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“In Handbook of Sport in the Middle East, Reiche and Brannagan provide scholars with an indis-pensable edited collection that examines a multiplicity of sports and case studies in relation to culture, politics, society, economics, and international relations in the Middle East. Academics interested in studying the use of soft power through sport, sport policies in both authoritarian and democratic contexts, the comparative method, or the shifting nature of identities, societies, and economics in the region will find this volume useful. Handbook of Sport in the Middle East will undoubtedly stimulate future research in a variety of disciplines in the Middle East and beyond.”

Tamir Bar-On, Professor-Researcher, School of Social Sciences and Government, Tec de Monterrey, Mexico

“The editors of the Handbook of Sport in the Middle East are to be congratulated on the breadth of coverage of sport in the Middle East and on the depth of analysis provided by the contributors. This is essential reading for anyone who wants to understand the social, economic and political significance of sport in the Middle East and the significance of the Middle East for global sport.”

Barry Houlihan, Emeritus Professor of Sport Policy, Loughborough University, UK

“The Handbook of Sport in the Middle East sheds light on a variety of sports and countries. It complements existing academic literature whilst also illuminating various new and cru-cial topics. It does a brilliant job of highlighting narratives from beyond the mainstream and employing several different theoretical concepts.”

Birgit Krawietz, Professor of Islamic Studies at Freie Universität Berlin, Germany

“This volume juxtaposes a series of timely and innovative studies that significantly contribute to contemporary debates in Middle East studies, as well as in sport studies. With scholarly rigor and unprecedented breadth, it covers case studies in almost every Middle Eastern country from Egypt to Iran, bringing together major regional concerns regarding economy, politics, citizen-ship, and identity.”

Tamir Sorek, Liberal Arts Professor of Middle East History, Pennsylvania State University, USA

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ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF SPORT IN THE MIDDLE EAST

This Handbook provides a succinct overview of sport in the Middle East, drawing in scholars from a wide variety of geographical and disciplinary backgrounds (history, politics, sociology, economics and regional studies), with different methodological approaches, to create the ‘go- to’ text on the subject.

After the introduction, 33 chapters from leading subject experts cover history, politics, society, economy and nationhood. The authors help shed light on how certain Middle Eastern countries have become increasingly active in international sports, and their efforts to position themselves as the new global ‘sports hubs’. Split into five sections, the book offers a multi- dis-ciplinary analysis of a diverse range of sports across the geographic Middle East, including foot-ball, mixed martial arts, rugby, athletics and cycling. The authors highlight and respond to issues such as the naturalisation of athletes, female athleticism, sports media and supporter cultures.

The Routledge Handbook of Sport in the Middle East stands apart from previous research by offering first- hand accounts of sport in the area from authors who live and work in the region or have a history of regularly visiting and conducting research in the region. It will be of interest to academics and students alike in the fields of Middle East politics, sport, sport in the Middle East, international relations, governance and sociology.

Danyel Reiche is a visiting associate professor at Georgetown University Qatar, where he leads a research initiative on the FIFA World Cup 2022. He is a tenured associate professor of Comparative Politics at the American University of Beirut (AUB) in Lebanon. His past research has focused on two areas: Energy as well as sport policy and politics, with the latter being his current priority. He published Success and Failure of Countries at the Olympic Games in 2016, Qatar and the 2022 FIFA World Cup: Politics, Controversy, Change with Paul Brannagan in 2022, and edited a volume entitled Sport, Politics and Society in the Middle East (2019) with Tamir Sorek. His peer- reviewed articles have been published in both area studies journals (such as International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics and Journal of Energy Policy) and broader- oriented journals, such as Third World Quarterly or The Middle East Journal. Reiche has also been invited to write op- eds for leading international newspapers such as Washington Post and Spiegel Online and has been frequently interviewed and quoted by major media outlets such as Le Monde, The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal.

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Paul Michael Brannagan is a political sociologist specialising in the study of sport. His research primarily focuses on the role and use of sports mega- events by national governments for achieving specific political, economic, social and cultural objectives. To date, his research has centred most specifically on sport in the Middle East, focusing on the State of Qatar and its forthcoming staging of the 2022 FIFA World Cup. He is the author of Qatar and the 2022 FIFA World Cup: Politics, Controversy, Change (co- authored with Danyel Reiche, 2022). His work has been published in leading political science and sports studies journals, including Leisure Studies, Global Society, Diplomacy and Statecraft and International Affairs. He has frequently been interviewed and quoted by major media outlets, such as the BBC World Service, The Independent and the New York Times.

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ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF SPORT IN THE MIDDLE EAST

Edited by Danyel Reiche and Paul Michael Brannagan

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Cover image: © Getty Images

First published 2022by Routledge

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

© 2022 selection and editorial matter, Danyel Reiche and Paul Michael Brannagan; individual chapters, the contributors

The right of Danyel Reiche and Paul Michael Brannagan to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or

hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing- in- Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication DataA catalog record has been requested for this book

ISBN: 978- 0- 367- 47022- 7 (hbk)ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 20248- 8 (pbk)ISBN: 978- 1- 003- 03291- 5 (ebk)

DOI: 10.4324/ 9781003032915

Typeset in Bemboby Newgen Publishing UK

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CONTENTS

List of Figures xiList of Tables xiiList of Contributors xiiiAcknowledgements xxi

Introduction – Sport in the Middle East: Towards More Inclusive and Collaborative Efforts? 1Danyel Reiche and Paul Michael Brannagan

PA RT IHistory 11

1 Sport and Educational Development in the History of Oman 13Majid Al Busafi

2 ‘I Was as Lebanese as Anyone’: The Story of David Saad, Lebanon’s Last Jewish Olympian 24Mohamad El Chamaa

3 Riding in the Desert: Road Cycling in Qatar 33Thomas Ross Griffin

4 The 1981 FIFA World Youth Championship in Australia as a Transformative Moment in Qatar’s Sporting History 43Matthias Krug

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5 Football for National Purposes in Qatar: Participation at Gulf Cup 1970 and Qatar FA Recognition by FIFA 52Luis Henrique Rolim Silva

6 The Historical Development of Football in the UAE: A Journey from a Pastime to a Symbol of National Identity 64Salma Thani

7 The Making of a Heritage Sport: Falconry in the UAE 74Sarina Wakefield

PA RT I IPolitics 85

8 Controlling Iranian Soccer Is Mastering Iranian Politics 87James M. Dorsey

9 Sport, Diplomacy, Conflict and Peace: The Case of Israel 96Yair Galily and Tal Samuel- Azran

10 Using Sport as a National Soft Power Strategy: The Case of Mixed Martial Arts in Bahrain 104Nadim Nassif

11 The Syrian Men’s National Football Team as a Propaganda Tool of the Assad Government 115Nazih Osseiran

12 Olympic Bidding and Anti- Doping Policies in Turkey 126Cem Tinaz and Omer Onur Hertem

PA RT I I ISociety 139

13 Barriers for Sport Participation of Children with Lower- Class Background in Turkey 141Selçuk Açıkgöz

14 Organising Sports Mega- Events and Sustainable Development Policies: The Case of the 2022 World Cup in Qatar 150Ahmed Badran

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15 Global Sport and Human Capital Soft Power: The Case of Qatar 163Paul Michael Brannagan

16 The Development of Women’s Sport in the Omani Context 176Abdul Rahim Al Droushi

17 Hapoel Tel Aviv vs. Maccabi Tel Aviv: A Microcosm of the Arab– Israeli Conflict and Peace Process 186Glen M.E. Duerr

18 Football Fandom in Egypt 196Connor T. Jerzak

19 The Politics and Passion of Middle Eastern Football Spectator Cultures 208Dag Tuastad

20 Ultras in Egypt: Massacred, Disbanded, Steadfast? 219Robbert Woltering

PA RT I VEconomy 229

21 Saudi Arabia and Sport in the 21st Century: From Oil and Gas to Event- Driven Change 231Simon Chadwick and Paul Widdop

22 Sports Economics of Iran 242Morteza Dousti, Ali Mohsenifar and Taghi Ashouri

23 Politics of Football Debt and Financial Fair Play in Turkey 255Can Evren

24 Politics and Pirates: Sports Broadcasting in the Middle East 265Craig L. LaMay

25 Hosting Mega- Events in the Gulf 276Robert Kaspar

26 Sporting Cities and Economic Diversification in the Arabian Peninsula 287Natalie Koch

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27 Investing in Sport: A Comparison of Qatar, the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia 297Victor Olivereau

28 Understanding the Cultural Landscape of Sport in the United Arab Emirates 310Seth Joseph Perkin and P. David Howe

PA RT VNation 321

29 Naturalised East African Long- Distance Runners in the Middle East 323Hannah Borenstein

30 Homo communautarius: The Influence of Politics on the Lebanese Sport Scene 333Axel Maugendre

31 Nationality Swapping in World Athletics: Cases and Contexts from the Middle East (1998– 2016) 344Gijsbert Oonk and Jorn Schulting

32 Beyond ‘Defecting’ and ‘Swapping’ Nationality: Emigrant Women Athletes and the Iranian Gendered Bio- Politics 354Ladan Rahbari

33 Inclusivity in an Environment of Exclusive Citizenship: The Multinational Qatari Women’s Rugby Team 364Danyel Reiche

Index 376

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FIGURES

15.1 The transtheoretical model (TTM) of behaviour change 170 18.1 This figure illustrates one of the tifo displays put on by Ultras

Ahlawy in support of Al Ahly at a CAF Super Cup match against Tunisia’s Sfaxien Club on February 20, 2014 200

18.2 This figure illustrates how the Ultras in Egypt gained public notoriety following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011, as measured by the number of articles published in the Egyptian Independent about the groups 202

18.3 This figure illustrates how the discourse about the Ultras in the Egyptian Independent has evolved over time 203

22.1 The structure of sport in Iran under the Islamic government 245 25.1 The event life cycle 278 27.1 A sporting comparison of Qatar, the UAE and Saudi Arabia 307

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TABLES

1.1 List of documents analysed and their dates 17 3.1 Winners – Tour of Qatar 36 3.2 Winners – Ladies Tour of Qatar 36 5.1 Qatar administrative delegation at Gulf Football Tournament 1970 57 6.1 UAE national team achievements 70 10.1 Ranking of the top ten Arab countries (with their world ranking)

in professional MMA from 2016 to 2019 109 10.2 Top 20 MMA professional organisations as of 24 December 2017 109 10.3 Top 15 MMA professional organisations as of July 2020 110 12.1 Turkish athletes in the London and Rio games 134 15.1 Qatar Social and Economic Survey Research Institute’s (2015: 5)

findings on Qataris’ regular sporting practices 172 22.1 Ownership status of the teams participating in the Iranian Football

Premier League in 2020– 2021 248 30.1 Football clubs of men’s first division season 2020/ 2021 335 30.2 Basketball clubs of men’s first division season 2020/ 2021 336 30.3 Repartition by sport of the Lebanese population physical activities 338 31.1 National background of athletes in the Middle East in numbers

(1998– 2016) 349 33.1 Top- 15 nationalities in Qatar 366 33.2 The Qatari National Rugby Union women’s teams at the 2019

West Asian Championship 370 33.3 Eligibility criteria in rugby union 371

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CONTRIBUTORS

Selçuk Açıkgöz is a postdoctoral researcher in the Faculty of Sport Sciences, Trakya University, Turkey. He holds a joint PhD in Physical Education and Sport from Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium and Marmara University, Turkey. His research interests include different aspects of the sociology of sport, focusing on social inclusion, youth studies, critical pedagogy and (anti- )racism.

Taghi Ashouri holds a PhD in sports management. He graduated from the University of Mazandaran, Iran, and completed his MSc in sports management from Shomal University, Iran. His research interests include sports entrepreneurship, sports marketing and sports economics. He is currently working as a researcher, lecturer and sports entrepreneurship consultant.

Tal Samuel- Azran holds a PhD from the University of Melbourne, Australia. He is an associate professor and the head of the International Program at the Sammy Ofer School of Communications at the Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya, Israel. His research has been published in American Behavioral Scientist and Computers in Human Behavior, among others. He is the author of Al- Jazeera and US War Coverage (2010).

Ahmed Badran is an associate professor of Public Policy at the Department of International Affairs, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University. He holds a PhD in Public Policy from the University of Exeter, United Kingdom. His research interests cover different areas of regu-latory governance and politics, particularly in transitioning and developing economies.

Hannah Borenstein is a PhD candidate in the Cultural Anthropology Department at Duke University, United States. She is currently finishing her dissertation on long- distance women runners from Ethiopia. The project is an ethnographic study on women navigating trans-national networks of people, corporations and capital. She has received research grants from the Wenner- Gren Foundation, the Olympic Studies Center, the Society for the Anthropology of Work, the Duke University Graduate School, and the Center of French and Ethiopian Studies.

Paul Michael Brannagan is a political sociologist specialising in the study of sport. His research primarily focuses on the role and use of sports mega- events by national governments

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for achieving specific political, economic, social and cultural objectives. To date, his research has centred most specifically on sport in the Middle East, focusing on the State of Qatar and its forthcoming staging of the 2022 FIFA World Cup. He is the author of Qatar and the 2022 FIFA World Cup: Politics, Controversy, Change (co- authored with Danyel Reiche, 2022). His work has been published in leading political science and sports studies journals, including Leisure Studies, Global Society, Diplomacy and Statecraft and International Affairs. He has frequently been interviewed and quoted by major media outlets, such as the BBC World Service, The Independent and the New York Times.

Majid Al Busafi is an academic and researcher in the fields of health and sports sciences. He is working as an associate professor in the College of Education at Qatar University. He also serves as the Director of the Humanities Research Center at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU), Oman. He has recently been appointed as a member of the Arab- German Young Academy of Sciences and Humanities (AGYA). At AGYA, he works with other international and multi- disciplinary scholars on research and innovation projects. He previously worked as the Assistant Dean for Undergraduate Studies at SQU before moving to the UK to work as a visiting pro-fessor at Cardiff Metropolitan University for one academic year. He has also worked as a visiting professor at Deusto University in Spain.

Simon Chadwick is a professor of the Eurasian Sport Industry at the Emlyon Business School in Paris and Shanghai. He writes, consults and commentates on matters at the intersection of sport, business and politics, specifically in a Eurasian context. Chadwick has worked extensively in the Gulf region, undertaking studies ranging from football fan engagement and the utilisa-tion of soft power sports sponsorships by airlines to the measurement of sports industry size in the Gulf and assessments of the challenges the industry faces. He has published extensively in these fields.

Mohamad El Chamaa is an urban planner working on Beirut’s recovery after the port explo-sion on August 4, 2020. He holds a Bachelor of Arts in History and a master’s degree in Urban Planning and Policy from the American University of Beirut, Lebanon.

James M. Dorsey is an award- winning journalist, a senior fellow at Nanyang Technological University’s S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies in Singapore and the National University of Singapore’s Middle East Institute. He is also an honorary non- resident senior fellow at Eye on ISIS. He runs the syndicated column and blog called The Turbulent World of Middle East Soccer.

Morteza Dousti is an associate professor of Sport Management at the University of Mazandaran, Iran. His research interests include business in sport, sports politics, sports diplomacy, strategy, gambling, betting and corruption in sport. He obtained his MSc and PhD degrees in Sport Management from the University of Tehran, Iran. He is currently working with colleagues in universities worldwide on research and educational projects in sport management.

Abdul Rahim Al Droushi is an assistant professor of Sport Policy and Management at the Physical Education and Sports Sciences Department of Sultan Qaboos University, Oman. He completed his Master of Business in International Sport and Recreation Management from Queensland University, Australia. He earned his PhD from Loughborough University, United Kingdom, in 2017 and his thesis was titled ‘Discourses on the modernization agenda in sport

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policy in Oman; between the global and local and modernity and authenticity’. His primary research areas have been sport management, sport policy in the Arab world context, sport development and development through sport in the Gulf, sport and globalisation, the gov-ernance of sport, sport and politics, the professionalisation of sport, sport mega- events, sports tourism in Oman, marketing of sport and football.

Glen M.E. Duerr is an associate professor of International Studies at Cedarville University. Born and raised in the United Kingdom, Duerr lived in Canada for a decade before moving to the USA to pursue his PhD. He has authored and edited three books related to the subjects of nationalism and secessionism. His research focuses on case studies utilising the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Belgium, Spain and Israel. A former semi- professional soccer player, he also serves as a City Council member in Beavercreek, Ohio, USA.

Can Evren holds a PhD in Cultural Anthropology from Duke University, United States. He is currently an independent researcher and studies Turkish sports history, focusing on the intersections of commercialised sport, globalisation and the nation- state, with a particular interest in the cultural politics of Turkey– Europe relations.

Yair Galily is a behavioural scientist and head of the Sport, Media and Society (SMS) Research Lab in the Sammy Ofer School of Communications at the Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya, Israel. He also works as a senior researcher at the International Institute for Counter- Terrorism (ICT) at the Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya, Israel. He has written and edited six books and over a hundred and fifty peer- reviewed articles in international academic journals in various fields related to behavioural and social aspects of sports and exercise. He is the founder and head of the research unit at the Israeli Football Association and a member of the Union of European Football Associations’ (UEFA) club licensing committee.

Thomas Ross Griffin is an assistant professor of American Literature at Qatar University. His research interests include the relationship between sport and culture, national identity and sports history, particularly in the Gulf. He has published works on a range of subjects, including the social legacies of Qatar’s hosting of mega- sporting events, as well as orientalism in the British broadsheet press coverage of the 2022 World Cup, in peer- reviewed journals and edited university press collections. He has also written for and appeared on international news media, speaking about the intersections between sport and culture. He is currently the Middle East Academic Editor for the International Journal of the History of Sport.

Omer Onur Hertem is a PhD candidate in International Relations and Political Science at Istanbul University. He obtained his master’s degree from the University of Oslo, Norway. His master’s thesis is titled ‘The use of sport as a political tool by the Justice and Development Party in Turkey’.

P. David Howe is a medical anthropologist and holds the Dr Frank J. Hayden Chair in Sport and Social Impact in the School of Kinesiology at Western University, Canada. With reference to the culture of disability, ethics of Paralympism, health and disability, and medical discourse surrounding disability sports, David’s research highlights ways and means of making sport and physical activity more empowering for marginalised populations. David is also editor of the Routledge book series Disability, Sport and Physical Activity Cultures and holds a guest pro-fessorship at Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.

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Connor T. Jerzak is a PhD candidate at Harvard University’s Department of Government in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He also holds a master’s degree in Statistics from Harvard University. He will be joining the University of Texas at Austin’s Department of Government as an assistant professor after a one- year postdoctoral position at the Institute for Analytical Sociology in the Department of Management and Engineering at Linköping University, Sweden. In addition to politics concerning football in the Middle East, Connor’s research interests include political economy and quantitative research methods, looking specifically at ways to leverage text and network data to answer questions about causality, social movement formation, the economic determinants of political behaviour and the linkages between international and domestic pol-itics. His research has been published in peer- reviewed journals such as Interface, The International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, Political Analysis and Research in Transportation Economics. Connor also worked on the development of quantitative methods for Adobe Research in San Jose, California.

Natalie Koch is an associate professor in the Department of Geography and the Environment at the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs in Syracuse University, United States. She is a political geographer working on geopolitics, nationalism, authoritarianism and state power in the resource- rich states of the post- Soviet space and the Arabian Peninsula. Dr Koch focuses on alternative sites for geopolitical analysis, such as sport, spectacle, science and higher education, environmental policy and urban planning. In addition to over 60 journal articles and book chapters, she is the author of The Geopolitics of Spectacle: Space, Synecdoche, and the New Capitals of Asia (2018), editor of the book, Critical Geographies of Sport: Space, Power, and Sport in Global Perspective (2017) and co- editor of the Handbook on the Changing Geographies of the State: New Spaces of Geopolitics (2020). She has a contract for a forthcoming book Arid Empire: The Entangled Fates of Arizona and Arabia.

Matthias Krug works for Generation Amazing and is an author, academic and journalist born and raised in Qatar. Krug holds a PhD in English Linguistics and Literature from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain. Over the past 18 years, he has written exten-sively about football, society, politics and culture for media from around the world, including the BBC, CNN, ESPN, The Huffington Post, Irish Examiner, Al Jazeera, FourFourTwo, El Pais, Art Monthly Australia and many others. Krug has written a book on Qatar’s football and sports history titled Journeys on a Football Carpet (2019), which won two international book awards in 2020. He is the author of a series of children’s books. His creative short stories have also been published in numerous literary magazines worldwide.

Robert Kaspar is an assistant professor of Sports Management at the Seeburg Castle University (SCU) in Salzburg, Austria. He has worked at various sports mega- events as Special Events Coordinator with the Special Olympics World Winter Games 2017 and as Secretary- General of the Salzburg bid for the 2010 Olympic Winter Games. Kaspar has held positions at various Austrian universities and has been invited as a guest lecturer and keynote speaker to universities and sports meetings all across Europe and Asia.

Craig L. LaMay is a journalist and a professor at Northwestern University. He is in resi-dence at Northwestern University in Qatar, where he teaches Comparative Communications, Law and Policy, and Sports History. He is the author and editor of several books, including Exporting Press Freedom: Economic and Editorial Dilemmas in International Media Assistance; Inside the Presidential Debates, with Newton Minow; Journalism and the Problem of Privacy; and Democracy

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on the Air, with Ellen Mickiewicz. LaMay has reported from Southeast and Central Europe, Southeast Asia and Central America. He is a long- time practitioner in international media development, where he works on legal reform and information access law and is on the board of the Center for International Media Assistance in Washington, DC. He is also a member of the International Society of Sports Sciences in the Arab World and the former Middle East editor of the International Journal of the History of Sports.

Axel Maugendre is a PhD student in the research unit ‘Sports and Social Sciences’ (UR 1342) of the Faculty of Sports Sciences at Strasbourg University (UNISTRA), France. He is currently working on the social and sports trajectories of elite team sports in Lebanon. He holds a Bachelor of Arts in History and a Master of Arts in Religious Sciences from Bordeaux Montaigne University in France and University Saint- Joseph of Beirut in Lebanon, respectively. His research interests encompass sports history, sports sociology and the social organisation of religious minorities. Maugendre is one of the founders of the Lebanese Sports Scholar Network (LESSN). He also coached the Lebanese junior U18 rugby national team.

Ali Mohsenifar is a PhD student in Sport Management at the University of Mazandaran, Iran, where he also completed his Master of Science in Sport Management. His research interests include development in sports, sports marketing and sports economics.

Nadim Nassif is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology, Education and Physical Education at the Faculty of Humanities in Notre Dame University – Louaize (NDU), Lebanon. He is the academic advisor for the physical education and sports major and was the NDU FIFA/ CIES Sports Management Program’s former manager. He has a Bachelor of Arts in Physical Education from the University of Balamand, Lebanon, a FIFA Master in Sport Management, an MPhil in Sports History from De Montfort University, United Kingdom, and a PhD in Sport Sociology from Grenoble- Alpes University, France. His research interests encompass sports history, coaching, sports sociology, sport management, and sports policy and politics.

He created the World Ranking of Countries in Elite Sport, which aims to give an accurate evaluation of the performances of all countries participating in all internationally recognised sports. He is also the fitness and assistant coach of the Lebanese junior, men and women futsal national teams. He is also the head coach of the Lebanese Mixed Martial Arts national team and a consultant for the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation.

Victor Olivereau is from the Lille Institute of Political Studies, France. After studying Literature, he studied International Relations at Sciences Po, Lille before specialising in Oriental Studies. During successive linguistic expatriations to Lebanon, Egypt, the Palestinian territories and Jordan, he studied various sporting and societal issues such as Al Ahly’s ultras in the Egyptian revolution or the diplomatic- sporting struggle between the Gulf monarchies since 2010.

Gijsbert Oonk holds the Jean Monnet Chair on Migration, Citizenship and Identity at the Erasmus School of History, Culture and Communication (ESHCC) Rotterdam, Netherlands. He specialises in migration, citizenship, sport and (national) identity issues. He is the founding director of the Sport and Nation network. He has served as the South Asian area/ history editor of the Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient (JESHO) and editor of Geschiedenis

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Magazine (History Magazine, published in Dutch). In 2011– 2012 he was the Alfred D. Chandler Jr. International Visiting Fellow in Business History at Harvard Business School (Boston).

Nazih Osseiran is a Beirut- based journalist who has been covering Lebanon and Syria since 2015. His work has appeared in The Wall Street Journal, The Financial Times and The Daily Star. He has reported on Syrian war profiteers from Damascus and Homs and covered the Islamic State’s fall. He covered the Beirut blast in August 2020, and his work, published in The Wall Street Journal, was nominated for an award. He has also written about Hezbollah, Lebanon’s political elite, and the twin financial crises in Syria and Lebanon.

Seth Joseph Perkin is a sociologist and lecturer in Sport Management and Policy at Manchester Metropolitan University. Perkin’s research interests include the cultural construction of dis-ability in non- Western contexts and its implications on disability and parasport.

Ladan Rahbari is an assistant professor in the Department of Sociology at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands. She is also a senior researcher at the International Migration Institute (IMI). Rahbari was previously based at Ghent University (UGent) as the recipient of a Research Foundation Flanders post- doctoral fellowship (2019– 2022) for her project on Shi’i migrant motherhood and lived religion in Belgium. Rahbari has obtained a PhD in Gender and Diversity (Studies) from UGent and Free University of Brussels (VUB) and has a PhD in Sociology from the University of Mazandaran in Iran, a master’s degree in Anthropology and a bachelor’s degree in Italian Literature (both from Tehran University). Rahbari lectures on migration, religion, (digital) media and gender. Her current research engages with Iranian nationalism and the diaspora in online and offline spaces. Rahbari was the editor- in- chief of the Journal of Diversity and Gender Studies (DiGeSt) between September 2020 and September 2021. Her most recent publications include ‘In her shoes: Transnational digital solidarity with Muslim women, or the hijab?’ and ‘Duffs and puffs: Queer fashion in Iranian cyberspace’.

Danyel Reiche is a visiting associate professor at Georgetown University Qatar, where he leads the research initiative on the FIFA World Cup 2022. He is a tenured associate professor of Comparative Politics at the American University of Beirut (AUB) in Lebanon. His past research has focused on two areas: Energy as well as sport policy and politics, with the latter being his current priority. He published Success and Failure of Countries at the Olympic Games in 2016, Qatar and the 2022 FIFA World Cup: Politics, Controversy, Change with Paul Brannagan in 2022, and edited a volume entitled Sport, Politics and Society in the Middle East (2019) with Tamir Sorek. His peer- reviewed articles have been published in both area studies journals (such as International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics and Journal of Energy Policy) and broader- oriented journals, such as Third World Quarterly or The Middle East Journal. Reiche has also been invited to write op- eds for leading international newspapers such as Washington Post and Spiegel Online and has been frequently interviewed and quoted by major media outlets such as Le Monde, The New York Times, and The Wall Street Journal.

Jorn Schulting studied History of Society at the Erasmus School of History, Culture and Communication (ESHCC) and Public Administration: Governance of Migration and Diversity at the Erasmus School of Social and Behavioural Sciences (ESSB), both in Rotterdam, Netherlands. He graduated with an honours degree in History and won the Erasmus Migration and Diversity Institute Award for the best master’s thesis in 2019, with his thesis entitled ‘Comparing citizenship and naturalization policies in international sports: The case of the 2019

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Asian Cup’. His research interests include migration, citizenship, sport, diversity and national identity.

Luis Henrique Rolim Silva holds a PhD in Sports Sciences from the German Sports University Cologne, Germany, writing his thesis on ‘The formation of an Olympic nation in the Persian Gulf: Sociocultural history of the sport in Qatar’. He is a professor of Physical Education at the School of Health and Life Sciences and a researcher in the Olympic Studies Centre (GPEO) at the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Silva develops research in the field of sport history and sociocultural aspects. He also works as a consultant and curator for various exhibition and museum initiatives connecting sport, culture and society.

Salma Thani is an independent researcher. She has written broadly on sports, tourism and aviation development in the UAE. Thani has published on the Arabian Gulf states’ increasing political, diplomatic and business role in the world. Her research is interdisciplinary, adopting a cultural, political and economic approach in its analysis.

Cem Tinaz has been the director of the School of Sports Sciences and Technology at Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey, since 2015. He has also been a board member of the Turkish Tennis Federation since 2009 and is its current vice- president. His areas of research interest include sports policy and development, administration, and legacies and impact of sports mega- events – all integrated with his primary area of expertise in sports management.

Dag Tuastad is a senior lecturer and anthropologist in Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Oslo, Norway. He has extensive fieldwork experience in the Middle East, including Gaza, the West Bank, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria. Tuastad has published Palestinske Utfordringer (‘Palestinian Challenges’, 2014) and several journal articles on football in the Middle East. He was a research leader on the Rebel Rule project of the University of Oslo. From 2022 until December 2026, he will be a researcher on the ‘Cultures in conflict? How Islamists cope with football’ project at the University of Oslo/ University of South- Eastern Norway.

Sarina Wakefield is Lecturer in the School of Museum Studies at the University of Leicester. She is the Founder and Director of the Museums in Arabia international conference series. Her primary research focuses on critical heritage studies and museology of the Gulf. More broadly, she is interested in transnational identities, globalisation, universal museums, cultural franchising, heritage and migrant identity and the relationships between heritage and sports. She has published around these subjects in international journals and books and is the author of the monograph Cultural Heritage, Transnational Narratives and Museum Franchising in Abu Dhabi (2020), editor of Museums of the Arabian Peninsula Historical Developments and Contemporary Discourses (2020) and the co- editor for the Routledge book series Cultural Heritage, Art and Museums in the Middle East.

Paul Widdop is a senior lecturer at Leeds Beckett University, United Kingdom. He researches the importance of geography and networks in contemporary society, focusing predominantly on sports. He has published widely in these fields, exploring how place, space and networks structure behaviour, both corporate and individual. He has been researching how place and networks are fundamental to understanding how sports consumption and production operate in modern societies.

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Robbert Woltering is an Arabist and political scientist. He wrote his PhD on the represen-tation of the West in post- Cold War Egyptian non- fiction (Occidentalisms in the Arab World. Ideology and Images of the West in the Egyptian Media, 2011). He is an associate professor of Arabic studies at the University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands, where he initiated the Amsterdam Centre for Middle Eastern Studies (ACMES) in 2012. His research interests primarily include state– society relations and social movements, with particular reference to contemporary Egypt.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In addition to the authors of the chapters in this volume, we would like to thank Ayesha Iqbal and Anjali Singh, Professor Danyel Reiche’s Research Assistants at Georgetown University Qatar, whose support and advice in the editing process were tremendously helpful.

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DOI: 10.4324/9781003032915-1

INTRODUCTIONSport in the Middle East: Towards More

Inclusive and Collaborative Efforts?

Danyel Reiche and Paul Michael Brannagan

The primary issue of concern raised by this Handbook of Sport in the Middle East is that sport in the region is in a domain of stark contrasts. Tremendous differences exist between and within countries when it comes to both the opportunity to play a sport and host international sporting events. On the latter, Qatar, a country characterised by Kamrava (2013) as ‘small state, big pol-itics’, is presently in the global spotlight for its forthcoming staging of the 2022 FIFA World Cup. This will be the first time a Middle East country hosts an event of such magnitude – after all, only the Summer Olympic Games can match the grandiosity and spectacle of the FIFA World Cup finals. For Qatar, the tournament marks the pinnacle of the state’s developmental efforts, efforts that started in the early 1990s and have been regularly tied to the consistent hosting of regional, continental and global sports events such as the 2006 Asian Games, the 2015 Handball World Cup and the 2019 IAAF World Athletic Championships, to name a few, but also by becoming a major player in sport broadcasting in the Arab World and beyond the region (Amara 2012). The grand result of such a strategy is that Qatar – a state with less than three million inhabitants and an area smaller than the US state of Connecticut – has, almost overnight, been thrust onto the global stage as a vital player in international sport, politics and regional diplomacy (see Foley, McGillivray, and McPherson 2012; Brannagan and Giulianotti 2015; Reiche 2015; Chadwick 2019).

Although Qatar stands out in the magnitude of its efforts in this regard, it is not alone in having discovered the powerful political potentialities of staging mega sporting events. Although it can be argued that Qatar’s aim to contribute with its sporting investments to national security might be unique in the region (Reiche 2015), other objectives such as eco-nomic diversification, branding and gaining a better reputation in global affairs are sought by other regional players as well (Brannagan and Giulianotti 2018). Abu Dhabi, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Turkey became part of the Formula 1 Grand Prix calendar. At the same time, Saudi Arabia successfully staged the Dakar Rally, professional wrestling events and even a Spanish football competition, the Supercopa de Espana. Furthermore, awarding the Asian Games to Qatar in 2030 and Saudi Arabia in 2034 shows that the Gulf countries want to take a similar path in the future with the ultimate goal of challenging Eurocentrism in international sports and moving from the periphery to becoming a key hub for global sport delivery and consumption.

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This development is also showcased by the International Cricket Council moving its head-quarters to Dubai in 2005, after being located in England’s capital London for 96 years. The relocation enabled the ICC to benefit from tax breaks not available in Britain. It allowed the federation to operate in Asia, a continent with many cricket- loving countries such as the sport’s powerhouse India (BBC 2005).

More sports’ governing bodies might join the ICC, given the size of the Asian market and the favourable business environment in some Middle Eastern countries, and their desire for international recognition. Apart from international sports federations, this might also apply to other organisations; the International Centre for Sport Security, located in Doha, Qatar, might be followed by new institutions established in the region or existing ones moving from the West to the Middle East.

The staging of sports events has been complimented by the significant outreach some Middle Eastern countries now have in sports systems beyond their borders: take, for example, the major European football clubs of Paris Saint-Germain and Manchester City, acquired by sovereign wealth funds, owned and managed by states such as Qatar and Abu Dhabi, respect-ively (Thani and Heenan 2016). Additionally, there is the evidential approach of many Middle Eastern brands – such as Qatar Airways, Etihad and Turkish Airlines – to sponsor various sports clubs, leagues and tournaments across the globe (Koch 2020).

Nonetheless, the juxtaposition of political disparities amongst Middle Eastern coun-tries is quite peculiar. Sports fans worldwide are used to seeing some Middle Eastern brands sponsoring European sports and are becoming more familiar with watching sporting events such as Formula 1 races, golf and tennis tournaments broadcasted from the region. Nonetheless, on the very same day, they might read in newspapers about wars and civil strife taking place in places such as Syria or Yemen. For sports fans in those countries, it is a distant dream to watch any global sporting event live, and opportunities for practising sports are limited. For security purposes, international sports governing bodies do not allow their national teams to play their home matches in those countries. The Syrian national men’s football team, for example, played its qualification matches for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Malaysia (Conway and Lockwood 2017). Many professional athletes from Syria and Yemen escaped from their war- torn countries.

Wars are not the only reasons why athletes may flee their home countries. For instance, a Bahraini football player involved in the 2011 uprisings in his country made headlines for escaping to Australia and then being arrested during a vacation in Thailand. He was facing the threat of being deported to Bahrain before a campaign on social media and Australian authorities’ help led to his return to the Land Down Under (BBC 2019). In judo, an Iranian male athlete left his home country because of constant instructions from the government to forfeit matches against Israeli athletes. He now represents Mongolia (ESPN 2020). An Iranian female chess referee and an Iranian taekwondo champion, who was Iran’s only female Olympic medallist of all time, made headlines after they defected from their home country because of ‘a lack of support for female athletes and the regime’s strict religious policy, requiring the hijab (Specia 2020).

Sharp wealth differences is not only a reality that exists across Middle Eastern countries, but it also characterise social relations within countries. Middle and upper classes across the region, particularly in urban environments, often have a Western lifestyle that includes memberships to state- of- the- art gyms and sports clubs with modern facilities, whereas, in the same countries, migrant workers – who predominantly hail from some of the poorest countries in South Asia – in private homes and on construction sites lack sufficient leisure time, thus acting as a significant obstacle for sports participation, social mobility and quality of life.

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Furthermore, opportunities for women in sports differ significantly across the region. Female athletes in countries such as Israel, Lebanon and Turkey made great progress, with an equal (sometimes even greater) representation of female athletes in their Olympic delegations, whereas other states such as Qatar and Saudi Arabia have been slower to develop women’s sport, both of whom sent female athletes for the first time in 2012 to the Olympics (Gibson 2012). The National Olympic Committee of Iraq even sent a male- only delegation to the 2016 Summer Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro (Olympedia 2020). All of this is compounded by the fact that, across the Middle East, women face cultural obstacles when they want to practise contact sports by conservative standards considered not feminine and thus undesirable.

Across most Middle Eastern countries, there are also strict nationality laws to adhere to (with few notable exceptions, such as Turkey), requiring a father of national descent to become a citizen. However, when it comes to sports, many countries in the region are more lenient and have, for example, naturalised East African long- distance runners and Chinese table tennis players (Reiche and Tinaz 2019). Other countries such as Lebanon rely on their large dias-pora to assemble competitive teams for international competitions rather than integrating their refugee population into national sports. However, in contrast to the diaspora citizens, some of these people have lived all their lives in the country (Reiche 2017). This shows how the spec-trum of defining national belonging is stretched, with Lebanese people benefitting from liberal citizenship laws in Western countries. Nonetheless, at the same time, their own country is very restrictive in awarding nationality to ‘strangers’, even if these people often do not have the priv-ilege or chance of having any other home.

Finally, although primarily located in Asia, Middle Eastern countries belong to three different geographic regions and continental sporting federations: Africa, Asia and Europe. Although only a tiny portion of its area is located in Europe, Turkey has a tradition of being a member of European sporting federations and has been awarded, for example, the 2023 Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) Champions League final. Boycotts of Israel in Asian sporting competitions led to the relocation of the Jewish state to European sports federations in the 1990s (Reiche 2018). The spread of the region into three continental asso-ciations has also brought attention to Middle Eastern issues amongst a broader audience and has moved some regional topics into the global spotlight. Examples include European football fans (i.e. Celtic Glasgow supporters in Scotland) making a statement in the Arab– Israeli con-flict by waving Palestinian flags at UEFA Champions League matches (McKenna 2016); or Arab football players from European clubs calling for a boycott of the 2013 UEFA Under- 21 European Championship in protest of Israel’s bombardment of Gaza (Montague 2013). Tel Aviv and Beitar Jerusalem supporters use European matches to advertise their different stances on domestic politics.

Contribution to Literature

Given the plethora of issues identified above, this edited book contributes to contemporary Middle Eastern studies and sports studies debates in many ways. First, the book covers a wide range of countries that span across the Middle East. Indeed, the vast majority of the 33 chapters that make up this book are case study- centric, offering in- depth analysis of sport in Qatar, Bahrain, Egypt, Lebanon, Iran, Israel, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey and the UAE. Beyond the (single) case study approach, also included are some chapters following a compara-tive analysis method (which also expands the range of countries covered in this volume and, in doing so, seeks to compare findings across and between various regional players).

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Second, this book offers an in-depth multi- disciplinary analysis of sport in the Middle East. Our authors integrate different academic disciplines from the humanities, social sciences and applied sciences, including business, cultural studies, communication, economics, history, media studies, sociology, museum studies, sports management and political science. In doing so, the contributions rely on diverse research methodologies, ranging from ethnographic work, surveys and in- depth interviews to reviews of government files and the growing body of academic lit-erature and media articles on sport in the Middle East. Each chapter offers original, in- depth, theoretically grounded and rich empirical findings, shedding new light on the economic, cul-tural, political and social facets of sport development and investment across the region.

Third, this book covers a wide variety of sporting forms and issues. Some of the chapters focus on the politics surrounding sports mega- events in the Middle East, particularly Qatar’s forthcoming staging of the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Others shed light on such areas as the nat-uralisation of athletes, overseas sponsorships, sports media and football supporter (counter- )cultures. In focusing on a plethora of sports (like football, mixed martial arts, rugby and running, to name just a few), this book also covers several issues related to the region, be that in terms of economic diversification, human rights, gender politics, women’s empowerment, religion, corruption, civil strife, health and well- being, national identity and statehood.

Fourth, many of the chapters in the book offer first- hand accounts of sports in the region. Most previous research in this regard has been conducted by academic observers from outside the Middle East. In contrast, around half of this book’s authors live in the Middle East and are currently based in regional academic institutions. Some authors have their roots in the region yet but reside outside now. At the same time, other authors have never lived in the Middle East but nonetheless have a history of regularly visiting and conducting research in the region. The result is that this book offers an insider view of the Middle East, as opposed to the more dom-inant ‘full outsider’ perspective.

Finally, this book contributes to the literature by shedding light on some Middle Eastern countries becoming increasingly active in international sport, such as Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the UAE, all of whom share the desire to position themselves as global ‘sports hubs’. In doing so, they have become key players in the staging of sports events, investment in overseas sports sponsorships and the (attempted/ actual) acquisition of European football clubs and brands. The great wealth that these states enjoy – due to the export of natural resources, such as crude oil and gas – means that their investment and involvement (and relative importance) in global sport are unlikely to diminish anytime soon. Given this, we feel that the chapters that form this book not only offer analyses of a fascinating region of the world, but also offer insights that will be relevant for many decades to come.

Structure of the Book

The book is structured into five main sections: History, Politics, Society, Economy and Nation. Within each section, the chapters are sorted alphabetically according to the surname of the authors.

After this introduction, the first section, History, seeks to offer readers accounts of how sport has developed within and across different Middle Eastern states and how new, Western sports have complimented and challenged age- old, traditional sports across the region. Majid Al Busafi provides an overview of the history of sport in the Sultanate of Oman, emphasising school sport and coach education. In his chapter, Mohamad El Chamaa tells the story of Lebanon’s forgotten Jewish community and the athlete David Saad, who participated in the

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1976 Montreal Summer Olympics as Lebanon’s last Jewish Olympian. Thomas Ross Griffin’s contribution to ‘Riding in the Desert’ discusses Qatar’s emergence and growth in road cycling by focusing on the Tour of Qatar. Matthias Krug highlights Qatar’s participation in the 1981 FIFA Youth World Championship in Australia as a transformative moment in Qatar’s sporting history when the men’s national team reached the tournament’s final. This achievement also shows that Qatar’s football history started much earlier than 2010 when the 2022 FIFA World Cup was awarded to the country. Then, Luis Henrique Rolim Silva and Salma Thani each offer contributions on the football histories of Qatar and the UAE and how both national football federations became recognised by FIFA in the early 1970s right after the countries became independent from Britain, respectively. This section closes with a chapter by Sarina Wakefield, who focuses on the relationship between sport, heritage and Arabic identify through a case study approach of falconry in the UAE.

The second section, Politics, then seeks to shed critical light and to the debate on the major contemporary political issues facing sport in the Middle East, pinpointing how states are using sport to gain various forms of branding and political power. It also addresses how sport is used for foreign policy and diplomacy as a soft power tool. The first contribution in this section is by James Dorsey on how Iranian football emerged as a politically risky, hard- to- control public forum and space that was difficult to repress. Yair Galily and Tal Samuel Azran examine the challenges Israel faces in utilising sports diplomacy in light of the ongoing Israeli– Palestinian conflict. Nadim Nassif investigates Bahrain’s investments in the development of mixed martial arts to strengthen Bahraini nationalism and consolidate the hegemony of the country’s royal family. Nazih Osseiran analyses how the Syrian national football team became a propaganda tool for President Assad to polish his image at home and abroad. Finally, Cem Tinaz and Omer Onur Hertem discuss how Turkey’s 2020 Olympic bid has impacted the country’s anti- doping policies.

The third section, Society, seeks to address the major social issues facing Middle Eastern sport, including, but not limited to, issues related to class, gender, religion and cultural expres-sion. In the first chapter of this section, Selçuk Açikgöz discusses youth sport in Turkey and the (non- )participation of children from lower socio- economic backgrounds, with child labour and poverty being the primary reasons. Ahmed Badran focuses on the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and in doing so, examines the organisation of sports mega- events and their relationship in achieving specific sustainable development goals. Paul Brannagan’s chapter is also on the State of Qatar. It sheds light on how the country’s investments in sport seek to be used to impact developments at home, particularly with respect to encouraging Qataris to increase their physical activity engagement and instil greater forms of determination and independence in and amongst the populous.

Abdul Al- Droushi provides an overview of women’s sports development in Oman. He concludes that there are progressive elements in women’s sports at the elite level and conserva-tive trends in community sports. Glen M. Duerr tells the story of the rivalry between Hapoel Tel Aviv and Maccabi Tel Aviv, which he considers a microcosm of the Arab– Israeli conflict and Israeli political and religious debates. There are two chapters by Connor Jerzak and Robert Woltering, respectively, which deal with football fans in Egypt. Jerzak examines how fandom intersects with politics and looks at the Egyptian Coptic Christian minority in Egyptian foot-ball. The focus of Woltering’s contribution is on the ultras who have found themselves caught up in the field of oppositional politics. Finally, Dag Tuastad surveys supporter cultures in six countries (Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Morocco, Qatar and Turkey) and identifies its politicisation as a distinctive feature of Middle East fan culture.

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Our penultimate section, Economy, looks at how sport can shape and/ or impact business, financial and economic opportunities in Middle Eastern societies, set against the backdrop of many states’ (over- )reliance on the production and export of natural resources. The first chapter in this section is on Saudi Arabia. Simon Chadwick and Paul Widdop provide an overview of the sports economy in Saudi Arabia and how the government is allocating billions of dollars for the creation of sports infrastructure, intending to position the Kingdom internationally as a sporting event destination. Morteza Dousti discusses the economics of sport in Iran and shows a heavy reliance on governmental support, lack of private investments and no opportunity for major sports leagues generating income from selling broadcasting rights as they are considered public goods.

Can Evren’s chapter investigates the impact of UEFA’s Financial Fair Play regulations on Turkey’s highly indebted football economy. Craig LaMay’s chapter on football broadcasting in the Middle East focuses on Qatar’s BeIN pay television network. It shows how BeIN became the target of BeoutQ, a state- sponsored, industrial- scale piracy operation distributed on the Riyadh- based Arabsat satellite that threatened the business model of sports broadcasters world-wide. Robert Kaspar provides an overview of mega- sporting events in Gulf countries. He discusses the various stages of the event life cycle and how the benefits for Gulf nations may be optimised. Natalie Koch elaborates on how major sporting events have transformed the urban fabric of cities like Doha, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Manama and Riyadh and how branding these places as ‘sporting cities’ can help to diversify local economies for the post- oil age. Victor Olivereau’s chapter compares the sporting investments of Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the UAE. He discusses whether the three countries pursue the same goals and the extent of their competition. Seth Perkin and David Howe explore the interface between local and Western forces in the cul-tural landscape of sport in the UAE and how global sporting events in the country are utilised for political and economic stability.

The final section, Nation, focuses on issues related to nationalism and nationhood, addressing topics of citizenship, naturalisation and (national) identity and belonging. Hannah Borenstein explores the trend of East African long- distance runners who transfer their alle-giance to represent countries in the Middle East and discusses motivations and perceptions of this particular form of athletic migration. Axel Maugendre’s chapter on Lebanese sports focuses on the affiliation between politics and sports in federations, clubs and athletes. It illustrates the roots of these affiliations through the Lebanese history of sectarianism in sport. Gijsbert Oonk and Jorn Schulting provide an overview of nationality swapping for Olympic competitions in the Middle East between 1998 and 2016 and discuss how they challenge Western notions of citizenship and national identity. Ladan Rahbari contributes by discussing cases of female Iranian athletes who migrated and changed their citizenship in response to Iranian gendered bio- politics and the state’s systematic body control regime. Finally, Danyel Reiche discusses how the lenient eligibility rules in World Rugby – which allow non- citizens to represent a country based on proof of residence – made the formation of a Qatari national women’s rugby union team possible.

Future Research

Before moving onto the first main section of this book, we wanted to briefly state several areas that we believe will be important in future research on sport in the Middle East. One area future research should try covering includes those countries that are neglected in previous

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research on the Middle East. Although the editors put tremendous effort in endeavouring to do this, we are disappointed that we could not commission chapters on two populous countries in the region, Iraq and Yemen. Scholarly work on sport in these countries would fill a critical gap in academic literature.

Research on the Middle East should also expand its focus. There is a growing body of work on mega- sporting events in the Middle East and the establishment and development of global sports (mainly football). Nonetheless, the history and the meaning of those more trad-itional regional sports – such as camel racing, falconry and some equestrian competitions – also deserve more scholarly attention. The same applies to women’s sports, which is, apart from a few outliers, struggling in most countries across the region, and sporting opportunities for vulnerable communities such as migrant workers and ethnic and religious minority groups is another neglected issue.

The major challenge for sport in the Middle East remains to overcome its strong contrasts. The challenge is to become more inclusive by giving people from all socio- economic backgrounds the same opportunities to practise a sport of their choice and better include immigrant com-munities and minority groups into national sport systems. Ending the sporting boycott of Israel, the last major sporting boycott in the world (Reiche 2018), by some Middle Eastern countries would finalise a process of fully integrating the Middle East into an international sports system where athletes compete with each other regardless of race, ethnicity, nationality, class, religion, gender and sexual orientation.

It is also impossible to avoid the impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID- 19) on sport worldwide, including in Middle Eastern countries. The virus has negatively impacted sports on different levels, with elite sports being played without spectators (or reduced attendance) and sports on the grassroots level limited or often being completely prohibited (Grix, Brannagan, Grimes and Neville 2021). In times of budget constraints and a lack of mass sporting opportun-ities, it might become less popular in Western, democratic countries to host costly elite sports events. International sporting federations might be grateful for Middle Eastern countries for offering to host major sporting events while simultaneously accelerating a process of moving some Middle Eastern countries – notably Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the UAE and possibly Israel and Turkey – more into the centre stage of global sports. Given the economic disparities in the Middle East, for less developed countries such as Jordan, Lebanon and Palestine, hosting inter-national sporting events is, without external support, not a realistic scenario, at least not for the foreseeable future.

Future research should also look at how sport is becoming a driver of political change in the Middle East. Qatar has used the opportunity of hosting the FIFA World Cup 2022 ‘to position itself as a regional leader in worker’s welfare’ (Ulrichsen 2020, 249). It remains to see whether (a) Qatar remains active in reforming its society beyond 2022 and (b) whether neighbouring countries will adopt the Qatari reform agenda that includes the introduction of a minimum wage and the dismantling of the kafala system.

Hosting mega sporting events will further contribute to integrating some affluent Middle Eastern countries into global affairs. Nonetheless, it remains to be seen whether hosting persists as a tool for intra- regional competition or has the potential for collaboration between coun-tries, for example, by common bids for future Summer Olympic Games and other major sporting events as part of a historic regional peace- making process. Apart from wealthy Gulf states, such common bids could also include low- income countries from the Middle East to enhance regional solidarity and collaboration.

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The Politics and Passion of Middle Eastern Football Spectator Cultures Alami, Alami. 2012. “Morocco struggles to rein in soccer hooligans.” New York Times, May 9, 2012.www.nytimes.com/2012/05/10/world/middleeast/morocco-struggles-to-rein-in-soccer-hooligans.html. Al Arabiya. 2018. “Lone spectator in Qatar’s Stars League match likely to raise concerns.” November 21,2013. https://english.alarabiya.net/sports/2013/11/21/Lone-spectator-in-Qatar-s-Stars-League-match-likely-to-raise-concerns. Alfoneh, Ali. 2015. “In Iran, soccer becomes a political football as Guards take over.” The Arab Weekly, October 10, 2015: 15. Al Jazeera. 2019. “Iran beat Cambodia 14–0 in historic match attended by women.” October 10, 2019.www.aljazeera.com/sports/2019/10/10/iran-beat-cambodia-14-0-in-historic-match-attended-by-women. Amara, Mahfoud. 2013. "The politicisation of sport in the Arab world." ICSS. 2013. Bellin, Eva. 2012. "Reconsidering the robustness of authoritarianism in the Middle East: Lessons from theArab Spring." Comparative Politics 44 (2): 127–149. Batuman, Elif. 2012. "The view from the stands: Life among Istanbul’s soccer fanatics." Soccer & Society 13(5–6): 687–700. Barakat, Halim. 1993. The Arab World: Society, Culture, and State. Berkeley: University of California Press. Bayat, Asef. 2007. "Islamism and the politics of fun." Public Culture 19 (3): 433–459. Bayat, Asef. 2013. Life as Politics: How Ordinary People Change the Middle East. Stanford: StanfordUniversity Press. Booth, Robert. 2015. “Qatar's migrant workers say they are paid to fill stadiums before World Cup.” TheGuardian, November 13, 2015. www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/13/qatar-migrant-workers-paid-stadiums-football-world-cup-xavi. Bourkia, Abderrahim. 2018. "Ultras in the city. A sociological inquiry into urban violence in Morocco." ThePhilosophical Journal of Conflict and Violence 2 (2): 321–333. Brannagan, Paul Michael, and Richard Giulianotti. 2015. "Soft power and soft disempowerment: Qatar,global sport and football’s 2022 World Cup finals." Leisure Studies 34 (6): 703–719. Brannagan, Paul Michael, and Joel Rookwood. 2016. "Sports mega-events, soft power and softdisempowerment: international supporters’ perspectives on Qatar’s acquisition of the 2022 FIFA World Cupfinals." International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 8 (2): 173–188. Burrow, Sharan. 2017. “We must all stand up to the world’s richest nation and oppose its use of modernslavery.” The Guardian, March 19, 2017. www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/mar/19/qatar-world-cup-slavery-migrant-workers. Chehabi, H.E. 2002. “A political history of football in Iran.” Iranian Studies, 35 (4), 371–402. Corona, Austin. 2020. “The brutal beauty of Morocco’s Soccer Ultras.” Africasacountry.com, June 11, 2020.https://africasacountry.com/2020/06/the-brutal-beauty-of-moroccos-soccer-ultras. Dorsey, James M. 2016. The Turbulent World of Middle East Soccer. London: Hurst Publishers. Durac, Vincent. 2015. "Social movements, protest movements and cross-ideological coalitions–the Arabuprisings re-appraised." Democratization 22 (2): 239–258. Edwards, Piers. 2016. “Morocco bans ‘ultra’ fan groups following riot.” BBC, March 24, 2016.www.bbc.com/sport/football/35885404. El-Zatmah, Shawki. 2012. "From Terso into Ultras: The 2011 Egyptian revolution and the radicalization of thesoccer’s Ultra-fans." Soccer & Society 13 (5–6): 801–813. France 24. 2014. “Migrant workers in Qatar: "We're paid to attend football games.” France 24, March 3,2014. https://observers.france24.com/en/20140314-migrant-workers-paid-qatar-football. Giulianotti, Richard. 2008. Football: A Sociology of the Global Game. Cambridge: Polity Press. Hamzeh, Manal, and Heather Sykes. 2014. "Egyptian football Ultras and the January 25th revolution: Anti-corporate, anti-militarist and martyrdom masculinities." Anthropology of the Middle East 9 (2): 91–107. Hossein, Masoud. 2019. “Foul language endangers stadiums’ atmosphere.” Teheran Times, September 29,2019. www.tehrantimes.com/news/440613/Foul-language-endangers-stadiums-atmosphere. Jakobsen, Anders. 2008. Fotball, mellom stat og samfunn i Iran 1979–2006. MS thesis. Bergen: TheUniversity of Bergen.

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Ultras in Egypt Accorsi, Allessandro , and Max Siegelbaum . 2018. “Banning fandom: Football and revolution in Egypt.Egypt’s diehard football fan organisation, the Ultras, was banned last month.” Middle East Eye, June 12,2018. www.middleeasteye.net/features/banning-fandom-football-and-revolution-egypt. AlMasry AlYoum. 2019. “Zilzāl bi-maṭār al-Qāhira .. Istiqbāl usṭūrī li-‘Kūmāndūz al-Zamālik’ wa hujūm ḥāddʿalā Shūbayr wa Shādī Muḥammad.” YouTube video, 10:49, April 6, 2019.www.youtube.com/watch?v=1o6DZlEjUPI. Bashīr, Muḥammad . 2011. Kitāb al-ultrās. ʿIndamā tataʿaddā al-jamāhīr ḥudūd al-ṭabīʿa. Cairo: Dār Dawwin. Close, Ronnie . 2019. Cairo’s Ultras. Resistance and Revolution in Egypt’s Football Culture. Cairo: TheAmerican University in Cairo Press. Dorsey, James . 2016a. The Turbulent World of Middle East Soccer. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dorsey, James . 2016b. “Soccer: Moulding the Middle East and North Africa.” PhD dissertation, UtrechtUniversity. DW . 2015. “Egypt Court of Urgent Matters bans ultras football fans.” May 16, 2015. www.dw.com/en/egypt-court-of-urgent-matters-bans-ultras-football-fans/a-18454537. Emam, Amr . 2019. “For Egypt, Africa Cup of Nations is more than just a sports event.” ArabWeekly, January20, 2019. https://thearabweekly.com/egypt-africa-cup-nations-more-just-sports-event. Gibril, Suzan . 2018a. “Shifting spaces of contention. An analysis of the Ultras’ mobilization in RevolutionaryEgypt.” European Journal of Turkish Studies [Online] 26. Gibril, Suzan . 2018b. “Egypt.” In J.M. de Waele et al. (eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook ofFootball and Politics, pp. 347–368. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Hasso, Frances S . 2018. “Masculine love and sensuous reason: The affective and spatial politics ofEgyptian Ultras football fans.” Gender, Place & Culture 25(10): 1423–1447. DOI:10.1080/0966369X.2018.1531830.

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