her grandsonPrataparudra faced many revolts and took

several steps to control these chiefs. ButKayastha Ambadeva, one of her sub-ordinates revolted against her. In the warthat took place at Chandupatla, in Nalgondadistrict, Rudrammadevi lost her life.

Fig 12.3 A segment of the inner earthen wall with its (dry) moat at right

Fig 12.4 Aerial view of the eastern gateway in the city’s inner stone wall, showingthe ‘bent entrance’ (Vankadari) and open courtyard (anganam). The doorway at

right is the ‘great city gate’ leading to the royal avenue (raja margambu)


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Nayankara SystemRudramadevi and Prataparudra

encouraged several skilledwarriors who were not from anypowerful family but were veryloyal to the queen and the king.They gave them high positionsand the title of Nayaka. They weregiven the authority over severalvillages from where they couldcollect taxes. These villages werecalled their Nayankara. Eachnayaka had to maintain a stipulated amountof army from the income they got fromtheir nayankara for the service of the king.But they did not keep these villagespermanently as they could be transferredat the will of the king to a new place. TheseNayakas depended upon the queen or theking and remained loyal to them. They werealso probably used to subdue the rebelliouschiefs. This arrangement was calledNayankara system.

Read here a portion of an inscription bya nayaka of Rudramadevi :

“In the year (1270 CE), on the occasionof Sankranti, Bollinayaka, the guardianof the gate for Kakatiya RudradevaMaharaja, gave ten measures of land tothe temple servants ofGod Kalyana Keshavaof Kranja village inhis own nayankaramufor the merit of hismaster RudradevaMaharaja.”

Why do you thinkBollinayaka wascalling Rudrama-devi as Rudra-deva Maharaja?

Encouragement to Agricultureand Temples

The Kakatiyas brought large tracts ofland under cultivation by building tanks anddigging wells. Apart from the members ofthe royal family and other feudal families,the rich sections of the society such asmerchants and artisans participated inexpanding agriculture through theconstruction of tanks. This enabled theextension of cultivation to the difficultterrains of Telangana and Rayalaseema.

The Kakatiyas also extensivelypatronised temples by donating to them.Women members of the royal family likeMuppamamba, and Mailamma made land

Fig 12.5 The remains of the great temple dedicated to Lord Siva

Fig 12.6 Ramappa Temple

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grants. Women ofother rich sectionsalso made gifts ofland, tanks, cash,cattle, jewelleryetc. to temples andbrah-mins. Byp r o m o t i n gagriculture, theyderived in-come inthe form of taxesand agricultural produce.

TradeWarriors, chiefs and kings derived a

large portion of their income by taxingtraders, especially those who engaged inoverseas trade from the ports. Read aportion of an inscription issued by Kakatiyaking Ganapatideva in a place calledMotupalli:

12.8 Motupalli Pillar Inscription

“This Abhaya Shasana has beengranted by Ganapatideva to sea tradersgoing back and forth to all continents,countries and towns. In the past, kingsforcibly seized all the cargo such as gold,elephants, horses, jewels, etc. when seagoing vessels were caught in storms,wrecked and cast on shore. But We for thesake of our reputation and punya and outof pity for those who have incurred thegrave risk of a sea voyage, give up allbut the customary tax.”

The inscription goes on to mention thetax he would collect from the traders ondifferent articles of trade.• How did the kings treat the traders

earlier?• What was the guarantee granted by

Ganapatideva to the traders?• Why do you think, Ganapatideva

gave this protection to foreigntraders?

Marco Polo, who visited one ofthese ports said, that the exports werediamonds and the best and the most delicateclothes, which looked like the tissue of aspider’s web. He further said, “There isneither a king nor a queen in the world whowould not be glad to wear them”.

The End of the KakatiyasSometime around 1190 CE, a new

kingdom was established in Delhi. The newkings were called Delhi Sultans and theyoriginally came from Turkistan. They had apowerful army and were able to defeatmost of the kings of North India and theDeccan before long. Sultan Mohammad binTugluq was able to defeat KakatiyaPrataparudra in 1323 CE. Thus ended theKakatiya dynasty.


Fig 12.7 Sri Ahita gajakesari - Gold coin issued

by Kakatiyas

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Improve your learning1. Compare the warriors of those times with what you know about the modern armies. What

differences do you see between them?2. Kings and chiefs built irrigation tanks to improve agriculture in the Kakatiya times. What would they do

if they ruled now?3. How do you think were the Kakatiyas able to gain control over the chiefs?4. Why do you think did the Kakatiyas not appoint powerful chiefs as Nayakas?5. Why was it difficult for women to rule in those days? Is it different today? How?6. In those days, powerful people had their own land and were able to tax other farmers, traders and

artisans. Can powerful people do this now? Give reasons.7. Read the para under the title ‘Nayankara System’ on page 114 and comment on it.8. ‘Women too manage the adminstrative affairs effectively’– Do you support this statement? Why?

Project:

1. Prepare a short presentation of any of the three stories in the form of a play.2. Collect some popular stories that originate from your village or town, prepare a chart and

present the same in the class.3. Visit an old temple of your area, find out about who built the temple, when etc. and look for

any inscriptions in it.

Some years later, two new kingdoms were founded in Karnataka called Bahamani andVijayanagar Kingdoms about which we will study in the next chapter.

Palnati Vira – Heroes who cut across caste barriers

Palanati Virula Katha written by Srinatha around 1350s helps us to understand how collectives ofwarriors must have been formed. The leading character in the story, Balachandrudu, has a smallwar band of devoted companions from diverse backgrounds. One is a brahmin while the others – ablacksmith, a goldsmith, a washerman, a potter and a barber – are drawn from the service and artisancommunities. Balachandrudu and his cohorts are so committed to each other that they are called sodarulu(brothers). Just before they set out for battle, Balachandrudu’s mother prepares a meal for all the “brothers”.But she serves this food to each one on a different kind of plate (earthen, bronze, leaf, etc.) and isrebuked by her son for making such a distinction, who says that caste must be set aside when one goesto war. And so the “brothers” all eat from each other’s plates, in defiance of the convention but inrecognition of their joint fate

Keywords :

1. Warriors 2. Nayankara System 3. Samanthas 4. Artisans

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The Kings of Vijayanagara

Vijayanagara means the ‘City ofVictory’. It was located on the banks ofTungabhadra River in Karnataka. Accordingto history, it was founded by two brothersnamed Harihara Raya and Bukka Rayaaround 1336 CE with the blessings of a sagenamed Vidyaranya. The kings ofVijayanagara worshipped Sri Virupaksha(Shiva). The Vijayanagara empire lasted forabove 300 years though it was not ruled bykings of the same family. After the familyof Harihara Raya and Bukka Raya ofSangama dynasty, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravitifamilies ruled the empire one after theother. Some of those kings spoke thelanguage Kannada. But Sri KrishnaDevaraya gave due importance of Telugulanguage.

On the north of the Tungabhadra river,some new kingdoms called the Bahamanikingdoms arose. Initially, it was one largekingdom with its capital in Gulbarga. Lateron, between 1489 and 1520 CE, it brokeup into five smaller kingdoms. Of thesefive kingdoms, Bijapur and Golconda ruled

In the previous chapter, we read about warriors and chiefs who had establishedcontrol over villages and how the Kakatiyas tried to bring them under their controland built a kingdom. The efforts of the Kakatiyas ended when the Delhi Sultansconquered Warangal. But soon, another kingdom was built by a family of warriorswho laid the foundations of a large empire called Vijayanagara or Karnataka.

over large parts of the present dayKarnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.These kingdoms were ruled by Sultans andwarriors, many of whom came from Iranand Arabia. All these kingdoms wereconstantly at war with each other, trying toenlarge their own kingdoms. They alsotried to recruit the local warriors and chiefsabout whom we read in the last chapter. Withtheir help, they tried to establish controlover the villages and towns and collectrevenue from the farmers and traders.

Some Important Kingsof Vijayanagara

Harihararaya 1336-1357CEBukkaraya I 1357-1377CEHarihararaya II 1377-1404 CEDevaraya II 1426-1446 CESaluva Narasimharaya 1486-1491CEKrishnadevaraya 1509-1529 CEAchyutaraya 1529-1542 CEAliya Rama Raya 1543-1565 CEVenkatapati Raya 1585-1614 CE

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How do we know?We know much about Vijayanagara

Empire from inscriptions, books andbuildings of that period. We get insightsinto the daily life, the administration andthe social organizations of the kingdom. Ofparticular value are the detailed accountsleft by travellers from several countries –Nicolo Conti from Italy who visitedVijayanagara in 1420 CE, Abdul Razzak thePersian trader who visited in 1443 CE, thePortugese traveller Domingo Paes, whovisited it in 1520 CE and Nuniz who wrotein 1537 CE.

The City of VijayanagaraThe city of Vijayanagara was built on the

banks of the river Tungabhadra next to theancient temples of Pampadevi and SriVirupaksha. Abdul Razzak says that the cityhad seven rings of fortifications. Some ofthese have been found by archaeologists.

Read the description of the city byPortugese traveller, Paes:

“The king has made a very strong city,fortified with walls and towers… Thesewalls are not made like those of othercities, but are made of strong masonry…and inside, very beautiful rows ofbuildings with flat roofs…

You have a broad and beautiful streetfull of fine houses… and these housesbelong to merchants, and there you findall sorts of rubies and diamonds, andemeralds and pearls… and clothes ofevery sort on the earth… In the eveningyou have a fair where they sell horses,vegetables, fruits, wood, etc.”

Why were vegetables, fruits andhorses sold in the evenings?

Archaeologists are of the opinion that thecity had four separate divisions – the first onedevoted to temples, situated on rocky hills;the second one on the valley, where crops wereraised using water from irrigationchannels; the third, a royal centre in whichroyal palaces and residences of importantnayakas were located and the fourth one,allocated for the residences of ordinarytownsfolk. Each area was separated from theothers as shown in the map.

Compare Vijayanagara withWarangal to point out thesimilarities and differencesbetween them.

Fig 13.1 Bronze images ofKrishnadeva Raya and his two wives

installed in Tirumala Temple.

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Why do you think do the moderncities not build fort walls of this kind?

Armies and Military LeadersYou would have heard and read about great

wars being fought today and also aboutthe powerful armies.

What makes the armies ofcountries powerful?

What kinds of arms and weaponsdo modern armies use?

Let us find out how it was in Vijayanagaratimes.

Vijayanagara rulers invested a lotof money in building their militarypower. They imported a large numberof horses from Arabia and Iran, whichcame in ships to their ports on thewest coast. They recruited a largearmy and built many strong forts. Oneof the important rulers, Devaraya-IIof Vijayanagara, started recruitingMuslim fighters to serve him and totrain his soldiers in the new modesof warfare. He also permitted theconstruction of Mosques in thecapital city where the muslimsoldiers were garrisoned. In thosedays, guns and cannons had beennewly introduced. The Vijayanagarakings started using guns and cannonsin their forces. The combination offirearms and cavalry (horse-riders)made them one of the most powerfularmies in India.

Horses in those days wereimportant for fast movementof troops. What do you thinkhas taken their place today?Elephants were slow movingbut powerful in attack. What doyou think has replaced themtoday?

‘Captains of the Troops’ - theAmaranayakas

The entire kingdom was actuallycontrolled and administered by thecommanders of these armies. Let us findout who they were and what they did. Readthe following account left by DomingoPaes about Vijayanagara during KrishnadevaRaya’s period:

Map 1: Vijayanagara City

OuterRampart

Tungabhadra Rive

r

Agriculture

Irrigation Canal

Fort

Anegondi

Bridge

Temples

Mosque

U r b a n

A r

e a

Tower Gate

PattabhiramaTemple


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“This king has amillion fightingtroops, which include35,000 cavalry (horseriders) ready to bedispatched to anyquarter whenevernecessary... He is themost feared king inthese parts…

The captains ofthese troops are thenobles of his kingdomand they hold the city,the towns and the villages of the kingdom.There are captains among them who havea revenue of about a million gold coins,others two hundred, three hundred or fivehundred thousand coins. The king fixesfor each, according to his revenue thenumber of troops which he must maintain,on foot, on horse, and elephants. Thesetroops are always ready for dutywhenever and wherever they may haveto go. Besides maintaining these troops,each captain has to make his annualpayment to the king.

Besides the troops supplied by thecaptains, the king has his own troopswhom he pays.”

Answer the following questionsafter reading the above passagescarefully:Why was Krishnadevaraya the mostfeared king?Who controlled the towns andvillages of Vijayanagara Empire?Did all of them get equal income?What did the captains have to do for

the king in return for these villages?

Did the king depend only on thetroops sent by the captains?

The ‘captains’ mentioned here were thenayakas. These nayakas held amara revenueassignments – that is, they were given chargeof some villages and cities whose revenuethey could collect and use. They had anobligation to maintain a certain number oftroops for keeping the revenue of suchassignments. They also administered theareas under their control. They had judicialpowers too (the power to judge criminalsand give punishments). This was quitesimilar to the system of the Delhi Sultanate,whose nobles or amirs were given similarrevenue assignments called Iqtas.

Most of the amaranayakas wereTelugu warriors. They recruited theirsoldiers, usually from among their ownvillagers or kinsmen, and trained them.These armies were loyal to the Nayakasrather than to the king. Many powerfulnayakas like Saluva Narasimha or NarasaNayaka controlled vast areas and at times,

Fig 13.2 Stone Chariot at Hazara Rama Temple

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could even challenge the Vijayanagarakings. In fact, some of them were sopowerful that when a king died, they tookcontrol of power in their own hands andthemselves became kings.Let us compare

You read about how the villages wereadministered in Chola kingdom by councilsof landholding villagers and how the kingcollected revenue from villages with thehelp of these councils. Things had begunto change in Vijayanagara Empire as thepower of the armies and nayakas increased.You saw that the control over villages andtown was given over to these nayakas.

What impact do you think it wouldhave had on the villagers? Discussin your class.

In the VI class, you read about howvillages and towns are administeredin our country today. Can youcompare this with the Vijayanagarasystem and point out thedifferences?

Krishnadevaraya - The RulerKrishnadevaraya ruled from 1509 CE to

1529 CE. He was a great general who led

the Vijayanagara armies successfullyagainst the Bahmani sultans and also againstthe Gajapatis of Odisha. He also subduedseveral chiefs who had revolted inKarnataka, Andhra and Tamil regions. Thisgave him control over the entire region onthe south of river Krishna and especially,the control over the ports of the easterncoast.

During this period, the Portugese hadestablished their power over some ports ofthe western coast like Goa. Krishna-devaraya established friendly relations withthem in order to get exclusive supply ofhorses and firearms from them. He alsoemployed Portugese troops in his wars.

Every year, on the Vijayadashami day, theKing organised elaborate festivities andworship, which concluded with a massiveparade of his armies. On this day, all thechiefs and amaranayakas of the empirebrought their tributes to the King.

Krishnadevaraya paid special attentionto the temples of his kingdom andpersonally visited many of them likeTirupati, Srisailam and Ahobilam. He alsodonated to a large number of temples.

Krishnadevaraya’s inscriptions state thathe had distributed the great treasure gained

Fig 13.3 Relief on Hazara Rama Temple. Can you write a story based on this image?


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in his successful wars to all the majortemples of southern India. Towering templegateways called ‘Raya gopuram’ were builtin many of these temples in his honour.This generosity assured that his name wouldbe remembered for long among the peopleof south India. He also built some beautifultemples in Vijayanagara city.

Krishnadevaraya was also a patron ofTelugu literature and he himself composedthe poetic work Amuktamalyada on the lifeof Andal, the Tamil Bhakta poetess. Hiscourt was adorned by eight poets knownpopularly as “Ashtadiggajas”. They areAllasani Peddana, Mukku Thimmana,Dhurjati, Ramaraja Bhushana, TenaliRamakrishna, Pingali Surana, AyyalarajuRamabadhrudu and Madayagari Mallana.

The power of the Vijayanagara kings grewfurther during the time of Krishnadevaraya’ssuccessors Achyutadeva Raya and AliyaRama Raya. As the Bahamani rulers were

Fig 13.4 Gopuram of EkambareshwarTemple in Kanchipuram.

unable to fight the Vijayanagara individually,by 1565 AD, all the five Bahmani kingdomsjoined together and defeated Rama Raya inRakkasi tangadi war also known as Tallikotawar. They looted and destroyed the city ofVijayanagara. The emperors who succeededhim shifted their capital to Chandragiri nearTirupati, but never regained the glory ofearlier times. While a part of the empirecame under the control of the Sultans, thechiefs and Nayakas became independent inother parts.

Qutub Shahis of Golkonda,1512 – 1687

Qutub Shahis - TimelineQuli Qutub Shah (1512-1543)Jamshed Quli (1543-1550)Ibrahim Qutub Shah (1550-1580)Mohd Quli Qutub Shah (1580-1612)Mohd Qutub Shah (1612-1626)Abdullah Qutub Shah (1626-1672)Abul Hasan Tanashah (1672-1687)

In the previous chapter, we read aboutthe Kakatiya kingdom in the Telanganaregion. After the end of the Kakatiyakingdom, some of their subordinatenayakas established independent kingdoms.Of these,the Velama kingdoms ofRachakonda and Devarakonda were verystrong and challenged the authority of theVijayanagara emperors and the Bahamanikings. Around the year 1512, Quli QutubShah who was a governor of the Bahmanisin Telangana region declared indepen-dence and established the Qutub Shahidynasty of Golconda. Quli Qutub Shahextended his rule by capturing forts atWarangal, Kondapalli, Eluru, andRajahmundry. The main part of GolcondaState was Telangana. His successors ruledup to 1687.

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Sultan Ibrahim Qutub Shah (1550–80)patronized Telugu literature, supportedBrahmins and temples and engaged inlarge-scale irrigation works like theKakatiya kings. Famous Telugu poets ofIbrahim Qutub Shah’s period wereSinganacharyudu, Addanki Gangadharudu,Kandukuru Rudrakavi and PonnagantiTelaganarya were patronized by IbrahimQutub Shah. Ibrahim Qutub Shah waspraised by poets as “Malkibha-rama.” Healso took into his service many nayakachieftains who proudly claimed descentfrom warrior-supporters of the Kakatiyas,especially those serving Pratapa Rudra.Ibrahim allowed them considerableautonomy in the agrarian sphere while alsoentrusting them with the command of greatforts.


Map 2: Qutb Shahi Dynasty

The Qutub Shahi rulers quicklyunderstood the regional ecology anddecided to continue the Kakatiaya patternof irrigation system to widen the agrarianbase in core region of Telangana. Since theylived in captial Golkonda built HusssainSagar Lake in 1562 during the reign ofIbrahim Qutub Shah. It was named after SufiSaint Hazrat Hussain Shah Wali who helpedto design it. It was developed as an artificiallake that holds water perennially fed intoMusi river. It became main source ofdrinking water to Hyderabad. Another tankat Ibrahim Patnam was also built by him. Itis however well known that puranapul wasalso built across river Musi.

Ibrahim’s son Mohmmed Quli was a greatvisionary and was responsible for theplanning and building of Hyderabad city.

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Mir MominAstarabadi,was theArchitect of theCity of Hyderabadduring his time. Asthe Prime Ministerof Quli Qutb Shahhe played animportant role inpreparing thelayout plan for theCharminar alongwith that of thenew capital city. Mohammad Quli QutubShah built Mecca Masjid and JamaMasjid. It was built on the model of thegrand mosque of Mecca. Quli Qutub Shahcommissioned bricks to be made from thesoil brought from Mecca, and used themin the construction of the central arch ofthe mosque, thus giving the mosque itsname. A room in the Mosque also containshair of Prophet Mohammed. QuliQutubShah also constructed the Charminar, themost recognizable symbol of Hyderabad.He was also an accomplished poet inPersian and Urdu. The Deccani Urduacquired the status of literary languagedue to his contributions.

Hayat Bakshi Begum was the daughterof Muhammad QuliQutub Shah. She builtHayat Bakshi Mosque located in Hayathnagar, near Hyderabad.She was alsoknown as MaaSaheba, Masab Tank is adistorted version of Maa-Sahaba Tank.

Abdulla Qutub Shah was a lover of poetryand music. He invited and honouredKshetrayya, the famous padam writer to hiscourt. Abul – Hasan Tana Shah was the lastand the most popular ruler of Qutub Shahi

Dynasty. He appointed KancharlaGopanna (also known as Ramadasu) asTahasildar (head of the revenuedepartment) of Palvancha county. Ramadasu was accused that he divertedthe public funds to construct LordRama temple in Bhadrachalam and gotthe jewellery for the idols of Rama, Sitaand Lakshmana. Tani Shah foundRamadasu guilty of diverting of publicfunds and put him in jail and releasedhim after realisation.

During the Qutub Shahi period,Golconda was known all over the world forits famous diamonds. At that time,Machilipatnam became a major port fromwhere trade was carried out with South EastAsia, China, Persia, Arabia and Europe.Great caravans travelled from the coastalregion to Golconda carrying merchandise,gold and silver from different countries.

The tombs of the seven QutubShahirulers in the Ibrahim Bagh are located closeto the famous Golkonda Fort in Hyderabad. The tombs mark a uniquearchitectural style which is a mixture ofPersian and Hindu. Shah Jahan, theMughalEmperor was impressed by the architectureof the QutubShahi tombs and built theTajMahal with white Marble. The tombs arestructures with intricately carvedstonework and are surrounded bylandscaped gardens.

Right from the times of Ibrahim QutubShah, the Mughals were keen on conq-uering this wealthy kingdom and even-tually succeeded under Aurangazeb when hecaptured the fort of Golconda in the year1687.

The Mughals did not follow the inclusive

Fig 13.5 Charminar

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1. Why did the kings of Vijayanagara live in a separate quarter and not in the middle of the cityas in Orugallu?

2. Why were the amaranayakas very powerful?3. Compare the amaranayakas with the old chiefs of Kakatiyas. Were they different or similar and in

what way?4. Why was the Vijayanagara army dependent on imports from the western coast?5. Krishnadeva Raya fought against several enemies in order to consolidate his kingdom. Make a list

of all of them.6. What services were rendered to Telugu literature by the Vijayanagara Kings?7. Locate the following in the India map.

a) Humpi b) Bijapur c) Tirupatid) Golkonda e) Kanchi f) River Tungabhadra

8. Discuss the support of various kingdoms to Telugu literature?9. Describe the art and architecture of the Qutub Shahis rules.



Fig 13.6 Golconda Fort

policy of the Qutub Shahis and removedthe local people from positions of powerand brought in more people from outside.They also tried to extract maximumrevenue from this region and adopted thesystem of revenue contract. Under thissystem, the government auctioned theright to collect revenue from a region tothe highest bidder. These were usually thelocally powerful people or moneylendersand they oppressed the peasants andartisans to get maximum income. Thiscaused widespread distress, includingfamines, migration and depopulation.

Look at the map of Qutub Shahikingdom and identify Golconda,Machilipatnam, Bhadrachalam etc.

Why do you think did the economyof Golconda kingdom prosper underQutub shah while it declined duringthe early Mughal rule?

Find out about the famous diamondmines of Golcunda kingdom andthe trade in these diamonds.

Keywords :1. Amara Nayaka2. Amir3. Iktha4. Archeological Scientists5. Raya Gopuram

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Who were the Mughals?The Mughals were from ruling families

of Central Asian countries like Uzbekistanand Mongolia. Babur, the first Mughalemperor (1526 - 1530 CE), was forced to

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Mughal Empire

A new dynasty called Mughals began with the invasion ofBabar in 1526 CE. They created an empire between 1550 CEand 1707 CE and expanded it from around Delhi to all over theentire subcontinent. Their administrative arrangements, ideasof governance and architecture continued to influence rulerslong after their decline. Now, every year, the Prime Minister ofIndia addresses the nation on Independence Day from theramparts of the Red Fort in Delhi which was once the residenceof the Mughal emperors.

leave his ancestral throne due to an invasionby another ruler. After years of wandering,he seized Kabul in 1504 CE. In 1526 CE,he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, IbrahimLodi and captured Delhi and Agra.

A Coin with thepicture ofJahangir

Fig 14.1 Red Fort

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(Right) Aurangzeb 1658-1707 CETried to conquer Assam but faced a large

number of revolts all over his kingdom fromAfghanistan, Assam, Rajasthan, Punjab,

Deccan, etc. Guru Tej Bahadur, Govind Singh,Shivaji and his own son, Akbar revolted

against him. Shivaji succeeded in establishingan independent Maratha kingdom. Aurangzebconquered Bijapur in 1685 CE and Golconda

in 1687 CE. His death was followed by asuccession conflict amongst his sons.

Shah Jahan 1627-1658 CE(Left Below) Mughalcampaigns continued in theDeccan. He faced many

Important Mughal emperors - Major campaigns and events

Babur 1526-1530 CE (Left)1526 CE – defeated Ibrahim Lodi and establishedcontrol over Agra and Delhi.

(Right) Humayun 1530-1556 CESher Khan defeated Humayun, forcing him to

flee to Iran. In Iran, Humayunreceived help from the Safavid Shah. He

recaptured Delhi in 1555 CE but died in anaccident the following year.

Akbar 1556-1605 CE (Left)Akbar was 13 years old when he becamethe emperor. He rapidly conquered Bengal,Central India, Rajasthan andGujarat.Thereafter, he also conqueredAfghanistan, Kashmir and portions of theDeccan. Look at his empire in Map 1.

Jahangir 1605-1627 CE (above)Military campaigns started by

Akbar continued. No majorconquests.

revolts by nobles and chiefs of his empire. In 1657-1658 CE, therewas a conflict over succession amongst Shah Jahan’s sons.Aurangzeb was victorious and his three brothers were killed.Shah Jahan was imprisoned for the rest of his life in Agra.

Mughal Empire

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Map 1: Akbar’s Reign 1605AD

GolcondaBijapur

Ahmednagar

Berar Gondwana

Odisa

Bengal

Alahabad

Fatehpur SikriAgra

Malwa

Sindh Chittor

AjmerAmber

Delhi

PanipatMultan

Kashmir

Qandahar

Kabul

Relationship of the Mughalswith other Rulers

Around the time when Mughals came toIndia, there were several kings and chiefsin all parts of the country. The Mughalssought to bring them under their control.They allowed the older rulers and chiefsto continue to rule over large parts of theirold kingdoms and collected revenues fromthem. But these rulers could not wage warsagainst each other and had to keep an armyready for the use of the Emperor.

Mughal rulers campaigned constantlyagainst rulers who refused to accept theirauthority. But, as the Mughals becamepowerful, many other rulers had tosurrender their sovereignty. Some Rajputkings also entered into matrimonialalliances with them. But many resisted aswell. The Sisodiya Rajputs of Chittor

refused to accept Mughal authority for along time. Once defeated, however, theywere given their lands back as assignments.Mughals also employed the method of notremoving their opponents after defeating.This helped them to extend their influenceover many kings and chieftains. As apolitical strategy Mughals marriedprincesses of the local rulers. Jahangir’smother was the daughter of the Rajput rulerof Amber (modern Jaipur). Shah Jahan’smother was the daughter of the Rajput rulerof Jodhpur.

Mansabdars and JagirdarsAs the empire expanded to encompass

different regions, the Mughals recruiteddiverse kinds of people. From a smallnucleus of Turkish nobles, they expandedto include Iranians, Indian Muslims,Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas and other

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groups. Those who joined the Mughalservice were enrolled as mansabdars (orrank holder). They worked directly underthe control of the emperor, who couldallocate any work for them to do – likeguarding his palace, governing a province,conquering a new kingdom or suppressinga rebellion.

The Mughals designed a political systemin which the mansabdars could not actindependently but had to follow the ordersof the emperor. You may remember that theNayakas in Vijayanagara empire couldbecome independent and powerful enoughto declare themselves the kings. TheMughals prevented this by constantlytransferring the mansabdars from oneplace to another every two or three years.Thus, a mansabdar could not get settledand powerful in any one place.

The mansabdar’s military responsi-bilities required him to maintain a specifiednumber of horse riders or cavalrymen. Themansabdar brought his cavalrymen forreview, got them registered, their horses

branded and then received money to paythem as salary.

A mansabdar’s son could not becomea mansabdar automatically. That is thetransfer of power was not hereditary. Theemperor decided whether to appoint the sonas a mansabdar or not. In fact, he eventook over all the property of themansabdar on his death.

Mansabdars received their salaries asrevenue assignments called jagirs, whichwere somewhat like VijayangaraAmaranayakas. But unlike theAmaranayakas, most mansabdars did notactually reside in or administer their jagirs.They could only collect the revenue duefrom their jagir villages and send them tothe emperor. This was collected for themby their servants while the mansabdarsthemselves served in some other part of thecountry. The jagir was administered byother officials directly under the emperor.These officials tried to ensure that thejagirdars’ agents did not collect morefrom the farmers than permitted. The jagirstoo were constantly transferred every twoor three years.

Fig 14.2 A mansabdar on march with his sawars (A miniature painting)

Mughal Empire

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In Akbar’s reign, these jagirs werecarefully assessed so that their revenueswere roughly equal to the salary of themansabdar. By Aurangzeb’s reign, therewas a huge increase in the number ofmansabdars, which meant a long waitbefore they received a jagir. These andother factors created a shortage in thenumber of jagirs. As a result, manyjagirdars tried to extract as much revenueas possible while they had a jagir.Aurangzeb was unable to control thesedevelopments in the last years of his reignand the farmers, therefore, sufferedtremendously.

Zabt and ZamindarsThe main source of income available to

Mughal rulers was taxes on the produce ofthe peasantry. Akbar’s revenue minister,Todar Mal, carried out a careful survey ofcrop yields, prices and areas cultivated fora period of ten-years, 1570-1580 CE. Onthe basis of this data, tax was fixed in cashfor each crop. Each province was dividedinto revenue circles with its own scheduleof revenue rates for individual crops. Thisrevenue system was known as zabt. It wasprevalent in those areas where Mughaladministrators could survey the land andkeep very careful accounts. This was notpossible in provinces such as Gujarat andBengal.

In most places, peasants paid taxesthrough the rural elite i.e., the headman orthe local chieftain. The Mughals used oneterm – zamindars – to describe all theintermediaries, whether they were localheadmen of villages or powerful chieftains.The zamindars were not appointed by theMughal Emperors but existed on hereditary

basis, that is, sons succeeded when thefathers died. They too had contingents ofarmed followers. They received a share ofthe revenue collected by the jagirdars fromthe area and also some dues from thefarmers and others. They often acted asrepresentatives of the local people indealing with the Mughal officials.

In some areas, the zamindars exerciseda great deal of power. The exploitation byMughal administrators could drive them torebellion. Sometimes zamindars andpeasants allied in rebelling against theMughal authority. These zamindar-peasantrevolts challenged the stability of theMughal Empire from the end of theseventeenth century.

What was the difference betweena mansabdar and a zamindar?Who was under the greater control

Fig 14.3 Details in a miniature from ShahJahan’s reign showing corruption duringhis father’s administration 1. A corrupt

officer receives a bribe and 2. A taxcollector punishes poor peasants

1

2

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people. Akbar wanted to bring togetherpeople of diverse faiths. This eventuallygave Akbar the idea of sulh-i kul or“universal peace”. This idea of tolerance didnot discriminate among people of differentreligions in his kingdom. Instead, itfocused on a system of ethics – honesty,justice, peace – that was universallyapplicable. Abul Fazl helped Akbar inframing a vision of governance around thisidea of sulh-i kul. The Emperor would workfor the welfare of all subjects irrespectiveof their religion or social status. Thisprinciple of governance was followed byJahangir and Shah Jahan as well. Aurangzebdeviated from this policy and tried toproject himself as favouring only SunniMuslims. People of other religions feltanguished by this policy of Aurangzeb.

of the emperor?Compare the position of a Nayakaand a mansabdar.

A Closer Look at Akbar’sPolicies

The broad features of administrationwere laid down by Akbar and wereelaborately discussed by his friend andmember of his court, Abul Fazl in his bookthe Akbar Nama.

While Akbar was at Fatehpur Sikri (nearAgra) during the 1570s, he initiatedimportant discussions on religion with theMuslim scholars, Hindu scholars, Jesuitpriests who were Roman Catholics, andZorastrians. He was interested in thereligion and social customs of different

Fig 14.4 Akbar holding discussions with learnedindividuals of different faiths in his ibadat khana

Sulh-i kulJahangir, Akbar’s son,

described his father’spolicy of sulh-i kul in thefollowing words:

“As in the wide expanse ofthe divine compassion, there isroom for all classes and thefollowers of all creeds, so …in his Imperial dominions,which on all sides were limitedonly by the sea, there wasroom for the professors ofopposite religions, and forbeliefs, good and bad, and theroad to intolerance was closed.Sunnis and Shias met in onemosque and Christians andJews in one church to pray.He consistently followed theprinciple of ‘universal peace’(sulh-i kul).”

Mughal Empire

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wealth. The inequalities were glaring.Documents from the twentieth year of ShahJahan’s reign inform us that the highestranking mansabdars were only 445 innumber out of a total of 8,000. This smallnumber – a mere 5.6 per cent of the totalnumber of mansabdars – received 61.5per cent of the total estimated revenue ofthe empire as salaries for themselves andtheir troopers.

The Mughal Empire in the 17thCentury and thereafter

The administrative and militaryefficiency of the Mughal Empire led toeconomic and commercial prosperity.International travellers described it as thefabled land of wealth. But the same visitorswere also appalled at the state of povertythat existed in contrast to the greatest

Sardar Sarvai PapannaSarvai Papanna, who belongs to the Warangal district, fought

against the Mughal rule in Telangana. He lived during the periodof Aurangzeb. He supported the lives of many poor people whowere backward and downtrodden.Papanna occupied the telangana area from Mughal rule between1687 to 1724 CE, and built a fort in Khilashapur which was alsoconsidered the capital city in Warangal district.Having seen the oppressions and atrocities committed by Mughalsduring that time, he raised a small army and trained them inguerrilla attacks.

Papanna, controlled the forts at Bhuvanagiri,Kolanupaku of Nalgonda, Thatikonda, Cheriyala ofWarangal, Huzurabad, Husnabad of Karimnagar. Heconstructed his first fort in Sarvaipeta with the aimof expanding his rule. He constructed forts inThatikonda, Vemulakonda and Shahpuram. Existingcheck Dam constructed during the rule of Papanna inThatikonda shows that he was a development orientedking to develop the region under his control.

Papanna mostly raised the funds for war and army by guerrilla attacks on Subedar,Zamindars and landlords. Upon hearing the news of Papanna's popularity, Aurangzebadvised Rustum-dil-Khan to suppress Papanna. Rustum-dil-Khan then sent Khasim Khanfirst to Papanna and then to conquer shahpura fort. Having Khasim Khan defeated andslayed by Papanna, Rustum-dil-Khan himself entered the war and it went on for almostthree months. Rustum-dil-Khan finally fled from the war and Papanna lost his friendand close associate, Sarvanna in this war.

After the death of Aurangzeb, in 1707 C.E., the then Deccan Subedar KambakshKhan started losing the control of Deccan. Having seen the weak administration ofKambaksh Khan, Papanna attacked Warangal for on April 1 in 1708 C.E. However in along battle at Thatikonda later at Khilashapur he escaped. He was caught and beheaded in1712 C.E.

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133Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Mughal Empire

After the weakening of the MughalEmpire in 1720s , the Mughal Governorsasserted their independence. One of themwas the Subedar of the Deccan, Chin QulichKhan, also known as the Nizam-Ul- Mulk.He was the founder of the Asaf Jahi dynastyof the Hyderabad State in 1724. Nizam-Ul- Mulk ruled for 24 years (1724-1748).The Asaf Jahi rulers were ten kings, whoruled from 1724 to 1948. Among themseven kings got the title ‘Nizam’ from theMoghals. Nazar Jung, Muzafar Jung andSabath Jung were not received the title‘Nizam’. The Nizams constantly fought theMarathas and the rulers of Mysore to carvethe independent state of Hyderabad. Dueto these reasons, they became dependenton the British and lost their independentstatus.

They undertook thecolonial modernisationunder the influence of theBritish Officials. TheBritish loved theHyderabad culture.During late 19th CenturyHyderabad embarked ondevelopment. Salar Jung was thePrimeMinister of the Nizams between1853 and 1883, who imbibed colonialdevelopment schemes. (You will read moreabout him in the next lesson).

The sixth Nizam, Mir MahabubAliKhan’s period marked with a number ofreforms. The Asafia Library, VictoriaMemorial Orphanage, Mahabubia GirlsSchool were established. During the Musifloods in 1908 he personally supervised therelief operations, offered prayers to thegod and provided shelter to the victims.

The Mughal emperors and theirmansabdars spent a great deal of theirincome on salaries and goods. The scaleof revenue collection left very little formoney for investment in the hands of theprimary producers – the peasant and theartisans. The poorest amongst them hadbarely enough resources for existence andcould hardly invest in tools and supplies toincrease productivity.

The wealthier peasantry and artisanalgroups, the merchants and bankers profitedin this period.

The enormous wealth and resourcescommanded by the Mughal nobility madethem an extremely powerful group ofpeople in the late seventeenth century. Asthe authority of the Mughal emperor slowlydeclined, his subordinates emerged aspowerful centres of power in the regions.They constituted new dynasties and heldcommand of provinces like Hyderabad andAwadh. Although they continued torecognise the Mughal emperor in Delhi astheir master, by the eighteenth century theprovinces of the empire had consolidatedtheir independent political identities.

Asaf Jahis of Hyderabad1724-1948

Asaf Jahis - TimelineNizam-ul-Mulk - 1st Nizam (1724-1748)Nasar Jung - (1748-1751)Muzafar Jung - (1751-1751)Salabat Jung - (1751-1762)Nizam Ali Khan - 2nd Nizam (1762-1803)Sikandar Jah - 3rd Nizam (1803-1829)Nasir-ud-Dowla - 4th Nizam (1829-1857)Afzal-ud-Dowla - 5th Nizam (1857-1869)Meer Mahaboob Ali Khan (1869-1911) - 6th NizamMir Osman Ali Khan (1911-1948) - 7th Nizam

Salar Jung

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1. What was the relationship between the mansabdar and his jagir?

2. What was the role of the zamindar in Mughal administration?

3. How were the debates with religious scholars important in the formation of Akbar’s ideas ongovernance?

4. Why did the Mughals allow the earlier rulers to continue in their old kingdoms as before?

5. Why was the policy of sulh-i kul important for the Mughals to control their vast empire?

6. Read the first para under the title ‘Zabt and Zamindars’ on page 130 and comment on it.

7. Collect and fill in the table with the particulars of the Moghal emperors.


However, the VII Nizam determined to protect the fuedal power structure despite the popularmovement for liberal administrative reforms. (About his achievements you will read morein class-8).

Keywords :1. Mansabdar 2. Jagirdar 3. Zabt

4. Elite 5. Zamindar 6. Sulh-i-kul

S.No.

123456

Important featuresName of the emperor Ruling period

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CH

APT

ER Establishment of the BritishEmpire in India

East India Company Comes toEast

In 1600 CE, the East India Companyacquired a charter from the ruler of England,Queen Elizabeth I, granting it the sole rightto trade with the East. This meant that noother trading group in England couldcompete with the East India Company.With this charter, the Company couldventure across the oceans, looking for newlands from which it could buy goods at acheap price, and carry them back to Europeto sell at higher prices.Mercantilism

Mercantile is a business enterprise thatmakes profit primarily through trade.Trading companies in those days madeprofit primarily by excluding competition,so that they could buy cheap and sell athigher rates.

Aurangzeb was the last of the powerful Mughal rulers. He established controlover a very large part of the territory that is now known as India. After his death in1707 CE, many Mughal governors (subedars) and big zamindars began assertingtheir authority and establishing regional kingdoms.

Consequently, Delhi could no longer function as an effective centre. By the secondhalf of the eighteenth century, however, a new power was emerging on the politicalhorizon – the British. Did you know that the British originally came to India as asmall trading company? How then did they become the masters of a vast empire?

Fig 15.1 The headquarters of EastIndia Company in London

15

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The royalcharter, however,could notprevent otherE u r o p e a npowers fromentering theEastern markets.By the time thefirst Englishships saileddown the westcoast of Africa,round the Capeof Good Hope,

and crossed the Indian Ocean, thePortuguese had already established theirpresence in the western coast of India, andhad their base in Goa. It was Vasco da Gama,a Portuguese explorer, who had discoveredthis sea route to India in 1498. By the earlyseventeenth century, the Dutch (Holland)too were exploring the possibilities of tradein the Indian Ocean. Soon the Frenchtraders arrived on the scene.

The problem was that all the companieswere interested in buying the same goods.The fine qualities of cotton and silkproduced in India had a big market inEurope. Spices like pepper, cloves,cardamom and cinnamon too were in greatdemand. Competition among the Europeancompanies inevitably pushed up the pricesat which the goods were purchased. Tradewas carried out with arms and trading postswere protected through fortification. Thiseffort to fortify settlements and carry onprofitable trade led to intense conflict withthe local rulers.

Armed TradersEuropean traders formed their own

companies to trade in India. The Englishtraders formed the English East IndiaCompany while traders from France formedthe French East India Company. Bothcompanies fought against each other formany years to capture the trade in India. Eachmade efforts to drive the other away. They

brought armiesfrom England andFrance to help themin their fight. Thekings of Englandand France alsobacked theirrespective comp-anies and helpedthem in many ways.The companiesacquired land inIndia and built theirown forts to wagebattles against eachother.

Fig 15.2VascodaGama

Fig 15.3 A drawing of Machilipatnam from 1676

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The wealth that was accum-ulated in this way was one of themost important factors thatenabled England to developindustries and establish theirdominance in the world.

This was the time when Englandas well as some other Europeancountries like Spain, Portugal,France, Holland and Germany wereacquiring colonies in North andSouth America, Africa, and Asia.The colonies contributed to thepower and wealth of theseEuropean countries.

The Mughal emperors as well asmany rajas and nawabs began torealise how dangerous it was to letsuch traders maintain armies, buildforts, fight battles and use military forceto establish their economic power in theirkingdoms.

As long as the Mughal empire wasstrong, it had not been possible for theEuropean companies to establish their ownmilitary power in India. In fact, EmperorsShahjahan and Aurangzeb had fought anddefeated the European companies on anumber of occasions. However, some yearsafter the death of Aurangzeb, the differentprovinces of the empire became almostindependent and were ruled by theirrespective governors. Thus Bengal, Awadh(Lucknow) and Hyderabad becameindependent kingdoms which onlynominally acknowledged the MughalEmperor as their supreme.

Once the Mughal empire broke up intothese small kingdoms, the companies foundtheir chance to assert their power. Thoughthe rajas and nawabs wanted more trade,

they also tried to check the growing militarystrength of the companies.

For example, in 1764 CE, NawabAnwaruddin Khan of Arcot (in northernTamil Nadu) sent his army to fight againstthe French company. However, toeveryone’s astonishment, the small Frencharmy managed to defeat the large army ofthe Nawab. The European traders becamebolder after this victory and felt that theycould do whatever they wanted in Indiabecause of the strength of their armies.

How were the European armies differentfrom the armies of Indian rulers in the1700’s? The soldiers of European armieswere better trained and received higher andmore regular salaries. They also had bettercannons and guns. The European armiesheld parades and drills every day. With suchregular exercise, Indian soldiers enrolledin these armies also became quite skilledin battle.

Fig 15.4 Mughal Emperor Shah Alam grantedRobert Clive the right to rule Bengal

Establishment of the British Empire in India

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Growing European Interferencein the Kingdoms of India

The companies used their militaryadvantage to increase their profits fromtrade. On many occasions, when they sawtwo Indian rulers fighting amongthemselves, they would take sides and getinvolved in the fight. They would lend theirarmy to one side to help them defeat theirrivals. But, in return, the companies woulddemand and extract many trade concessionsfrom the rulers. The rulers also ‘gifted’ thecompanies large amounts of money inreturn for their military help. This moneyhelped the companies increase their tradeeven more.

For example, Dupleix, a governor of theFrench East India Company, helpedMuzaffar Jang to become the Nizam ofDeccan. In return, Muzaffar Jang gave theFrench some territories near Pondicherryand the town of Machilipatnam. He alsogave Rs. 50,000 to the Company, Rs.50,000 to the French troops, and Rs.20,00,000 and a Jagir worth Rs. 1,00,000per year to Dupleix.

The companies also began to acquiresmall parts of kingdoms as ‘gifts’ from thelocal rulers. They would collect land taxfrom the villages and towns in these areasand use the money for their tradingactivities. They also used this money formaintaining and improving their army.

Slowly, the English Company beganemerging victorious over the FrenchCompany in the struggle for dominance inIndia.

Misuse of the Company’sPower

The Indian rulers soon found that theburden of giving ‘gifts’ to the English EastIndia Company and bearing the expenses ofits army was becoming very heavy. Theywere also troubled by many other activitiesof the company.

Some Indian rulers exempted thecompany from paying taxes on many of thegoods it purchased from their kingdoms.However, people began taking advantage ofthese concessions. For example, employees

of the companywould do their ownprivate trading. Butthey would showtheir own goods asbelonging to thecompany to escapepaying taxes.

In this way, whilethe company gotricher, its emplo-yees and officersalso made a lot ofmoney in India and

Fig 15.5 Local boats bring goods from ships inMadras, painted by William Simpson, 1867

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returned home wealthy. Many Indian tradersand seths helped the company in its trade.They too showed their goods as belongingto the Company to escape paying taxes.

Thus, there was much looting andswindling taking place in the kingdomsunder the Company. So proud was theCompany of its military strength that itbegan working with great impudence. Itforced craftsmen to sell their goods at lowprices. In the areas it had acquired, thecompany tried to squeeze revenue from thepeasants beyond reasonable limits. Whenthe rulers protested against such practices,the English fought against them. They evenwent to the extent of dethroning the kingsand anointing successors who would beonly too willing to remove any obstaclesin the way of their trade.

Traders need money to buy thegoods they sell to others. List threesources of money that helped theEnglish to buy goods in India.What advantages did the Indianrulers get from the English?

The English Impose their RuleThe English gradually began to feel that

they could make fuller and freer use of Indiafor trade if they themselves ruled the country.So they starting removing the nawabs andrajas and started ruling themselves.

In 1757 CE, the English defeatedSirajuddaula, the Nawab of Bengal, at aplace called Plassey and established theirrule over Bengal. The Battle of Plassey isan important event in the Indian history.After that, the English started conqueringmany other kingdoms of India, big andsmall.

The English East India Company alsoforced the Nizam of Hyderabad to handover the coastal Andhra Pradesh districts(Krishna, East Godavari, West Godavari,Srikakulam, Vijayanagaram, PrakasamVisakhapatnam and Guntur) between theyears 1765-1768. These were known as the‘Northern Sarkars’ of the Madras provinceof the company. In return, the Englishagreed to maintain an army contingent forthe use of the Nizam. In fact, this army wasused more to control the Nizam rather thanto help him.

Many rajas and nawabs understood theBritish plot and fought hard against them.They included Haider Ali and Tipu Sultanof Mysore, the Maratha Sardar MahadajiShinde, Nana Phadnawis and others. Buttheir kingdoms were small. One by one,they lost them to the English.

Among those who played an importantrole in the British success on thebattlefield were Generals Robert Clive,Warren Hastings and Lord Wellesley.Slowly, large parts of India came under thedirect rule of the English. In many places,the rajas and nawabs continued to rule, butthey were under the sovereignty of theEnglish. An English official (known as the‘resident’) would be assigned to stay in thecourt of these kings or nawabs so that theBritish government could keep an eye onhow they ran their kingdoms.

While carrying on trade with India,why did the English East IndiaCompany start thinking ofestablishing its rule over thecountry?


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About1857 AD

About1770 AD

About1830 AD

Map 1 Map 2

Map 3

INDIA INDIA

INDIAMaps showing expansion of theBritish territorial power in India.

Look at these maps alongwith a present day politicalmap of India. In each ofthese maps, try to identifythe different parts of Indiathat were not under theBritish rule.How far did English rulespread by 1857? Make alist of those areas whereIndian kings still ruled in1857.

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Discontent with English RuleThe English had to fight with many kings

and nawabs to establish their rule. You willlearn more about their policies andadministration in later years. Theyconstantly faced resistance from thepeople of India.

The royal families resisted thembecause the English would anoint orremove rulers as and when it suited theirpurposes.

Farmers and landowners resisted thembecause the English imposed very hightaxes on them and collected the taxes verystrictly. So they lived in constant fear offailing to pay the taxes and losing their landsas a result.

Tribal people also offered resistance,because of the new rules and laws that the

English began implementing in their areas.As a result, many tribal people lost theirrights over jungles and land. You will readmore about this in the later years.

Many Hindus and Muslims feared thatthe English would destroy their faiths andconvert them to Christianity.

The English faced their toughest battlein 1857 when, for a few months, their rulewas uprooted over almost the entirenorthern Indian region. This revolt wasstarted by Indian sipahis or soldiers, whowere soon joined by royal families,landowners, farmers, tribal people andcraftsmen. The royal families who joinedthe revolt include Nana Sahib, the adoptedson of the peshwa, Tantia Tope, his general,the Begum of Awadh, and Rani Lakshmi Baiof Jhansi. Hindus and Muslims foughttogether against their common enemy.

The Revolt of 1857Place: The military cantonment at Meerut,

where the British army had campedDate: Sunday, May 10, 1857The sun was about to set when the Indian

soldiers began firing their guns on theirEnglish officers. These were the samesoldiers who had helped the English toconquer the kingdoms of India. They werenow fed up with the behaviour of theEnglish. They were not getting their salarieson time and they were not treated withrespect in the British army. On top of this,the sipahis suspected that the cartridges fortheir new guns (rifles) were coated with cowand pig fat to keep them dry. They felt thattheir religious faith was being violated.Based on this suspicion, a similar uprisinghad occurred at Barrackpur, near Kolkatain March 1857. The sense of discontent at

Meerut was widespread and on this day, thesoldiers opened fire on their Englishofficers. The rebellious soldiers marchedtowards Delhi that very night.

1) The soldier was supposed to tear open thepaper case with his teeth.

2) He would pour the gun powder into therifle.

3) He would then ram the bullet wrapped inpaper into the rifle.

1)

2)

3)

Fig 15.6 A - Loading a gun


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Place:Meerut townDate: Sundaynight - Monday,May 10-11,1857

Place: Delhi, the Lal QuilaDate: Monday, May 11, 1857

Fig 15.8 A view of Delhi in1857 showing the pontoonbridge the soldiers used to

cross the Yamuna.

Fig 15.7 A view of Sipahi revolt at Meerut in 1857

News of the sipahi revolt spreadlike wildfire in Meerut. A wave ofpeople came from the bazaar andbegan attacking the bungalows ofthe English. Policemen joined themobs and before long, thebungalows and offices of theEnglish were set an fire. ManyEnglish people were killed.

By daybreak, the sipahis of Meeruthad crossed the Yamuna and reachedDelhi. They entered the Lal Quila whereBadshah Bahadur Shah Zafar of theMughal dynasty was imprisoned by theEnglish. They declared him their badshahand persuaded him to reject thesovereignty of the British. ‘Drive out theEnglish and bring back Mughal rule’ wasthe clarion call of the rebels.

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The Revolt SpreadsNo sooner did this call go out,

revolts against the Englisherupted in many places. Sipahiswent on a rampage in thecantonments at Aligarh,Mainpuri, Bulandshahar, Attockand Mathura. The English werebadly shaken. Their situationwas, indeed, very delicate.

There were a mere 45,000 Englishofficers and soldiers in India. Against this,the number of Indian soldiers in their armywas two lakh and thirty two thousand! It wasthese very sipahis who revolted. So, whowould now protect the lives and propertyof the English residents in the towns? TheIndian sections of their army could not berelied on. Consequently, many Englishsoldiers were held back to protect theEnglish families. As a result, the revoltcould not be suppressed immediately andit spread from place to place.

Many royalfamilies, whosekingdoms hadbeen taken awayby the English,joined the revolt.Among themwere the formerNawab of Awadhand the Marathapeshwa Nana

Sahib. Armies ofrebel sipahis and rulers from differentcorners of the country marched towardsDelhi. People were helping them for drivingout the English so to establish their rule intheir respective provinces.


Fig 15.9 Jhansi Lakshmi Bai - Fighting with theBritishers

FIg 15.10 Nana Saheb

Turrebaz Khan

Hyderabad was not silent as it sufferedunder the colonial policies. Among othersTurrebaz Khan was a revolutionary whofought against the British in HyderabadState during the revolt of 1857. He, withthe support of Moulvi Allauddin, mobilized6,000 people and attacked the BritishResidency, present day Women’s College,Koti. He revolted at a time when the Nizamsupported the British. However themovement was suppressed and TurrebazKhan was executed.

Discuss why the idea of the Mughalempire brought the rebelling Indianpeople together.When you oppose something, youneed an alternative in its place.Think of an example from yourexperience that brings out this needof an alternative.

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Revolt in Every VillageThe flames of revolt spread from kasba

to kasba and village to village in UttarPradesh and Bihar. The peasants andzamindars took up arms together and hadthe English and their officers on the run.They stopped paying taxes to the Britishgovernment. They tore up railway lines,burnt down police stations, courts, post &telegraph offices and uprooted thetelegraph wires. All these were the newservices that the English had introduced inIndia. As defeat stared the English in theirfaces, the Indian people became more andmore courageous in their fight against theBritish rule.

The rebels looted the houses and burntthe documents of many moneylenders.These moneylenders had become verypowerful in the villages with the help ofEnglish laws.The Revolt is Suppressed

Despite the widespread success of therevolt, the English slowly gained controlover the situation.

The rebels fought bravely. But, therewere two major weaknesses among them.

In every town or region, different groupsof rebels fought separately against theEnglish. They did not fight together. Therewas no combined and well-planned effort.So the English were able to tackle therebels one by one in each area.

The rebels also faced a shortage ofmodern arms. The guns and cannons,cartridges and gunpowder they requiredwere brought from outside India.Consequently, the rebels had to fight withold guns, arrows, spears and swords. Howlong could such weapons last in a contestagainst the more modern arms?

Even then, the speed with which therevolt spread frightened the English. Sothey behaved with greaterr crueltywhenever they suppressed a rebel group.They killed the rebels in a most inhumanways and hanged their bodies from trees inthe villages so that the village folk would‘understand’ the consequences of revolt.

They tied some rebels to the mouths ofcannons and blew them to bits. Many rebelswent into hiding, moving from place toplace to avoid being caught by the English.Many of them even went to places likeNepal to hide.

The English deported Emperor BahadurShah Zafar to a far away location in Rangoonand it was there that the last Mughalemperor died. The revolt of 1857 was thebiggest revolt to challenge the might of theEnglish. After suppressing it, their holdover India became stronger and they ruledthe country for the next 90 years.

Choose the correct alternative:a) The rebels of 1857 CE wanted to

(restore/remove)_________Mughal rule.Fig 15.11 Hanging the rebels.

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b) The weakness of the English armywas that most of its soldiers were(Europeans/Indians)_________.What were the weaknesses of therebel Indian armies?

After the RevoltIt took the English more than a year to

suppress the revolt of 1857. During thisperiod, they changed many of their policiesand adopted new ones. In 1858, QueenVictoria of England made an importantdeclaration. She said Indian kings shouldrule their own kingdoms without anxietybecause the English would not try todethrone them.

In this way, they established a closecollaboration with the royal families ofIndia. Similarly, the zamindars, too, weregiven many concessions and were assuredthat their property would be protected.

The pundits and maulvis were assuredthat the British government would notinterfere in matters relating to Indianreligions and would let the old traditionscontinue. There was also a promise thatIndians would be included in thegovernment. The truth is that the Englishhad seen their Indian empire being snatchedaway in 1857. Now, they directed theirefforts towards giving all kinds ofconcessions to the elite powerful Indians,to conciliate them and ensure that theycontinued to support the English.Hyderabad State and the British

As with other kingdoms of the time,Hyderabad too came under the influenceof the English East India Company.Eventually, the British placed their Residentin Hyderabad who oversaw the entireadministration of the state. The Nizam hadto appoint his Prime Minister or Dewan on

Fig 15.12 Bahadur Shah Zafar and his sons being arrested by Captain Hodson. After Aurangzeb,there was no powerful Mughal ruler, but Mughal emperors continued to be symbolically important.When rebellion against British rule broke out in 1857, Bahadur Shah Zafar, the Mughal emperorat the time, was seen as the natural leader. Once the revolt was suppressed by the company, he wasforced to leave the kingdom, and his sons were shot down in cold blood.


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1. Why did the European trading companies maintain armies in India? What role did these armiesplay in the business of the companies?

2. How could the European armies defeat the Indian armies in the 1700’s and 1800’s?3. Collect the information of 1857 revolt and fill in the table with the particulars.

4. In 1857, which soldiers felt their religious faith was being violated, and why?5. In what ways did people revolt against the British in 1857?6. What did the people who revolted in 1857 want to achieve?7. What complaints of the rebels did Queen Victoria tried to address in her 1858 declaration?8. What are the similarities and differences between the ways the Mughals and the English came to

power in India?9. Locate the sea route of Vascodagama from Portugal to India in the map.10. Write a short note on the need of Unity to avert foreign invasion.11. Express your dissatisfaction towards the rule of Britishers.


the advice of the Resident and with theapproval of the British Governor General.All the departments had to be headed byICS (Indian Civil Services) officersselected by the British. In this way, theBritish were able to gain complete controlover the Nizam’s state. They graduallypushed the state to adopt the administrativesystem and policies followed by the Britishin other areas too.

If you go to Hyderabad, you will see thefamous Salarjang Museum which housesthe various articles collected by Salar Jangwho was one such Diwan of Hyderabad. Heintroduced many reforms and contributedto the economic development of theHyderabad state. He divided the kingdomsinto Subhas and districts after removing theold Deshmukhs etc. He abolished therevenue farming system and insteadorganised direct collection of revenue

from the farmers by district officials. TheJudicial reforms included the creation ofSupreme Court, High court and Districtcourts. Separate Civil and Criminal courtswere also established. To facilitatetransport, Salarjung improved the railwaysand roads. Important railway lines connectedHyderabad to Wadi, Madras to Sholapur andMadras to Bombay. English Mediumschools, like Dar-ul-Ulm at Chadarghat in1855, City College, Deccan EngineeringCollege in 1870 and Madarsa-i-Aliya werealso established.These reforms helpedHyderabad to emerge as a modern state inline with the rest of the country.Keywords :

1. Royal Charter 2. Subedar3. Sole right 4. Demand5. Jagir 6. Cantonment7. Colonies 8. Maulvies

People participated in the revolt People stayed away from the revoltS.No.

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CH

APT

ER Making of Lawsin the State Assembly16

So far, we have been reading about how people managed their public affairs – howthey ruled or were ruled. We studied about tribal societies which were small and whichmanaged all their public affairs through consultation in meetings and had a headmanwho carried out the decisions. In kingdoms and empires, we saw how these matters weredecided by Kings and their officials, how kings fought with each other to gain control overmore people and lands. We also saw how chiefs and warriors controlled the lives of peopleand levied taxes on them at their will. They used the money to build large palacesfor themselves, to fight wars and also to build some public utilities like tanks, canals andtemples or mosques. We also saw how the British established their power so as to exploitthe resources of our country and how this was resisted by our people.

Today, we do not have any kings or warriors ruling us. We became independent of theBritish rule more than 70 years ago. So how do we rule ourselves now? You know that thereare MPs, MLAs, Ministers, Chief Ministers and higher officials. Are they like the kings ofolden times? Can they do what they please? No, modern governments are run according tolaws. No one is above the law and all ministers and officials have to function according tolaws. But who makes the laws?How are the laws made? Arethey made as per the whims ofthe rulers? No, the laws aremade by the LegislativeAssemblies and theParliament. The Constitutionof India lays down how thesebodies can make laws. Theymake laws according to someprocedures. In this chapter, wewill read in detail about howstate legislatures make laws. Fig 16.1 Telangana -Assembly

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Here is a news item - let us try to understand what is being said in it about AndhraPradesh Prohibition of Smoking and Health Protection Act 2002

Newspaper articles are often writtenwith the assumption that they are readby adults. So first, find out themeanings of the words –conviction, allayed, appre-hension, pursuance, contra-vening, implementation.

In the context of the above newsitem, fill in the following

1) A _____ was passed to prohibitsmoking in public places (bill,custom, law, rule).

2) Prohibition of smoking does notinclude _______ (place of work,public vehicles, private garden, busstand).

3) The legislation was in order to_________ the directions fromSupreme Court (silence, punish,follow, dismiss).

4) The bill was passed in the ______(Supreme Court, Ministry,Collectorate, Assembly).

Does the newspaper article suggestthat everyone had the same opinionabout the bill?

What are the provisions forpunishment mentioned in thenewspaper?

The Constitution of India provides fora Legislature for every State. Thelegislature of every State consists of the

The Andhra Pradesh StateLegislative Assembly onWednesday passed a billproviding for prohibition ofsmoking in places of publicwork or public use and in publicservice vehicles. It also providesfor conviction and levying of finesranging from Rs. 100 to Rs.1,000 on those who contravenethe provisions.

Some of the concerns expressedby the Opposition membersinclude implementation of banon sale of cigarettes within 100

Bill for ban on public smoking passedOur Special CorrespondentHYDERABAD, MARCH 27.

metres of educationalinstitutions, sale to thosebelow 18 years andprohibition of advertisementof cigarettes. Others spoke ofthe effect it would have on thelivelihood of tobacco farmersand pan shop owners. TheMinister allayed theirapprehensions.

The Minister said thelegislation was necessary inview of the harmful effects ofsmoking on the health ofpeople and in pursuance of the

Supreme Court directionsgiven on November 2, 2001.Those contravening Sections5, 6 and 10 relating to ban onsmoking in public places andpublic service vehicles anddisplay of no smoking board,would be punishable with afine, which may extend to Rs.100 and for second orsubsequent offence with a fineof Rs. 200 which may extendto Rs. 500.Adapted from The HinduMarch 27-02

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Governor and one or two Houses. Thelegislatures in the State are eitherbicameral (consisting of two Houses) orunicameral (consisting of one House). TheLower House is always known as theLegislative Assembly and the Upper House,wherever it exists, as the LegislativeCouncil. At present, very few States havebicameral legislature.

Legislative AssemblyThis is the most important body for

making laws in a state. State Governamentsare responsible for implementing theselaws and formulating policies for thewelfare of the state, is largely composed

of Members of the Assembly. StateAssembly members (MLAs) are electedby the people just as panchayat membersare elected.

The normal tenure of the LegislativeAssembly of every State is for five yearsbut it may be dissolved earlier by theGovernor. Likewise, its term can beextended by one year at a time by theParliament during a National emergency.

The State Legislature must meet at leasttwice a year and the interval between anytwo sessions should not be more than sixmonths.

Making of Laws in the State Assembly

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Assembly ConstituencyEach member of assembly is elected

from a constituency. The number ofconstituencies in a state will depend uponits population. Telangana State has 119constituencies . A constituency in Telanganahas about 1,70,000 voters. You mayremember that all men and women of 18years of age or above have the right to vote.They have to get their names registered asvoters in the area where they live. All votersof one constituency will vote to elect onemember for the Assembly.

Each constituency comprises of anumber of villages, towns and cities. A bigcity like Hyderabad is divided into thirteenconstituencies. Look at the map ofTelangana. You can see that districts whichhave larger population have moreconstituencies while those with lesspopulation have fewer constituencies.

Election of MLAElection Commission can cunduct the

Election of all state assemblies Usually,election to the state legislative assemblyare held once in every five years. Personsaspiring to become MLAs contest theseelections. Various political parties fieldtheir candidates. There are also individualswho contest the elections but do not belongto any political party. They are known as“Independents”. To contest elections, aperson must be a citizen of India, and should

have completed twenty five years of age.He or she should not hold any office ofprofit under the State or Centralgovernment and should possess such otherqualifications as may be prescribed by law.

In elections, political parties play amajor role. All political parties andcandidates come out with electionmanifestos. These manifestos aredescriptions of programmes that theyintend to undertake and promises that arerelevant to the local context. The candidatesand their supporters conduct campaigns byholding meetings and visiting the votersdoor to door.

Make a list of the active politicalparties in your area and in yourstate along with their symbols

Imagine that you were to contestelections from your district,prepare an Election Manifesto– your promises to the people ofthe constituency.Some people feel that contestingin elections requires spendinghuge amounts of money, which ispossible only for very rich people.Do you agree with this?If, only rich people are able tocontest elections, how will itaffect the decisions taken in theAssembly?

In Telangana, laws are made by the state legislature, which has two chambers:

Chamber Member Short FormLegislative Assembly Member of Legislative Assembly MLA

Legislative Council Member of Legislative Council MLC

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On the election day,people vote one by one.The officer in the boothis responsible forchecking the identity ofthe voters. In mostcases, the ElectionCommission has givenVoter Identity Cards to allthe voters. These cardshave to be shown tothe officer. The voters donot reveal whom they voted for; it is a secret ballot. Election Commission uses BallotBoxes or Electronic voting machines in Election Process for casting votes.

Here are some images (Fig 16.2 ) from a calendar published by ElectionCommission. They show different aspects of elections in India from different times.Based on these images, discuss with your teacher or elders the changes that haveoccurred during the last many years.

Why do you think voting has to be kept a secret?Examine the Photo Identity Card of your parents and prepare an imaginary IdentityCard for you with all the details.

Fig 16.2


Fig 16.3 Model Voter Id & E.V.M.SCERT TELANGANA


After voting, all votes are counted on ascheduled date and candidate who securesthe highest number of the votes is declaredelected.

Suppose, on a constituency,1,50,000 votes were polled.Following is the number of votespolled for various candidates. Whodo you think will be declared aselected?

Ellamma 45,000Raghavulu 44,000Narasimha 16,000Gulam Mohammad 20,000Badeyya 15,000Pooja 10,000

To what extent do you think thiswinning candidate really representsthe opinions and needs of thepeople of the constituency?

Find out with the help of yourteacher:

The name of yourconstituency______________

Identify three other constituenciesin your district ___________________________________

The name of the MLA__________

_________________________

Identify the reservedconstituencies in your district_________________________

Name the members of the familywho voted in the last elections________,____

Formation of GovernmentLook at Table 1. It shows the results

after an assembly election.

We see that the “Political Party A” got75 winning candidates. This party has amajority. Majority in any assembly is morethan half of the seats. If any law has to bemade, they can easily get it passed, as morethan half the members will support it.

The majority members will elect onemember among themselves as their leader.He or she will be made the Chief Ministerof the state by the Governor. The ChiefMinister will select the MLAs from theparty to be ministers. Together, they willbe called the Cabinet (or ministry). Inpopular terms, the Cabinet is also calledthe ‘Government’. The Cabinet isresponsible for implementation of thelaws, for preparing and passing new lawsand welfare schemes in the Assembly.

1 Political Party - A 75

2 Political Party - B 17

3 Political Party - C 10

4 Political Party - D 7

5 Political Party - E 6

6 Political Party - F 4

Total 119

PoliticalParty

No. of CandidatesElected

Table1

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Council of MinistersThe Chief Minister allots different

ministries to the members of the Cabinet- he or she makes someone the FinanceMinister, the Education Minister or theHome Minister, and so on. The Ministerdirects the policies in the departmentsunder his or her charge. These policiesare implemented according to the rulesby officials of the departments. Theministry is responsible for preparingpolicies and plans which are thensubmitted to the Assembly for approval.After the approval of the Assembly, theministry formulates rules and methods forimplementing them and takes action toimplement them.

While each ministry worksindependently, major policies are decidedupon by the cabinet. So, if anything goeswrong, cabinet and especially the ChiefMinister is held responsible for it. Thecabinet also takes credit for the good workdone during their tenure.

The State AssemblyAll the MLAs together elect a person

as the Speaker. The Speaker conducts theAssembly meetings – he or she decideswhat should be discussed, when and whowill speak and in what order. If any onedisobeys, Speaker has the power to punishthem.

As mentioned above, the Assembly hasto approve all the laws, policies andlevying of taxes by the government.Before giving approval, the membersdiscuss the proposals very carefully anddifferent points of views are expressed.Thus, the benefits and ill-effects of such

1 Political Party - Abcd 45

2 Political Party - Mnop 33

3 Political Party - Wxyz 26

4 Political Party - Stuv 15

Total 119

PoliticalParty

No. of CandidatesElected

Table3

Look at Table 1 showing results ofanother assembly elections inanother state with 119Constituencies. Which party couldhave formed the Government?

If the seats among v a r i o u sparties are distributed as in Table3, how could a new government beformed? Discuss with your teacher.

In case, no single party gets more thanhalf of the seats, two or more politicalparties come together to form aGovernment. It is called coalitionGovernment.


Website of Telangana Election Commissionhttp://ceotelangana.nic.in/

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measures are discussed in great detail.These are also reported through newspapersand TV to the public.

The MLAs also keep track of all thedevelopments in their constituencies andplace the problems of the people beforethe Assembly. The minister of theconcerned department has to makeenquiries and find suitable solutions. Theministers and the cabinet, including theChief Minister, are answerable to theAssembly – that is, they have to answer anyquestions raised by a member with regardto their work. If the answer is notsatisfactory, the members may force theconcerned minister to resign.

Legislative Council of Telangana

Untill 2014, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh formed a single state. The state of AndhraPradesh had two houses. The second house is called the Legislative Council. It has been inexistence in two spells from 1958-1985 and from 2007 till today. It is a permanent house.

Telangana Legislative Council consists of 40 members. Members of this house, knownas MLCs are elected for six years. After every two years, one-third of its members retire.To contest in this house, a person should be a citizen of India and above 30 years of age.He or She should not hold any office of profit under the State or Indian government andmust possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by the Parliament. TheComposition is as follows:

14 members (1/3) are elected by the MLA’s.14 members (1/3) are elected by the members who were elected toLocal Bodies like panchayats and municipalities.3 members (1/12) are elected from Graduates.3 members (1/12) are elected from Teachers.6 members (1/6) are nominated by the Governor.

In order to make any law in the state, it has to be approved by both the houses.

Governor :The Governor of a state is appointed by the President of India. Her/his job isto ensure that the state government functions according to the Constitution of India.The Governor appoints the Chief Minister and other members of the council of ministers.The constitution vests in the Governor all the executive powers of the State government.Find out who is the governor of Telangana.

The Making of LawsHow do the assemblies make laws?

Usually, laws are drafted by the ruling partyas it alone has the majority support in theAssembly to pass them. However, on someissues, a member can also propose a lawand it can be adopted if the majoritysupports it. Let us look at the procedurefor making a law in detail.

Before a law is passed, the proposed lawis called a ‘Bill’. After being passed by boththe chambers and after the approval of theGovernor, it becomes a law and is calledan ‘Act’ of the state legislature.

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The minister who brings the Bill willdescribe in detail the reasons for the newlaw in the Assembly. There will be a lot ofdiscussion and sometimes opposition fromdifferent MLAs. There could besuggestions to improve the provisions in theBill. A small committee consisting of bothruling party and opposition members is setup to discuss these suggestions. After takingall such aspects and necessary changes intoaccount, it will be first approved by theCabinet. Then, it will be placed before theAssembly for voting. If more than half themembers of the Vidhan Sabha accept thebill, it will be passedand taken to theVidhan Parishad. Ifthe Vidhan Parishadpasses it, then it willbe sent to theGovernor forapproval. After his orher approval, the billwill be called anAct and published ingazettee.

2

3 1

4

6

5

Fig 16.4

System of ReservationIt has been observed that it is very difficult for weaker sections of the population, like

the dalits or adivasis, to fight and win elections. As such, very few of them get elected tothe assemblies. In order to ensure that they are adequately represented in the Assemblies,the Indian Constitution reserve certain constituencies for the Scheduled Castes andScheduled Tribes.Reserved Constituencies in Telangana State Legislative Assembly:

Total Number of Constituencies : 119Constituencies Reserved for SCs : 19Constituencies Reserved for STs: 12Nominated Person from Anglo Indian Community : 1

Many people feel that similar reservation of seats for women too should be ensured.What do you feel?

Discussions in the AssemblyLet us read an imaginary example of

the discussions that can take place in theLegislative Assembly.

MLA (1) : Honourable Speaker, dueto lack of rain for the past three years, thegroundwater level in my constituency hasdecreased too much. The Government hasnot taken any steps in this regard. Moreover,there has been an increase in the numberof borewells. I wish to know from theHonourable Minister the steps being takenfor underground water conservation.


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MLA (2): Hon. Speaker, yes it is true.The situation in my constituency is no better.The work of the officials is not satisfactory.The people have to walk a long distanceto fetch drinking water.

MLA (3): Hon. Speaker, theGovernment should provide money tostrengthen the bunds of the tanks, removethe silt, and should take suitable steps tostore the rain water during rainy seasons.Moreover, trees should be planted on thebunds to prevent breaching of the tankbunds.

MLA (4): Hon. Speaker, theGovernment is aware of the situation. It hasalready taken up the necessary measuresto prevent further damage. The Mandalsaffected by the depletion of groundwaterhave been identified.

MLA (5) : Hon. Speaker, theopposition should appreciate the stepstaken and should offer constructivesuggestions.They should not unnecessarilycriticise the Government. Bunds were builton the hill slopes in my constituencies andas a result, there has been considerablerise in the level of groundwater in myconstituency. Government officials arewithin the reach of the people.

MLA (6) : Hon. Speaker, the Industrialunits in my area are discharging pollutedwater into the river and it has adverseeffects on the health of the people. I wouldlike to know the steps being taken by thegovernment in this regard since drinkingwater is a serious issue in my constituency.

Minister: Hon’ble Speaker, theGovernment has great concern for thehealth of the people. It has taken up all theremedial and protective measures in thedrought prone mandals. Development oftanks, plantation of trees, and banning sandmining are some of them. The Governmenttakes into consideration the suggestionsof the honourable members and alsoseeks the support of all for the successfulimplementation of the programme.

What would be your response onthe above issue if you were anMLA?

What is the difference between therole of a ruling party MLA and anopposition party MLA?

The Government of India passedtwo acts for the protection ofchildren. They are :

1) POCSO Act - 2012 (Protection ofchildren from sexual offences Act,2012. This act ensures children’s wellbeing and safety.

2) The Juvenile Justice (care andProtection of childern) Act, 2015.

This act ensures protection to thechildren in conflict with law and thosein need of care and protection (orphansand others). For such children the actprovides education, health, nutrition,counselling etc., to help them assumea constructive role in the society.

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157Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Making of Laws in the State Assembly

1. Name a few areas related to the day to day lives of ordinary people on which laws should bemade.

2. Your school belongs to the department of School Education. Find out some laws which areapplicable to your school (students, teachers, headmaster/ principal/ PTA).

3. There is a law that no child in the age group of 6 to14 should remain out of school. Whatsteps should be taken to implement this law? Discuss among yourselves with the help of yourteacher.

4. Read the para under the sub heading ‘The making of laws’ and answer the question givenbelow. Suppose you are a member of the Telangana Legislative Assembly, which issue willyou raise for the making of law and why? Explain with an example.

5. Suppose there is a state under the name of Purabgarh with MLA seats of 368. After an election, differentpolitical parties got seats as shown below:

Party A = 89Party B = 91Party C = 70Party D = 84Others = 34Total = 368

Read the above table and answer the following questions:a) Of the 368 seats, how many seats are needed for getting a majority to form the government in the state?b) Which is the single largest party?c) Can the single largest party form the government? If not, what can be the alternatives to form the

government?d) How would a coalition government be different from a one party government?

6. At present, very few States in our country have a bicameral legislature. Can you name them?7. Locate the Assembly constituencies of your district in your district map (Take the help of map.1).8. Write an imaginary dialogue for the following picture in the context of the chapter.


Keywords :1. Manifesto 2. Cabinet 3. Speaker

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CH

APT

ER Implementation of Lawsin the District

In the previous chapter, we read about how laws are made and how welfareand development programmes are carried out. But how are they implemented? Doyou think people elect those who implement laws? Do you think once the laws aremade, people implement them themselves? In these chapter, we would read abouthow these things are done.

i. Building dams and canalsii. Supplying electricity to housesiii. Running ration shopsiv. Running trainsv. Printing currency notesvi. Collecting taxes from peoplevii. Preventing child labour, child sexual abuse and educating all childrenviii. Defending the borders of the countryix. Identifying those below the poverty line and implementing schemes

for their benefitx. Preventing people from stealing from other people’s houses

You may have heard of many kinds of government functionaries.Can you name a few and discuss what they do?

We saw in the last chapter that there arevarious departments of the government tocarry out various kinds of activities. Thesedepartments are under the control ofministers, but they have a large number ofofficials who carry out the orders of thegovernment. Some of these officials areposted in the state capital like Hyderabadfrom where they plan the implementation

in all parts of the state. At the same time,the entire state is divided into a number ofdistricts and most departments have theiroffices for the implementation of thegovernment’s laws and plans. There are 31districts in Telangana.

What is the name of your districtand where is its headquarters?

17

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NallavaramGaripalli

MallepalliNarasapetGurthur

Fig 17.1 Nallavaram District

Each file deals with the activities ofdifferent departments. She reads them andwrites her comments or orders on them. Itis about 3.00 PM when Manisha Naglefinishes looking at the files. From 3.00 PM.to 4.30 PM everyday, she meets the peopleof the district. People from all the villagescome to meet her with their problems.

Some farmers of Mallepalli Mandal hadcome to discuss the problem of absenceof irrigation in their village. Their tankswere dry for two years. The crops failedthis year. They wanted to know if their loanscould be waived and if they could get somerepair work on tank bund. In theneighbouring villages, tank bunds wererepaired. They wanted such work to be donein their village as well.

Manisha Nagle told them that since theirvillage was not in the state list of droughtaffected areas they could not get any loanwaiver. Collector suggested that theyapproach the MLA and present theirproblems. She promised to instruct theconcerned department to attend to the tankbund of the village.

At 5.00 A.M., on the next morning, theCollector received a phone call from a townin Narasapet Mandal. The cotton stored atthe ginning mill caught fire in the night.People were trying to put out the fire. Thefire service had already reached the area. Itwas necessary to ensure that fire did notspread to the neighbouring areas. Nagleimmediately left for Narasapet Mandal. Shecalled the Superintendent of Police and thecivil surgeon and asked them to go along.

The Collector reached Narasapet ataround 7.00 AM and went straight to thecotton ginning mill. A lot of cotton had

Each district has a District Collector andMagistrate who coordinates the work of allthe departments in the district. Let us learnmore about their work.The District Collector &Magistrate of Nallavaram

Here is an imaginary district ofNallavaram. This district has the followingMandals - Garipalli, Mallepalli, Narasapet,Gurthur. The office of the districtmagistrate of the Nallavaram is inNallavaram town.

The district magistrate, Manisha Nagle,reaches her office at 10:30 every morning.At 11:30 today, there is a meeting of theofficers of all the departments in the office.The heads of all the departments have comefor the meeting. The Collector asks thehead of each department about the progressof the work during the previous month. Shealso asks them about the problems they facein the work. The meeting continued tillabout 2 O’clock in the afternoon.

After the meeting, Manisha Nagle goesthrough the files. There is a stack of files.

Implementation of Laws in the District

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been destroyed but the fire was now undercontrol. The Municipal Chairperson and thepolice officers were also there. TheCollector asked them about the extent ofdamage. The Chairperson told her that twolabourers in the mill had suffered severeburns and had been admitted to the hospital.A few houses nearby had also been burntdown.

Nagle announced a compensation of tenthousand rupees each to the owners of thehouses, which were burnt and promised toinquire into the causes of fire. TheCollector then visited the injured labourersat the hospital. She also announced a reliefpayment of twenty thousand rupees each tothe two labourers.

On the way back, she visited theMunicipal Office. It was pointed out thatdue to encroachment in many parts of thecity, the fire engine arrived late. Sidewalkson the roads were encroached by shopkeepers. Many houses and other offices hadillegally extended their boundary wallsbeyond the permitted limits. This wasleading to traffic jams in many parts of thetown. She talked to the Municipal Officials

and asked them to take strict actions duringthe next few weeks and report to her at thenext monthly meeting. Manisha Naglereached Nallavaram only after it was dark.

Nallavaram is an imaginary district. Butwhat you saw the Collector of Nallavaramdoing is the work that they are expected todo in every district.

What explanation did the Collectorgive for not waiving the loan for thefarmers?Who were the other officialsmentioned in the incidents?Who were the non-officialsmentioned in the above incidents?

Tahsildar (MRO) and VillageRevenue Officers

You may have noted that Nallavaramdistrict is divided into different Mandals.There are many villages in each of theseMandals. In the map, you can see thatNallavaram is divided into many Mandals.Many villages together form a Mandal. Justlike in the district headquarter, there aredifferent offices at the Mandal. There areMandal Officers of Development, Revenue,Education, agriculture, and so on.

Find out your Mandal in the districtmap.Find out some of the Mandals inyour district map.

Fig 17.2 District Collectorat the cotton factory.

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Among others, theRevenue Officer keeps theland records. If you live ina village or own land, youmay know that your parentshave some record for theland that is owned by them.Land all over the country ismeasured and thisinformation is kept in theseoffices. They also havemaps of the land showingland owned by differentpeople, showing crops,tanks, drainages, wells,neighbouring plots, roads,hillocks, and so on. These documentsbecome extremely useful. If there is adispute between the boundaries of landowned by two individuals, maps and writtendocuments can be used for settling it. Or,if someone buys or sells the land, thisinformation needs to be written in thisoffice as well. These maps also haverecords of the forest or uncultivatedgrazing lands. So if someone encroachesinto these lands, they can be evicted.

It is the responsibility of the VillageRevenue Officer and Mandal RevenueOfficer to keep track of these records ofthe land. For this purpose, ‘mee seva’services are utilized and various certificatesare being issued by this centre. They alsohave the responsibility for updating andissuing ration cards.

How Laws are Implemented?To understand this, first we need to

understand an actual law. In the previouschapters, we have read about thesignificance of groundwater and how it has

historically been important in ouragricultural development. We also haveperennial rivers and forest areas. Yet today,we find that in many parts of Telangana,borewells are dug up to 1,500 feet or more.In the long run, it may not be viable to havesuch system of irrigation, or drinking water.

Andhra Pradesh Water, Land andTrees Protection Act, 2002

It is important to protect theseresources for the benefit and survival of thenext generations. In this connection, theGovernment of Andhra Pradesh enacted theAndhra Pradesh Water, Land and TreesProtection Act in 2002. It is beingimplemented since 19-04-2002. Some ofthe features of this law are:

a. Permission from Mandal RevenueOfficer is essential to drill/ dig newwells.

b. Specific depth and distance shouldbe maintained between the wells toavoid unnecessary competition.

Fig 17.3 Villagers verifying the land records at‘mee seva kendra’


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c. Steps to prevent wastage of rainwater.

d. Industrial units should have wastewater treatment plants.

e. Protection of drinking water.

f. In the regions affected bygroundwater depletion, sandquarrying from river beds isprohibited.

g. Social forestry to be taken up onlarge scale.

h. Cutting trees without permission isprohibited. When one tree is cut,two saplings should be planted.

After the law was passed, governmentformed an authority to implement the act.It was called the Water, Land and TreesProtection Authority or WALTA. If youlook carefully, in order to implement a lawlike this, it is necessary that differentdepartments of the government worktogether. You can note that the forestdepartment has to be taken into account,because forests are important for savingwater and the department in charge ofIndustry to ensure that the factories are notpolluting water.

So we can build a table such as thefollowing to show how different personsin the government could be responsible forimplementing the law:

Department

Groundwater Department

Municipal Administration &Urban Development Department

Mines and Geology Department

Forest Department

Subject

Registration of Rigs, Sand Mining, classificationof Groundwater basins, etc.

Construction of Rain-water harvestingstructures, tree planting, permission forconstruction of new buildings.

Monitoring Sand Mining in water bodies

Granting permission for felling trees

Now, if this law is properly implemented, what will it mean? Considering thefollowing possibilities, can you identify which departments will be responsible if theiractivities are to be evaluated – it is possible that there are more is one department whichlooks at them:

Satyavathi is a farmer who wants to dig a new bore well, but there is another borewell in her neighbouring land. What are the rules she has to follow?Padmanabham wants to build a new house and and wants to get sand from the riverbed near the house. For this, whose permission is required?Apparao is a contractor who wants to start a stone quarry near the forest. Fromwhich departments should he take the permission.

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Thus, in a democratic country like oursthere are different roles played by electedrepresentatives and appointed governmentofficials. In many ways, these are differentfrom the way kings and priests dictateddifferent aspect of our lives. That is not tosay that all the different forms ofmarginalisation, disparities and discrimi-nation have been removed from the society.But we can work towards achieving them.

1. Make a list of activities done by the District Collector.

2. Correct the following statements :

a. Law is implemented by the elected representatives.

b. The Collector is in charge of a Mandal.

c. People approach the Mandal Development Officer to solve the problems of the entire district.

d. Tahsildar keeps the record of land revenue.

3. Read the first two paragaphs of (page 160) Tahsildar and Village Revenue officers and answerthe question given below.

Why do you think are the land records kept at village and mandal levels?

4. Compare the roles of people who make laws with those who implement them in the followingaspects:

a) has to contest elections; b) are part of different departments of government;

c) responsible for making laws; d) responsible for implementing laws;

e) usually elected for 5 years; f) are appointed into jobs;

Keywords :

1. Magistrate

2. Tahsildar

3. Law implementation

4. VRO

5. Ginning



Member of Legislative Assembly Persons in Administration

5. Here is another brief description of Manisha Nagle. Read this carefully and compare it withthe text given under the head “Mansabdar’s and Jagirdars” in chapter 14 and “Captains of the

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Item Government Amara Nayakas Mansabdars employees

Process of selection

Paid through

troops’ - The amaranayakas” in Chapter 13 and fill the following table.

Manisha Nagle has been the Collector of Nallavaram for the last 5 months. Earlier, she worked as theDeputy Secretary in the Ministry of Public Health Department in the state capital. It is possible that shemay be transferred as a Collector of another district or taken back to the State Secretariat. She is anemployee of the Indian Government. Often, some of them have to go to Delhi and work for thecentral government. All the officers like Manisha Nagle are selected through an examination conductedby the government.

6. Colour the mandals surrounding your mandal in your district map.

Discussion:Organise a programme of “student’s interaction with revenue officials” (Tahasildar/MandalRevenue Inspector/Village Revenue Office) about - “The implementation of Laws”.

Project:

1. Interview your teacher, or any government school teacher to get the following details:

When was she or he appointed?

To which department of the government does she/he report?

Has the teacher been transferred?

How are they promoted or punished? Who is responsible for their salaries?

If they have any complaints about their working conditions, whom do they report themto?

2. What has been their experience in implementing the new rules/ programmes like ensuring enrollmentof children, mid-day meals; or any other program? Make a presentation of your findings in theclassroom.

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Caste system has created one of the major forms of inequality in our country. Forcenturies, people have fought against this discrimination and our constitution too strivesto end it. Elimination of caste discrimination has been one of the major aims of ourgovernments. Let us read how caste system works and what steps have been taken toend caste discrimination.

CH

APT

ER Caste Discrimination andthe Struggle for Equality18

A large number of people in our countrythink of themselves as belonging to somecaste or the other. They even put the namesof their castes as a part of their own names.Usually, people of a caste follow somecommon customs and worship a particulardeity. Many people who follow the casterules marry only within their own caste. Inolden days, people of one caste followed thesame profession or work, though these day,this tradition has been changing fast. Thus,you can see that caste system creates somebonds among a particular group of peopleand separates them from the other groups.

To what extent are the above truestatements in your area and to whatextent are have they changed? Discuss.

However, the caste system has also givenrise to great inequalities and discriminationin our society. Let us see how this happens.

People are engaged in different kinds ofwork like teaching, carpentry, pottery,weaving, fishing, farming etc. to earn theirlivelihood. However, certain kinds of jobs

are valued more than the others. Activitieslike cleaning, washing, cutting hair, pickinggarbage are seen as tasks that are of lessvalue and people who do this work are seenas dirty or impure. This belief is animportant aspect of the caste system. In thecaste system, communities/ groups ofpeople were placed in a social order whereeach caste was either above or below theother. Those who placed themselves at thetop of the ladder called themselves uppercaste and saw themselves as superior. Thegroups who were placed at the bottom ofthe ladder were seen as unworthy and werecalled “untouchables”. Caste rules were setand did not allow the so-called“untouchable” to take on work other thanwhat they were meant to do. For example,some groups were only allowed to pickgarbage and remove dead animals from thevillage. But they were not allowed to enterthe homes of the upper castes, take waterfrom the village well or enter the temples.Their children could not sit next to thechildren of other castes in school. Thus,

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166 Social Organisation and Inequities Social Studies

upper castes acted in ways which did notgive the so-called “untouchables” the samerights as they enjoyed.

In what ways do you think did thecaste system promote inequalityamong people?

When some people are not allowed todo what they want to do – like geteducation, or take up jobs of their choice,we can say that they are facingdiscrimination. Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar, oneof the greatest leaders of India, shares hisfirst experience of caste-based discrimi-nation, which took place in 1901 when hewas just nine years old. He had gone withhis brothers and cousins to meet his fatherin Koregaon which is now in Maharashtra.Let us read more about this incident :

“Long did we wait, but no one turnedup. An hour elapsed and the stationmaster came to enquire. He asked us forour tickets. We showed them to him. Heasked us why we tarried. We told him

that we were bound for Koregaon andthat we were waiting for father or hisservant to come, but that neither hadturned up and that we did not know howto reach Koregaon. We were well-dressed children. From our dress ortalk, no one could make out that we werechildren of the untouchables. Indeed,the station master was quite sure wewere brahmin children and wasextremely touched at the plight in whichhe found us in. As is usual among theHindus, the station master asked uswho we were. Without a moment’sthought, I blurted out that we wereMahars (Mahar is one of thecommunities which are treated asuntouchables in the BombayPresidency). He was stunned. His faceunderwent a sudden change. We couldsee that he was overpowered by astrange feeling of repulsion. As soon ashe heard my reply, he went away to hisroom and we stood where we were.

Fifteen to twenty minutes elapsed;the sun was almost setting. Our fatherhad not turned up nor had he sent hisservant, and now the station master hadalso left us. We were quite bewildered,and the joy and happiness, which we feltat the beginning of the journey, gaveway to a feeling of extreme sadness.

After half an hour, the station masterreturned and asked us what we proposedto do. We said that if we could get abullock-cart on hire we would go toKoregaon, and if it was not very far wewould like to start straightway. Therewere many bullock-carts plying for hire.But my reply to the station master thatwe were Mahars had gone round among

Chairperson of the committee fordrafting of the Constitution of India andthe first Union Law Minister of India.

Dr B.R. Ambedkar(1891-1956)SCERT TELA

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the cart men and not one of them wasprepared to suffer being polluted andto demean himself carrying passengersof the untouchable classes. We wereprepared to pay double the fare but wefound that money did not work. Thestation master, who was negotiating onour behalf, stood silent, not knowingwhat to do.Source: Dr B. R. Ambedkar, Writings andSpeeches, Volume 12, Edited Vasant Moon,Bombay Education Department, Govt. ofMaharashtra.

Despite the children offeringmoney, the cartmen refused them.Why?How did people at the stationdiscriminate against DrAmbedkar and his brothers?How do you think Dr Ambedkarfelt as a child when he saw thestation master’s reaction to hisstatement that they were Mahars?Have you ever experiencedprejudice or witnessed anincident of discrimination?How did this make you feel?

Imagine how difficult it would be ifpeople could not move easily from oneplace to the other, how insulting andhurtful it is to have people move away,refuse to touch you or allow you to drinkwater from the same source as they do.

This small incident shows how asimple task of going from one place toanother in a cart was not accessible tothe children – even though they could paythe money. All the cart men at the stationrefused to take the children. They acted

in a discriminatory manner. So, clearly,caste based discrimination is not onlylimited to preventing dalits fromundertaking certain economic activities butit also denies them the respect and dignitygiven to others.An example of discrimination inschools

Omprakash Valmiki is a famous dalitwriter. In his autobiography, Joothan, hewrites, “I had to sit away from the othersin the class, and that too on the floor. Themat ran out before reaching the spot I saton. Sometimes I would have to sit waybehind everybody, right near thedoor…sometimes they would beat mewithout any reason.” When he was inClass IV, the headmaster asked Omprakashto sweep the school and the playground. Hewrites, “The playground was way largerthan my small physique could handle andin cleaning it, my back began to ache. Myface was covered with dust. Dust hadgone inside my mouth. The other childrenin my class were studying and I wassweeping. The headmaster was sitting in hisroom and watching me. I was not evenallowed to get a drink of water. I sweptthe whole day,…From the doors andwindows of the school rooms, the eyes ofthe teachers and the boys saw thisspectacle.” Omprakash was made to sweepthe school and the playground for the nextcouple of days and this only came to an endwhen his father, who happened to be passingby, saw his son sweeping. He confrontedthe teachers and then walking away fromthe school holding Omprakash’s hand, hesaid loudly for all of them to hear, “Youare a teacher…So I am leaving now. But

Caste Discrimination and the Struggle ...

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remember this much Master…(He) willstudy right here…in this school. And notjust him, but there will be more comingafter him.”

Why do you think OmprakashValmiki was treated unequally byhis classmates and the teachers?

If you were in his place, how wouldyou feel? Write four lines about it.

When people are treated unequally, theirdignity is violated. The dignity ofOmprakash Valmiki was violated becauseof the way in which he was treated. Bypicking on him and making him sweep theschool because of his caste, Valmiki’sschoolmates and teachers hurt his dignitybadly and made him feel as if he was lessthan equal to all other students in theschool. Being a child, Valmiki could dovery little about the situation that he wasin. It was his father who, on seeing his sonsweep, felt angry by this unequal treatmentand confronted the teachers.

Today many teachers have been makingspecial efforts to ensure equality ofstudents in the school. They not onlyencourage dalit students to learn but alsoensure their participation in all schoolactivities like welcoming guests, leadingprayers, and making speeches in importantfunctions. Such teachers also ensure thatall children sit and eat the midday mealstogether and serve food and water to eachother.

Have you seen such efforts in yourschool or nearby schools? Share thoseexperiences with the entire class.

Had caste system always beenthere?

No, there was a time when there was nocaste system. We saw the lives of huntergatherers and tribes. They did not have anycaste system. Some aspects of the Varnasystem emerged in the later Vedic periodin which the four major Varnas – Brahmana,Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra arementioned. Later on, many new aspects likeuntouchability and restrictions on marriage,eating together etc. emerged. It was saidthat the lower castes should serve and obeythe higher castes. These ideas spread allover India including Telangana in the timesof the kingdoms you studied in chapters 11and 12. As these ideas spread, many peoplecriticised them. Thinkers like Buddha,Mahavira, Ramanuja, Basava, Kabir,Vemana, etc. criticised the idea of somepeople being superior to others by birth.They felt that all people, irrespective oftheir birth or profession, can perform gooddeeds and attain salvation. You will readabout them in greater detail in laterchapters.

Striving for EqualityYou read about the establishment of

British rule and the beginning of struggleagainst it. The struggle for freedom fromBritish rule also included within it thestruggle of large groups of people who notonly fought against the British but alsofought to be treated more equally. Dalits,women, tribals and peasants fought againstthe inequalities they experienced in theirlives.

In the nineteenth and the twentiethcenturies, several social reformers fought

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to create a new social system based onfreedom, equality, brotherhood, humandignity and economic justice. They includeJyotirao Govindarao Phule, Savitri BaiPhule, Periyar E.V. Ramasami Naickar, Sri.Narayana Guru and Ayyankali. We shall readabout some of them in class 8.

During the colonial period in theTelanagana region too, social mobilizationemerged. Some of the important peopleinvolved in it were P.Venketaswamy,Eshwari Bai, T.N. Sadalakshmi,C.S. Ethirajan, Arigay Ramswamy,M. Venkataswamy, B.S. Venkatarao etc. Letus look at the struggles of one of them.

B.S. Venkatrao (1896-1953)Bathula Venkatrao was born in

Ghasmandi, Hyderabad. He was popularlyknown as Rao Saheb. His father, BathulaSayanna, was a domestic servant of theEuropeans. B.S. Venkatrao studied uptoninth class and was well versed in English,Urdu, Persian and Marathi apart fromTelugu. He worked as a sculptor in Punebefore joining the Public WorksDepartment of the Nizam’s Government.He rose to a very high position in thegovernment of the Nizam prior toindependence.

Having experienced untouchability andits impact on the suppressed classes, he wasdetermined to eradicate it. The Adi-DravidaSangham was formed with this objective in1922 with the assistance of people likeM. Govindrajulu and M. Venkataswamy. Itsmain objective, included abolition of theDevadasi system and bringing unityamongst the dalits. Later, they formed theAdi-Hindu Mahasabha in April 1927. A

decade later, after an influential discussion,at Pune, they formed Youth League ofAmbedkarites, with the objective of gettingeducated dalit youth to propagate awarenessabout the exploitation based on caste. Thiswas later renamed as Hyderabad StateDepressed Classes Association.

The leaders of this organization wentfrom place to place and organized meetingsamong the people to make them aware ofcaste oppression, the movements takingplace in the country for the emancipationof the dalit castes and the need to organizeand defend themselves. Some of them alsopromoted religious reform so that the dalitswere freed of the casteist superstitions.

They constructed houses and library inthe Ghasmandi area and named it AudiNagar. Across the Hyderabad city, they alsoconstructed 18 temples for the dalits.B.S. Venkatrao’s contribution to the dalitupliftment in Hyderabad was recognised byDr Babasaheb Ambedkar who invited himto preside over the Bombay PresidencyMahar Conference in 1936 at Bombay. Theconference was attended by 10,000 peopleand unanimously resolved to support themovement initiated by Dr.B.R. Ambedkar.

On 1 April 1947, the HyderabadAssembly debated on the resolution movedby Palayam Pillai, recommending to thePresident-in-Council for a grant of twentylakh rupees for the uplift of the suppressedclasses of the State. Shri Venkatrao movedan amendment to the resolution raising thegrant to one crore rupees. The Houseagreed to make a recommendation to thePrime Minister for the grant of one croreto the fund. Accordingly, the Nizam


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constituted the depressed classes welfarefund and sanctioned one crore rupees forthe same. The Nizam honored him byawarding the title of Khusru-E-Deccan.

He was elected to the Rajya Sabha bythe State Legislative Assembly after 1952.

Equality after IndependenceWhen India became a free nation in

1947, our leaders too were concernedabout the different kinds of inequalitiesthat existed. The people who wrote theConstitution of India, a document that laidout the rules by which the nation wouldfunction, were aware of the ways in whichdiscrimination had been practised in oursociety and how people had struggledagainst this. Many leaders of thesestruggles, such as Dr.Ambedkar, had alsofought for the rights of the dalits.

So, these leaders set out a vision andgoals in the Constitution to ensure that allthe people of India were considered equal.This equality of all persons is seen as akey value that unites us all as Indians.Everyone has equal rights andopportunities. Untouchability is seen as acrime and has been legally abolished bythe law. People are free to choose thekind of work they wish to do. Governmentjobs are open to all. In addition, theConstitution also placed responsibility onthe government to take specific steps torealise this right to equality for poor andother such marginal communities.

The two ways in which the governmenthas tried to implement the equality that isguaranteed in the Constitution is throughlaws and through government programmesor schemes to help the disadvantagedcommunities. There are several laws inIndia that protect every person’s right to

be treated equally. In addition to laws, thegovernment has also set up severalschemes to improve the lives ofcommunities and individuals who havebeen treated unequally for severalcenturies. These schemes help to ensuregreater opportunities for them.

One of the steps taken by thegovernment includes the mid-day mealscheme. This refers to the programmeintroduced in all government elementaryschools to provide wholesome cookedlunch to all the children. Tamil Nadu wasthe first state in India to introduce thisscheme, and in 2001, the Supreme Courtasked all the state governments to beginthis programme in their schools within sixmonths. This programme has manypositive effects. These include the factthat more poor children have begunattending school. Teachers reported thatearlier children would often go home forlunch and then not return to school. Butnow with the midday meal being providedin school, their attendance has improved.Their mothers, whose work waysinterrupted to feed their children at homeduring the day, now no longer need, to doso. This programme has also helpedreduce caste prejudices because bothlower and upper caste children in theschool eat this meal together. In Telangana,in almost all the rural schools, mid-daymeal is prepared by the members ofwomen self help groups, who areinvariably from deprived classes, and inquite a few places, dalit women have beenemployed to cook the meal. The mid-daymeal programme also helps to reduce thehunger of poor students who often cometo school and cannot concentrate on studiesbecause their stomachs are empty.

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1. What is the difference between being punished for a mistake and being discriminated against?Was the child Ambedkar being punished or discriminated against?

2. Though there are many castes in the society, on what occassions do you find equality amongthem?

3. Our Constitution abolished the practice of untouchability and declared it a crime. Do you thinkit has been fully abolished in practice?

4. How can your school help in ending caste based inequalities?

5. Read the paragraphs “The two ways ............. for them” (p.no.170) comment on it.

Project :

1. Find out about a government scheme in your area. What does this scheme do? To whom thisscheme intended to benefit.

2. Discuss with your parents or grandparents about how caste system functioned earlier to findout what has changed and what has not. Prepare a report and present it in the class.


Can you list three benefits of themid-day meal programme?How do you think this programmemight help promote greaterequality?

While government programmes play animportant role in increasing equality ofopportunity, there is much that needs to bedone. While the mid-day meal programmehas helped increase the enrolment andattendance of poor children in school, therecontinues to be a big difference in ourcountry between schools attended by therich and schools attended by the poor. Eventoday, there are several schools in thecountry in which dalit children likeOmprakash Valmiki, are discriminatedagainst and treated unequally. Thesechildren are forced into unequal situationsin which their dignity is not respected. This

is because people refuse to think of themas equal even though the law requires it.

One of the main reasons for this is thatattitudes change very slowly. Even thoughpeople are aware that discrimination isagainst the law, they continue to treatpeople unequally on the basis of their caste,religion, disability, economic status andsex. It is only when people begin to believethat no one is inferior, and that every persondeserves to be treated with dignity, thepresent attitudes can change. Establishingequality in a democratic society is acontinuous struggle. Individuals as well asvarious communities in India shouldcontribute to achieve this.

Keywords :

1. Untouchability

2. Scheme

3. Constitution

4. Autobiography


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In Chapter 9, we read about workers in a paper mill. Most paper mill workers werelike Anand – they get high wages, bonus (share of profit of the company), ProvidentFund (savings for future) and other allowances. They also get healthcare and housingfacilities. Such workers constitute only a small section of all the workers in India. Wealso learnt about other kinds of workers in the same paper mill - Umar and Pushpa,who get low wages and do not get any other allowances or facilities required for adecent living. Most workers in India are like Umar and Pushpa. In this chapter, we willlearn about why and how workers negotiate with their employers for a decent lifethrough their organisations and laws. We will also learn about an organisation workingfor those who work on their own.

CH

APT

ER Livelihood and Strugglesof Urban Workers19

We have learnt that government makeslaws in the interest of the people. Laws arealso made to protect the welfare of workersemployed in fields, factories, private andgovernment offices. Factories which areproperly registered with the government areexpected to follow these laws and providebetter wages and other facilities requiredfor workers. Governments also haveLabour Departments, which have theresponsibility to ensure that these laws arefollowed. If the laws are not followed,workers can file cases in courts. At times,factories protect the welfare of only asection of workers who are called the‘Regular Workers’ or ‘Permanent Workers’and those known as ‘Casual’ or ‘Contractworkers’ are not looked after.

However, there are many factories whichdo not get properly registered with the

government. Let us look at the conditionsof workers in such factories closely.

Working as ‘Permanent Workers’in Factories

Read the following accounts of twofactories in Kothur, which is a newindustrial town, located about 30kilometres from Hyderabad inMahabubnagar district. This was recordedin 2002.

Fibrotex (not a real name), a large scalefactory producing fibre glass was setup in1976. In 2002, out of 570 workers, 140were permanent workers; 60 workers wereemployed on casual basis and they werecalled badli workers, i.e. they replacedpermanent workers in case of their absenceand about 300 workers were employed dailyon contractual basis.

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(A permanent worker cannot be dismissedwithout a proper procedure and a paymentof compensation while other workers canbe removed easily.)

This factory has a Trade Union. Initially,it was set up with the encouragement of thecompany, which wanted a union that wouldbe more agreeable to its policies. Soon, theUnion developed into a strong workers’organisation as workers participated in theunion actively. It negotiated with themanagement to fix wages etc.

All workers get wages fixed throughagreements with the union and medicalfacilities through Employees’ StateInsurance (ESI) and Provident Fund (PF).The Trade Union secured other benefits also– health checkup in big private hospitals,leave in case the workers become sick,safety-wear in the work place, safe drinkingwater in the factory, educational allowancefor workers’ children, conveyanceallowance and also Leave Travel Allowance(LTA). They also get loans from thecompany when needed and the company hasalso provided quarters for them to live in.The company also took interest in trainingworkers who have been working for longin the factory, sending them to foreigncountries to improve production quality.The Trade Union also made agreementswith factory owners to regularize contractlabourers after a definite period of work.

The Trade Union of Fibrotex was quiteactive in the town as well. This had helpedmany other small Trade Unions in otherfactories to grow their bargaining powerwith their employers.

Trade UnionA Trade Union is an organisation

formed by workers to protect theirinterests. If every single worker has tonegotiate with the employer separately,they will not be in a strong position.However, if all of them negotiatetogether, their position will becomestronger. Trade Unions negotiate on thebehalf of all workers with governmentand the employers. They seek to ensureproper wages, other benefits and decentworking conditions for their members.Collectively, with their member workers,they secure social security benefits,medical facilities, houses, ProvidentFund and pension for working. If anyworker is harassed or is in need of help,the Trade Union takes up his or her cause.Unions adopt a variety of measures likenegotiations, filing cases in the lawcourts and even strikes or stoppage ofwork to pressurise the employers indemocratic principles.

The details of workers’ salaries(in 2002) in Fibrotex are as follows:

As you can see, most of the benefits arePermanent worker

Badli workers

Contract / casuallabourers

Rs.4500 - 10,000per month

Rs.3000 - 4000

Rs.58 per day foreight hours

Livelihood and Struggles of Urban Workers

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available only to the 140 ‘PermanentWorkers’. About 360 workers, calledbadlis and contract workers, get lowsalaries along with PF, ESI.

What is the difference between apermanent worker and a badliworker?

Calculate the difference betweenthe monthly salary of a permanentworker and casual labourer.

Invite one or two factory workerswho are getting ESI and PF benefitsto class and collect more detailsabout how these facilities are madeavailable to her / him and the stepsa worker has to follow to get thesebenefits. You may also invite aparent of any of your classmatesalso to talk about these things.

KRS Medicines FactoryThis company (not a real name) mixes

and packs medicines for another bigmedicine company. It employed about 118workers of whom about 104 workers wereemployed as daily casual workers. That isonly 14 workers were regular andpermanent and were used for the skilledwork of mixing the chemicals to preparethe medicine powder. They were paid aboutRs. 1500 to Rs 2500 per month and had asecurity of employment. They also got ESIand PF. The remaining 104 workers whowere engaged on a daily basis mainly didthe packaging and labelling of the medicine.

About 56 of them were women. These dailyworkers were engaged by a labourcontractor who was told everyday by themanager as to how many workers to engage.These workers mainly came from nearbyvillages and were usually illiterate. Thewomen workers had to work for about 12hours a day and were paid just Rs.30whereas the men were paid Rs.42 for thesame work. This is much below theminimum wage fixed by the government forthere kind of factories. The managers donot allow the workers to form any TradeUnion and threaten that they will close downthe factory if any union is formed.

These days, a large number of companiesare adopting policies similar to thiscompany, reducing the number of regularworkers and replacing them with contractand casual workers.

Why was no Trade Union allowedto form in KRS MedicinesFactory?

Why do you think were there morewomen in the ‘contract worker’category rather than in the categoryof ‘permanent workers’?

Is it fair to pay women workers lessthan men for the same kind ofwork?

Do you think it would have beendifferent if the workers had beeneducated and literate?

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Working on Construction Sitesand Brick Kilns

Bindhani, herhusband and ten yearold daughter work in abrick kiln in a village inRanga Reddy district.She comes from avillage in Odisha wherethey have a small plotof land. They had takena loan of Rs. 20,000 andcould not repay it. Theywere at the verge ofselling their land when a contractor whowas recruiting workers for brick kilns inTelangana approached them. He offeredthem an advance of Rs.10,000 so that theycould repay a part of their debt. Theywould have to work for six months in abrick kiln and they would also be paidadditional wages and provided with a hutto live in. The work would start inDecember and end in June when theycould return to work on their land. Thatis how Bindhani and her family came towork in the kiln. They are not alone. Abouttwo lakh such workers from Odisha cometo Telangana to work in brick kilns. It isalso common to see thousands of workerfamilies from Telangana go to other stateslike Karnataka and Maharashtra to workin kilns of those states.

Bindhani wakes up around four o’clockin the morning to prepare some kanji. Herhusband is still sleeping as he worked till2 o’clock in the morning. She wakes herdaughter up and both of them get readyto work. They have to fetch water and mixsand and clay and prepare the clay formaking bricks. They begin work around5 AM in the morning and work non-stoptill about 9 o’clock when they take a breakfor tea. By then, her husband too joinsthem and he puts the clay in moulds. Oncethe clay has been shaped into bricks, thedaughter smoothens them and marks theseal of the company on the bricks. Theseare then allowed to dry, then loaded onbullock carts and taken to kilns forbaking. The work goes on continuouslytill about 2 o’ clock in the night. Bindhaniand her husband work for nearly 14 to16 hours. They don’t want to stop work

Fig 19.1 Construction Labour


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because they are paidaccording to thenumber of bricks theymake. They are paidabout Rs 108 perevery thousand bricksthey make. Theynormally manage tomake about 1000bricks a day. If they fallill, they will not be ableto earn anything. Inthis way, they work day and night fornearly six months – on some days theyjust can’t work as they grow too tired orill. They usually eat broken rice and daland on some days some vegetable. At theend of the six month, they often justmanage to clear the advance they got andactually have to go back empty handed.Sometimes, they manage to take homeabout four or five thousand rupees.

Can you calculate how many dayswill it take them to clear theadvance of Rs 10,000 they gotfrom the sardar (Contractor)?What is the average wage for oneperson per day in this work?Why are there no Trade Unions inbrick kilns?Do you think that the governmentshould help workers to form TradeUnion among brick kiln workers?In what way can the governmenthelp brick kiln workers to improvetheir working conditions?

Such is the story of lakhs of brickmakers and other labourers who engage indifferent activities all over the world. Theyare given advance by a contractor; they aretaken to far off states whose languages theydo not know; they work day and night forfive to six months with their family andchildren and earn just enough to clear theadvance they had taken. In some cases, evenwhen people are too tired to work, they areforced by the contractor to work. They livelike bonded slaves. Whenever theseworkers bring their plight to thegovernment, government officialsintervene and ‘free’ these ‘bondedlabourers’ from brick kilns and contractorsand send them home. Since they have noother employment opportunity at home,they are again forced to take advances fromthe contractor and come back to the kilnsagain. There are no Trade Unions that fightfor their rights as they are migrant workersspread out in a number of sites.

Fig 19.2 Cotton Pickers

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What kind of machines, tools andsources of power are used in brickproduction?

What kinds of skills are needed forthis job? How are they acquired?

Why do you think are they made towork in distant states?

Ensuring Workers’ Rights -A Global Concern

Ever since the Industrial Revolutionabout which you had studied in Chapter 8,workers all over the world have beenfighting for a dignified life and a just shareof their produce. They have fought forseveral kinds of securities and rights:1. Right to productive and safe

employment: so that every worker canwork according to his or her skill andcapacity and work under safe conditionswithout endangering their health.

2. Right to leisure and rest: so that theyhave time to rest from their tiring workand also have time to attend to othercultural and social interests.

3. Right to employment security: sothat every worker knows that he/she hasan employment which will ensure her/him a livelihood and will not bearbitrarily thrown out of work. If it isinevitable for a company to remove aworker, he or she should be paidadequate compensation for the loss ofwork.

4. Income security: so that every workerhas adequate and regular income totake care of the needs of their familiesand savings for living a dignified lifein their old age.

5. Work security: so that when they fallill or meet with an accident, they canget proper care and get paid for theperiod of illness.

6. Skill improvement: so that they canimprove their skills and capabilitieswhile at work.

7. Collective voice: so that they canform unions to express their problemsand needs without fear and negotiatewith the employers as a group ratherthan as individuals.

Fig 19.3 Knife Sharpeners

Over the last two hundred years, workersall over the world have fought to get theserights recognized, even though they may notbe implemented in all places. In mostcountries, the governments have agreed thatthese are basic needs of workers and madelaws that ensure workers these rights.

Read the previous sections again andcolour the whole box (in the next page)against rights and benefits available toworkers. If only a part of workers arecovered, shade a part of the box dependingon the proportion of coverage. Cross markthe box if no right/ benefit is available.


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Informal Work andWorkers in Towns

In Telangana and other Indianstates, towns and cities arebecoming bigger and bigger.People are rapidly shifting fromvillages to these towns. But manyof them do not get sufficientregular employment there and doa variety of odd jobs. They sellvegetables or other items, makeand sell snacks, work in tea stalls,or small factories, stitch clothes,load and unload in markets, workas domestic maids etc. Many ofthem produce goods at home –weaving clothes, papads, pickle,doing embroidery, etc. and areengaged through ‘puttingout’system. Most of these activitiesdo not get registered with thegovernment. Workers of thesekinds can be called informalworkers and the nature of suchwork is called informal work.

What is common about allthese areas of employment is that

S.No

1.

2.3.4.

5.6.

7.

Rights

Right to Productive and SafeEmploymentRight to Leisure and RestRight to Employment SecurityIncome SecurityWork SecuritySkill improvementRight to Collective Voice

Brick Kilns KRS MedicineFactory

Fig 19.4 Workers laying cables

Fibrotex

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they require very little capital or skilltraining but the employment is bothirregular and very low paying. As such, theseworkers are in a very vulnerable position.Unlike ‘permanent workers’ in factoriesand offices who get employed and paidregularly, these workers do several jobs ina day - they may distribute newspaper inthe morning, work in a tea shop during theday time and cook in some houses in thenight. This keeps them busy throughout theday without any rest. In most cases, allmembers of their families, includingchildren, work to earn. So, the childrenusually remain uneducated. When facedwith financial problems, they try to cuttheir expenditure by taking children out ofschools or cutting down on food ormedicines. Even after all this, they are notable to meet their needs. They are forcedto take small loans from friends andrelatives and at times, from moneylenders.Almost all of them are heavily indebted tothese moneylenders and often have to workfor them.

Most of them do not have any TradeUnions to defend their rights. As wementioned earlier, the number of suchworkers is constantly increasing in thecountry. They are increasing not onlybecause people are moving in from villages,but also due to the closing down of largefactories and mills. The workers of thesefactories now have to join the ranks of thecasual workers.

Looking at these problems, some tradeunionists of Gujarat formed what isconsidered the largest trade union of theinformal workers in the world. Let us findout more about it.

Self Employed Women’sAssociation (SEWA)

In 1971, a small group of migrantwomen cart-pullers in Ahmedabad’s clothmarket approached Textile LabourAssociation (TLA) to help them inimproving their housing facilities. TLA wasthe oldest and the largest textile workers’union with which Mahatma Gandhi wasclosely associated. The Union helped these

women to form SEWA in1971, which later became aTrade Union in 1972.

Since then SEWA grewcontinuously, with womenworking in differentoccupations becoming itsmembers. SEWA membershave no fixed employeeemployer relationship anddepend on their own labourfor survival. They barely haveany assets or working capital.Fig 19.5 Road Laying Work


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Any self-employed women can becomea member of SEWA by paying Rs.5 asmembership fee. The SEWA helps self-employed women in addressing theirgrievances, improving their work cultureand to become financially self-reliant inrunning their businesses. Hawkers/vendors selling vegetables, fruits, fish,eggs, food items, household goods, newand old clothes, workers working inhouses like weavers, potters, bidi andagarbatti workers, papad rollers,readymade garment workers, artisans;manual labourers and service providerslike agricultural labourers, constructionworkers, contract labourers, handcartpullers, head-loaders, domestic workers,laundry workers, cattle rearers, saltworkers, gum collectors etc. can becamemembers of SEWA.

About 13 lakh workers in 9 states in Indiaare now members of SEWA. SEWA alsoruns a bank cooperative for its members andprovides health insurance facility. SEWAalso helps its members in marketing theirproduce and ensuring them fair wages. Doyou think such organisations could be ofsome help in improving the conditions ofhundreds of women who are self-employedin selling vegetables on roadsides, inmarket places and on the streets inTelangana?

Keywords :

1. Compensation 5. Casual Worker

2. Provident Fund 6. E.S.I.

3. Badli Worker 7. Regular Worker

4. Wages

1. Compare the condition of a worker in brick kiln, a permanent worker and a contract worker ina factory.

2. Can you make a list of jobs done by casual and self employed workers in your area?

3. Make a list of different types of unions discussed in this chapter. Fill in the table:

4. Talk to a Trade Union member (leader) and find out why did he/ she join the union, what aretheir rights and duties as a union member.

5. Write a letter to the Labour officer of your Locality, complaining about the conditions ofworkers at their work places.


Company in whichunion was working Type of labour Main problems Suggested solution

Sl.No.1.

2.

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Folk - Religion

Discuss the following questions in your class.Discuss the following questions in your class.Discuss the following questions in your class.Discuss the following questions in your class.Discuss the following questions in your class.

1. Which gods / goddesses are worshipped in your area?2. Which saints, pirs and babas do your family respect?3. Which animals and trees are worshipped by people?4. Do you know how people worship?5. How are the deities worshipped and who performs the worship?6. In which languages are the deities addressed by the worshippers?

20

You may have listened to conversationslike the following:

Lakshmi: In recent months, my childrenhave been falling ill repeatedly.

Sammakka: My husband also hadbeen unwell for one month.

Yellamma: I think our goddessMuthyalamma is angry with us. We shouldoffer her a special worship to appeaseher. Let us take Bonalu and sacrifice acock to the Goddess.

***Ramaraju: My daughter is very weak

and does not eat properly.Suresh: Why don’t you go to the Pir

Baba’s dargah and ask the Maulvi to tiea tawiz ? She will become all right.

Many people in our country worship andpay reverence to gods in large temples,churches or mosques. On the other hand,people also worship many village deities.

Who are these popular deities and how,when and by whom are they worshipped?

There are a large number of villagedeities – some of them belong to particularcastes, or particular villages or evenparticular families. Some of the morecommon goddesses are as follows:Pochamma: Pochamma is the mostpopular folk goddess of Telangana. In manyvillages, there is a small shrine dedicatedto her. This is diffferent from the templesof Gods like Rama or Shiva. A very simpletemple is built under a neem tree with agoddess in the form of a stone inside. Inmodern towns and cities, these temples arebuilt with some architecture and with astone idol inside.

In villages, people of all castes go to theshrine with bonalu on special occasions.They wash the deity and clean the shrinearea. There are no priests and people prayaccording to their customs and traditions

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182 Religion and Society Social Studies

Fig 20.1 & 20.2 Here are two idols of Pochamma.

Fig 20.3 Maisamma

with flowers, etc. in their own language:“Mother, we have seeded the fields, nowyou must ensure good crop.” “My daughteris sick, you must cure her.” “Mother, keepaway all infectious diseases and evils fromour family.” They offer a part of the bonamand sometimes also offer a chicken or asheep.

Maisamma: She is believed to protectthe cattle. Among the cattle sheds, a nicheis whitewashed and decorated with“Kumkuma” and called as ‘MaisammaGoodu’. In many places, Katta-Maisammais also worshipped as a goddess of waterin the form of a small stone on the tankbund. People believe that she will ensurethat the tank is full. Thus, the crops wouldflourish due to her blessings.

Gangamma: She is a water goddess whoprotects fishermen who go out into the sea.It is believed that the poor and the orphansare protected by the goddess Gangamma.

Yellamma: Yellamma is also called asPoleramma, ‘Maridamma’, ‘Renuka’Mahankali, Jogamma, Somalamma and by

other names. It is believed that she guardsthe boundaries of the village and will notallow any disease or evil to enter the village.People mainly pray to her to preventepidemics like cholera.

Potharaju: The farmers of Telanganabelieve that Potharaju looks after theiragricultural lands and crops and protects thecrops from dreadful diseases, thieves and

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Fig 20.4 Yellamma Fig 20.5 Potharaju

animals. The farmers keep a small stonepainted in white in a corner of their fields.The worship of Potharaju is very simple.Prayers are offered to the deity when thecrop is harvested. He has sisters who arecalled by various names like Peddamma.

Beerappa and Katama Raju: They areworshipped by cowherd and shepherdcommunities. They are consideredprotectors of cattle and sheep. Have youheard of the story of Beerappa andAkkamankali – how Beerappa, a poorshepherd, worked and fought to marryKamarathi and how his sister helped him?Have you heard of the story of Katama Rajuwho fought against the kings of Nellore forthe grazing rights of the animal herders?

You may have participated in theworship of many of these village andcommunity deities and may also havebeen to some of the temples of Shivaor Vishnu. Can you compare how theworship is conducted in theseplaces? What are the similarities anddifferences? Discuss them in theclass.

It is a general practice to offer animalsacrifice in most of the folk festivals. Thisresults in the killing of thousands of suchanimals. To prevent this, the sacrifice ofany animal or bird in any religious worshipis banned in Telangana.

Community Worship of Folk DeitiesMany of the folk gods and goddesses

were actually local heroes who either diedfighting in defence of their people or werethemselves wronged by the powerful peopleof their times. Common people believedthat such persons attained special powersto help people or cause problems if notworshipped. Two such folk heroines wholaid down their lives in defence of the tribalpeople were Sarakka and Sammakka inwhose honour a Jatara is conducted.

Sammakka and Sarakka (Medaram) Jatara:It is a celebration by the tribal people

of Taadwai mandal in Jayashankar Districtat Medaram village. People fromTelangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Chattisgarh, andJharkhand assemble to celebrate the jatara.Nearly one crore people attend it.

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Fig 20.7 Scene from Medaram Jatara

Fig 20.6 Installation of goddessSammakka on the platform

The Story: ‘Medaraju’, was acontemporary of the Kakatiya kingRudradeva (Prataparudra-I). He ruledPolavasa kingdom located at present inJagityal district. He married his daughter,Sammakka, to ‘Pagididda Raju’, who ruledMedaram. The couple had three children;Saralamma, Nagulamma and Jampanna. Asa part of extension of his kingdom,Rudradeva declared war on Medaram.Pagididdaraju’s entire family led the menand women of the tribe in the fierce battle.All of them got killed in the battle.Jampanna also fought bravely till his lastbreath and died in ‘Sampenga Vaagu’ toprevent the Kakatiya army from crossingthe stream. Hence, it is called ‘JampannaVaagu’. Sammakka and Sarakka foughtagainst the army and sacrificed their livesfor the sake of their tribe.

The tribal people of the entire regionhonoured them for their courage andsacrifice and to this day, the people celebratethe Medaram Jatara in their honour.

The Medaram Jatara is organised oncein two years. It is a three day fair.Sammakka and Sarakka are the formlessgoddesses. Caskets representing them arebrought from the forests in an elaborateprocession, brightly decorated and placedon the platform under a tree. At that time,devotees feel the spirits or the goddesspossesses them. The people offer‘bangaram’, jaggery, to the goddess.

Moharram (Peerilu) and UrsThe Muslims also pay their respects to

the heroes who fought against evil. Onesuch festival is Moharram, which comme-morates the battle of Karbala (in Iraq) inwhich the grandson of Prophet Mohammadwas killed. Processions (Peeri) withdecorated Tazias are taken out in whichpeople of all communities participate. Apeeri is prepared with bamboo strips in adome shape. It is covered with glitteringclothes. A bamboo pole is fixed in the dometo handle the peeri and at the top, metalliccrescent or palm shape is attached to it.Finally, it is garlanded with flowers andcoconuts.

Similarly, Urs or anniversaries ofMuslim saints, who lie buried in variousparts of the state, are celebrated. People

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Fig 20.8 Ajmeer Dargah Fig 20.9 Jahangeer Peer Dargah

visit the dargahs in large number, offerflowers and chadars( sheets on the grave)and listen to the singing of Qawwalis. Theybelieve that they will receive the ‘barkat’or blessings of the pir or saint. People whoseek some specific blessings like childrenor job, etc. come to the dargahs and praythere.

Dargah is generally built on the tombsof Sufi saints who propagated Sufism. Thetomb or dargah of a sufi saint becomes aplace of pilgrimage to which thousands ofpeople of all faiths throng. Often, peopleattribute sufi masters with miraculouspowers (Karamaths) that could relieveothers of their illnesses and troubles.

Jahangeer Peer Dargah - ASymbol of Religious Tolerance

Jahangeer Peer dargah is located inKothur mandal of Ranga Reddy district. Itis said that in the late 15th century twobrothers from Iraq named SayyedGousuddin and Sayyad Buranoddin camehere, then it was a forest area, spent in thedevine thought for some years and endedtheir lives. Some of their followersconstructed a small dargah on their tombs.In 17th century when Mughal emperor

Aurangazeb visited this dargah, he came toknow the holiness and appointed Ibrahimas a quazi of this dargah. This quazideveloped it as a place of pilgrimage.

Everyday numerous visitors aroundHyderabad visit this dargah. Devotees fromdifferent states visit on Thursdays andSundays when special offerings are made.Every year annual Urs celebrations held forthree days beginning on the Thursdaycoming after Sankranthi festival. Offeringsof sandal wood paste (Gandhapu Puja) onthe first day, offering of lights (Deeparadana)on the second day and Qawwali programmeon the third day. Visitors from not onlydifferent parts of India but also from abroadattend the Urs Celebrations, Thousands ofdevotees including Hindu and Muslimreligions offer flowers, sweets and chadars.This dargah has become a symbol ofreligious tolerance.Bonalu

Bonalu is one of the folk festivalspopular in the Telangana state. TheGodesses are worshipped and offered food,which is later shared among the familymembers.

Women folk participate in theprocession carrying ‘Ghatams’ or

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ornamented pots filled with flowers ontheir heads. The women devotees also carrybrass vessels or clay pots filled with cookedrice and decorated with neem leaves. Themale dancers who accompany them areknown as Pothurajus, who lead theprocession by lashing whips and holdingneem leaves.

If you have participated in any ofthese jataras or urs or bonalu,describe them in your class anddiscuss their important features.How are these festivals differentfrom the worship of village deitiesor worship in large temples ormosques?

The antiquity of Folk TraditionsMany historical books tell us that such

folk gods were worshipped in very oldtimes too. We learn about the worship ofnagas (snakes), trees, yakshas andyakshinis even some 2500 years ago. ThePalnati Virula Katha written by Srinathaaround 1450s mentions the worship ofPotharaju. In turn, Vallabharaya’sKridabhiramamu written around the sametime describes in detail the worship of the

Palnati Veeras, Mailara and many mothergoddesses in Warangal.

You many have noticed by now that thefolk deities are worshipped quitedifferently from the Gods in large temples,mosques or churches.

Most of these deities are worshipped byall people irrespective of their caste orreligion or economic status. For example,even Muslim farmers participate in manyof the rituals of village gods. Similarly,people of all religions throng to the dargahsto seek the blessing of the peers. They tiestrings on a tree or on the walls of thedargah making a vow in return for thewishes granted. They request the pirzadasto prepare tawiz for them to drive away evilspirits.

The intermixing of Village deitiesand High Religious traditions

In India, there has been a constantprocess of interaction between differentkinds of people and their religions leadingto intermixture of traditions. Thus,religious beliefs which originate in folkworship and folk wisdom are graduallyadopted by higher religions and the folkreligious beliefs also adopt a lot from thehigher religions.

Thus, high religious traditions tooworship peepul tree, snakes and the mothergoddess. This is how the integration ofsnakes, trees animals, and birds in thepresent Puranic religion took place.Gradually, the village deities became partof the worship of deities like the Buddha,Shiva or Vishnu or Durga. You can seesnakes, lions, nandi, and trees beingworshipped as part of their worship too.

Fig 20.10 Bonalu

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In the case of Islam, this took a differentform. The high religion of Islam believesin strict monotheism or worship of one andonly God – Allah. However, the folkfollowers of Islam began to revere Sufisaints and believed that worshipping at thedarghas would solve their problems. So, avery strong tradition of pilgrimages todarghas and urs developed in which peopleof all faiths participate.

Folk Wisdom and Higher ReligionMany saints like Kabir, Yogi Vemana and

many sufi saints who came from thecommon people expressed their deeperreligious ideas. They also combined theideas preached by the higher religions withthat of the common people. Read thefollowing lines of Yogi Vemana who livedabout 300 years ago and composed poemsof great wisdom in Telugu.

“Without personal experience, the mererepetition of scriptures will not removefears just as darkness is never dispelled by amere painted flame.”

“The six tastes are diverse, but taste isone; various are the creeds regarding thetruth, but truth is one; and saints differamong themselves, while he on whomthey meditate is one.”

“Bald heads, matted hair, daubingashes, recitations, religions dress! Noman is a saint who is not pure in heart.”

Such ideas and wise sayings becamepart of ordinary people’s thinking.

Keywords :

1. Folk Deities 2. Jatara

3. Urs 4. Peeri

5. Bonamu

1. What are the common elements in the worship of most of the village deities?2. When people go to towns and settle there, do they continue to worship their old village deities?

How do they do it?3. Do you think the way people worship the village deities is changing now? What kind of changes

do you see?4. Point out the main places of important jataras and urs in Telangana Map?5. Read the paragraph “Most of these ........ spirits.” of page 186 and comment on it.6. Collect the following particulars by talking to the people of different religions of your area.

Project :1. Get detailed information from your grand parents about any Jatara of your area. Prepare a report.2. Collect stories about any of the folk deities of your area and prepare a small booklet about it.

S.No. God worshippedName Religion practised Festivals celebrated

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CH

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You may have seen people perform rituals of worship, or singing bhajans, kirtans orqawwalis, or even repeating the name of God in silence. Haven’t you noticed that someof them are so moved that they burst into tears? Such intense devotion or love of Godis the legacy of various kinds of bhakti and Sufi movements that have evolved since theeighth century. In class VI, you had read about the Bhakti poems of Alvars and Nayanarswho worshipped Vishnu and Siva respectively. Soon kings and chiefs built large templesfor these gods, made land grants, and other gifts to perform various rituals. Templeworship became elaborate, complex and expensive. Specially trained priests performedthe rituals. People belonging to some castes were not allowed to enter the temples.Soon, a reaction set in against such rituals and inequalities. New ideas on devotion togod emerged. Read on to know more about them.

21

Philosophy and BhaktiShankara, one of the most influential

philosophers of India, was born in Keralain the eighth century. He was an advocateof Advaita or the doctrine of the onenessof the individual soul and the Supreme God,which is the Ultimate Reality. He taught thatBrahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, wasformless and without any attributes. Hepreached about renunciation of the worldand adoption of the path of knowledge tounderstand the true nature of Brahman andattain salvation.

Ramanuja, born in South India in theeleventh century, was deeply influenced bytheAlvars. According to him, the best meansof attaining salvation was through intensedevotion to Vishnu.Vishnu, in his grace, helpsthe devotee to attain the bliss of union withhim. Ramanuja also ensured a place for peopleof lower castes in temple worship. Hepropounded the doctrine ofVishishtadvaita or qualified onenessaccording to which the soul even whenunited with the Supreme God remaineddistinct. Ramanuja’s doctrine greatlyinspired the new strand of bhakti, whichdeveloped in North India subsequently.

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Fig 21.1 A fireside gathering of ascetics.

Basavanna’s VirashaivismWe earlier noted the connection

between the bhakti movement and templeworship. We now see another level ofbhakti movement called Virashaivam. Thismovement was initiated by Basavanna andhis companions like Allama Prabhu andAkkamahadevi in 12th century inKarnataka. They have represented the ideasabout caste and the treatment of womenarguing strongly for the equality of allhuman beings.

These are vachanas or sayings attributedto Basavanna:

The richWill make temples for Shiva.What shall I,A poor manDo?My legs are pillars,The body the shrine,The head a cupolaOf gold.Listen, O Lord of the meeting rivers,Things standing shall fall,But the moving ever shall stay.

What were the major ideasexpressed by Basavanna?

What is the temple that Basavannais offering to God?

The Saints of Maharashtra

From the thirteenth to the seventeenthcenturies, Maharashtra saw a great numberof saint-poets, whose songs in simpleMarathi continue to inspire people till date.The most important among them wereJnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaramas well as women like Sakkubai and the familyof Chokhamela, who belonged to the“untouchable” Mahar caste. This regionaltradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (aform of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur, aswell as on the notion of a personal godresiding in the hearts of all people.

Devotional Paths to the Divine

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These saint-poets rejected all forms ofritualism, outward display of piety andsocial differences based on birth. In fact,they even rejected the idea of renunciationand preferred to live with their families,earning their livelihood like any otherperson, while humbly serving fellow humanbeings in need. A new humanist ideaemerged as they insisted that bhakti lay insharing others’ pain. As the famous Gujaratisaint Narsi Mehta said, “Vaishnavas arethose who understand the pain of others.”

This is an abhang (Marathi devotionalhymn) of Sant Tukaram:

He who identifieswith the battered and the beaten,Mark him as a saint,For God is with him.He holdsEvery forsaken manClose to his heart,He treatsA slaveAs his own son.Says Tuka,I won’t be tiredto repeat again,Such a manIs GodIn person.

Why do you think Tukaramconsiders the friends of the poorand suffering as the real devoteesof God?

Here is an abhang composed byChokhamela’s son:

You made us low caste,Why don’t you face that fact, Great Lord?Our whole life – left-over food to eat.You should be ashamed of this.You have eaten in our home.How can you deny it?Chokha’s (son) Karmamela asksWhy did you give me life?

Discuss the ideas related to socialorder expressed in thesecompositions.

Nathpanthis, Siddhas and YogisMany religious groups of this period

criticised the rituals and other aspects ofconventional religion and social orderusing simple, logical arguments. Amongthem were the Nathpanthis, Siddhacharasand Yogis. They advocated renunciation ofthe world. To them, the path to salvationlay in meditation on the formless UltimateReality and the realisation of oneness withit. To achieve this, they advocated intensetraining of the mind and body throughpractices like yogasanas, breathingexercises and meditation. These groupsbecame particularly popular among lowcastes. Their criticism of conventionalreligion created the ground for devotionalreligion to become a popular force innorthern India.Islam and Sufism

The saints had much in common with theSufis, so much so that it is believed thatthey adopted many ideas from each other.Sufis were Muslim mystics. They rejectedoutward religiosity and emphasised love and

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devotion to God and compassion towardsall fellow human beings.

Islam propagated strict monotheism orsubmission to one God. It also rejected idolworship and considerably simplified ritualsof worship into collective prayers. At thesame time, Muslim scholars developed aholy law called Shariat. The Sufis oftenrejected the elaborate rituals and codes ofbehaviour demanded by Muslim religiousscholars. They sought union with God muchas a lover seeks his beloved with a disregardfor the world. Like the saint-poets, the Sufistoo composed poems expressing theirfeelings, and a rich literature in prose,including anecdotes and fables, developedaround them. Among the great Sufis ofCentral Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.Like the Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis,the Sufis too believed that the heart can be

trained to look at the world in a differentway. They developed elaborate methods oftraining using zikr (chanting of a name orsacred formula), contemplation, sama(singing), raqs (dancing), discussion ofparables, breath control, etc. under theguidance of a master or pir. Thus emergedthe silsilas, a genealogy of Sufi teachers,each following a slightly different method(tariqa) of instruction and ritual practice.

A large number of Sufis from CentralAsia settled in Hindustan from the eleventhcentury onwards. This process wasstrengthened with the establishment of theDelhi Sultanate, when several major Suficentres developed all over thesubcontinent. The Chishti silsila wasamong the most influential orders. It had along line of teachers like KhwajaMoinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, Qutbuddin

Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Faridof Punjab, Khwaja NizamuddinAuliya of Delhi and BandanawazGisudaraz of Gulbarga.

The Sufi masters held theirassemblies in their khanqahs orhospices. Devotees of alldescriptions including members ofthe royalty and nobility, and ordinarypeople flocked to these khanqahs.They discussed spiritual matters,sought the blessings of the saints insolving their worldly problems, orsimply attended the music and dancesessions.

Often, people attributed Sufimasters with miraculous powers thatcould relieve others of their illnessesand troubles. The tomb or dargah ofa Sufi saint became a place ofFig 21.2 Mystics in ecstasy.


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pilgrimage to which thousands of peopleof all faiths thronged.

If you have ever been to a Dargah,describe it to your friends in theclass. How do people showrespects to the Pir and what do theypray for?

New Religious Developments inIndia

The period after the thirteenth centurysaw a new wave of the bhakti movement inNorth India. This was an age when Islam,Hinduism, Sufism, various strands ofbhakti, and the Nathpanths, Siddhas andYogis influenced one another. We saw thatnew towns and kingdoms were emerging,and people were taking up new professionsand finding new roles for themselves. Suchpeople, especially crafts persons, peasants,traders and labourers; thronged to listen tothese new saints and spread their ideas.Some of them like Kabir and Baba GuruNanak rejected orthodox customs andbeliefs.

Poets like Bammera Potana,Annamacharya, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu,Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existingbeliefs and practices but wanted to makethem accessible to all.

Potana, who lived the life of a peasantin the village Bammera near Warangal,composed the famous Mahabhagavatamuin Telugu. Potana was called a ‘SahajaKavi’, a natural poet. He wrote lucid poetryto express his natural devotional feelings.

Thallapaka Annamacharya (1408 – 1503)was a popular saint-composer of AndhraPradesh and is revered as ‘pada kavitapitamaha’. Annamayya dedicated his lifeto composing and singing the glories ofLord Venkateswara of Tirupati. Hiscompositions were mostly extempore inspoken dialect, unlike the classics of theage, which were written in the classical(Grandhika) style. In ‘AnnamacharyaCharitramu’, it is said that Annamayyacomposed thirty two thousand keertanason Lord Venkateswara.

In his keertanas, he took up subjectssuch as morality, dharma and righteousness.He was one of the first few who opposedthe social stigma towards the untouchablecastes in his era. In his sankeertanas,“Brahmam Okkate ParabrahmamOkkate...” and “E KulajudainanemiEvvadainanemi...”, he describes that therelationship between God and human beingsis the same irrespective of the later’s color,caste and financial status, in beautiful yetpowerful usage of words.

‘·+<äHêq ÄVæ≤ ̀ ‘·+<äHêq|ü⁄¬s‘·+<äHêq uÛÑfi≤ ̀ ‘·+<äHêq

ÁãVü≤àyÓTTø£ÿf… |üs¡ÁãVü≤àyÓTTø£ÿf… |üs¡ÁãVü≤àyÓTTø£ÿf… |üs¡ÁãVü≤àyÓTTø£ÿf… ...

ì+&Üs¡ sêE ìÁ~+#·T ìÁ<äj·TT H=ø£fÒn+&ÉH˚ ã+≥T ìÁ<ä n~j·TT H=ø£fÒ ...yÓT+&Ó’q ÁãVü≤àDT&ÉT ̀ yÓT≥TºuÛÑ÷$T jÓTTø£fÒ#·+&Ü\T&ÉT+&˚{Ï dü]uÛÑ÷$T jÓTTø£fÒ ...

- Annamacharya Keertana

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Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534)was a Vaishnava saint and social reformerin eastern India (present day Bangladesh andWest Bengal). Chaitanya was a notableproponent of the Vaishnava school ofBhakti yoga (meaning loving devotion toKrishna/God) based on the philosophy ofthe Bhagavata Purana and BhagavadGita. He propagated community singing ofBhajans and dancing with devotion. Heworshipped the forms of Krishna andpopularised the chanting of the ‘HareKrishna’ mantra.

Kancherla Gopanna (1620 - 1680),popularly known as Bhakta Ramadasu, wasa 17th century devotee of Sri Rama and acomposer of Carnatic music. He is amongthe famous vaggeyakaras (same personbeing the writer and composer of a song)in the Telugu language. He is renowned forconstructing a famous temple for Sri Ramaat Bhadrachalam. He composed devotionallyrics dedicated to Rama, which arepopularly known as RamadaasuKeertanalu. He wrote DasarathiShatakamu, a collection of nearly 108poems dedicated to Lord Rama.

@ rs¡T>∑ qqT <äj·T #·÷#Ó<äy√, Çq e+XÀ‘·ÔeT sêe÷Hê ‘·s¡e÷ uÛÑe kÕ>∑s¡MT<äqT, q[q <äfi‚ø£åD sêe÷Áos¡|òüTTq+<äq d”‘ê s¡eTD≤, Á•‘·»q b˛wüø£ sêe÷ø±s¡TD≤´\j·T uÛÑø£Ô es¡<ä ìqT, ø£qï~ ø±qT|ü⁄ sêe÷...

- Ramadasu Keertana

Can you name some vaggeyakarasand their Keertanas?

Tulsidas conceived of God in the formof Rama. Tulsidas’s composition, theRamcharitmanas, written in Awadhi (alanguage used in eastern Uttar Pradesh), isimportant both as an expression of hisdevotion and as a literary work. He was acontemporary of Shankaradeva of Assam(late fifteenth century) who emphasised ondevotion to Vishnu, and composed poemsand plays in Assamese. He began thepractice ofsetting upnamghars orhouses ofr e c i t a t i o nand prayer, apractice thatcontinues todate.

This trad-ition alsoi n c l u d e dsaints likeDadu Dayal,Ravidas andMirabai. Mirabai was a Rajput princessmarried into the royal family of Mewar inthe sixteenth century. Mirabai became adisciple of Ravidas, a saint from a casteconsidered “untouchable”. She was devotedto Krishna and composed innumerablebhajans expressing her intense devotion.Her songs also openly challenged the normsof the “upper” castes and became popularwith the masses in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

A unique feature of most of the saints isthat their works were composed in regionallanguages and could be sung. They becameimmensely popular and were handed downorally from generation to generation.


Fig 21.3 A paintingof Mirabai.

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Usually the poorest, the most deprivedcommunities and women transmitted thesesongs, often adding their own experiences.Thus, the songs, as we have them today, areas much a creation of the saints as ofgenerations of people who sang them. Theyhave become a part of our living popularculture.

Have you listened to any such oldbhajans in your mother tongue?Find out who composed them.Write down some of them anddiscuss their meaning in the class.

A Closer Look: KabirKabir, who probably lived in the

fifteenth-sixteenth centuries, was one ofthe most influential saints. He was broughtup in a family of Muslim julahas orweavers settled near the city of Benares(Varanasi). We have very little reliableinformation about his life. We get to knowof his ideas from a vast collection ofverses called sakhis and pads said to havebeen composed by him and sung bywandering bhajan singers. Someof these were later collected andpreserved in the Guru GranthSahib, Panch Vani and Bijak.

Kabir’s teachings were basedon a complete, indeed vehement,rejection of the major religioustraditions. His teachings openlyridiculed all forms of externalworship of both Hinduism andIslam, the pre-eminence of thepriestly classes and the castesystem. The language of hispoetry was a form of spokenHindi, widely understood byordinary people.

Kabir believed in a formless SupremeGod and preached that the only path tosalvation was through bhakti or devotion.Kabir drew followers from both Hindus andMuslims.

Here is a composition of Kabir:O Allah-Ram present in all living beingsHave mercy on your servants, O Lord!Why bump your head on the ground,Why bathe your body in water?You kill and you call yourself “humble”,But your vices you conceal.Twenty-four times the Brahmana keepsthe ekadasi fast,While the Qazi observes the Ramzan.Tell me why does he set aside the elevenmonthsTo seek spiritual fruit in the twelfth?Hari dwells in the East, they sayAnd Allah resides in the West,Search for him in your heart, in the heartof your heart;There he dwells, Rahim-Ram

21.4 A painting of Kabir working on a loom.

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Guru NanakWe know more

about Guru Nanak(1469-1539 CE) thanKabir. Born at Talwandi(Nankana Sahib inPakistan), he travelledwidely beforeestablishing a centre atKartarpur (Dera BabaNanak on the river Ravi).Irrespective of theirform creed, caste orgender, his followersate together in thecommon kitchen(langar). The sacredspace thus created byGuru Nanak was knownas dharmsal.

The number of GuruNanak’s followersincreased through the sixteenth centuryunder his successors. They belonged to anumber of castes, but traders,agriculturists, artisans and craftsmenpredominated. This may have something todo with Guru Nanak’s insistence that hisfollowers must be householders and shouldadopt productive and useful occupations.They were also expected to contribute tothe general funds of the community offollowers.

The ideas of Guru Nanak had a hugeimpact on this movement from the verybeginning. He emphasised on theimportance of the worship of one God. Heinsisted that caste, creed or gender wasirrelevant for attaining liberation. His ideaof liberation was not that of a state of inert

bliss but rather the pursuit of active life witha strong sense of social commitment. Hehimself used the terms nam, dan and isnanfor the essence of his teaching, whichactually meant right worship, welfare ofothers and purity of conduct. His teachingsare now remembered as nam-japna, kirt-karna and vand-chhakna, which alsounderline the importance of right belief andworship, honest living, and helping others.Thus, Guru Nanak’s idea of equality hadsocial and political implications. This mightpartly explain the difference between thehistory of the followers of Guru Nanak andthe history of the followers of the otherreligious figures of the medieval centuries,like Kabir, Ravidas and Dadu whose ideaswere very similar to those of Guru Nanak.

Fig 21.5 Guru Nanak as a young man, discussion with holy men.


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1. Describe the beliefs and practices of the Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis.

2. What were the major ideas expressed by Kabir? How did he express them?

3. What were the major beliefs and practices of the Sufis?

4. Why do you think many teachers rejected prevalent religious beliefs and practices?

5. What were the major teachings of Guru Nanak?

6. For either the Virashaivas or the saints of Maharashtra, discuss their attitude towards caste.

7. Why do ordinary people still remember Mirabai?

8. Read the second para under the title ‘A closer look: Kabir’ on page 194 and comment on it.9. Write about a festival celebrated by the people in your area.

Project :1. Visit any dargahs, gurudwaras or temples associated with saints of the bhakti tradition and

describe what you saw and heard about them.

2. Get information about other works of the saint-poets mentioned in this chapter. Find out whetherthey are sung, how they are sung and what the poets wrote?

Keywords :

5. Bhakti

6. Yogasanas

7. Bijak

8. Abhang

1. Advaita

2. Salvation

3. Alvars

4. Nayanars

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CH

APT

ER

Rulers and Buildings

Figure 22.1 shows the first balcony ofthe Qutb Minar. Qutbuddin Aybak hadconstructed this monument in Delhiaround 1199 CE. Notice the patterncreated under the balcony by the smallarches and geometrical designs. Can youfind two bands of inscriptions under thebalcony? These are words written inArabic. Notice that the surface of theminar is curved and angular. Placing aninscription on such a surface requiresgreat precision. Only the most skilledcraftspersons could perform this task.Remember that very few buildings weremade of stone or brick 800 years ago.What would have been the impact of abuilding like the Qutb Minar on observersin the thirteenth century?

Between the eighth and the eighteenthcenturies, kings and their officers builttwo kinds of structures: the first wereforts, palaces and tombs – safe, protectedand grandiose places of rest and thesecond were structures meant for publicactivity including temples, mosques,tanks, wells, caravan serais and bazaars.Kings were expected to look after theirsubjects, and by making structures fortheir use and comfort, rulers hoped to wintheir praise. Construction activity wasalso carried out by others includingmerchants. They built temples, mosquesand wells. However, domesticarchitecture – large mansions (havelis)of merchants – has survived only fromthe eighteenth century.

Figure 22.1: QutbMinar is five storeys

high. The band ofinscriptions you see

are under its firstbalcony. The first

floor wasconstructed by

Qutbuddin Aybakand the rest by

Iltutmish around1229. Over the

years, it wasdamaged by

lightning andearthquakes andrepaired by later

kings.

Fig 22.1

22


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198 Culture and Communication Social Studies

Engineering Skills andConstruction

Monuments provide an insight into thetechnologies used for construction. Takesomething like a roof for example. We canmake it by placing wooden beams or a slabof stone across four walls. But the taskbecomes difficult if we want to make alarge room with an elaboratesuperstructure. This requires moresophisticated skills.

Between the seventh and tenth centuries,architects started adding more rooms,doors and windows to buildings. Roofs,doors and windows were still made byplacing a horizontal beam across twovertical columns, a style of architecturecalled “trabeate” or “corbelled”. Betweenthe eighth and thirteenth centuries, thetrabeate style was used in the constructionof temples, mosques, tombs and buildingsattached to large stepped-wells.

Visit some old temples or Masjidsnear your place and look forexamples of trabeate style (stylein which the roof is supported bybeams placed on pillars). Fig 22.3a The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple of

lord shiva in Khajuraho.

Fig 22.2a Screen in the Quwaat al-Islammosque, Delhi.

Fig 22.2b Corbelledtechnique used in the

construction of an arch.

This style of supporting the roofsrequired placing pillars near eachother and large open halls could notbe built. Can you figure out why?

Temple Construction in the EarlyEleventh Century

The Kandariya Mahadeva templededicated to Shiva was constructed inKhajuraho, Madhya Pradesh 999 CE byKing Dhangadeva.

Fig. 22.3b is the plan of the temple ofthe Chandela dynasty. An ornamentedgateway led to an entrance and the mainh a l l (mahamandapa) whered a n c e s were performed. Thei m a g e of the chief deity waskept in the main shrine

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(garbha-griha).This was the placefor ritual worshipwhere only theking, hisimmediate familyand priests gath-ered. The Khaju-raho complexcontained royaltemples wherecommon peoplewere not allowedto enter. Thetemples weredecorated withe l a b o r a t e l ycarved sculptures.

The Rajaraje-shvara temple at Thanjavur had the tallestshikhara amongst the temples of its time.Constructing it was not easy because therewere no cranes in those days and the 90tonne stone for the top of the shikhara wastoo heavy to lift manually. So, thearchitects built an inclined path to the topof the temple, placed the boulder on rollersand rolled it all the way to the top. The pathstarted more than four kilometres away sothat it would not be too steep. The pathwas dismantled after the templewas constructed.

A new way of buildingTwo technological and

stylistic developmentsare noticeable from thetwelfth century:

(1) The weight of thesuperstructure above thedoors and windows wassometimes carried byarches. The roof tooused this principle andwas converted into vaultsand domes. Thisarchitectural form iscalled “arcuate”.

Fig: 22.5bTrue arch;detail from

the AlaiDarwaza

(earlyfourteenthcentury).

Quwwat al-Islam

mosque,Delhi.

Fig: 22.5a A ‘true’ arch.The ‘keystone’ at the

centre of the archtransferred the weight ofthe superstructure to the

base of the arch.

Fig: 22.4 Brihadishwara Temple at Tanjore

Fig: 22.3b TheKandariya Mahadeva

Temple oflord Shiva ground plan.


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Compare Figures 22.2a and 22.2bwith 22.5a and 22.5b.

(2) Limestone cement was increasinglyused in construction. This was very highquality cement, which, when mixed withstone chips hardened into concrete. Thismade construction of large structureseasier and faster. Arches, domes andlimestone mortar were used extensively inthe buildings after 1190 CE. Take a look atthe construction site in Figure 22.6.

Describe what the labourers aredoing, the tools shown, and themeans of carrying stones.

Do you think these new techniquescould be used to build large hallsand tall buildings?

Building Temples, Mosques andTanks

Temples and mosques were beautifullyconstructed because they were places ofworship. They were also meant todemonstrate the power, wealth and devotionof the patrons. Take the example of theRajarajeshvara temple. An inscriptionmentions that it was built by KingRajarajadeva for the worship of his god,Rajarajeshvara. Notice how the name of theruler and the god are very similar. The kingtook the god’s name because it wasauspicious and he wanted to appear like agod. Through the rituals of worship in thetemple, one god (Rajarajadeva) honouredanother (Rajarajeshvara).

You may recall that the Kakatiya capitalcity – Orugallu was so designed as to havethe temple of Svayambhu Shiva at thecentre. This was built by the Kakatiyas toproclaim their power and status asindependent kings.

The largest temples were all constructedby kings. The other, lesser deities in thetemple were gods and goddesses of theallies and subordinates of the ruler. Thetemple was a miniature model of the worldruled by the king and his allies. As theyworshipped their deities together in theroyal temples, it seemed as if they broughtthe just rule of the gods on earth.

The kings and nobles endowed thetemples with land, gold and jewels so thatthe worship of the gods could be carried

Fig: 22.6 A painting from the AkbarNama (dated 1590-1595), showing the

construction of water gate at Agra Fort.

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out on a grand scale. By 1200 CE , most ofthese temples had become elaborateinstitutions, which employed hundreds ofartisans, dancers, musicians, priests,administrators, servants etc. They collectedtaxes from the villages, lent money on interestto traders, organised fairs and markets towhich buyers and sellers of goods came.Several religions of Shaiva and Vaishnavasects were established around thesetemples. These temples thus becamecentres of political and economic power.Kings and rulers wanted to associate theirnames with these temples by organisingtheir coronation ceremonies in the templesand by giving expensive and elaborate giftsto them and adding to the constructions.

Muslim Sultans and Badshahs did notclaim to be incarnations of god but Persiancourt chronicles described the Sultan as the“Shadow of God”. An inscription in theDelhi mosque explained that God choseAlauddin as a king because he had thequalities of Moses and Solomon, the greatlaw-givers of the past. The greatest law-giver and architect was God Himself. Hecreated the world out of chaos andintroduced order and symmetry.

As each new dynasty came topower, kings wanted toemphasise their moral right to bethe rulers. Constructing places ofworship provided rulers with thechance to proclaim their closerelationship with God,especially important in an age ofrapid political change. Rulersalso offered patronage to thelearned and pious, and tried totransform their capitals andcities into great cultural centres

that brought fame to their rules and realm.It was popularly believed that the rule

of a just king would be an age of plenty whenthe heavens would not withhold rain. At thesame time, making precious water availableby constructing tanks and reservoirs washighly praised. Sultan Iltutmish wonuniversal respect for constructing a largereservoir just outside Dehli-i kuhna. It wascalled the hauz-i Sultani or the “King’sReservoir”.

Rulers often constructed tanks andreservoirs – big and small – for use byordinary people.

Fig 22.7 Plan of the Jami masjid built by Shah Jahan inhis new capital at Shahjanabad 1650-1656.

Qibla - Directiontowards Mecca

Fig 22.8 Harmandar Sahib (Golden Temple)with the holy tank in Amritsar.


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You have read about both, the shrinesof village gods and elaborate templesand mosques – why do you think arethey so different?

Why were Temples Destroyed?Since the kings built temples to

demonstrate their devotion to God and theirpower and wealth, it is not surprising thatwhen they attacked one another’s kingdoms,they often targeted these buildings. In theearly ninth century, the Pandyan kingShrimara Shrivallabha invaded Sri Lanka anddefeated the king, Sena I (831-851). TheBuddhist monk and chronicler Dhammakitti,noted: “he removed all the valuables... Thestatue of the Buddha made entirely of goldin the Jewel Palace... and the golden imagesin the various monasteries – all these heseized.” The blow to the pride of theSinhalese (Srilankan) ruler had to beavenged and the next Sinhalese ruler, SenaII, ordered his general to invade Madurai, thecapital of the Pandyas. The Buddhistchronicler noted that the expedition made aspecial effort to find and restore the goldenstatue of the Buddha.

Similarly, in the early eleventhcentury, when the Chola kingRajendra I built a Shiva temple in hiscapital, he filled it with prized statuesseized from defeated rulers. The listincluded: a Sun-pedestal from theChalukyas, a Ganesha statue andseveral statues of Durga; a Nandistatue from the eastern Chalukyas; animage of Bhairava (a form of Shiva)and Bhairavi from the Kalingas ofOdisha; and a Kali statue from thePalace of Bengal.

Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni was acontemporary of Rajendra I. During hiscampaigns in the subcontinent, he alsoattacked the temples of defeated kings andlooted their wealth and idols. SultanMahmud was not a very important ruler atthat time. But by destroying temples –especially the one at Somnath – he tried towin credit as a great hero of Islam. In thepolitical culture of the Middle Ages, mostrulers displayed their political, might andmilitary success by attacking and lootingthe places of worship of the defeated rulers.

In what ways do you think were thepolicies of Rajendra I and Mahmudof Ghazni a product of their times?How were the actions of the tworulers different?

Imperial Style of theVijayanagara Period

The city of Vijayanagara was developedby the Rayas to act as the imperial capitalof the entire South India. Thus, they wantedit to reflect all the important imperialbuilding traditions. They built large temples

Fig: 22.9 Virupaksha Temple in Hampi.

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for Sri Virupaksha, Ramachandra, Krishnaand Vitthala using a style that had beendeveloped by Chola and Pandya emperorsof Tamil Nadu. This included the Vimanasand the Gopurams. The Rayas paid specialattention to the Gopurams, which were nowbuilt on a scale and height as never before.

It consisted of a first floor usually builtof solid granite and a series of upper floorsmade of brick and chunam. Thesestructures of immense scale must havebeen a mark of imperial authority that oftendwarfed the towers on the central shrines,and signaled the presence of the templefrom a great distance. They were alsoprobably meant as reminders of the powerof kings, able to command the resources,techniques and skills needed to constructthese towering gateways. Other distinctivefeatures include mandapas or pavilions andlong, pillared corridors that often ranaround the shrines within the templecomplex. Let us look closely at theVirupaksha temple.

The Virupaksha temple was built overmany centuries while inscriptions suggestthat the earliest shrine dated to the ninth-tenth century. It was substantially enlargedwith the establishment of the VijayanagaraEmpire. The hall in front of the main shrine

was built by Krishnadevaraya to mark hisaccession. It was decorated with delicatelycarved pillars. He is also credited with theconstruction of the eastern Gopuram.These additions meant that the centralshrine came to occupy a relatively smallpart of the complex.

The halls in the temple were used for avariety of purposes. Some of the halls werespaces in which the images of gods wereplaced to witness special programmes ofmusic, dance, drama etc. Others were usedto celebrate the marriages of deities. Andyet others were meant for showing thereplica of deities, which were distinct fromthose kept in the small central shrine.

While the Vijayanagara rulers built thesetemples on the Tamil Nadu model, theyalso built elaborate secular royal buildings,which were modelled on the style andtechniques of the Sultanate architecture.The famous Lotus Mahal (named so byBritish visitors), Queen’s Bath and theElephant Stables are examples of this style.You can notice the use of arches and domesin these buildings. They were covered withchunam plaster and decorated withelaborate floral and bird designs. It appearsthat the kings and their nobles lived in thesebuildings and displayed their wealth and

Fig 22.10b Queen’s Bath.Fig 22.10a Lotus Temple.


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cosmopolitan taste. However,these buildings did not justcopy the designs of thesultanate buildings. Theycombined designs andfeatures of southern templeswith the arches and domes.The best example of this styleis in the Lotus Mahal, whichwas probably a palace where the kings heldtheir meetings.

The most impressive remain ofVijayanagara, the Mahanavami Dibba, is ahigh platform of 55 feet, that is, as tall as afive floor building, and spread over 11000Sq.feet in area. Its height was increased atleast three times during two hundred years.The sides of the platform were covered withsculptures of various kinds. It did not havea complete building on the top. Theplatform was covered by cloth shamiana orpandal supported by wooden pillars. TheVijayanagara kings held their Navaratri Pujaand Dussera court on this platform. All theirsubordinate chiefs, nayakas and officerspaid their tributes to the Emperor in theseprograms. Ambassadors from Europe andother sultanates also attended the festival.

Why do you think did the emperorsof large kingdoms try to usedifferent styles of buildings?

Gardens, Tombs and FortsUnder the Mughals, architecture became

more complex. Mughal emperors werepersonally interested in literature, art andarchitecture. In his autobiography, Baburdescribed his interest in planning and layingout formal gardens, placed withinrectangular walled enclosures and dividedinto four quarters by artificial channels.

These gardens were called chaharbaghs, four gardens, because of theirsymmetrical division into 4-quarters.Beginning with Akbar, some of the mostbeautiful chahar baghs were constructedby Jahangir and Shah Jahan in Kashmir, Agraand Delhi.

There were several importantarchitectural innovationsduring Akbar’s reign. Forinspiration, Akbar ’sarchitects turned to thetombs of his Central Asianancestor, Timur. Thecentral towering domeand the tall gateway(pishtaq) becameFig 22.10d Mahanavami dibba

Fig 22.10c Elephant stable.

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important aspects of Mughal architecture,first visible in Humayun’s tomb. The tomb wasplaced in the centre of a huge formal chaharbagh and built in the tradition known as “eightparadises” or hasht bihisht – a central hallsurrounded by eight rooms. The building wasconstructed with red sandstone, edged withwhite marble.

Fig: 22.11 A painting of Babur supervisingworkers laying out a chahar bagh in Kabul.

Note how the intersecting channels on the pathcreate the characteristic chahar bagh design.

Fig: 22.12 Tomb of Humayun, Can you see thewater channels?


It was during Shah Jahan’s reign thatthe different elements of Mughalarchitecture were fused together in agrand harmonious synthesis. His reignwitnessed a huge amount of constructionactivity especially in Agra and Delhi. Theceremonial halls of public and privateaudience (diwan-i-khas or diwan-i-aam) were carefully planned. Thesecourts were also described as chihilsutun or forty-pillared halls, placedwithin a large courtyard.

Shah Jahan’s audience halls werespecially constructed to resemble amosque. The pedestal on which histhrone was placed was frequentlydescribed as the qibla, the direction inwhich Muslims pray, since everybodyfaced that direction when court was insession. The idea of the king as arepresentative of God on earth wassuggested by these architecturalfeatures.

The connection between royal justiceand the imperial court was emphasisedby Shah Jahan in his newly constructedcourt in the Red Fort at Delhi. Behindthe balcony of the emperor’s throne,there were a series of pietra dura inlaysthat depicted the legendary Greek god

Fig: 22.13 A reconstruction from a map ofthe river-front garden city of Agra. Notehow the garden palaces of the nobles areplaced on both banks of the Yamuna. The

Taj Mahal is on the left.

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edge of the river and the garden was to itssouth. In the new city of Shahjahanabad thathe constructed in Delhi, the imperial palacecommanded the river-front. Only speciallyfavoured nobles – like his eldest son DaraShukoh – were given access to the river.All others had to construct their homes inthe city away from the River Yamuna.

You are an artisan standing on a tinywooden platform held together bybamboo and rope fifty metresabove the ground. You have to placean inscription under the firstbalcony of the Qutb Minar. Howwould you do this?

Fig: 22.15 Decorated pillars and struts holdingthe extension of the roof in Jodh Bai palace inFatehpur Sikri. They follow the architectural

traditions of the Gujarat region.

Orpheus playing the flute. It was believedthat Orpheus’s music could calm ferociousbeasts until they resided togetherpeacefully. The construction of ShahJahan’s audience hall aimed tocommunicate that the king’s justice wouldtreat the high and the low as equals whereall could live together in harmony.

In the early years of his reign, ShahJahan’s capital was at Agra, a city where thenobility had constructed their homes on thebanks of the river Yamuna. These were setin the midst of formal gardens constructedin the chahar bagh format. The chaharbagh garden also had a variation thathistorians describe as the “river-frontgarden”. In this garden, the dwelling was notlocated in the middle of the chahar baghbut at its edge, close to the bank of the river.

Shah Jahan adapted the river-frontgarden in the layout of the Taj Mahal, thegrandest architectural accomplishment ofhis reign. Here, the white marblemausoleum was placed on a terrace by the

Fig: 22.14 Tajmahal in Agra.

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Fig: 22.16b The archways at the QutbShahi Tombs.

1. How is the “trabeate” principle of architecture different from “arcuate”?2. What is a shikhara?3. What are the elements of a Mughal chahar bagh garden?4. How did a temple communicate the importance of a king?5. Read the second para of introduction part of page 198 and comment on it.6. Is there a statue or a memorial in your village or town. Why was it placed there? What purpose does it

serve?7. Visit and describe any park or garden in your neighbourhood. In what ways is it similar to or

different from the gardens of the Mughals?8. Locate the following in the map of India.

a) Delhi b) Agra c) Amritsar d) Tanjavur e) Humpi f) River Yamuna



Keywords :1. Inscriptions 2. Monuments3. Dynasty 4. Architecture5. Coronation Ceremony

Fig: 22.16 View of Qutb Shahi Tomb

Around the same time as the Mughals, the QutbShahi rulers of Golconda (Hyderabad) engagedin extensive building activities. These includedconstruction of Husain Sagar lake, the Golcondafort, a large number of gardens with water channelsand fountains, and beautiful tombs for themselves.The famous Charminar and Mecca Masjid werebuilt during their rule. They blended Persian,Mughal and Deccani styles.

Fig: 22.16a Tomb of Hayath Bakshi Begum

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ACADEMIC STANDARDS (AS)

Time should be spent in making sure that children comprehend the passages given in text. Inbetween questions are useful in this context. These questions are of different types that wouldinclude the aspects reasoning, cause and effect, justification, mind mapping / concept mapping,observation, analysis, thinking and imagination, reflection, interpreting etc. The key conceptshave been discussed subconceptwise in every chapter with examples and also given in theform of keywords.

1) Conceptual understanding (AS1) : Promoting learning of basic concepts through inquiry,discussion, reflection giving examples through case studies interpreting, observation etc.

2) Reading the text (given), understanding and interpretation (AS2) : Occasionally thereare case studies about farmers, labourers in factory, or images that are used in text which donot directly convey the concept. Time should be given for children to grasp the main ideas,interpret images etc.

3) Information skills (AS3): Textbooks alone cannot cover all different aspects of social studiesmethodology. For example, children living in an urban area can collect information regardingtheir elected representatives or children living in the rural area can collect information about theway irrigation / tank facilities are made available in their area. This information may not exactlymatch with that of the textbooks and will have to be clarified. Representing the information thatthey have collected through projects are also an important ability. For example if they collectinformation about a tank – they may decide to draw an illustration or map etc along with writtenmaterial. Or represent the information collected through images or posters. Information skillincludes, collection of information tabulation / records and analysis.

4) Reflection on contemporary issues and questioning (AS4): Students need to be encouragedto compare their living conditions along with that of different regions or people from different times.There may not be a single answer to these situations of comparison. Giving reasons for certain happeningprocess and justification of informatic and interpretative.

5) Mapping skills (AS5) : There are different types of maps and pictures used in the textbook. Developingability related to maps as abstract representation of places is important. There are different stages ofdeveloping this ability, from creating a map of their classroom to understanding height, distance asrepresented in a map. There are illustrations, posters and photographs used in the textbook, theseimages often relate to the text and are not merely for visual effect. Sometimes there are activities like‘write a caption’ or ‘read the images’ that are about architecture etc.

6) Appreciation and Sensitivity (AS6) : Our country has vast diversity in terms of language,culture, caste, religion, gender etc. Social studies does take into consideration these differentaspects and encourages students to be sensitive to these differences.

208 Academic Standards

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AppendixThis additional Information and the maps are to be used wherever

necessary.

Wor

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India Physical Map

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Wor

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Telangana Political Map

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NationalLanguage : Hindi

National Symbols of IndiaNational Flag :Designed bySri Pingali Venkaiah

National Symbol : LionCapital - Adopted from theEmperor Asoka’s dharma stupaestablished at Saranath.

National Anthem :Written by SriRavindranath Tagore.

Janaganamana...

National Song : Vande MataramWritten by Sri Bamkim ChandraChaterji

National Calendar :Based on ShakaSamvatsara ( Chaitramasam to Phalgunamasam). We follow theGregorian Calendarofficially.

National Flower :Lotus

National Fruit :Mango

National Tree :Banyan tree

National Animal :Royal Bengal Tiger

National AquaticAnimal : Dolphin

National Bird :Peacock

National River :Ganges

National HeritageAnimal : Elephant

Indian Standard Time (IST) :Based on 82 1/2 degrees EastLongitude. Our local time is5hrs.30min. ahead of Greenwichmean time(GMT).

Sl. No. State Symbol Common Name Telugu Name1. State Animal Spotted Deer Jinka2. State Bird Indian Roller Pala Pitta3. State Tree Jammi Chettu Jammi4. State Flower Tangedu Tangedu

Telangana State Symbols

State Animal State Bird State Tree State Flower State Logo

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Telangana Fact SheetTelangana Area : 1,12,077 sq kmDensity : 307Latitude extent : 15046’ N - 19047’ NLongitudeval extent : 77016’ Eastern longitude

81030’ Eastern longitudeCountry : IndiaRegion : South IndiaFormed on : June 2nd, 2014Capital : HyderabadNo. of Districts : 31(Adilabad, Komarambheem, Bhadradri, Jayashankar, Jogulamba, Hyderabad, Jagitial, Janagoan,Kama Reddy, Karimnagar, Khamma, Mahabubabad, Mahabubnagar, Manchiryal, Medak,Medchal, Nalgonda, Nagarkurnool, Nirmal, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy, Peddapalli, Rajanna,Sanga Reddy, Siddipet, Suryapet, Vikarabad, Wanaparthy, Warangal Urban, Warangal Rura,Yadadri.)Official Languages : Telugu, UrduNo.of Assembly seats : 119No.of Council seats : 40No.of Lok sabha seats : 17No.of Rajya sabha seats : 7Important Rivers : Godavari, Krishna, Manjira, MusiNo. of Zilla Praja Parishats : 9No. of Mandal Praja Parishats : 443No. of Municipal Corporations : 6No. of Municipalities : 38No. of Revenue Mandals : 464No. of Gram Panchayats : 8778Total Population (as per 2011 census) : 351.94 LakhsNo. of Males : 177.04 LakhsNo. of Females : 174.90 LakhsSex Ratio (No. of Females per 1000 Males) : 988Density of Population (per Sq.k.m.) : 307Literacy Rate : 66.46%Male Literacy Rate : 74.95%Female Literacy Rate : 57.92%

Timeline of Satavahana Kings(230 BCE - 225 CE)

Srimukha 271 BCE - 248 BCEKrishna 248 BCE - 230 BCESatakarni - I 230 BCE - 220 BCESatakarni - II 184 BCE - 128 BCEHala 42 CE - 51 CEGoutamiputra Satakarni 62 CE - 86 CEVasishtaputra Pulomavi 86 CE - 114 CESivasri Satakarni 114 CE - 128 CEYagyasri Satakarni 128 A.D. - 157 CE

Timeline of Chola Kings(900 CE - 1279 CE)

Vijayalaya 850 CE - 871 CEAditya Chola 871 CE - 905 CEParantaka - I 905 CE - 907 CERajaraja - I 985 CE - 1016 CERajaraja Chola 1016 CE - 1044 CERajadhi Raja 1044 CE - 1052 CEVeera Rajendra 1064 CE - 1069 CEKuluthonga Chola 1070 CE - 1121 CERajaraja - II 1173 CE - 1178 CEKuluthonga Chola -III 1178 CE - 1219 CERajendra - III 1256 CE - 1270 CE

SCERT TELANGANA


SCERT TELANGANA

scert telangana

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