TableofContents

TitlePageCopyrightPageIntroduction

TheTragedyofRomeoandJuliet

[ACT1[ACT2[ACT3[ACT4[ACT5

TextualNoteANoteontheSourceofRomeoandJulietCommentariesSuggestedReferences

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Shakespeare:AnOverview

BiographicalSketch

Between the record of his baptism in Stratford on 26 April 1564 and the record of his burial inStratfordon25April1616,somefortyofficialdocumentsnameShakespeare,andmanyothersnamehisparents,hischildren,andhisgrand-children.Further,thereareatleastfiftyliteraryreferencestohimintheworksofhiscontemporaries.MorefactsareknownaboutWilliamShakespearethanaboutanyotherplaywright of the period except Ben Jonson. The facts should, however, be distinguished from thelegends.Thelatter,inevitablymoreengagingandbetterknown,tellusthattheStratfordboykilledacalfinhighstyle,poacheddeerandrabbits,andwasforcedtofleetoLondon,whereheheldhorsesoutsideaplayhouse.Thesetraditionsareonlytraditions;theymaybetrue,butnoevidencesupportsthem,anditiswelltosticktothefacts.

Mary Arden, the dramatist’s mother, was the daughter of a substantial landowner; about 1557 shemarriedJohnShakespeare,atanner,glove-maker,andtraderinwool,grain,andotherfarmcommodities.In 1557 John Shakespearewas amember of the council (the governing body of Stratford), in 1558 aconstableoftheborough,in1561oneofthetwotownchamberlains,in1565analderman(entitlinghimtotheappellationof“Mr.”), in1568highbailiff—thetown’shighestpoliticaloffice,equivalenttomayor.After 1577, for an unknown reason he drops out of local politics. What is known is that he had tomortgagehiswife’sproperty,andthathewasinvolvedinseriouslitigation.

ThebirthdayofWilliamShakespeare,thethirdchildandtheeldestsonofthislocallyprominentman,isunrecorded,buttheStratfordparishregisterrecordsthattheinfantwasbaptizedon26April1564.(Itis quite possible that hewas born on 23April, but this date has probably been assigned by traditionbecauseitisthedateonwhich,fifty-twoyearslater,hedied,andperhapsbecauseitisthefeastdayofSt.George,patronsaintofEngland.)TheattendancerecordsoftheStratfordgrammarschooloftheperiodarenotextant,but it isreasonabletoassumethat thesonofaprominent localofficialattendedthefreeschool—ithadbeenestablishedforthepurposeofeducatingmalespreciselyofhisclass—andreceivedsubstantialtraininginLatin.ThemastersoftheschoolfromShakespeare’sseventhtofifteenthyearsheldOxforddegrees; theElizabethancurriculumexcludedmathematics and thenatural sciencesbut taught agooddealofLatinrhetoric,logic,andliterature,includingplaysbyPlautus,Terence,andSeneca.

On 27 November 1582 a marriage license was issued for the marriage of Shakespeare and AnneHathaway,eightyearshissenior.Thecouplehadadaughter,Susanna,inMay1583.Perhapsthemarriagewas necessary, but perhaps the couple had earlier engaged, in the presence ofwitnesses, in a formal“trothplight”whichwouldrendertheirchildrenlegitimateevenifnofurtherceremonywereperformed.InFebruary1585,AnneHathawayboreShakespearetwins,HamnetandJudith.

ThatShakespearewasbornisexcellent;thathemarriedandhadchildrenispleasant;butthatweknownothing about his departure fromStratford toLondonor about the beginningof his theatrical career islamentable and must be admitted.We would gladly sacrifice details about his children’s baptism fordetailsabouthisearliestdaysinthetheater.Perhapsthepoachingepisodeistrue(butitisfirstreportedalmostacenturyafterShakespeare’sdeath),orperhapsheleftStratfordtobeaschoolmaster,asanother

traditionholds;perhapshewasmoved(likePetruchioinTheTamingoftheShrew)by

Suchwindasscattersyoungmenthroughtheworld,ToseektheirfortunesfartherthanathomeWheresmallexperiencegrows.(1.2.49-51)

In1592,thankstothecantankerousnessofRobertGreene,wehaveourfirstreference,asnarlingone,to Shakespeare as an actor and playwright.Greene, a graduate of St. John’sCollege,Cambridge, hadbecomeaplaywrightandapamphleteerinLondon,andinoneofhispamphletshewarnsthreeuniversity-educatedplaywrightsagainstanactorwhohaspresumedtoturnplaywright:

There is an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his tiger’s heart wrapped in aplayer’shidesupposesheisaswellabletobombastoutablankverseasthebestofyou,andbeinganabsoluteJohannes-factotum[i.e.,jack-of-all-trades]isinhisownconceittheonlyShake-sceneinacountry.

Thereferencetotheplayer,aswellastheallusiontoAesop’scrow(whostruttedinborrowedplumage,asanactorstrutsinfinewordsnothisown),makesitclearthatbythisdateShakespearehadbothactedandwritten.ThatShakespeareismeantisindicatednotonlybyShake-scenebutalsobytheparodyofaline from one of Shakespeare’s plays, 3 Henry VI: “O, tiger’s heart wrapped in a woman’s hide”(1.4.137). If in 1592 Shakespeare was prominent enough to be attacked by an envious dramatist, heprobablyhadservedanapprenticeshipinthetheaterforatleastafewyears.

Inanycase,althoughtherearenoextantreferencestoShakespearebetweentherecordofthebaptismofhis twins in1585andGreene’shostilecommentabout“Shake-scene” in1592, it isevident thatduringsomeof these “darkyears”or “lost years”Shakespearehad acted andwritten.There are anumberofsubsequentreferencestohimasanactor.Documentsindicatethatin1598heisa“principalcomedian,”in1603a “principal tragedian,” in1608he is oneof the “menplayers.” (Wedonot have, however, anysolidinformationaboutwhichroleshemayhaveplayed;latertraditionssayheplayedAdaminAsYouLikeItandtheghostinHamlet,butnothingsupportstheassertions.Probablyhisroleasdramatistcametosupersedehisroleasactor.)Theprofessionofactorwasnotforagentleman,anditoccasionallydrewthe scornof universitymen likeGreenewho resentedwriting speeches for persons less educated thanthemselves, but it was respectable enough; players, if prosperous, were in effect members of thebourgeoisie, and there is nothing to suggest that Stratford consideredWilliamShakespeare less than asolid citizen. When, in 1596, the Shakespeares were granted a coat of arms—i.e., the right to beconsideredgentlemen—thegrantwasmade toShakespeare’s father,butprobablyWilliamShakespearehad arranged the matter on his own behalf. In subsequent transactions he is occasionally styled agentleman.

Although in 1593 and 1594 Shakespeare published two narrative poems dedicated to the Earl ofSouthampton,VenusandAdonisandTheRapeofLucrece,andmaywellhavewrittenmostorallofhissonnetsinthemiddlenineties,Shakespeare’sliteraryactivityseemstohavebeenalmostentirelydevotedtothetheater.(Itmaybesignificantthatthetwonarrativepoemswerewritteninyearswhentheplagueclosedthetheatersforseveralmonths.)In1594hewasachartermemberofatheatricalcompanycalledtheChamberlain’sMen,whichin1603becametheroyalcompany,theKing’sMen,makingShakespearetheking’splaywright.UntilheretiredtoStratford(about1611,apparently),hewaswiththisremarkablystablecompany.From1599thecompanyactedprimarilyattheGlobetheater,inwhichShakespeareheldaone-tenthinterest.OtherElizabethandramatistsareknowntohaveacted,butnootherisknownalsoto

havebeenentitledtoashareoftheprofits.

Shakespeare’sfirsteightpublishedplaysdidnothavehisnameonthem,butthisisnotremarkable;themostpopularplayoftheperiod,ThomasKyd’sTheSpanishTragedy,wentthroughmanyeditionswithoutnamingKyd,andKyd’sauthorshipisknownonlybecauseabookontheprofessionofactinghappenstoquote (and attribute to Kyd) some lines on the interest of Roman emperors in the drama. What isremarkable is thatafter1598Shakespeare’snamecommonlyappearsonprintedplays—someofwhicharenothis.Presumablyhisnamewasadrawingcard,andpublishersusedittoattractpotentialbuyers.AnotherindicationofhispopularitycomesfromFrancisMeres,authorofPalladisTamia:Wit’sTreasury(1598). In this anthology of snippets accompanied by an essay on literature, many playwrights arementioned, but Shakespeare’s name occurs more often than any other, and Shakespeare is the onlyplaywrightwhoseplaysarelisted.

From his acting, his play writing, and his share in a playhouse, Shakespeare seems to have madeconsiderablemoney.Heputittowork,makingsubstantialinvestmentsinStratfordrealestate.Asearlyas1597heboughtNewPlace, thesecond-largesthouseinStratford.Hisfamilymovedinsoonafterward,andthehouseremainedinthefamilyuntilagranddaughterdiedin1670.WhenShakespearemadehiswillin1616, less thanamonthbeforehedied,hesought to leavehisproperty intact tohisdescendants.Ofsmallbequeststorelativesandtofriends(includingthreeactors,RichardBurbage,JohnHeminges,andHenryCondell),thattohiswifeofthesecond-bestbedhasprovokedthemostcomment.Ithassometimesbeentakenasasignofanunhappymarriage(othersupposedsignsaretheapparentlyhastymarriage,hiswife’sseniorityofeightyears,andhisresidenceinLondonwithouthisfamily).Perhapsthesecond-bestbed was the bed the couple had slept in, the best bed being reserved for visitors. In any case, hadShakespearenotexceptedit,thebedwouldhavegone(withtherestofhishouseholdpossessions)tohisdaughterandherhusband.

On25April1616ShakespearewasburiedwithinthechancelofthechurchatStratford.Anunattractivemonumenttohismemory,placedonawallnearthegrave,saysthathediedon23April.Overthegraveitself are the lines, perhaps by Shakespeare, that (more than his literary fame) have kept his bonesundisturbedinthecrowdedburialgroundwhereoldboneswereoftendislodgedtomakewayfornew:

Goodfriend,forJesus’sakeforbearTodigthedustenclosedhere.BlessedbethemanthatsparesthesestonesAndcursedbehethatmovesmybones.

ANoteontheAnti-Stratfordians,EspeciallyBaconiansandOxfordians

Notuntil1769—morethanahundredandfiftyyearsafterShakespeare’sdeath—isthereanyrecordofanyone expressing doubt about Shakespeare’s authorship of the plays and poems. In 1769, however,HerbertLawrencenominatedFrancisBacon(1561-1626)inTheLifeandAdventuresofCommonSense.Since then, at least two dozen other nominees have been offered, includingChristopherMarlowe, SirWalterRaleigh,QueenElizabethI,andEdwarddeVere,17thearlofOxford.Theimpulsebehindallanti-Stratfordianmovementsisthescarcelyconcealedsnobbishopinionthat“themanfromStratford”simplycould not havewritten the plays because hewas a country fellowwithout a university education andwithoutaccesstohighsociety.Anyone,theargumentgoes,whousedsomanylegalterms,medicalterms,

nauticalterms,andsoforth,andwhoshowedsomefamiliaritywithclassicalwriting,musthaveattendedauniversity,andanyonewhoknewsomuchaboutcourtlyeleganceandcourtlydeceitmusthimselfhavemovedamongcourtiers.Theplaysdoindeedrevealanauthorwhoseinterestswereexceptionallybroad,butspecialistsinanygivenfield—law,medicine,armsandarmor,andsoon—soonfindthattheplaysdonot reveal deep knowledge in specialized matters; indeed, the playwright often gets technical detailswrong.

TheclaimonbehalfofBacon,forgottenalmostassoonasitwasputforthin1769,wasindependentlyreassertedbyJosephC.Hartin1848.In1856itwasreaffirmedbyW.H.Smithinabook,andalsobyDeliaBaconinanarticle;in1857DeliaBaconpublishedabook,arguingthatFrancisBaconhaddirectedagroupofintellectualswhowrotetheplays.

FrancisBacon’sclaimhaslargelyfaded,perhapsbecauseitwasadvancedwithsuchevidentcrazinessby IgnatiusDonnelly,who inTheGreatCryptogram (1888) claimed to break a code in theplays thatprovedBaconhadwrittennotonlytheplaysattributedtoShakespearebutalsootherRenaissanceworks,forinstancetheplaysofChristopherMarloweandtheessaysofMontaigne.

ConsiderthelasttwolinesoftheEpilogueinTheTempest:

Asyoufromcrimeswouldpardonedbe,Letyourindulgencesetmefree.

What was Shakespeare—sorry, Francis Bacon, Baron Verulam—really saying in these two lines?AccordingtoBaconians,thelinesareananagramreading,“TempestofFrancisBacon,LordVerulam;doyene’erdivulgeme,yewords.”Ingenious,anditisapitythatinthequotationtheletteraappearsonlytwiceinthecryptogram,whereasinthedecipheredmessageitappearsthreetimes.Oh,noproblem;justalter“Verulam”to“Verul’m”anditworksoutverynicely.

Mostpeopleunderstandthatwithsufficient ingenuityonecantortureanytextandfindin itwhatonewishes. For instance: Did Shakespeare have a hand in the King James Version of the Bible? It wasnearingcompletionin1610,whenShakespearewasforty-sixyearsold.Ifyoulookatthe46thPsalmandcountforwardforforty-sixwords,youwillfindthewordshake.Nowifyougototheendofthepsalmandcountbackwardforty-sixwords,youwillfindthewordspear.Clearevidence,accordingtosome,thatShakespeareslylylefthismarkinthebook.

Bacon’scandidacyhaslargelybeenreplacedinthetwentiethcenturybythecandidacyofEdwarddeVere(1550-1604),17thearlofOxford.Thebasic ideasbehindtheOxfordtheory,advancedatgreatestlengthbyDorothyandCharltonOgburninThisStarofEngland(1952,rev.1955),abookof1297pages,andbyCharltonOgburninTheMysteriousWilliamShakespeare(1984),abookof892pages,arethese:(1)ThemanfromStratfordcouldnotpossiblyhavehadthementalequipmentandtheexperiencetohavewritten the plays—only a courtier could have written them; (2) Oxford had the requisite background(socialposition,education,yearsatQueenElizabeth’scourt);(3)Oxforddidnotwishhisauthorshiptobeknownfortwobasicreasons:writingforthepublictheaterwasavulgarpursuit,andtheplaysshowsomuch courtly and royal disreputable behavior that theywould have compromisedOxford’s position atcourt.Oxfordiansoffercountlessdetailstosupporttheclaim.Forexample,Hamlet’sphrase“thateverIwasborn to set it right” (1.5.89) barely conceals “E.Ver, Iwasborn to set it right,” anunambiguousannouncementofdeVere’sauthorship,accordingtoThisStarofEngland (p.654).Asecondexample:ConsiderBen Jonson’s poem entitled “To theMemory ofMyBelovedMasterWilliam Shakespeare,”prefixed to the first collected edition of Shakespeare’s plays in 1623.According toOxfordians,when

Jonsoninthispoemspeaksoftheauthoroftheplaysasthe“swanofAvon,”heisalludingnottoWilliamShakespeare, who was born and died in Stratford-on-Avon and who throughout his adult life ownedpropertythere;rather,heisalludingtoOxford,who,theOgburnssay,used“WilliamShakespeare”ashispenname,andwhosemanoratBiltonwasontheAvonRiver.OxfordiansdonotofferanyevidencethatOxfordtookapenname,andtheydonotmentionthatOxfordhadsoldthemanorin1581,forty-twoyearsbeforeJonsonwrotehispoem.SurelyareferencetotheShakespearewhowasborninStratford,whohadreturned toStratford, andwhohaddied thereonly sevenyearsbefore Jonsonwrote thepoem ismoreplausible.AndexactlywhyJonson,whoelsewherealsospokeofShakespeareasaplaywright,andwhyHeminges and Condell, who had acted with Shakespeare for about twenty years, should speak ofShakespeareastheauthorintheirdedicationinthe1623volumeofcollectedplaysisneveradequatelyexplained by Oxfordians. Either Jonson, Heminges and Condell, and numerous others were in on theconspiracy,ortheywereallduped—equallyunlikelyalternatives.AnotherdifficultyintheOxfordtheoryis thatOxforddied in1604,andsomeof theplaysareclearly indebted toworksandevents later than1604.AmongtheOxfordianresponsesare:AthisdeathOxfordleftsomeplays,andinlateryearsthesewere touched up by hacks, who added the material that points to later dates. The Tempest, almostuniversallyregardedasoneofShakespeare’sgreatestplaysandprettyclearlydatedto1611,doesindeeddatefromaperiodafterthedeathofOxford,butitisacrudepieceofworkthatshouldnotbeincludedinthecanonofworksbyOxford.

The anti-Stratfordians, in addition to assuming that the authormust have been aman of rank and auniversityman,usuallyassumetwoconspiracies:(1)aconspiracyinElizabethanandJacobeantimes,inwhichasurprisinglylargenumberofpersonsconnectedwiththetheaterknewthattheactorShakespearedid not write the plays attributed to him but for some reason or other pretended that he did; (2) aconspiracy of today’s Stratfordians, the professors who teach Shakespeare in the colleges anduniversities,whoaresaidtohaveavestedinterestinpreservingShakespeareastheauthoroftheplaystheyteach.Infact,(1)itisinconceivablethatthesecretofShakespeare’snon-authorshipcouldhavebeenpreservedbyallofthepeoplewhosupposedlywereinontheconspiracy,and(2)academicfameawaitsanyscholartodaywhocandisproveShakespeare’sauthorship.

The Stratfordian case is convincing not only because hundreds or even thousands of anti-Stratfordarguments—ofthesortthatsay“everIwasborn”hasthesecretdoublemeaning“E.Ver,Iwasborn”—addup tonothingatallbutalsobecause irrefutableevidenceconnects themanfromStratfordwith theLondon theater and with the authorship of particular plays. The anti-Stratfordians do not seem tounderstandthatit isnotenoughtodismisstheStratfordcasebysayingthatafellowfromtheprovincessimplycouldn’thavewrittentheplays.NordotheyunderstandthatitisnotenoughtodismissalloftheevidenceconnectingShakespearewiththeplaysbyassertingthatitisperjured.

TheShakespeareCanon

We return to William Shakespeare. Thirty-seven plays as well as some nondramatic poems aregenerally held to constitute the Shakespeare canon, the body of authentic works. The exact dates ofcompositionofmostoftheworksarehighlyuncertain,butevidenceofastartingpointand/orofafinallimiting point often provides a framework for informed guessing. For example,Richard II cannot beearlierthan1595,thepublicationdateofsomematerialtowhichitisindebted;TheMerchantofVenicecannotbelaterthan1598,theyearFrancisMeresmentionedit.Sometimesargumentsforadatehangon

analleged topical allusion, suchas the lines about theunseasonableweather inAMidsummerNight’sDream,2.1.81-117,butsuchanallusion,ifindeeditisanallusiontoaneventintherealworld,canbevariouslyinterpreted,andinanycasethereisalwaysthepossibilitythatatopicalallusionwasinsertedyears later, to bring the play up to date. (The issue of alterations in a text between the time thatShakespeare drafted it and the time that it was printed—alterations due to censorship or playhousepracticeorShakespeare’sownsecondthoughts—willbediscussedin“ThePlayTextasaCollaboration”later in thisoverview.)Dates areoften attributedon thebasisof style, andalthoughconjectures aboutstyle usually rest on other conjectures (such as Shakespeare’s development as a playwright, or theappropriatenessoflinestocharacter),soonerorlateronemustrelyonone’sliterarysense.Thereisnodocumentary proof, for example, thatOthello is not as early asRomeo and Juliet, but one feels thatOthelloisalater,morematurework,andbecausethefirstrecordofitsperformanceis1604,oneisgladenoughtosetitscompositionatthatdateandnotpushitbackintoShakespeare’searlyyears.(RomeoandJulietwasfirstpublishedin1597,butevidencesuggeststhatitwaswrittenalittleearlier.)Thefollowingchronology,then,isindebtednotonlytofactsbutalsotoinformedguessworkandsensitivity.Thedates,necessarilyimpreciseforsomeworks,indicatesomethinglikeascholarlyconsensusconcerningthetimeoforiginalcomposition.Someplaysshowevidenceoflaterrevision.

Plays.ThefirstcollectededitionofShakespeare,publishedin1623,includedthirty-sixplays.Theseareall accepted as Shakespeare’s, though for one of them, Henry VIII, he is thought to have had acollaborator.Athirty-seventhplay,Pericles,publishedin1609andattributedtoShakespeareonthetitlepage,isalsowidelyacceptedasbeingpartlybyShakespeareeventhoughitisnotincludedinthe1623volume.Stillanotherplaynotinthe1623volume,TheTwoNobleKinsmen,wasfirstpublishedin1634,with a titlepageattributing it to JohnFletcher andShakespeare.Probablymost studentsof the subjectnowbelievethatShakespearedidindeedhaveahandinit.Oftheremainingplaysattributedatonetimeor another toShakespeare,onlyone,EdwardIII, anonymouslypublished in 1596, is now regardedbysomescholarsasaseriouscandidate.Theprevailingopinion,however,isthatthisrathersimple-mindedplayisnotShakespeare’s;atmosthemayhaverevisedsomepassages,chieflysceneswiththeCountessofSalisbury.WeincludeTheTwoNobleKinsmenbutdonotincludeEdwardIIIinthefollowinglist.

Poems.In1989DonaldW.Fosterpublishedabookinwhichhearguedthat“AFuneralElegyforMasterWilliamPeter,”publishedin1612,ascribedonlytotheinitialsW.S.,maybebyShakespeare.Fosterlaterpublished an article in a scholarly journal, PMLA 111 (1996), in which he asserted the claim morepositively.Theevidencebeginswiththeinitials,andincludesthefactthatthepublisherandtheprinteroftheelegyhadpublishedShakespeare’sSonnetsin1609.Butsuchfactsadduptoratherlittle,especiallybecausenoonehas foundanyconnectionbetweenShakespeareandWilliamPeter (anOxfordgraduateaboutwhomlittleisknown,whowasmurderedattheageoftwenty-nine).Theargumentisbasedchieflyonstatisticalexaminationsofwordpatterns,whicharesaidtocorrelatewithShakespeare’sknownwork.Despite suchcorrelations,however,many readers feel that thepoemdoesnot sound likeShakespeare.True,Shakespearehasagreatrangeofstyles,butonequalitythatuniteshisworkisthatitisimaginativeandinteresting.Manyreadersfindneitherofthesequalitiesin“AFuneralElegy.”

Shakespeare’sEnglish

1.SpellingandPronunciation.From thephilologist’spointofview,Shakespeare’sEnglish ismodernEnglish. It requires footnotes, but the inexperienced reader can comprehend substantial passages withvery little help,whereas for the same readerChaucer’sMiddle English is a foreign language. By thebeginningofthefifteenthcenturythechiefgrammaticalchangesinEnglishhadtakenplace,andthefinalunaccented -eofMiddleEnglishhadbeen lost (though it surviveseven today inspelling,as inname);duringthefifteenthcenturythedialectofLondon,thecommercialandpoliticalcenter,graduallydisplacedtheprovincialdialects,atleastinwriting;bytheendofthecentury,printinghadhelpedtoregularizeandstabilizethelanguage,especiallyspelling.Elizabethanspellingmayseemerratictous(thereweredozensofspellingsofShakespeare,andasimpleword likebeenwasalsospelledbeeneandbin), but it hadmuch in commonwith our spelling. Elizabethan spellingwas conservative in that for themost part itreflected anolder pronunciation (MiddleEnglish) rather than the soundof the language as itwas thenspoken,justasourspellingcontinuestoreflectmedievalpronunciation—mostobviouslyinthenowsilentbutformerlypronouncedlettersinawordsuchasknight.Elizabethanpronunciation,thoughnotidenticalwithours,wasmuchcloser toours than to thatof theMiddleAges. Incidentally, thoughnoonecanbecertain aboutwhat ElizabethanEnglish sounded like, specialists tend to believe itwas rather like thespeechofamodernstageIrishman(time apparentlywaspronounced toime,oldpronouncedawld,daypronounceddie,andjoinpronouncedjine)andnotatall liketheOxfordspeechthatmostofusthinkitwas.

AnawarenessofthedifferencebetweenourpronunciationandShakespeare’siscrucialinthreeareas—inaccent,ornumberofsyllables(manymetricallyregular linesmaylook irregular tous); inrhymes(whichmaynotlooklikerhymes);andinpuns(whichmaynotlooklikepuns).Exampleswillbeuseful.Somewordsthatwereatleastonoccasionstresseddifferentlyfromtodayareaspèct,còmplete,fòrlorn,revènue, and sepùlcher. Words that sometimes had an additional syllable are emp[e]ress,Hen[e]ry,mon[e]th,andvillain(threesyllables,vil-lay-in).Anadditionalsyllable isoftenfoundinpossessives,likemoon’s(pronouncedmoones)andinwordsendingin-tionor-sion.Wordsthathadonelesssyllablethantheynowhaveareneedle(pronouncedneel)andviolet(pronouncedvilet).Amongrhymesnowlostareonewithloan,lovewithprove,beastwithjest,eatwithgreat.(Inreading,trustyoursenseofmetricsand your ear, more than your eye.) An example of a pun that has become obliterated by a change inpronunciationisFalstaff’sreplytoPrinceHal’s“Come,tellusyourreason”in1HenryIV:“Giveyouareasononcompulsion?Ifreasonswereasplentifulasblackberries,Iwouldgivenomanareasonuponcompulsion,I”(2.4.237-40).Theeainreasonwaspronouncedratherlikealonga,liketheaiinraisin,hencethecomparisonwithblackberries.

Punsarenotmerelyattemptstobefunny;likemetaphorstheyofteninvolvebringingintoameaningfulrelationshipareasofexperiencenormallyseenasremote.In2HenryIV,whenFeebleisconscripted,hestoicallysays,“Icarenot.Amancandiebutonce.WeoweGodadeath”(3.2.242-43),punningondebt,whichwasthewaydeathwaspronounced.Hereanenormouslysignificantfactoflifeisputintosimplecommercial imagery, suggesting its commonplace quality. Shakespeare used the same pun earlier in 1HenryIV,whenPrinceHalsaystoFalstaff,“Why,thouowestGodadeath,”andFalstaffreplies,“’Tisnotdueyet:Iwouldbeloathtopayhimbeforehisday.WhatneedIbesoforwardwithhimthatcallsnotonme?”(5.1.126-29).

Sometimes the puns reveal a delightful playfulness; sometimes they reveal aggressiveness, aswhen,replyingtoClaudius’s“Butnow,mycousinHamlet,andmyson,”Hamletsays,“Alittlemorethankin,

and less thankind!” (1.2.64-65).These areHamlet’s firstwords in theplay, andwealreadyhearhimwarring verbally against Claudius. Hamlet’s “less than kind” probably means (1) Hamlet is not ofClaudius’s familyor nature,kind having the sense it still has in ourwordmankind; (2)Hamlet is notkindly(affectionately)disposedtowardClaudius;(3)Claudiusisnotnaturally(butratherunnaturally,inalegalsenseincestuously)Hamlet’sfather.Thepunsevidentlywerenotputinassopstothegroundlings;theyareanimportantwayofcommunicatingacomplexmeaning.

2. Vocabulary. A conspicuous difficulty in reading Shakespeare is rooted in the fact that some of hiswords are no longer in common use—for example, words concerned with armor, astrology, clothing,coinage,hawking,horsemanship,law,medicine,sailing,andwar.Shakespearehadalargevocabulary—somethingnearthirtythousandwords—butitwasnotsomuchavocabularyofbigwordsasavocabularydrawnfromawiderangeoflife,anditispartlyhisabilitytocalluponagreatbodyofconcretelanguagethatgiveshisplays the senseofbeing in close contactwith life.When the rightworddidnot alreadyexist, he made it up. Among words thought to be his coinages are accommodation, all-knowing,amazement, bare-faced, countless, dexterously, dislocate, dwindle, fancy-free, frugal,indistinguishable, lackluster, laughable, overawe, premeditated, sea change, star-crossed. Amongthosethathavenotsurvivedaretheverbconvive,meaningtofeasttogether,andsmilet,alittlesmile.

Less overtly troublesome than the technical words but more treacherous are the words that seemreadily intelligible tousbutwhoseElizabethanmeaningsdiffer fromtheirmodernones.WhenHoratiodescribestheGhostasan“erringspirit,”heissayingnotthattheghosthassinnedormadeanerrorbutthatitiswandering.HereisashortlistofsomeofthemostcommonwordsinShakespeare’splaysthatoften(butnotalways)haveameaningotherthantheirmostusualmodernmeaning:

Allglosses, of course, aremere approximations; sometimesoneofShakespeare’swordsmayhoverbetween an older meaning and a modern one, and as we have seen, his words often have multiplemeanings.

3.Grammar.A fewmatters of grammarmay be surveyed, though it should be noted at the outset thatShakespearesometimesmadeuphisowngrammar.AsE.A.AbbottsaysinAShakespearianGrammar,“Almostanypartofspeechcanbeusedasanyotherpartofspeech”:anounasaverb(“hechildedasIfathered”); a verb as a noun (“She hath made compare”); or an adverb as an adjective (“a seldom

pleasure”).Therearehundreds,perhapsthousands,ofsuchinstancesintheplays,manyofwhichatfirstglancewouldnotseematallirregularandwouldtroubleonlyapedant.Hereareafewbroadmatters.

Nouns:TheElizabethansthoughtthe-sgenitiveendingfornouns(asinman’s)derivedfromhis; thustheline“’gainstthecounthisgalleysIdidsomeservice,”for“thecount’sgalleys.”

Adjectives:ByShakespeare’stimeadjectiveshadlosttheendingsthatonceindicatedgender,number,and case.About the only difference between Shakespeare’s adjectives and ours is the use of the nowredundantmoreormostwith thecomparative(“somemorefitterplace”)orsuperlative(“Thiswas themost unkindest cut of all”).Like double comparatives anddouble superlatives, double negativeswereacceptable;Mercutio“willnotbudgefornoman’spleasure.”

Pronouns: The greatest changewas in pronouns. InMiddle English thou, thy, and thee were usedamong familiars and in speaking to childrenand inferiors;ye,your, andyouwere used in speaking tosuperiors(servantstomasters,noblestotheking)ortoequalswithwhomthespeakerwasnotfamiliar.Increasinglythe“polite”formswereusedinalldirectaddress,regardlessofrank,andtheaccusativeyoudisplacedthenominativeye.Shakespearesometimesusesye insteadofyou,buteven inShakespeare’sdayyewasarchaic,anditoccursmostlyinrhetoricalappeals.

Thou, thy, and thee were not completely displaced, however, and Shakespeare occasionallymakessignificantuseofthem,sometimestoconnotefamiliarityorintimacyandsometimestoconnotecontempt.InTwelfth Night Sir Toby advises SirAndrew to insult Cesario by addressing him as thou: “If thouthou’sthimsomethrice, itshallnotbeamiss”(3.2.46-47).InOthellowhenBrabantio isaddressinganunidentifiedvoiceinthedarkhesays,“Whatareyou?”(1.1.91),butwhenthevoiceidentifiesitselfasthefoolishsuitorRoderigo,Brabantiousesthecontemptuousform,saying,“Ihavechargedtheenottohauntaboutmydoors” (93).Heuses this form for awhile, but later in the scene,whenhe comes to regardRoderigoasanally,heshiftsbacktothepoliteyou,beginninginline163,“Whatsaidshetoyou?”andontotheendofthescene.Forreasonsnotyetsatisfactorilyexplained,ElizabethansusedthouinaddressestoGod—“OGod,thyarmwashere,”thekingsaysinHenryV(4.8.108)—andtosupernaturalcharacterssuchasghostsandwitches.AsubtlevariationoccursinHamlet.WhenHamletfirsttalkswiththeGhostin1.5,heuses thou,butwhenheseestheGhost inhismother’sroom,in3.4,heusesyou,presumablybecauseheisnowconvincedthattheGhostisnotacounterfeitbutishisfather.

Perhapsthemostunusualuseofpronouns,fromourpointofview,istheneutersingular.Inplaceofourits,hiswasoftenused,asin“Howfarthatlittlecandlethrowshisbeams.”But theuseofamasculinepronounforaneuternouncametoseemunnatural,andsoitwasusedforthepossessiveaswellasthenominative:“Thehedge-sparrowfedthecuckoosolong/Thatithaditheadbitoffbyityoung.”Inthelatesixteenthcenturythepossessiveformitsdeveloped,apparentlybyanalogywiththe-sendingusedtoindicateagenitivenoun,asinbook’s,butitswasnotyetcommonusageinShakespeare’sday.Heseemstohaveuseditsonlytentimes,mostlyinhislaterplays.Otherusages,suchas“youhaveseenCassioandshetogether”orthesubstitutionofwhoforwhom,causelittleproblemevenwhennoticed.

Verbs,Adverbs,andPrepositions:Verbscausealmostnodifficulty:Thethirdpersonsingularpresentform commonly ends in -s, as in modern English (e.g., “He blesses”), but sometimes in -eth (PortiaexplainstoShylockthatmercy“blessethhimthatgivesandhimthattakes”).Broadlyspeaking,the-ethendingwas old-fashioned or dignified or “literary” rather than colloquial, except for thewordsdoth,hath, and saith. The -eth ending (regularly used in the King James Bible, 1611) is very rare inShakespeare’sdramaticprose,thoughnotsurprisinglyitoccurstwiceintheratherformalprosesummary

ofthenarrativepoemLucrece.Sometimesapluralsubject,especiallyif ithascollectiveforce, takesaverbendingin-s,asin“Myoldbonesaches.”Someofourstrongorirregularpreterites(suchasbroke)haveadifferentforminShakespeare(brake);someverbsthatnowhaveaweakorregularpreterite(suchashelped)inShakespearehaveastrongorirregularpreterite(holp).Someadverbsthattodayendin-lywerenotinflected:“grievoussick,”“wondrousstrange.”Finally,prepositionsoftenarenottheonesweexpect:“Wearesuchstuffasdreamsaremadeon,”“Ihaveakingheretomyflatterer.”

Again, none of the differences (except meanings that have substantially changed or been lost) willcausemuchdifficulty.Butitmustbeconfessedthatforsomeellipticalpassagesthereisnowidespreadagreementonmeaning.Wiseeditorsresistsayingmorethantheyknow,andwhentheyareuncertaintheyaddaquestionmarktotheirgloss.

Shakespeare’sTheater

InShakespeare’sinfancy,Elizabethanactorsperformedwherevertheycould—ingreathalls,atcourt,in thecourt-yardsof inns.Thesevenues impliednotonlydifferentaudiencesbutalsodifferentplayingconditions. The innyards must have made rather unsatisfactory theaters: on some days they wereunavailablebecausecartersbringinggoodstoLondonusedthemasdepots;whenavailable,theyhadtoberentedfromtheinnkeeper.In1567,presumablytoavoidsuchdifficulties,andalsotoavoidregulationbytheCommonCouncilofLondon,whichwasnotwelldisposedtowardtheatricals,oneJohnBrayne,brother-in-lawof thecarpenter turnedactor JamesBurbage,built theRedLion inaneasternsuburbofLondon.Weknownothingaboutitsshapeoritscapacity;wecansayonlythatitmayhavebeenthefirstbuildinginEuropeconstructedforthepurposeofgivingplayssincetheendofantiquity,athousandyearsearlier. Even after the building of the Red Lion theatrical activity continued in London in makeshiftcircumstances,inmarketplacesandinns,andalwaysuneasily.In1574theCommonCouncilrequiredthatplaysandplayingplacesinLondonbelicensedbecause

sundrygreatdisorders and inconvenienceshavebeen found to ensue to this cityby the inordinatehaunting of great multitudes of people, specially youth, to plays, interludes, and shows, namelyoccasion of frays and quarrels, evil practices of incontinency in great inns having chambers andsecretplacesadjoiningtotheiropenstagesandgalleries.

TheCommonCouncilordered that innkeeperswhowished licenses toholdperformanceputupabondandmakecontributionstothepoor.

Therequirementthatplaysandinnyardtheatersbelicensed,alongwiththeotherdrawbacksofplayingatinnsandpresumablyalongwiththesuccessoftheRedLion,ledJamesBurbagetorentaplotoflandnortheastofthecitywalls,onpropertyoutsidethejurisdictionofthecity.HerehebuiltEngland’ssecondplayhouse,calledsimplytheTheatre.Aboutall that isknownofitsconstructionis that itwaswood.Itsoonhadimitators,themostfamousbeingtheGlobe(1599),essentiallyanamphitheaterbuiltacrosstheThames(againoutside thecity’s jurisdiction),constructedwith timbersof theTheatre,whichhadbeendismantledwhenBurbage’sleaseranout.

Admissiontothetheaterwasonepenny,whichallowedspectatorstostandatthesidesandfrontofthestage that jutted into theyard.Anadditionalpennyboughtaseat inacoveredpartof the theater,andathirdpennyboughtamorecomfortable seat andabetter location. It isnotoriouslydifficult to translatepricesintotoday’smoney,sincesomethingsthatareinexpensivetodaywouldhavebeenexpensiveinthe

pastandviceversa—apipefuloftobacco(imported,ofcourse)costalotofmoney,aboutthreepennies,andanorange(alsoimported)costtwoorthreetimeswhatachickencost—butperhapswecangetsomeideaofthelowcostofthepennyadmissionwhenwerealizethatapennycouldalsobuyapotofale.Anunskilledlaborermadeaboutfiveorsixpenceaday,anartisanabouttwelvepenceaday,andthehiredactors (as opposed to the sharers in the company, such as Shakespeare) made about ten pence aperformance. A printed play cost five or sixpence. Of course a visit to the theater (like a visit to abaseballgametoday)usuallycostmorethantheadmissionsincethespectatorprobablywouldalsobuyfood and drink. Still, the low entrance feemeant that the theaterwas available to all except the verypoorestpeople,ratherasmoviesandmostathleticeventsaretoday.Evidenceindicatesthattheaudienceranged from apprentices who somehowmanaged to scrape together the minimum entrance fee and toescapefromtheirmastersforafewhours,toprosperousmembersofthemiddleclassandaristocratswhopaidtheadditionalfeeforadmissiontothegalleries.Theexactproportionofmentowomencannotbedetermined, butwomen of all classes certainlywere present. Theaterswere open every afternoon butSundays for much of the year, except in times of plague, when they were closed because of fear ofinfection. By the way, no evidence suggests the presence of toilet facilities. Presumably the patronsrelievedthemselvesbymakingaquicktriptothefieldssurroundingtheplayhouses.

TherearefourimportantsourcesofinformationaboutthestructureofElizabethanpublicplayhouses—drawings, a contract, recent excavations, and stage directions in the plays. Of drawings, only the so-calleddeWittdrawing(c.1596)oftheSwan—reallyhisfriendAernoutvanBuchell’scopyofJohannesdeWitt’sdrawing—isofmuchsignificance.Thedrawing,theonlyextantrepresentationoftheinteriorofanElizabethantheater,showsanamphitheaterofthreetiers,withastagejuttingfromawallintotheyardorcenterofthebuilding.

JohannesdeWitt,aContinentalvisitortoLondon,madeadrawingoftheSwantheaterinabouttheyear1596.Theoriginaldrawingislost;thisisAernoutvanBuchell’scopyofit.

The tiers are roofed, and part of the stage is covered by a roof that projects from the rear and issupportedatitsfrontontwoposts,butthegroundlings,whopaidapennytostandinfrontofthestageoratitssides,wereexposedtothesky.(Performancesinsuchaplayhousewereheldonlyinthedaytime;artificialilluminationwasnotused.)Attherearofthestagearetwomassivedoors;abovethestageisagallery.

The secondmajor source of information, the contract for the Fortune (built in 1600), specifies thatalthoughtheGlobe(builtin1599)istobethemodel,theFortuneistobesquare,eightyfeetoutsideandfifty-fiveinside.Thestageistobeforty-threefeetbroad,andistoextendintothemiddleoftheyard,i.e.,itistwenty-sevenandahalffeetdeep.

Thethirdsourceofinformation,the1989excavationsoftheRose(builtin1587),indicatethattheRosewasfourteen-sided,aboutseventy-twofeet indiameterwithan inneryardalmostfiftyfeet indiameter.ThestageattheRosewasaboutsixteenfeetdeep,thirty-sevenfeetwideattherear,andtwenty-sevenfeetwide downstage.The relatively small dimensions and the tapering stage, in contrast to the rectangularstageintheSwandrawing,surprisedtheaterhistoriansandhavemadethemmorecautiousingeneralizingabouttheElizabethantheater.ExcavationsattheGlobehavenotyieldedmuchinformation,thoughsomehistorians believe that the fragmentary evidence suggests a larger theater, perhaps one hundred feet indiameter.

Fromthefourthchiefsource,stagedirectionsintheplays,onelearnsthatentrancetothestagewasbythe doors at the rear (“Enter one citizen at one door, and another at the other”). A curtain hangingacross thedoorway—oracurtainhangingbetween the twodoorways—couldprovideaplacewhereacharactercouldconcealhimself,asPoloniusdoes,whenhewishestooverheartheconversationbetweenHamlet andGertrude. Similarly,withdrawing a curtain from the doorway could “discover” (reveal) acharacterortwo.SuchdiscoveryscenesareveryrareinElizabethandrama,butagoodexampleoccursinThe Tempest (5.1.171), where a stage direction tells us, “Here Prospero discovers Ferdinand andMirandaplayingatchess.”Therewasalsosomesortofplayingspace“aloft”or“above”torepresent,for instance, the top of a city’swalls or a room above the street.Doubtless each theater had its ownpeculiarities,butperhapswecantalkabouta“typical”Elizabethantheaterifwerealizethatnotheaterneedexactlyfitthedescription,justasnomotheristheaveragemotherwith2.7children.

Thishypotheticaltheateriswooden,round,orpolygonal(inHenryVShakespearecallsita“woodenO”) capable of holding some eight hundred spectators who stood in the yard around the projectingelevatedstage—thesespectatorswerethe“groundlings”—andsomefifteenhundredadditionalspectatorswhosatinthethreeroofedgalleries.Thestage,protectedbya“shadow”or“heavens”orroof,isenteredfromtwodoors;behindthedoorsisthe“tiringhouse”(attiringhouse,i.e.,dressingroom),andabovethestage is some sort ofgallery thatmay sometimeshold spectatorsbut canbeused (for example) as thebedroomfromwhichRomeo—accordingtoastagedirectioninonetext—“goethdown.”Someevidencesuggests that a throne can be lowered onto the platform stage, perhaps from the “shadow”; certainlycharacters candescend from the stage through a trapor traps into the cellar or “hell.”Sometimes thisspacebeneaththestageaccommodatesasound-effectsmanormusician(inAntonyandCleopatra“musicofthehautboys[oboes]isunderthestage”)oranactor(inHamletthe“Ghostcriesunderthestage”).Mostcharacterssimplywalkonandoffthroughthedoors,butbecausethereisnocurtaininfrontoftheplatform,corpseswillhave tobecarriedoff (Hamletobliginglyclears the stageofPolonius’scorpse,whenhesays,“I’ll lug theguts into theneighbor room”).Othercharactersmayhave fallenat the rear,whereacurtainonadoorwaycouldbedrawntoconcealthem.

Such may have been the “public theater,” so called because its inexpensive admission made itavailabletoawiderangeofthepopulace.Anotherkindoftheaterhasbeencalledthe“privatetheater”becauseitsmuchgreateradmissioncharge(sixpenceversusthepennyforgeneraladmissionatthepublictheater) limited its audience to thewealthy or the prodigal. The private theaterwas basically a largeroom,entirelyroofedandthereforeartificiallyilluminated,withastageatoneend.Thetheatersthusweredistinctintwoways:Onewasessentiallyanamphitheaterthatcateredtothegeneralpublic;theotherwasa hall that catered to thewealthy. In 1576 a hall theaterwas established inBlackfriars, aDominicanprioryinLondonthathadbeensuppressedin1538andconfiscatedbytheCrownandthuswasnotunderthecity’sjurisdiction.AlltheactorsinthisBlackfriarstheaterwereboysabouteighttothirteenyearsold(inthepublictheaterssimilarboysplayedfemaleparts;aboyLadyMacbethplayedtoamanMacbeth).Near the end of this section on Shakespeare’s theater we will talk at some length about possibleimplicationsinthisconventionofusingboystoplayfemaleroles,butforthemomentweshouldsaythatitdoubtless accounts for the relative lack of female roles in Elizabethan drama. Thus, inAMidsummerNight’sDream,outoftwenty-onenamedroles,onlyfourarefemale;inHamlet,outoftwenty-four,onlytwo(GertrudeandOphelia)arefemale.ManyofShakespeare’scharactershavefathersbutnomothers—for instance, King Lear’s daughters.We need not bring in Freud to explain the disparity; a dramaticcompanyhadonlyafewboysinit.

Toreturntotheprivatetheaters,insomeofwhichalloftheperformerswerechildren—the“eyrieof... little eyases” (nest of unfledged hawks—2.2.347-48) which Rosencrantz mentions when he andGuildenstern talk with Hamlet. The theater in Blackfriars had a precarious existence, and ceasedoperations in 1584. In 1596 James Burbage,who had alreadymade theatrical history by building theTheatre, began to construct a second Blackfriars theater. He died in 1597, and for several years thissecondBlackfriarstheaterwasusedbyatroupeofboys,butin1608twoofBurbage’ssonsandfiveotheractors(includingShakespeare)becamejointoperatorsofthetheater,usingitinthewinterwhentheopen-air Globe was unsuitable. Perhaps such a smaller theater, roofed, artificially illuminated, and with atraditionofawealthyaudience,exertedaninfluenceinShakespeare’slateplays.

Performancesintheprivatetheatersmaywellhavehadintermissionsduringwhichmusicwasplayed,but in the public theaters the action was probably uninterrupted, flowing from scene to scene almostwithout abreak.Actorswouldenter, speak, exit, andotherswould immediately enter andestablish (ifnecessary)thenewlocalebyafewpropertiesandbywordsandgestures.Toindicatethatthescenetookplaceatnight,aplayerortwowouldcarryatorch.HerearesomesamplesofShakespeareestablishingthescene:

ThisisIllyria,lady.

(TwelfthNight,1.2.2)

Well,thisistheForestofArden.

(AsYouLikeIt,2.4.14)

Thiscastlehasapleasantseat;theairNimblyandsweetlyrecommendsitselfUntoourgentlesenses.

(Macbeth,1.6.1-3)

Thewestyetglimmerswithsomestreaksofday.

(Macbeth,3.3.5)

Sometimesa speechwillgo farbeyondevoking theminimal settingofplaceand time, andwill, so tospeak,evokethesocialworldinwhichthecharactersmove.Forinstance,earlyinthefirstsceneofTheMerchantofVeniceSaleriosuggestsanexplanationforAntonio’smelancholy.(Inthefollowingpassage,pageantsaredecoratedwagons,floats,andcursyistheverb“tocurtsy,”or“tobow.”)

Yourmindistossingontheocean,Therewhereyourargosieswithportlysail—Likesigniorsandrichburghersontheflood,Orasitwerethepageantsofthesea—DooverpeerthepettytraffickersThatcursytothem,dothemreverence,Astheyflybythemwiththeirwovenwings.

(1.1.8-14)

Lateinthenineteenthcentury,whenHenryIrvingproducedtheplaywithelaborateillusionisticsets,thefirstsceneshowedashipmooredintheharbor,withfruitvendorsanddocklaborers,inanefforttoevokethe bustling and exotic life of Venice. But Shakespeare’s words give us this exotic, rich world ofcommerceinhishighlydescriptivelanguagewhenSaleriospeaksof“argosieswithportlysail”thatflywith “woven wings”; equally important, through Salerio Shakespeare conveys a sense of the orderly,hierarchical society in which the lesser ships, “the petty traffickers,” curtsy and thereby “do . . .reverence”totheirsuperiors,themerchantprince’sships,whichare“Likesigniorsandrichburghers.”

Ontheotherhand,itisamistaketothinkthatexceptforverbalpicturestheElizabethanstagewasbare.AlthoughShakespeare’sChorusinHenryVcalls thestagean“unworthyscaffold”(Prologue1.10)andurgesthespectatorsto“ekeoutourperformancewithyourmind”(Prologue3.35),therewasconsiderablespectacle.ThelastactofMacbeth,forinstance,hasfivestagedirectionscallingfor“drumandcolors,”andanothersortofappealtotheeyeisindicatedbythestagedirection“EnterMacduff,withMacbeth’shead.” Some scenery and propertiesmay have been substantial; doubtless a thronewas used, but thepillarssupportingtheroofwouldhaveservedforthetreesonwhichOrlandopinshispoemsinAsYouLikeIt.

Having talkedabout thepublic theater—“thiswoodenO”—atsome length,weshouldmentionagainthatShakespeare’splayswereperformedalsoinotherlocales.AlvinKernan,inShakespeare,theKing’sPlaywright:TheaterintheStuartCourt1603-1613(1995)pointsoutthat“severalof[Shakespeare’s]playscontainbrieftheatricalperformances,setalwaysinacourtorsomenoblehouse.WhenShakespeareportrayeda theater,hedidnot,except for thechoruses inHenryV, imagineapublic theater” (p.195).(ExamplesincludeepisodesinTheTamingoftheShrew,AMidsummerNight’sDream,Hamlet,andTheTempest.)

ANoteontheUseofBoyActorsinFemaleRoles

Untilfairlyrecently,scholarswerecontenttomentionthattheconventionexisted;theysometimesalsomentionedthatitcontinuedthemedievalpracticeofusingmalesinfemaleroles,andthatothertheaters,notably in ancientGreece and inChina and Japan, also usedmales in female roles. (In classicalNohdrama in Japan,males still play the female roles.)Pruderymayhavebeenat the rootof theacademicfailuretotalkmuchabouttheuseofboyactors,ormaybetherereallyisnotmuchmoretosaythanthatitwasaconventionofamale-centeredculture(StephenGreenblatt’sview,inShakespeareanNegotiations[1988]).Further,theverynatureofaconventionisthatitisnotthoughtabout:HamletisaDaneandJuliusCaesarisaRoman,butinShakespeare’splaystheyspeakEnglish,andweintheaudiencenevergivethisoddfactathought.Similarly,acharactermayspeakinthepresenceofothersandweunderstand,againwithout thinkingabout it, thatheorshe isnotheardby the figureson thestage (theaside);acharacteralone on the stage may speak (the soliloquy), and we do not take the character to be unhinged; in arealistic(box)set,thefourthwall,whichallowsustoseewhatisgoingon,ismiraculouslymissing.Theno-nonsenseview,then,isthattheboyactorwasanacceptedconvention,acceptedunthinkingly—justastodayweknowthatKennethBranaghisnotHamlet,AlPacinoisnotRichardII,andDenzelWashingtonisnotthePrinceofAragon.Inthisview,theaudiencetakestheperformerfortherole,andthatisthat;suchis the argumentwe nowmake for race-free casting, inwhichAfrican-Americans andAsians can playrolesofpersonswholivedinmedievalDenmarkandancientRome.Butgenderperhapsisdifferent,atleasttoday.Itisamatterofabundantacademicstudy:TheElizabethantheaterisnowsometimescalledatransvestitetheater,andwehearmuchaboutcross-dressing.

Shakespearehimselfinaveryfewpassagescallsattentiontotheuseofboysinfemaleroles.AttheendofAsYouLikeIttheboywhoplayedRosalindaddressestheaudience,andsays,“Omen,...ifIwereawoman,Iwouldkissasmanyofyouashadbeardsthatpleasedme.”ButthisisintheEpilogue;theplotisover,andtheactorissteppingoutoftheplayandintotheaudience’severydayworld.AsecondreferencetothepracticeofboysplayingfemalerolesoccursinAntonyandCleopatra,whenCleopatra imaginesthatsheandAntonywillbethesubjectofcrudeplays,herrolebeingperformedbyaboy:

Thequickcomedians

Extemporallywillstageus,andpresentOurAlexandrianrevels:AntonyShallbebroughtdrunkenforth,andIshallseeSomesqueakingCleopatraboymygreatness.

(5.2.216-20)

Ina fewotherpassages,Shakespeare ismore indirect.For instance, inTwelfthNightViola,playedofcoursebyaboy,disguisesherselfasayoungmanandseeksserviceinthehouseofalord.SheenliststhehelpofaCaptain,and(bywayofexplainingawayhervoiceandherbeardlessness)says,

I’llservethisdukeThoushaltpresentmeasaneunuchtohim.

(1.2.55-56)

InHamlet,whentheplayersarrivein2.2,Hamletjokeswiththeboywhoplaysafemalerole.TheboyhasgrownsinceHamletlastsawhim:“By’rLady,yourladyshipisnearertoheaventhanwhenIsawyoulastbythealtitudeofachopine”(alady’sthick-soledshoe).Hegoeson:“PrayGodyourvoice...benot

cracked”(434-38).

Exactlyhowsexual,howerotic,thismaterialwasandis,isnowmuchdisputed.Again,theuseofboysmay have been unnoticed, or rather not thought about—an unexamined convention—by most or allspectatorsmostofthetime,perhapsallofthetime,exceptwhenShakespearecallstheconventiontotheattentionof the audience, as in thepassages just quoted.Still, anoccasional bit seems to invite eroticthoughts.TheclearestexampleisthenamethatRosalindtakesinAsYouLikeIt,Ganymede—thebeautifulyouthwhomZeusabducted.Didboysdressedtoplayfemalerolescarryhomoeroticappealforstraightmen (Lisa Jardine’sview, inStillHarpingonDaughters [1983]), or for gaymen, or for some or allwomenintheaudience?Further,whentheboyactorplayedawomanwho(forthepurposesoftheplot)disguisedherselfasamale,asRosalind,Viola,andPortiado—sowegetaboyplayingawomanplayingaman—whatsortofappealwasgenerated,andforwhatsortofspectator?

Somescholarshavearguedthattheconventionempoweredwomenbylettingfemalecharactersdisplaya freedom unavailable inRenaissance patriarchal society; the convention, it is said, undermined rigidgenderdistinctions.Inthisview,theconvention(alongwithplotsinwhichfemalecharactersforawhiledisguisedthemselvesasyoungmen)allowedShakespearetosaywhatsomemoderngendercriticssay:Genderisaconstructedroleratherthanabiologicalgiven,somethingwemake,ratherthanafixedbinaryoppositionofmaleandfemale(seeJulietDusinberre,inShakespeareandtheNatureofWomen[1975]).On the other hand, some scholars have maintained that the male disguise assumed by some femalecharacters servesonly to reaffirm traditional socialdistinctions since femalecharacterswhodonmalegarb(notablyPortiainTheMerchantofVeniceandRosalindinAsYouLikeIt)returntotheirfemalegarbandatleastimplicitly(thesecriticssay)reaffirmthestatusquo.(Forthislastview,seeClaraClaibornePark, in an essay inTheWoman’s Part, ed. Carolyn Ruth Swift Lenz et al. [1980].) Perhaps no oneanswerisrightforallplays;inAsYouLikeItcross-dressingempowersRosalind,butinTwelfthNightcross-dressingcomicallytrapsViola.

Shakespeare’sDramaticLanguage:Costumes,GesturesandSilences;ProseandPoetry

BecauseShakespearewasadramatist,notmerelyapoet,heworkednotonlywithlanguagebutalsowith costume, sound effects, gestures, and even silences. We have already discussed some kinds ofspectacleintheprecedingsection,andnowwewillbeginwithotheraspectsofvisuallanguage;atheater,afterall,isliterallya“placeforseeing.”ConsidertheopeningstagedirectioninTheTempest, the firstplay in the first published collection of Shakespeare’s plays: “A tempestuous noise of thunder andLightningheard:EnteraShip-master,andaBoteswain.”

Costumes: What did that shipmaster and that boatswain wear? Doubtless they wore something thatidentifiedthemasmenofthesea.NotmuchisknownaboutthecostumesthatElizabethanactorswore,butat least three points are clear: (1) many of the costumes were splendid versions of contemporaryElizabethandress;(2)someattemptsweremadetoapproximatethedressofcertainoccupationsandofantique or exotic characters such as Romans, Turks, and Jews; (3) some costumes indicated that thewearer was supernatural. Evidence for elaborate Elizabethan clothing can be found in the playsthemselves and in contemporary comments about the “sumptuous” players who wore the discardedclothingofnoblemen,aswellas inaccountbooksthat itemizesuchthingsas“ascarletcloakwithtwo

broadgoldlaces,withgoldbuttonsdownthesides.”

The attempts at approximation of the dress of certain occupations and nationalities also can bedocumentedfromtheplaysthemselves,anditderivesadditionalconfirmationfromadrawingofthefirstsceneofShakespeare’sTitusAndronicus—theonlyextantElizabethanpictureofanidentifiableepisodeinaplay. (Seepp.xxxviii-xxxix.)Thedrawing,probablydone in1594or1595,showsQueenTamorapleadingformercy.Shewearsasomewhatmedieval-lookingrobeandacrown;Tituswearsatogaandawreath,but twosoldiersbehindhimwearcostumesfairlyclose toElizabethandress.Wedonotknow,however,ifthedrawingrepresentsanactualstageproductioninthepublictheater,orperhapsaprivateproduction, or maybe only a reader’s visualization of an episode. Further, there is some conflictingevidence: InJulius Caesar a reference ismade to Caesar’s doublet (a close-fitting jacket), which, iftaken literally, suggests thateven theprotagonistdidnotwearRomanclothing;andcertainly the lessercharacters,whoaresaidtowearhats,didnotwearRomangarb.

It shouldbementioned, too, thatevenordinaryclothingcanbesymbolic:Hamlet’s“inkycloak,” forexample, sets him apart from the brightly dressed members of Claudius’s court and symbolizes hismourning;thefreshclothesthatareputonKingLearpartlysymbolizehisreturntosanity.Consider,too,theremovalofdisguisesneartheendofsomeplays.Forinstance,RosalindinAsYouLikeItandPortiaandNerissainTheMerchantofVeniceremovetheirmaleattire,thusagainbecomingfullythemselves.

GesturesandSilences:Gesturesareanimportantpartofadramatist’slanguage.KingLearkneelsbeforehis daughter Cordelia for a benediction (4.7.57-59), an act of humility that contrasts with his earlierspeeches banishing her and that contrasts also with a comparable gesture, his ironic kneeling beforeRegan (2.4.153-55). Northumberland’s failure to kneel before King Richard II (3.3.71-72) speaksvolumes.Asforsilences,consideramomentinCoriolanus:Beforetheprotagonistyieldstohismother’sentreaties(5.3.182), thereisthisstagedirection:“Holdsherbythehand,silent.”Anotherexampleof“speech in dumbness” occurs inMacbeth, whenMacduff learns that hiswife and children have beenmurdered.Heissilentatfirst,asMalcolm’sspeechindicates:“What,man!Ne’erpullyourhatuponyourbrows.Givesorrowwords”(4.3.208-09).(Foradiscussionofsuchmoments,seePhilipC.McGuire’sSpeechlessDialect:Shakespeare’sOpenSilences[1985].)

OfcoursewhenwethinkofShakespeare’swork,wethinkprimarilyofhis language,boththepoetryandtheprose.

Prose:Althoughtwoofhisplays(RichardIIandKingJohn)havenoproseatall,abouthalftheothershaveatleastonequarterofthedialogueinprose,andsomehavenotablymore:1HenryIVand2HenryIV,abouthalf;AsYouLikeItandTwelfthNight,alittlemorethanhalf;MuchAdoAboutNothing,morethanthreequarters;andTheMerryWivesofWindsor,alittlemorethanfivesixths.WeshouldrememberthatdespiteMolière’sjokeaboutM.Jourdain,whowasamazedtolearnthathespokeprose,mostofusdo not speak prose. Rather,we normally utter repetitive, shapeless, and often ungrammatical torrents;proseissomethingverydifferent—asortofliteraryimitationofspeechatitsmostcoherent.

Todaywemaythinkofproseas“natural”fordrama;orevenifwethinkthatpoetryisappropriateforhigh tragedy we may still think that prose is the right medium for comedy. Greek, Roman, and earlyEnglishcomedies,however,werewritteninverse.Infact,prosewasnotgenerallyconsideredaliterarymediuminEnglanduntilthelatefifteenthcentury;Chaucertellsevenhisbawdystoriesinverse.Bytheendofthe1580s,however,prosehadestablisheditselfontheEnglishcomicstage.Intragedy,Marlowemadesomeuseofprose,notsimplyinthespeechesofclownishservantsbuteveninthespeechofatragichero,DoctorFaustus.Still,beforeShakespeare,prosenormallywasusedinthetheateronlyforspecialcircumstances:(1)lettersandproclamations,tosetthemofffromthepoeticdialogue;(2)madcharacters,to indicate that normal thinking has become disordered; and (3) low comedy, or speeches uttered byclownsevenwhentheyarenotbeingcomic.Shakespearemadeuseoftheseconventions,buthealsowentfar beyond them. Sometimes he begins a scene in prose and then shifts into verse as the emotion isheightened;or conversely, hemay shift fromverse toprosewhena speaker is lowering the emotionallevel,aswhenBrutusspeaksintheForum.

Shakespeare’s prose usually is not prosaic. Hamlet’s prose includes not only small talk withRosencrantzandGuildensternbutalsoprincelyreflectionson“Whatapieceofworkisaman”(2.2.312).In conversationwith Ophelia, he shifts from light talk in verse to a passionate prose denunciation ofwomen (3.1.103), though the shift to prose here is perhaps also intended to suggest the possibility ofmadness.(ConsultBrianVickers,TheArtistryofShakespeare’sProse[1968].)

Poetry:DramainrhymeinEnglandgoesbacktotheMiddleAges,butbyShakespeare’sdayrhymenolonger dominated poetic drama; a finermedium, blank verse (strictly speaking, unrhymed lines of tensyllables,with the stressonevery secondsyllable)hadbeenadopted.Butbefore lookingatunrhymedpoetry,afewthingsshouldbesaidaboutthechiefusesofrhymeinShakespeare’splays.(1)Acouplet(apair of rhyming lines) is sometimes used to convey emotional heightening at the end of a blank versespeech;(2)characterssometimesspeakacoupletastheyleavethestage,suggestingclosure;(3)exceptinthelatestplays,scenesfairlyoftenconcludewithacouplet,andsometimes,asinRichardII,2.1.145-46,the entrance of a new characterwithin a scene is preceded by a couplet,whichwraps up the earlier

portionofthatscene;(4)speechesoftwocharactersoccasionallyarelinkedbyrhyme,mostnotablyinRomeoandJuliet,1.5.95-108,wheretheloversspeakasonnetbetweenthem;elsewhereatauntingreplyoccasionally rhymes with the previous speaker’s last line; (5) speeches with sententious or gnomicremarks are sometimes in rhyme, as in the duke’s speech inOthello (1.3.199-206); (6) speeches ofsardonicmockeryaresometimesinrhyme—forexample,Iago’sspeechonwomeninOthello (2.1.146-58)—andtheysometimesconcludewithanemphaticcouplet,asinBolingbroke’sspeechoncomfortingwordsinRichardII(1.3.301-2);(7)somecharactersareassociatedwithrhyme,suchasthefairiesinAMidsummerNight’sDream;(8)intheearlyplays,especiallyTheComedyofErrorsandTheTamingofthe Shrew, comic scenes that in later plays would be in prose are in jingling rhymes; (9) prologues,choruses, plays-within-the-play, inscriptions, vows, epilogues, and so on are often in rhyme, and thesongsintheplaysarerhymed.

NeitherprosenorrhymeimmediatelycomestomindwhenwefirstthinkofShakespeare’smedium:Itisblankverse, unrhymed iambic pentameter. (In amechanically exact line there are five iambic feet.Aniambicfootconsistsoftwosyllables,thesecondaccented,asinaway;fivefeetmakeapentameterline.Thus, a strict line of iambic pentameter contains ten syllables, the even syllables being stressedmoreheavily than the odd syllables. Fortunately, Shakespeare usually varies the line somewhat.) The firstspeechinAMidsummerNight’sDream,spokenbyDukeTheseustohisbetrothed,isanexampleofblankverse:

Now,fairHippolyta,ournuptialhourDrawsonapace.FourhappydaysbringinAnothermoon;but,O,methinks,howslowThisoldmoonwanes!Shelingersmydesires,Liketoastepdame,oradowager,Longwitheringoutayoungman’srevenue.

(1.1.1-6)

Asthispassageshows,Shakespeare’sblankverseisnotmechanicallyunvarying.Thoughthepredominantfootistheiamb(asinapaceordesires),therearenumerousvariations.Inthefirstlinethestresscanbeplacedon“fair,”astheregularmetricalpatternsuggests,butitislikelythat“Now”getsalmostasmuchemphasis;probablyinthesecondline“Draws”ismoreheavilyemphasizedthan“on,”givingusatrochee(astressedsyllablefollowedbyanunstressedone);andinthefourthlineeachwordinthephrase“Thisoldmoonwanes”isprobablystressedfairlyheavily,conveyingbytwospondees(twofeet,eachoftwostresses)theoppressivetediumthatTheseusfeels.

InShakespeare’searlyplaysmuchoftheblankverseisend-stopped(thatis,ithasaheavypauseattheendofeachline),buthelaterdevelopedtheabilitytowriteiambicpentameterverseparagraphs(ratherthanlines)thatgivetheillusionofspeech.Hischieftechniquesare(1)enjambing,i.e.,runningthethoughtbeyondthesingleline,asinthefirstthreelinesofthespeechjustquoted;(2)occasionallyreplacinganiambwithanotherfoot;(3)varyingthepositionofthechiefpause(thecaesura)withinaline;(4)addingan occasional unstressed syllable at the end of a line, traditionally called a feminine ending; (5) andbeginningorendingaspeechwithahalfline.

Shakespeare’smatureblankversehasmuchoftherhythmicflexibilityofhisprose;boththelanguage,though richly figurative and sometimes dense, and the syntax seem natural. It is also often highlyappropriatetoaparticularcharacter.Consider,forinstance,thisspeechfromHamlet,inwhichClaudius,

KingofDenmark(“theDane”),speakstoLaertes:

Andnow,Laertes,what’sthenewswithyou?Youtoldusofsomesuit.Whatis’t,Laertes?YoucannotspeakofreasontotheDaneAndloseyourvoice.Whatwouldstthoubeg,Laertes,Thatshallnotbemyoffer,notthyasking?

(1.2.42-46)

Notice the short sentences and the repetitionof thename“Laertes,” towhom the speech is addressed.Notice,too,theshiftfromtheroyal“us”inthesecondlinetothemoreintimate“my”inthelastline,andfrom“you” in the first three lines to themore intimate“thou”and“thy” in the last two lines.ClaudiusknowshowtoingratiatehimselfwithLaertes.

For a second example of the flexibility of Shakespeare’s blank verse, consider a passage fromMacbeth.Distressedbythedoctor’sinabilitytocureLadyMacbethandbytheimminentbattle,Macbethaddresses some of his remarks to the doctor and others to the servantwho is arming him. The entirespeech,withitspauses,interruptions,andirresolution(in“Pull’toff,Isay,”Macbethorderstheservanttoremovethearmor that theservanthasbeenputtingonhim),catchesMacbeth’sdisintegration.(In thefirstline,physicmeans“medicine,”andinthefourthandfifthlines,castthewatermeans“analyze theurine.”)

Throwphysictothedogs,I’llnoneofit.Come,putminearmoron.Givememystaff.Seyton,sendout.—Doctor,thethanesflyfromme.—Come,sir,dispatch.Ifthoucouldst,doctor,castThewaterofmyland,findherdiseaseAndpurgeittoasoundandpristinehealth,Iwouldapplaudtheetotheveryecho,Thatshouldapplaudagain.—Pull’toff,Isay.—Whatrhubarb,senna,orwhatpurgativedrug,WouldscourtheseEnglishhence?Hear’stthouofthem?

(5.3.47-56)

Blankverse, then, can bemuchmore thanunrhymed iambic pentameter, and evenwithin a single playShakespeare’sblankverseoftenconsistsofseveralstyles,dependingonthespeakerandonthespeaker’semotionatthemoment.

ThePlayTextasaCollaboration

Shakespeare’s fellow dramatist Ben Jonson reported that the actors said of Shakespeare, “In hiswriting,whatsoeverhepenned,heneverblottedoutline,”i.e.,nevercrossedoutmaterialandrevisedhisworkwhilecomposing.NoneofShakespeare’splayssurvivesinmanuscript(withthepossibleexceptionof a scene inSirThomasMore), sowe cannot fully evaluate the comment, but in a few instances thepublishedwork clearly shows that he revised hismanuscript. Consider the following passage (shownhereinfacsimile)fromthebestearlytextofRomeoandJuliet,theSecondQuarto(1599):

Ro,WouldIwerefleepeandpeaceto(weettoreftThegreyeydemorne(milesonthefrowningnight, Checking the Eafterne Cloudswith ftreaks ot light, And darkneffc fleckted like a drunkardreeles,Fromforthdaiespathway,madebyTyranswheeles.HeikewillItomyghoftlyFriersclofecell,Hishelpetocrauc,andmydearehaptotell.

Exit.

Enter Frier alone with a basket. (night, Fri. The grey-eyed morne fmiles on the frowningCheckingtheEafterneclowdeswithstreaksoflight:Andfleckelddarknesselikeadrunkardreeles,Fromforthdaiespath,andTitusburningwheeles:Nowerethefunadvancehisburningeie,

Romeo rather elaborately tells us that the sun at dawn is dispelling the night (morning is smiling, theeastern clouds are checkedwith light, and the sun’s chariot—Titan’swheels—advances), and hewillseekouthisspiritualfather,theFriar.Heexitsand,oddly,theFriarentersandsaysprettymuchthesamethingaboutthesun.Bothspeakerssaythat“thegray-eyedmornsmilesonthefrowningnight,”butthereare small differences, perhaps havingmore to dowith the business of printing the book thanwith theauthor’s composition: For Romeo’s “checkring,” “fleckted,” and “pathway,” we get the Friar’s“checking,” “fleckeld,” and “path.” (Notice, by the way, the inconsistency in Elizabethan spelling:Romeo’s“clouds”becometheFriar’s“clowdes.”)

Both versionsmust have been in the printer’s copy, and it seems safe to assume that bothwere inShakespeare’smanuscript.Hemusthavewrittenoneversion—let’ssayhefirstwroteRomeo’sclosinglinesfor thisscene—andthenhedecided,no, it’sbetter togivethis lyricalpassageto theFriar,as theopeningofanewscene,butneglected todelete thefirstversion.Editorsmustmakeachoice,and theymayfeel that thereasonablethingtodois toprint thetextasShakespeareintendedit.Buthowcanweknowwhatheintended?AlmostallmoderneditorsdeletethelinesfromRomeo’sspeech,andretaintheFriar’slines.Theydon’tdothisbecausetheyknowShakespeare’sintention,however.TheygivethelinestotheFriarbecausethefirstpublishedversion(1597)ofRomeoandJulietgivesonlytheFriar’sversion,andthistext(thoughinmanywaysinferiortothe1599text)isthoughttoderivefromthememoryofsomeactors, that is, it is thought to represent a performance, not just a script.Maybe during the course ofrehearsalsShakespeare—anactoraswellasanauthor—unilaterallydecidedthattheFriarshouldspeakthelines;ifso(rememberthatwedon’tknowthistobeafact)hisfinalintentionwastogivethespeechtothe Friar. Maybe, however, the actors talked it over and settled on the Friar, with or withoutShakespeare’sapproval.Ontheotherhand,despitethe1597version,onemightargue(ifonlyweakly)onbehalfofgivingthelinestoRomeoratherthantotheFriar,thus:(1)Romeo’scommentonthecomingofthedaylightemphasizeshisseparationfromJuliet,and(2)thefigurativelanguageseemsmoreappropriatetoRomeo than to theFriar.Having said this, in theSignet editionwehavedecided in this instance todrawontheevidenceprovidedbyearliertextandtogivethelinestotheFriar,onthegroundsthatsinceQ1reflectsaproduction,inthetheater(atleastononeoccasion)thelineswerespokenbytheFriar.

Aplaywright soldascript toa theatricalcompany.Thescript thusbelonged to thecompany,not theauthor,andauthorandcompanyalikemusthaveregardedthisscriptnotasaliteraryworkbutasthebasisforaplaythattheactorswouldcreateonthestage.WespeakofShakespeareastheauthoroftheplays,butreadersshouldbearinmindthatthetextstheyread,evenwhenderivedfromasingletext,suchastheFirstFolio(1623),areinevitablythecollaborativeworknotsimplyofShakespearewithhiscompany—doubtlessduringrehearsals theactorswouldsuggestalterations—butalsowithotherforcesof theage.One force was governmental censorship. In 1606 parliament passed “an Act to restrain abuses ofplayers,”prohibiting theutteranceofoathsand thenameofGod.Sowhere theearliest textofOthello

gives us “Byheaven” (3.3.106), the first Folio gives “Alas,” presumably reflecting the compliance ofstagepracticewiththelaw.Similarly,the1623versionofKingLearomitstheoath“Fut”(probablyfrom“ByGod’sfoot”)at1.2.142,againpresumablyreflectingthelineasitwasspokenonthestage.EditorswhoseektogivethereadertheplaythatShakespeareinitiallyconceived—the“authentic”playconceivedby the solitary Shakespeare—probably will restore the missing oaths and references to God. Othereditors,whoseetheplayasacollaborativework,aconstructionmadenotonlybyShakespearebutalsobyactorsandcompositorsandevengovernmentcensors,mayclaimthatwhatcountsistheplayasitwasactually performed. Such editors regard the censored text as legitimate, since it is the play that was(presumably)finallyputon.Aperformedtext,theyargue,hasmorehistoricalrealitythanatextproducedbyaneditorwhohassoughttogetatwhatShakespeareinitiallywrote.Inthisview,thetextofaplayisratherlikethescriptofafilm;thescriptisnotthefilm,andtheplaytextisnottheperformedplay.EvenifwewanttotalkabouttheplaythatShakespeare“intended,”wewillfindourselvestalkingaboutascriptthathehandedovertoacompanywiththeintentionthatitbeimplementedbyactors.The“intended”playistheonethattheactors—wemightalmostsay“society”—wouldhelptoconstruct.

Further,itisnowwidelyheldthataplayisalsotheworkofreadersandspectators,whodonotsimplyreceive meaning, but who create it when they respond to the play. This idea is fully in accord withcontemporarypost-structuralistcriticalthinking,notablyRolandBarthes’s“TheDeathoftheAuthor,”inImage-Music-Text(1977)andMichelFoucault’s“WhatIsanAuthor?,”inTheFoucaultReader(1984).Thegistoftheideaisthatanauthorisnotanisolatedgenius;rather,authorsaresubjecttothepoliticsandothersocialstructuresoftheirage.Adramatistespeciallyisaworkerinacollaborativeproject,workingmost obviously with actors—parts may be written for particular actors—but working also with theaudience.ConsiderthewordsofSamuelJohnson,writtentobespokenbytheactorDavidGarrickattheopeningofatheaterin1747:

Thestagebutechoesbackthepublicvoice;Thedrama’slaws,thedrama’spatronsgive,Forwethatlivetoplease,mustpleasetolive.

Theaudience—thepublictasteasunderstoodbytheplaywright—helpstodeterminewhattheplayis.Moreover,evenmembersofthepublicwhoarenotpartoftheplaywright’simmediateaudiencemayexertaninfluencethroughcensorship.Wehavealreadyglancedatgovernmentalcensorship,butthere are also other kinds. Take one of Shakespeare’s most beloved characters, Falstaff, whoappears in three of Shakespeare’s plays, the two parts of Henry IV and The Merry Wives ofWindsor. He appears with this name in the earliest printed version of the first of these plays, 1HenryIV,butweknowthatShakespeareoriginallycalledhim(afteranhistoricalfigure)SirJohnOldcastle.Oldcastle appears in Shakespeare’s source (partly reprinted in the Signet edition of 1HenryIV), and a trace of the name survives in Shakespeare’s play, 1.2.43-44,where PrinceHalpunninglyaddressesFalstaffas“myoldladof thecastle.”Butforsomereason—perhapsbecausethefamilyofthehistoricalOldcastlecomplained—Shakespearehadtochangethename.Inshort,theplayaswehaveitwas(atleastinthisdetail)subjecttosomesortofcensorship.Ifwethinkthatatext should present what we take to be the author’s intention, we probablywill want to replaceFalstaffwithOldcastle.But ifwe recognize that a play is a collaboration,wemaywelcome thechange,even if itwas forcedonShakespeare.SomehowFalstaff,with itshintof false-staff, i.e.,inadequateprop,seemsjustrightforthisfatknightwho,toourdelight,entertainstheyoungprincewithuntruths.Wecangoasfarassayingthat,atleastsofarasaplayisconcerned,aninsistenceontheauthor’soriginalintention(evenifwecouldknowit)cansometimesimpoverishthetext.

ThetinyexampleofFalstaff’snameillustratesthepointthatthetextwereadisinevitablyonlyaversion—something in effect produced by the collaboration of the playwright with his actors,audiences,compositors,andeditors—ofafluidtextthatShakespeareoncewrote,justastheHamletthatweseeon the screen starringKennethBranagh isnot theHamlet thatShakespeare saw in anopen-air playhouse starring Richard Burbage.Hamlet itself, as we shall note in a moment, alsoexists in several versions. It is not surprising that there is nowmuch talk about the instability ofShakespeare’stexts.

Because hewas not only a playwright butwas also an actor and a shareholder in a theatricalcompany, Shakespeare probably was much involved with the translation of the play from amanuscript toastageproduction.Hemayormaynothavedonesomerewritingduringrehearsals,andhemayormaynothavebeenhappywithcutsthatweremade.Someplays,notablyHamletandKingLear, are so long that it ismost unlikely that the textswe readwere acted in their entirety.Further, for both of these playswe havemore than one early text that demands consideration. InHamlet,theSecondQuarto(1604)includessometwohundredlinesnotfoundintheFolio(1623).AmongthepassagesmissingfromtheFolioaretwoofHamlet’sreflectivespeeches, the“dramofevil”speech(1.4.13-38)and“Howalloccasionsdoinformagainstme”(4.4.32-66).SincetheFoliohasmorenumerousandoftenfullerstagedirections,itcertainlylooksasthoughintheFoliowegetatheatricalversionoftheplay,atextwhosecutswereprobablymade—thisisonlyahunch,ofcourse—not because Shakespeare was changing his conception of Hamlet but because the playhousedemandedamodifiedplay.(Theproblemiscomplicated,sincetheFolionotonlycutssomeoftheQuartobutaddssomematerial.Variousexplanationshavebeenoffered.)

OrtakeanexamplefromKingLear.IntheFirstandSecondQuarto(1608,1619),thefinalspeechoftheplayisgiventoAlbany,Lear’ssurvivingson-in-law,butintheFirstFolioversion(1623),thespeechisgiventoEdgar.TheQuartoversionisinaccordwithtradition—usuallythehighest-rankingcharacter ina tragedyspeaks the finalwords.Whydoes theFoliogive thespeech toEdgar?Onepossibleanswer is this:TheFolioversionomits someofAlbany’sspeeches inearlier scenes, soperhaps itwasdecided (byShakespeare?by theplayers?)not togive the final lines to sopale acharacter.Infact,thediscrepanciesaresomanybetweenthetwotexts,thatsomescholarsarguewedo not simply have texts showing different theatrical productions. Rather, these scholars say,Shakespearesubstantiallyrevisedtheplay,andwereallyhavetwoversionsofKingLear (andofOthelloalso,saysome)—twodifferentplays—notsimplytwotexts,eachofwhichisinsomewaysimperfect.

In this view, the 1608 version of Lear may derive from Shakespeare’s manuscript, and the 1623versionmayderivefromhislaterrevision.TheQuartoshavealmostthreehundredlinesnotintheFolio,and the Folio has about a hundred lines not in theQuartos. It used to be held that all the texts wereimperfectinvariouswaysandfromvariouscauses—somepassagesintheQuartoswerethoughttohavebeensetfromamanuscriptthatwasnotentirelylegible,otherpassageswerethoughttohavebeensetbyacompositorwhowasnewtosettingplays,andstillotherpassageswerethoughttohavebeenprovidedbyanactorwhomisrememberedsomeofthelines.ThistraditionalviewheldthataneditormustdrawontheQuartosandtheFolio inorder togetShakespeare’s“real”play.Thenewargumentholds(althoughnotwithoutconsiderablestrain)thatwehavetwoauthenticplays,Shakespeare’searlyversion(intheQuarto)and Shakespeare’s—or his theatrical company’s—revised version (in the Folio). Not only theatricaldemandsbutalsoShakespeare’sownartisticsense,itisargued,calledforextensiverevisions.Eventhetitles vary: Q1 is called True Chronicle Historie of the life and death of King Lear and his three

Daughters,whereas theFolio text is calledTheTragedie ofKing Lear. To combine the two texts inordertoproducewhattheeditorthinksistheplaythatShakespeareintendedtowriteis,accordingtothisview,toproduceatextthatisfalsetothehistoryoftheplay.Ifthenewviewiscorrect,andwedohavetexts of two distinct versions ofLear rather than two imperfect versions of one play, it supports in atextualwaythepoststructuralistviewthatwecannotpossiblyhaveanunmediatedvisionof(inthiscase)aplaybyShakespeare;wecanonlyrecognizeapluralityofvisions.

EditingTexts

Though eighteen of his playswere published during his lifetime, Shakespeare seems never to havesupervisedtheirpublication.Thereisnothingunusualhere;whenaplaywrightsoldaplaytoatheatricalcompanyhesurrenderedhisownershiptoit.Normallyacompanywouldnotpublishtheplay,becausetopublish itmeant to allow competitors to acquire the piece. Some plays did get published:Apparentlyhard-upactorssometimespiecedtogetheraplayforapublisher;sometimesacompanyinneedofmoneysoldaplay;andsometimesacompanyallowedpublicationofaplaythatnolongerdrewaudiences.ThatShakespearedidnotconcernhimselfwithpublicationisnotremarkable;ofhiscontemporaries,onlyBenJonsoncarefullysupervisedthepublicationofhisownplays.

In 1623, seven years after Shakespeare’s death, John Heminges and Henry Condell (two seniormembers of Shakespeare’s company,who hadworkedwith him for about twenty years) collected hisplays—publishedandunpublished—intoa largevolume,ofakindcalleda folio. (Afolio isavolumeconsistingoflargesheetsthathavebeenfoldedonce,eachsheetthusmakingtwoleaves,orfourpages.Thesizeofthepageofcoursedependsonthesizeofthesheet—afoliocanrangeinheightfromtwelvetosixteeninches,andinwidthfromeighttoeleven;thepagesinthe1623editionofShakespeare,commonlycalledtheFirstFolio,areapproximatelythirteeninchestallandeightincheswide.)Theeighteenplayspublished duringShakespeare’s lifetime had been issued one play per volume in small formats calledquartos. (Each sheet in a quarto has been folded twice,making four leaves, or eight pages, eachpagebeingaboutnineinchestallandsevenincheswide,roughlythesizeofalargepaperback.)

Heminges andCondell suggest in an address “To the great variety of readers” that the republishedplaysarepresentedinbetterformthaninthequartos:

Beforeyouwereabusedwithdiversestolenandsurreptitiouscopies,maimedanddeformedbythefrauds and stealthsof injurious impostors that exposed them; even those, arenowoffered toyourview cured and perfect of their limbs, and all the rest absolute in their numbers, as he [i.e.,Shakespeare]conceivedthem.

Thereisagooddealoftruthtothisstatement,butsomeofthequartoversionsarebetterthanothers;someareinfactpreferabletotheFoliotext.

WhoeverwasassignedtopreparethetextsforpublicationinthefirstFolioseemstohavetakenthejobseriouslyandyetnottohaveperformeditwithuniformcare.Thesourcesofthetextsseemtohavebeen,ingeneral, goodunpublishedcopiesor thebestpublishedcopies.The first play in the collection,TheTempest,isdividedintoactsandscenes,hasunusuallyfullstagedirectionsanddescriptionsofspectacle,andconcludeswithalistofthecharacters,buttheeditorwasnotable(orwilling)topresentallofthesucceeding texts so fullydressed.Later textsoccasionally showsignsof carelessness: inone sceneofMuchAdoAboutNothing thenamesofactors,insteadofcharacters,appearasspeechprefixes,asthey

had in theQuarto,which theFolio reprints;proofreading throughout theFolio is spottyandapparentlywas done without reference to the printer’s copy; the pagination ofHamlet jumps from 156 to 257.Further,theproofreadingwasdonewhilethepressescontinuedtoprint,sothateachplayineachvolumecontainsamixofcorrectedanduncorrectedpages.

ModerneditorsofShakespearemust first select theircopy;noproblemif theplayexistsonly in theFolio,butaconsiderableproblemiftherelationshipbetweenaQuartoandtheFolio—oranearlyQuartoandalaterone—isunclear.InthecaseofRomeoandJuliet,theFirstQuarto(Q1),publishedin1597,isvastlyinferiortotheSecond(Q2),publishedin1599.ThebasisofQ1apparentlyisaversionputtogetherfrommemorybysomeactors.Notsurprisingly,itgarblesmanypassagesandismuchshorterthanQ2.Ontheotherhand,occasionallyQ1makesbettersensethanQ2.Forinstance,neartheendoftheplay,whentheparentshaveassembledandlearnedofthedeathsofRomeoandJuliet,inQ2thePrincesays(5.3.208-9),

Come,Montague;forthouartearlyvpToseethysonneandheire,nowearlingdowne.

Thelastthreewordsofthisspeechsurelydonotmakesense,andmanyeditorsturntoQ1,whichinsteadof“nowearlingdowne”has“moreearlydowne.”Somemoderneditorstakeonly“early”fromQ1,andprint “now early down”; others take “more early,” and print “more early down.” Further,Q1 (though,again,quiteclearlyagarbledandabbreviatedtext)includessomestagedirectionsthatarenotfoundinQ2,andtodaymanyeditorswhobasetheirtextonQ2aregladtoaddthesestagedirections,becausethedirectionshelptogiveusasenseofwhattheplaylookedlikeonShakespeare’sstage.Thus,in4.3.58,afterJulietdrinksthepotion,Q1givesusthisstagedirection,notinQ2:“Shefallsuponherbedwithinthecurtains.”

Inshort,aneditor’sdecisionsdonotendwiththechoiceofasinglecopytext.Firstofall,editorsmustreckon with Elizabethan spelling. If they are not producing a facsimile, they probably modernize thespelling,butoughttheytopreservetheoldformsofwordsthatapparentlywerepronouncedquiteunliketheir modern forms—lanthorn, alablaster? If they preserve these forms are they really preservingShakespeare’sformsorperhapsthoseofacompositorintheprintinghouse?Whatisonetodowhenonefinds lanthornand lantern in adjacent lines? (The editors of this series ingeneral, but not invariably,assume thatwords should be spelled in theirmodern form, unless, for instance, a rhyme is involved.)Elizabethanpunctuation,too,presentsproblems.Forexample,intheFirstFolio,theonlytextfortheplay,Macbethrejectshiswife’sideathathecanwashthebloodfromhishand(2.2.60-62):

No:thismyHandwillratherThemultitudinousSeasincarnardine,MakingtheGreeneone,Red.

Obviously an editor will remove the superfluous capitals, and will probably alter the spelling to“incarnadine,”butwhataboutthecommabefore“Red”?Ifweretainthecomma,Macbethiscallingthesea“thegreenone.” Ifwedrop thecomma,Macbeth is saying thathisbloodyhandwillmake the sea(“theGreen”)uniformlyred.

Aneditorwillsometimeshavetochangemorethanspellingandpunctuation.Macbethsaystohiswife(1.7.46-47):

Idaredoallthatmaybecomeaman,

Whodaresnomore,isnone.

For twocenturieseditorshaveagreed that thesecond line isunsatisfactory,andhaveemended“no” to“do”:“Whodaresdomoreisnone.”Butwheninthesameplay(4.2.21-22)Rosssaysthatfearfulpersons

FloatevponawildeandviolentSeaEachway,andmoue,

needweemendthepassage?Ontheassumptionthatthecompositormisreadthemanuscript,someeditorsemend“eachway,andmove”to“andmoveeachway”;othersemend“move”to“none”(i.e.,“Eachwayand none”).Other editors, however, let the passage stand as in the original. The editors of the SignetClassicShakespearehaverestrainedthemselvesfrommakingabundantemendations.IntheirmindstheyhearSamuelJohnsononthedangersofemendation:“IhaveadoptedtheRomansentiment,thatitismorehonorabletosaveacitizenthantokillanenemy.”Somedepartures(inadditiontospelling,punctuation,andlineation)fromthecopytexthaveofcoursebeenmade,buttheoriginalreadingsarelistedinanotefollowingtheplay,sothatreaderscanevaluatethechangesforthemselves.

Followingtradition,theeditorsoftheSignetClassicShakespearehaveprefacedeachplaywithalistof characters, and throughout the playhave regularized the namesof the speakers.Thus, in our text ofRomeoandJuliet,allspeechesbyJuliet’smotherareprefixed“LadyCapulet,”althoughthe1599Quartooftheplay,whichprovidesourcopytext,usesatvariouspointssevenspeechtagsforthisonecharacter:Capu.Wi.(i.e.,Capulet’swife),Ca.Wi.,Wi.,Wife,OldLa.(i.e.,OldLady),La.,andMo.(i.e.,Mother).Similarly,inAll’sWellThatEndsWell,thecharacterwhomweregularlycall“Countess”isintheFolio(thecopytext)variouslyidentifiedasMother,Countess,OldCountess,Lady,andOldLady.Admittedlythereissomelossinregularizing,sincethevariousprefixesmaygiveusahintofthewayShakespeare(orascribewhocopiedShakespeare’smanuscript)wasthinkingofthecharacterinaparticularscene—forinstance,asamother,orasanoldlady.Buttoomuchcanbemadeofthesedifferingprefixes,sincethesocialrelationshipsimpliedarenotalwaysrelevanttothegivenscene.

Wehavealsoaddedlinenumbersandinmanycasesactandscenedivisionsaswellasindicationsoflocale at thebeginningof scenes.TheFoliodividedmostof theplays intoacts and some into scenes.Early eighteenth-century editors increased the divisions. These divisions, which provide a convenientwayofreferringtopassagesintheplays,havebeenretained,butwhennotinthetextchosenasthebasisfortheSignetClassictexttheyareenclosedwithinsquarebrackets,[],toindicatethattheyareeditorialadditions.Similarly,thoughnoplayofShakespeare’swasequippedwithindicationsofthelocaleattheheadsofscenedivisions,localeshaveherebeenaddedinsquarebracketsfortheconvenienceofreaders,wholacktheinformationthatcostumes,properties,gestures,andsceneryaffordtospectators.Spectatorscan tell at a glance they are in the throne room, butwithout an editorial indication the readermay bepuzzledforawhile.Itshouldbementioned,incidentally,thatthereareafewauthenticstagedirections—perhaps Shakespeare’s, perhaps a prompter’s—that suggest locales, such as “Enter Brutus in hisorchard,”and“TheygoupintotheSenatehouse.”ItishopedthatthebracketedadditionsintheSignettextwillprovidereaderswiththesortofhelpprovidedbythesetwoauthenticdirections,butitisequallyhopedthatthereaderwillrememberthatthestagewasnotloadedwithscenery.

ShakespeareontheStage

EachvolumeintheSignetClassicShakespeareincludesabriefstage(andsometimesfilm)historyof

the play. When we read about earlier productions, we are likely to find them eccentric, obviouslywrongheaded—for instance,NahumTate’s versionofKingLear,with a happy ending,which held thestageforaboutacenturyandahalf,fromthelateseventeenthcenturyuntiltheendofthefirstquarterofthe nineteenth. We see engravings of David Garrick, the greatest actor of the eighteenth century, ineighteenth-centurygarbasKingLear,andwesmile,thinkinghowabsurdtheproductionmusthavebeen.Ifwearemorethoughtful,wesay,withtheEnglishnovelistL.P.Hartley,“Thepastisaforeigncountry:they do things differently there.”But if the eighteenth-century staging is a foreign country,what of theplays of the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries? A foreign language, a foreign theater, a foreignaudience.

ProbablyallviewersofShakespeare’splays,beginningwithShakespearehimself,attimeshavebeenunhappywiththeplaysonthestage.Considerthreecommentsaboutproductionthatwefindintheplaysthemselves, which suggest Shakespeare’s concerns. The Chorus inHenry V complains that the heroicstorycannotpossiblybeadequatelystaged:

Butpardon,gentlesall,TheflatunraisèdspiritsthathathdaredOnthisunworthyscaffoldtobringforthSogreatanobject.CanthiscockpitholdThevastyfieldsofFrance?OrmaywecramWithinthiswoodenOtheverycasquesThatdidaffrighttheairatAgincourt?......Pieceoutourimperfectionswithyourthoughts.

(Prologue1.8-14,23)

Second, here are a few sentences (which may or may not represent Shakespeare’s own views) fromHamlet’slongishlecturetotheplayers:

Speakthespeech,Iprayyou,asIpronouncedittoyou,trippinglyonthetongue.Butifyoumouthit,asmanyofourplayersdo,Ihadasliefthetowncrierspokemylines....O,itoffendsmetothesoultoheararobustiousperiwig-patedfellowtearapassiontotatters,toveryrags,tosplittheearsofthegroundlings....Andletthosethatplayyourclownsspeaknomorethanissetdownforthem,fortherebeofthemthatwillthemselveslaugh,tosetonsomequantityofbarrenspectatorstolaughtoo,though in the meantime some necessary question of the play be then to be considered. That’svillainousandshowsamostpitifulambitioninthefoolthatusesit.(3.2.1-47)

Finally,wecanquoteagainfromthepassagecitedearlierinthisintroduction,concerningtheboyactorswhoplayed thefemaleroles.Cleopatra imagineswithhorrora theatricalversionofheractivitieswithAntony:

ThequickcomediansExtemporallywillstageus,andpresentOurAlexandrianrevels:AntonyShallbebroughtdrunkenforth,andIshallseeSomesqueakingCleopatraboymygreatnessI’th’postureofawhore.

(5.2.216-21)

Itisimpossibletoknowhowmuchweighttoputonsuchpassages—perhapsShakespearewasjustbeingmodestabouthistheater’sabilities—butitiseasyenoughtothinkthathewasunhappywithsomeaspectsofElizabethanproduction.Probablynoproductioncanfullysatisfyaplaywright,andforthatmatter,fewproductionscanfullysatisfyus;weregretthisorthatcut,thisorthatwayofcostumingtheplay,thisorthatbitofbusiness.

One’s first thought may be this: Why don’t they just do “authentic” Shakespeare, “straight”Shakespeare,theplayasShakespearewroteit?Butaswereadtheplays—wordswrittentobeperformed—it sometimesbecomesclear thatwedonotknowhow toperform them.For instance, inAntony andCleopatraAntony,theRomangeneralwhohassuccumbedtoCleopatraandtoEgyptianways,says,“Thenobleness of life / Is to do thus” (1.1.36-37).Butwhat is “thus”?DoesAntony at this point embraceCleopatra? Does he embrace and kiss her? (There are, by the way, very few scenes of kissing onShakespeare’s stage, possibly because boys played the female roles.) Or does he make a sweepinggesture,indicatingtheEgyptianwayoflife?

Thisisnotanisolatedexample;theplaysarefilledwithlinesthatcallforgestures,butwearenotsurewhatthegesturesshouldbe.Interpretationisinevitable.ConsiderapassageinHamlet.In3.1,Poloniuspersuadeshisdaughter,Ophelia,totalktoHamletwhilePoloniusandClaudiuseavesdrop.Thetwomenconcealthemselves,andHamletencountersOphelia.At3.1.131Hamletsuddenlysaystoher,“Where’syourfather?”WhydoesHamlet,apparentlyoutofnowhere—theyhavenotbeentalkingaboutPolonius—ask thisquestion? Is this anexampleof the “anticdisposition” (fantasticbehavior) thatHamlet earlier(1.5.172)hadtoldHoratioandothers—includingus—hewoulddisplay?Thatis,isthequestionaboutthewhereaboutsofherfatheraseeminglyirrationalone,likehisearlierquestion(3.1.103)toOphelia,“Ha,ha! Are you honest?” Or, on the other hand, has Hamlet (as inmany productions) suddenly glimpsedPolonius’s foot protruding from beneath a drapery at the rear? That is, does Hamlet ask the questionbecause he has suddenly seen something suspicious and now is testing Ophelia? (By the way, inproductions thatdogiveHamletaphysicalcue, it isalmostalwaysPolonius rather thanClaudiuswhoprovidestheclue.Thisitselfisanactofinterpretationonthepartofthedirector.)Or(athirdpossibility)doesHamletgetacluefromOphelia,whoinadvertentlybetraysthespiesbynervouslyglancingattheirplaceofhiding?ThisistheinterpretationusedintheBBCtelevisionversion,whereOpheliaglancesinfeartowardthehidingplacejustafterHamletsays“Whywouldst thoubeabreederofsinners?”(121-22).Hamlet, realizing that he is beingobserved, glanceshere and therebefore he asks “Where’s yourfather?”Thequestionthusisaclimaxtowhathehasbeendoingwhilespeakingtheprecedinglines.Or(afourth interpretation) does Hamlet suddenly, without the aid of any clue whatsoever, intuitively(insightfully,mysteriously,wonderfully)sensethatsomeoneisspying?Directorsmustdecide,ofcourse—andsomustreaders.

Recall,too,theprecedingdiscussionofthetextsoftheplays,whicharguedthatthetexts—thoughtheyseemtobebeforeusinpermanentblackonwhite—areunstable.TheSignettextofHamlet,whichdrawsontheSecondQuarto(1604)andtheFirstFolio(1623)isconsiderablylongerthananyversionstagedinShakespeare’stime.Ourversion,evenifspokenverybrisklyandplayedwithoutanyintermission,wouldtakeclose to fourhours, farbeyond“the twohours’ trafficofour stage”mentioned in thePrologue toRomeoandJuliet.(Thereareafewcontemporaryreferencestothedurationofaplay,butnonementionsmorethanthreehours.)OfShakespeare’splays,onlyTheComedyofErrors,Macbeth,andTheTempestcanbedoneinlessthanthreehourswithoutcutting.Andevenifwetakeaplaythatexistsonlyinashort

text,Macbeth,wecannotclaimthatweareexperiencingtheveryplaythatShakespeareconceived,partlybecausesomeoftheWitches’songsalmostsurelyarenon-Shakespeareanadditions,andpartlybecausewearenotwillingtowatchtheplayperformedwithoutanintermissionandwithboysinthefemaleroles.

Further, as the earlier discussionof costumesmentioned, theplays apparentlyweregiven chiefly incontemporary, that is, in Elizabethan dress. If today we give them in the costumes that Shakespeareprobablysaw,theplaysseemnotcontemporarybutcuriouslydated.Yetifweuseourowndress,wefindlinesofdialoguethatareatoddswithwhatwesee;wemayfeelthatthelanguage,soclearlynotourown,isinappropriatecomingoutofpeopleintoday’sdress.Acommonsolution,incidentally,hasbeentosettheplaysinthenineteenthcentury,onthegroundsthatthisattractivelydistancestheplays(givesthemadegreeofforeignness,allowingforinterestingcostumes)andyetdoesn’tputthemintoamuseumworldofElizabethanEngland.

Inevitablyourproductionsareadaptations,ouradaptations,andinevitablytheywilllookdated,notina century but in twenty years, or perhaps even in a decade. Still, we cannot escape from our ownconceptions.AsthedirectorPeterBrookhassaid,inTheEmptySpace(1968):

It isnotonly thehair-styles, costumesandmake-ups that lookdated.All thedifferentelementsofstaging—the shorthands of behavior that stand for emotions; gestures, gesticulations and tones ofvoice—areallfluctuatingonaninvisiblestockexchangeallthetime....Alivingtheatrethatthinksitcanstandalooffromanythingastrivialasfashionwillwilt.(p.16)

AsBrookindicates,it isthroughtoday’shairstyles,costumes,makeup,gestures,gesticulations,tonesofvoice—thisincludesourconceptionofearlierhairstyles,costumes,andsoforthifwestagetheplayinaperiodotherthanourown—thatweinevitablystagetheplays.

ItisatruismthateveryageinventsitsownShakespeare,justas,forinstance,everyagehasinventeditsownclassicalworld.OurviewofancientGreece,aslave-holdingsocietyinwhichevenfreeAthenianwomenwereseverelycircumscribed,doesnotmuchresembletheVictorians’viewofancientGreeceasagloriousdemocracy,justas,perhaps,ourviewofVictorianismitselfdoesnotmuchresembletheirs.WecannotclaimthattheShakespeareonourstageisthetrueShakespeare,butinourstageproductionswefindaShakespearethatspeakstous,aShakespearethatourancestorsdoubtlessdidnotknowbutonethatseemstoustobethetrueShakespeare—atleastforawhile.

Our age is remarkable for thewidevarietyof kindsof staging that it uses forShakespeare, but onedevelopmentdeservesspecialmention.Thisisthenowcommonpracticeofrace-blindorcolor-blindornontraditionalcasting,whichallowspersonswhoarenotwhitetoplayinShakespeare.PreviouslyblacksperforminginShakespearewerelimitedtoamerethreeroles,Othello,Aaron(inTitusAndronicus),andthePrinceofMorocco(inTheMerchantofVenice),and therewerenorolesatall forAsians. Indeed,African-Americansrarelycouldplayevenoneofthesethreeroles,sincetheywerenotwelcomeinwhitecompanies.IraAldridge(c.1806-1867),ablackactorofundoubtedtalent,wasforcedtomakehislivingbyperformingShakespeareinEnglandandinEurope,wherehecouldplaynotonlyOthellobutalso—inwhiteface—othertragicrolessuchasKingLear.PaulRobeson(1898-1976)madetheatricalhistorywhenheplayedOthelloinLondonin1930,andtherewassometalkaboutbringingtheproductiontotheUnitedStates,buttherewasmoretalkaboutwhetherAmericanaudienceswouldtoleratethesightofablackman—arealblackman,notawhitemaninblackface—kissingandthenkillingawhitewoman.Theideawastried out in summer stock in 1942, the reviewswere enthusiastic, and in the following year RobesonopenedonBroadwayinaproductionthatrananastounding296performances.Anoccasionalall-black

companysometimesperformedShakespeare’splays,butotherwiseblacks(andotherminoritymembers)were in effect shut out from performing Shakespeare. Only since about 1970 has it been common fornonwhites to play major roles along with whites. Thus, in a 1996-97 production of Antony andCleopatra, awhiteCleopatra,VanessaRed-grave, playedopposite a blackAntony,DavidHarewood.MultiracialcastingisnowespeciallycommonattheNewYorkShakespeareFestival,foundedin1954byJosephPapp,andinEngland,whereevensiblingssuchasClaudioandIsabellainMeasureforMeasureorLear’s three daughtersmay be of different races. Probablymost viewers today soon stopworryingabout the lack of realism, and move beyond the color of the performers’ skin to the quality of theperformance.

Nontraditionalcastingisnotonlyamatterofcolororrace;itincludessex.Inthepast,occasionallyadistinguishedwomanofthetheaterhastakenonamalerole—SarahBernhardt(1844-1923)asHamletisperhapsthemostfamousexample—butsuchperformanceswerewidelyregardedaseccentric.Althoughtodaytherehavebeensomeperformancesinvolvingcross-dressing(adragAsYouLikeItstagedbytheNationalTheatreinEnglandin1966andintheUnitedStatesin1974hasachievedconsiderablefameintheannalsofstagehistory),whatismoreinterestingisthecastingofwomeninrolesthattraditionallyaremalebut thatneednotbe.Thus,a1993-94EnglishproductionofHenryV usedawoman—not cross-dressed—in the role of the governor of Harfleur. According to Peter Holland, who reviewed theproductioninShakespeareSurvey48(1995),“havingafemaleGovernorofHarfleurfeminizedthecityandprovidedadirectresponse to thehorrendous threatofrapeandmurder thatHenryhadoffered,hislanguageandherbodyindirectconnectionandopposition”(p.210).Tenyearsfromnowthedevicemaynotplaysoeffectively,buttodayitspeakstous.Shakespeare,bornintheElizabethanAge,hasbeendeadnearly four hundred years, yet he is, as Ben Jonson said, “not of an age but for all time.”We mustunderstand, however, that he is “for all time” precisely because each age finds in his abundancesomethingforitselfandsomethingofitself.

Andherewecomebacktotwoissuesdiscussedearlierinthisintroduction—theinstabilityofthetextand,curiously, theBacon/Oxfordheresyconcerning theauthorshipof theplays.OfcourseShakespearewrotetheplays,andweshoulddailyfallonourkneestothankhimforthem—andyetthereissomethingtotheideathatheisnottheironlyauthor.Everyeditor,everydirectorandactor,andeveryreadertosomedegree shapes them, too, forwhenwe edit, direct, act, or read, we inevitably become Shakespeare’scollaboratorandre-createtheplays.Theplays,onemightsay,aresocunninglycontrivedthattheyguideourresponses,tellushowweoughttofeel,andmakeamarkonus,but(forbetterorforworse)wealsomakeamarkonthem.

—SYLVANBARNETTuftsUniversity

Introduction

Romeo and Juliet, even in themutilated versions that Restoration and eighteenth-century audiencesknew,hasalwaysbeenoneofShakespeare’smostpopularplays.Since1845,whenCharlotteandSusanCushman finallybrought a version approachingShakespeare’s original back to the stage, it hasbeen acovetedvehicleamongactorsandactressesalike,onbothsidesoftheAtlantic;andsomeofthetheater’sgreatestnameshavebeenassociatedwithit.Inrecentyearsaudienceshavealsobeenenjoyingitinfilmversions and on television.Among professional scholars the play has sparked less enthusiasm. In thisquarteronehearspraisefortheingenuityofthelanguage,forthebrillianceofthecharacterizations,andfortheportrayalofyounglove;butsuchpraiseisfrequentlyqualifiedbytheuneasyadmissionthatRomeoand Juliet resists measurement by the rules conventionally applied to Shakespeare’s later tragedies.Scholarly critics continue to expressmisgivings about the emphasis on pathos, the absence of ethicalpurpose,andwhatappearstobeacapriciousshiftingoftone,particularlybetweenthefirsttwoactsandthelastthree.

Such misgivings among modern readers are understandable, but one may question whether theElizabethanswouldhavefeltorevenunderstoodthem.ApparentlymostofShakespeare’scontemporariesstill considered an ending in death the principal requirement for tragedy; and sinceRomeo and Julietofferedsixdeaths,fiveof themonstageandtwoof themthedeathsofprotagonists,audiencesin thosedaysprobablythoughtitmoretragicthanmanyplayssolabeled.Elizabethanaudienceswouldhavefoundequallystrangetheobjectionthattheplaylacksethicalpurpose.Theyknewbytrainingwhattothinkofimpetuousyoungloverswhodeceivedtheirparentsandsoughtadvicefromfriars.ArthurBrooke,whoseTragicallHistoryeofRomeusandJuliet(1562)wasmostlikelyShakespeare’sonlysource,hadspelleditalloutasfollows:

To this ende (good Reader) is this tragicall matter written, to describe unto thee a coople ofunfortunate lovers, thralling themselves to unhonest desire, neglecting the authoritie and advise ofparentsandfrendes,conferringtheirprincipallcounselswithdronkengossyppes,andsuperstitiousfriers (the naturally fitte instrumentes of unchastitie) attemptyng all adventures of peryll, forthattaynyngoftheirwishedlust,usyingauriculerconfession(thekayofwhoredome,andtreason)forfurtheraunceoftheyrepurpose,abusyngthehonorablenameoflawefullmariage,thecloketheshameofstolnecontractes,finallye,byallmeansofunhonestlyfe,hastyngtomostunhappydeathe.

Inaddition,Elizabethansalsoknewthatsuicidewasthedevil’sbusinessandusuallymeantdamnation;intheir view, therefore,Romeo and Juliet must have had automatically an abundance of ethical import.Shakespeare probably should be given some kind of credit for not challenging these deep-seatedconvictionsofhiscontemporaryauditorsandreaders;for,ironically,themodernfeelingthathisplayisethicallydeficientstemspartlyfromthemodernabilitytoseethatShakespearehasreallyapprovedtheloveofRomeoandJuliet,condonedtheirdeceptions,andlaidtheblamefortheirdeaths,eventhoughbysuicide,upontheirelders.

Abetterexplanationforthemodernreader’suneasinessaboutrankingRomeoandJulietwiththeso-called major tragedies lies in the widespread assumption that Shakespeare meant the play to bedeterministic.Shakespeare seems to invite suchaviewwhenhepromises in thePrologue to show the“misadventuredpiteousoverthrows”of“apairofstar-crossedlovers”andthereafterletstheprincipals

make references to fate and the stars and has them express various kinds of premonition. Romeo, forexample,saysinAct1thathis“mindmisgives/Someconsequenceyethanginginthestars”(1.4.106-7);Friar Lawrence tries to reassure himselfwith uneasy prayers but soon observes that “violent delightshaveviolentends”(2.6.9);andJuliet,ontakingleaveofherhusband,cries,“OFortune,Fortune!Allmencalltheefickle”(3.5.60).Theseandotherreferencesmakeiteasytoarguethatthecharactersare,astheythemselves sometimes imply, little better than puppets, pitiful perhaps but ethically uninteresting andscarcelyduethefearfulrespectthatonegivestotheheroesofShakespeare’slatertragedies.Actually,thetextasawholegiveslittlejustificationforsuchaview.ItistruethatRomeosays,asheisabouttoentertheCapulet’sgreathall,

...mymindmisgivesSomeconsequenceyethanginginthestarsShallbitterlybeginhisfearfuldateWiththisnight’srevelsandexpirethetermOfadespisèdlife,closedinmybreast,Bysomevileforfeitofuntimelydeath.

(1.4.106-11)

Butheimmediatelyadds,“...hethathaththesteerageofmycourse/Directmysail!”Thefirstpartofthisquotationistypicalofwhatwefind—andfindnotsooftenassomeimagine—inRomeoandJuliet:premonitions, prayers, misgivings, references to Fortune, all utteredmuch as we ourselves utter suchthings,withoutnecessarilyimplyingrealbeliefinastralinfluence.Sometimesthecharacter’spremonitionisconfirmedby laterevents; sometimesnot,as is trueof theauspiciouspartofRomeo’sdreamon thenight before his suicide. The second part of the quotation is typical, too; for almost as often as thesecharactersspeakoffatetheyspeakofasuperiorProvidence,mysteriouslydirectingbutneverabsolutelydetermininghumandestiny.Moreover,accident-proneasRomeoandJulietmayoccasionallyseem,theyarereallynomore thanHamlet,whoalsohashisshareofpremonitions;and theiractionsarenomoreclearly determined by supernatural influence than those of Macbeth. Like its successors, Romeo andJuliet takesplaceinauniversewherethereisaspecialprovidenceinthefallofasparrowandwherewhat will be, assuredly will be. All that is asked of the inhabitants of this Shakespearean world oftragedyisthattheyachievereadinessorripenessforwhatistocome,andinthistragedyasintheotherstheyareallowedandexpectedtodothatmuchforthemselves.Thethingstoconsiderarewhetherornottheprotagonistshavesucceededinmeetingthisrequirementand,ifitappearstheyhavefailed,whetheronehadanyrighttosupposetheywoulddootherwise.

A final source of uneasiness for contemporary readers ofRomeo and Juliet is the impression, gotmainlyfromthefirsttwoacts,thatVeronaisreallyapartoftheworldofcomedy.Manythingscontributeto this impression.An amusing street fight and amasked ball in the first act, a lovers’meeting in theorchardinthesecond,adotingyoungmancarryingcourtlyconventionstolaughableexcess,parentswhowouldbecustom-boundtointerfereiftheyonlyknewoftheaffairgoingonundertheirnoses,anaffectedtroublemakerbentonvindicatinghonortotheletterinduelsconductedwithpreciousprecision,abawdynurse and an even bawdier friend—such things as these in an Elizabethan play ordinarily lead to thetriumph of young love and a marriage or two, with forgiveness and feasting all around. In this play,however,thefamiliardreamofcourtlycomedyshatterswhenMercutioisslain,andfromthatpointonthelightness quickly dissolves. Romeo is banished, the “comfortable” Friar falls back on desperateremedies, old Capulet grows testy and intolerant, Lady Capulet calls for blood, the amusing Nurse

suggestsbigamyasapracticalcourse,andJuliet,whohasscarcelyknownlife,preparestobefamiliarwithdeath.Eventheweatheradaptsitselftotheshiftintone:itsuddenlygetshotinAct3,andinAct4itrains;theskyisstillovercastastheplaycomestoanend.

ThecontrastthatShakespearegetsherebetweenthetoneofthefirsttwoactsandthatoftheremainingthree is probably intentional and, in any case, more apparent than real. Unless a reader is genuinelysophisticated,hisresponsetoliteratureisalwaysatleastpartlyamatterofhabit;helaughsandshudderson signal. Thus there will always be those who find the first two acts of Romeo and Juliet mainlylaughable,justastherewillalwaysbesomewhoconsiderOthellothetragedyofahandkerchief,afarcewithunfortunateconsequences.Shakespearemustnotbeheldresponsibleforresponsesofthiskind.Thefirst two acts ofRomeo and Juliet will appear to be consistently comic only if we read them in thelimited light of other, very different things—second-rate farces, dramatic and nondramatic, hackworkgenerally,certaincomicstrips,even—inwhichthesameconventionshavebeenused.Thecorrectiveistopayattention,forShakespeareallowsustocarryanyinitialimpressionofcomedywemayhavegotonlyso far as the climaxof the street brawl inScene 1.At that point,while the servants are still battling,TybaltstillfightingwithBenvolio,Capuletyellingforalongsword,andhiswifetellinghimtocallforacrutchinstead,hebringsusupsharplywiththePrince’swords:

What,ho!Youmen,youbeasts,ThatquenchthefireofyourperniciousrageWithpurplefountainsissuingfromyourveins!

(1.1.86-88)

Comedy can thrive indefinitely on beasts that pass for men, but it cannot long tolerate a reminder oforiginalsinsuchaslurksin“perniciousrage”orareminderofroyalhumanity’sself-destructivenesslike“purple fountains”;and it iswith these inourears thatwepasson to the restof thePrince’sdignifiedrebukeandthencetothespeechesofBenvolioandtheMontagueswhichexpresstheirhumanconcernfora youthful friend and son, the absent Romeo.When Romeo himself appears, later in the same scene,jugglingwordsinafashionableeuphuisticmannerandcomplainingofthecontradictionsoflove,wearemorecautiouswithourlaughter.Laughaswemay,Romeoclearlylivesinaworldwherefollycanhaveserious and irrevocable consequences; andwe are no longer confident that the conventionsof comedywillsavehimfromthoseconsequencesorspareusthepainofseeinghimdestroyed.

TheremainingscenesinActs1and2containmuchthatconfirmsouruneasiness.Forexample,Capulet,whohasbeenveryfunnycallingforhislongsword,saystenderlyofhisdaughterinScene2:

...toosoonmarredarethosesoearlymade.Earthhathswallowedallmyhopesbutshe;Sheisthehopefulladyofmyearth.

(1.2.13-15)

Thesethreelinesareenoughtoestablishhimasadramaticfigurewhowillprobablyinviteoursympathyasreadilyashehasprovokedourridicule.TheyalsoprepareusforJuliet,whoneverhasmuchof thecomic about her and least of all when she disturbs us with a prophetic “My grave is like to be myweddingbed”(1.5.137).Mercutio’sbawdinessisperhapsthebestargumentfortakingthesetwoactsascomic,butanattentivelistenerwillreceiveitallwiththelongQueenMabspeechstillinmind,seethatMercutio’sbawdinessandfancyaresimplycomplementaryaspectsofasinglecreativeandremarkably

perceptive imagination, and be prepared to recognize that Verona’s one hope of restoration withouttragedyhasvanishedwhenhedies.

Inanycase,afeelingthattheplayrepresentsrelativelymatureworkhasdisposedmostscholarstoseekalatedateforit.Thelatestthatcanreasonablybegivenis1596,sincethefirsteditionappearedearlyin1597 and described the play as having been performed by “Lord Hunsdon’s servants,” a title thatShakespeare’scompanyheldonlyfromJuly1596untilthefollowingMarch.Thepreferreddateseemstobe1595,whichisalsothepreferreddateforRichardIIandAMidsummerNight’sDream.Thereasonusuallygivenforputtingtheseplays in thesameyear is that thesameintense lyricismcharacterizesallthree,but ithasalsobeensuggested thatAMidsummerNight’sDream, in its special concernwith thedifficultiesofyounglove,revealsitselftobeaproductofthesamemoodorpreoccupationthatcausedShakespearetowriteRomeoandJuliet.Someinterestingparallelshavebeennoted.Forexample,inthefirstsceneofAMidsummerNight’sDreamLysandersays:

Briefasthelightninginthecolliednight,That,inaspleen,unfoldsbothheavenandearth,Andereamanhathpowertosay“Behold!”Thejawsofdarknessdodevouritup:Soquickbrightthingscometoconfusion.

(1.1.145-49)

TothisHermiareplies,“Ifthentruelovershavebeenevercrossed,/Itstandsasanedictindestiny.”ThisexchangehasbeenrelatedplausiblybothtoJuliet’s“toorash,toounadvised,toosudden;/Toolikethelightning,which doth cease to be / Ere one can say it lightens” (2.2.118-20) and to the “star-crossedlovers”of thePrologue.Butbeyondtherealmof theplausible in thismatterwecannotgo.Thosewhoregard the play as immature usually prefer an earlier date, insisting that the Nurse’s “ ’Tis since theearthquakenowelevenyears”(1.3.23),bywhichsheremembersthetimeofJuliet’sweaning,referstoafamousearthquakewhich struckEngland in1580and thatShakespearemeant todatehisplay1591byhavingtheNursementionsomethingthateveryoneintheaudiencecoulddateprecisely.AgainstthisviewonemightarguethatthereweretwootherearthquakesinEnglandduringthe1580sandatleastoneontheContinent;Shakespearecouldeasilyhavereferredtooneoftheseorjustaseasilytonoearthquakeatall.Moreover,while it is certainly reasonable to suppose that inmentioning an earthquakehewouldhavethoughtof someearthquakeheknew, it is hardly reasonable to thinkhewouldhavebothered to fix ascontemporary the date of a play that apparently had nothing to gain by being considered topical.Everythingtakenintoaccount,theplayseemstocomeafterplayslikeTheTwoGentlemenofVeronaandLove’sLabor’sLostandbeforeTheMerchantofVeniceand theHenryIVplays.Themost likelydate,therefore,isstill1595.

Whatever the date, the style of Romeo and Juliet places it at a point which marks the poet’sachievementof self-awareness andconfidence inhismasteryover themedium.Theplay is rich in setpiecesandmemorablescenes,somuchsoinfactthatinsensitiveproducershavesometimesturneditintoacollectionofdramaticrecitals.YetShakespeare’svirtuosity,intrinsicallyinterestingasitiswheneverwechoosetoisolatesomespecimenofit,neverfailstofunctionasapartofthegeneralactionoftheplay;andthatisastrueinthiswork,whereheseemstoberejoicingopenlyinhiscreativepower,asitisinthelatertragedies,wherethepowerisfeltratherthanseen.NothinginRomeoandJulietreallystandsalone,not even a startling passage like the QueenMab speech, which almost immediately proves to be anindispensablepartofMercutio’scomplexpersonality,justasMercutiowithallhiscomplexityultimately

proves indispensable to the meaning of the play. The creativity displayed in this passage isShakespeare’s, to be sure, but his greatest achievement is in making it credibly Mercutio’s. Equallyremarkableisthemuch-admiredlyricalqualityofthenextscene,inwhichRomeomeetsJulietforthefirsttime;butthissceneisremarkableforanotherreason.Herewehavetwoyoungpeoplewhopresumablyhave had no opportunity to develop any special gift for language. Juliet’s talk up to this point hascommanded no particular attention; and Romeo’s, best displayed perhaps in his first exchange withBenvolio (1.1), has been characterized by extravagant paradoxes and an occasional fortuitous couplet.Suddenly,withJulietinsight,hebeginstomakesomethinglikepoetry:

O,shedothteachthetorchestoburnbright!Itseemsshehangsuponthecheekofnight

AsarichjewelinanEthiop’sear—Beautytoorichforuse,forearthtoodear!

(1.5.46-49)

CapuletandTybaltbrieflyobscuretheyoungmanfromview,butasthesemoveaside,weseethathehasnot only taken Juliet by the hand but has begun spinning sonnetswith her; and even before theNurseinterrupts,wehavesensedtherightnessof thisunexpectedattachmentanditspotentialforpermanence.Wearethuspreparedfortheorchard,orbalcony,sceneofAct2andforthelovelyaubade thatthetwoperformatthepartinginAct3—bothamongthememorablescenesinShakespearebecausewithoutanyformalpatterning theyachieveaunityall theirownandstill serve the larger functionofsuggesting theintegrity that love can confer briefly upon two young peoplewho, apart from each other,will remainchildrentotheend.

IncharacterizationShakespearehadalwaysbeenabletomakelanguageworkforhim,butwithRomeoandJuliethemastereditsocompletelythattheplayalmostbecameagalleryofindividuals.Thelanguageoftheextremesinthesocialscalemusthavebeeneasiesttocatch,withthebanterofservingmenatoneendandtheformalperiodsofPrinceEscalusattheother;butinbetweentheextremeswegettheNurse’speasant speech, most noticeably of peasant origin when she tries to imitate her betters, beautifullycontrastedwiththeself-assuredandwarmlyhealthycountry-gentrytalkofoldCapulet;Mercutio’smaturecommand of language at all levels and Tybalt’s narrow range of sharp insolence; Friar Lawrence’smoralizing, formalandsententiousbutnever tedious,and the tinyvoiceof thecomplaisantApothecary.Some of these characters change attitude as external circumstances require, but in general theirpersonalitiessimplyunfoldinthelanguagethatestablishesthem.ThisisalsotrueofBenvolio,Paris,andLadyCapulet.RomeoandJuliet,however,undergodevelopment,andheundergoesmorethanshe.FromherfirstappearancetheyoungerJulietismorematurethanherlover.Romeoisfertileinfiguresandcanoccasionallyinventfreshthingslike“Night’scandlesareburntout,andjocundday/Standstiptoeonthemisty mountaintops” (3.5.9-10); but it is always Juliet who leads the talk in their two great scenestogether,anditisalsoshewhoknowswhatlanguagecannotdo:

Conceit,morerichinmatterthaninwords,Bragsofhissubstance,notofornament.Theyarebutbeggarsthatcancounttheirworth;ButmytrueloveisgrowntosuchexcessIcannotsumupsumofhalfmywealth.

(2.6.30-34)

Herbestlinesarethoseinwhichshedrawsuponlanguagetoinventforhertheimagesofdeathwhichshemust confront beforeRomeo can be permanently hers (4.3.14-58); yetwhen shewakes to findRomeolifeless, she canmuster no language capable of helpingher in such an extremity andquickly joins herlover indeath.Bycontrast,Romeo’sbestspeechisperhaps theonehedelivers in the tomb;with ithegivesdignity,meaning,andfinalitytotheoneactheplansandexecutes,howeverunwisely,withoutthehelpoffriends,Friar,orJuliet.Hislanguagehere,likethedeed,ishisown,asthecourtlyconventionsand fashionable euphuism of many of his earlier scenes were not. His paradoxes, his puns, even hislamentationsintheFriar’scell,areborrowedthings,ashismaturefriendsknow;yetRomeo’s“misshapenchaosofwell-seeming forms” iscatalyzed into inchoatepoetrywhenever Julietcomesupon thescene,andintheendheachievesinherpresenceaman’spowertoactifnotaman’sgiftofdiscretion.

IfRomeoand Juliet fails to achieve the highest rank of tragedy, the reason for that failuremust besoughtintheprotagoniststhemselvesandnotinsomeextraterrestrialpoweroragency.ThereasonRomeoandJulietdonotstandoutclearlyasprotagonists inagreat tragedyissimplythatShakespearecreatedthemtobeprotagonistsinadifferentkindofplay,onewhichhasmanyofthecircumstancesthatwefindintheothertragediesbutwhichlacksatthecenterafigurecapableofachievingtheterriblebutsatisfyingperceptionofman’sinvolvementinthemysteryofcreation.“Failure”isaninappropriatewordforsuchanachievement.ThenotablethingaboutRomeoandJulietisnotthattheyfailtoreachaHamlet’sdegreeofawarenessbutthatasveryyoungpeopletheybehavebetterandmaturemorerapidlyinthatdirectionthanwehaveanyrighttoexpectthemto.TheylearnthatVeronaisflawed,buttheydonotdreamthatthewholeworld is flawed in the sameway.Theydiscover that someactionsaregoodand somebad,butneverachievetheFriar’scatholicviewthatonlywillcanmakeanactionbadandonlygracecanredeemit.Theyconfrontimperfectioncourageously;theyfailtoseeinitanimageofthemselves.Deathovertakesthemintheirinnocenceandtheirunknowing;andwerememberthemnotasweremembertragicheroes,inpityandfear,butinadmirationfortheirloveliness,aswerememberdeadchildren.

Allthingsconsidered,theVeronawhichservesastheirtestinggroundisnotabadplace.TheProloguerefers darkly to “the continuance of their parents’ rage, /Which but their children’s end, naught couldremove”;butasH.B.Charltonhasobserved, theoldpeople in theplayseem tohave little interest incontinuingaquarrel.Apartfromtheancientrift,onemightdescribethecityasareservoirofhighspiritsandgoodwill,fullofattractivepeoplelikethewittyMercutio,BenvolioandParis,thewiseandtolerantFriar,and theyoungladieswhobrighten theevenings inCapulet’sgreathall.Yet thePrologue is right.The rift createdby theoldpeople’s almost forgotten rage is still there,wide enough for irresponsibleyoungservingmentoseeandmakeagameofandwideenough, too, for irresponsibleyoungnoblemen,likeTybalt,toaggravateintoaciviccrisis.Onemightsayofit,asMercutiosaysofhisdeathwound,“’Tisnotsodeepasawell,norsowideasachurchdoor;but’tisenough,’twillserve.”Intheendithasservedasaconduitforsomeofthebestbloodinthecity,includingMercutio’sown,andforthetearsofalltherest.

Apartfromthetwoprotagonists,thepeopleofVerona,orratherthosethatShakespearehaspresentedto us, may be arranged in two groups. The first of these, by far the larger, includes all thesupernumeraries, such minor characters as Peter and the Apothecary, and a few relatively importantfigureslikeTybalt,theCapulets,theNurse,Paris,andBenvolio.Thesearethestaticor“flat”characters,who are “by nature”what they are; and their functions are to present the limited range of values theyembody and to make the plot go. Tybalt, for example, is by nature choleric and determined to pickquarrels;Benvolio,bynaturetheopposite,isequallydeterminedtoavoidthem.Therearenosurprisesineither,evenwhenTybaltprecipitatestheclimacticcrisisoftheplay,justastherearenosurprisesinParis

andshouldbenoneintheNurse.ThelatterisinterestingtouspreciselybecauseShakespeare’sdetailedunfolding of her reveals a consistent personality, yet she too is static. From the beginning, she isgarrulous,corruptible,andinsensitive;andaslongasnothingrequireshertobeotherwise,shecanalsobeamusing.Athercrisis,whenJulietaskshertobewise,theNursecanonlysuggestbigamy,acoursequiteinkeepingwiththevaluessheherselfismadeof.HeretheNurseisnolongerfunny,butshehasnotchanged.ItisJulietwhohasdonethat.Theothercharactersinthisgroupdonotchangeeither.Theymaybesaidtorepresenttheabidingconditionsofhumanintercourseinanyrepresentativecommunity;andalesser playwright, assembling a similar collection, would probably have included the same kind ofservantsanddignitaries,aNurseorsomeonelikeher,TybaltsandBenvolios,allperformingessentiallythesamefunctionsasShakespeare’sandexhibitingmanyofthesamequalities.TheuniqueexcellenceofthestaticcharactersinRomeoandJulietcomesfromShakespeare’shavingparticularizedthemsodeftlythat, like the protagonists in the play,we hopefully take them at first for people of larger dimensions.Their vitality tempts us to expect them to bemore than they are and to givemore than they have anycapacity for giving.ThuswhenTybalt fails to respond toRomeo’s generous appeal andLadyCapuletprovesblindtoherdaughter’sneedforsympathy,wefeel thedisappointmentassharplyas ifwewerediscoveringforourselvesthelimitationsofcommonhumanity.

Thesecondgroupconsistsofthreecharacterswhogiveadoublystrongimpressionoflifebecausetheyincludeamongtheirqualitiessomedegreeofperceptionorunderstanding.PrinceEscalus,slightasheis,is oneof these, andFriarLawrence another.Normallywe should expect amagistrate tobelong to thegroupofstaticorflatcharacters,butShakespearehasgivenhismagistrateaconscienceandagrowingpresentimentofwhatmusthappentoeveryoneinVeronaifthewoundinthecivilbodycannotbehealed.Otherswanttokeepthepeace,too,butmainlybecausetheyhaveaperfunctorysenseofdutyorperhapsbecausetheydislikefighting.Escalusknowsfromthebeginningthatkeepingthepeacehereisamatteroflifeordeath,and in theendhereadily takeshisshareof responsibility for thebloodysacrificehehasfailedtoavert:

Capulet,Montague,Seewhatascourgeislaiduponyourhate,Thatheavenfindsmeanstokillyourjoyswithlove.AndI,forwinkingatyourdiscordstoo,Havelostabraceofkinsmen.Allarepunished.

(5.3.291-95)

TheFriarisincludedinthis“all”;andtheFriar,moreover,hasprecededthePrinceinacceptingblame:

...ifaughtinthisMiscarriedbymyfault,letmyoldlifeBesacrificedsomehourbeforehistimeUntotherigorofseverestlaw.

(266-69)

LikethePrince,theFriarhashadfromthestartaclearperceptionofthedangerlatentintheoldquarrel,and like the Prince he has taken steps appropriate to his position tomend the differences and restoreorder.Yetwhereas thePrincebynaturehasmovedopenlyanderred innotmovingvigorouslyenough,FriarLawrencebynatureworksinsecretandhissecrecydoeshimin.Actuallyhismuch-criticizedplanfor ending the quarrel is sound enough in principle. Any faithful son of the Church, accustomed to

cementingallianceswiththesacramentofmatrimony,wouldnaturallyhaveconsideredtheyoungpeople’ssudden affection for each other an opportunity sent byHeaven. Friar Lawrence’s error lies all in theexecution of the thing, in letting a Heaven-made marriage remain an affair of secret messages, ropeladders,andunorthodoxsleepingpotions,aclandestine remedydoomed tomiscarriage longbefore thethwartedmessagedeterminestheshapeoftheinevitablecatastrophe.Whatwasdesperatelyneededinthiscasewasacombinationofvirtues,theforthrightnessofthePrinceandthevigorandingenuityoftheFriar;andthesevirtueswerecombinedonlyinMercutio,whofellvictimtothedeficienciesofbothinthatheconfrontedaneedlesslyactiveTybaltatadisadvantagecausedinpartbybumblingRomeo’sadherencetotheFriar’ssecretplot.

Mercutio,whoisthethirdmemberofthismoreperceptivegroup,standsnexttoRomeoandJulietinimportanceintheplay.Infact,somecriticswhoconsiderhimmoreinterestingthanthetwoprotagonistshavesuggestedthatShakespearefinishedhimoffinAct3outofnecessity.Thisisalmostasabsurdastheview that Shakespearewrote Falstaff out ofHenryV because the fatman had become unmanageable.OthershavefoundMercutio’switembarrassingandtriedtorelieveShakespeareoftheresponsibilityforsomepartsofit,butthisisabsurdtoo.AneditedMercutiobecomeseithersentimentalorobscene;healsobecomesmeaningless,andwithouthimtheplayasawholerevertstotheconditionofmelodramathatithad in Shakespeare’s source. Consider for a moment the climax of the play, which is almost solelyShakespeare’sinvention.InBrookethematterisrelativelysimple:TybaltprovokesRomeo,andRomeoslays him. Shakespeare has it that Tybalt deliberately sought to murder Romeo and Romeo so badlyunderestimatedhischallengerthathedeclinedtodefendhimself;whereuponMercutio,indefenseofbothRomeo’shonorandhisperson,pickedup thechallengeandwouldhavekilledTybaltbut forRomeo’sintervention.TybaltthenkilledMercutio,andRomeokilledTybaltinrevenge.But,oneshouldask,whatifRomeohadnotintervened?Tybaltwouldhavebeenslain,surely,andMercutiowouldhavesurvivedtoreceivethePrince’srebuke;atmost,however,hewouldhavebeenpunishedonlyslightly,forMercutiowasofthePrince’slineandnotofthefeudingfamilies.ThefeudthuswouldhavediedwithTybalt,andintime Capulet and Montague might have been reconciled openly, as Friar Lawrence hoped. In short,Mercutio was on the point of bringing to pass what neither civil authority nor well-intentioned butmisplacedingenuityhadbeenabletoaccomplish,andRomeowithasinglesentimentalaction(“Ithoughtallforthebest,”hesays)destroyedhisonlyhopeofavertingtragedylongenoughtoachievethematurityheneededinordertoavoiditaltogether.

Many critics have commented on the breathless pace of this play, and nowonder. Shakespeare hasmade it the storyof a race against time.WhatRomeoneedsmostof all is a teacher, and theonlyonecapable of giving him instruction worth having and giving it quickly is Mercutio. All the rest areunavailable,orineffectual,likeBenvolio,orunaptfordealingpracticallywithhumanrelations.Mercutio,however,forallhissuperficialshowofirresponsibility,ismadeintheimageofhiscreator;heisapoet,whogivesequalvalue to fleshandspirit, sees themas inseparableaspectsof totalbeing,andacceptseach as the necessarymode of the other.His first line in the play, discharged at a young foolwho isplayingtheasceticforlove, isrevealing:“Nay,gentleRomeo,wemusthaveyoudance”(1.4.13).AndwhengentleRomeopersistsinday-dreaming,hesays,“Beroughwithlove,”declaresthatloveisamireandthatdreamersareoftenliars.Thelongfairyspeechwhichfollowsdignifiesidledreamsbymarryingthemtoearth;itsintentistocompelRomeotoacknowledgehissensesandtobringhimtoanhonestandhealthy confessionofwhat he is really looking for, butRomeo is toowrappedup in self-deception tolisten. InAct2Mercutio triesharder,speaksmoreplainly,butprompts fromhispupilonly thefatuous“He jests at scars that never felt awound.” Later still, in the battle ofwits (2.4),Mercutio imagines

briefly that he has succeeded: “Why, is not this better now than groaning for love? Now art thoughsociable,nowartthouRomeo;nowartthouwhatthouart,byartaswellasbynature”(92-95).Therearenowiserwordsinthewholeplay,andnonemoreironic;forRomeoevenherehasnotfoundhisidentityand isnever really to find it except for those fleetingmomentswhen Juliet is there to leadhimby thehand.

Timerunsoutforbothprincipalsinthisplay,butitisJulietwhomakestheraceexciting.Herfive-daymaturationisamiraclewhichonlyaShakespearecouldhavemadecredible;yetattheendsheisstillafourteen-year-oldgirl,andshesuccumbstoanadolescent’sdespair.Mercutiomighthavehelpedhadhebeenavailable,butMercutio isdead.All theothershavedesertedher—parents,Nurse, theFriar,whotakesfrightatthecrucialmoment,andRomeo,wholiesdeadatherfeet.Shesimplyhasnotlivedlongenough inherwisdomtostandentirelyalone.This is really thesourceofpathos inRomeoandJuliet.One hears much about the portrayal of young love here, about the immortality of the lovers and theeternality of their love; but such talk runs toward vapid sentimentality and does an injustice toShakespeare.Noonehasmorepoignantlydescribed thebeautyof young love thanhe, andnoonehasportrayedmorehonestlythanhethedestructivenessofanylovewhichignoresthemortalityofthosewhomake it.Romeostruggled towardfullunderstandingbut fell farshortofachievement, leavinga trailofvictimsbehindhim.Julietcamemuchcloserthanwehadanyrighttoexpect,butshetoofailed.Bothhavea legitimateclaimtoourrespect,shemore thanhe;and theyouthofbothrelieves themofourultimatecensure,whichfallsnotonthestarsbutonallthosewhosethoughtlessnessdeniedthemthetimetheysodesperatelyneeded.

—J.A.BRYANT,JR.TheUniversityofKentucky

ThePrologue.

Corus.

Twohousholdsbothalikeindignitie,(InfaireVeronawherewelayourScene)Fromauncientgrudge,breaketonewmutinie,WhereciuillbloudmakesciuillhanduncleaneFromforththefatallloynesofthesetwosoes,Apaireofstarre-crostlouers,taketheirlife:Whosemisaduentur’dpittiousoverthrowes,DothwiththeirdeathburietheirParentsstrife.Theferafullpassageoftheirdeath-marktloue,AndthecontinuanceoftheirParentsrage:Whichbuttheirchildrensendnoughtcouldremove:IsnowthetwohourestrafficqueofourStage.Thewhichifyouwithpatientearesattend,whathearesallmisse,ourtoyleshallstrinetomend.

Az

THEMOSTEXcellentandlamentable

Tragedie,ofRomeoandIuliet.

EnterSampsonandGregoriewithSwordsandBucklers,oftheboufeofCapulet.

SAmp.Gregorie,onmywordweelenotcarrieColes.

Greg.No,forthenweshouldbeCollyers.

Samp.Imeane:,andwebeincholler,weeledraw.

Greg.Iwhileyouhue,drawyourneckeoutofcholler.

Samp.Istrikequicklybeingmoued.

Greg.Butthouartnotquicklymouedtostrike.

Samp.AdogofthehouseofMountaguemouesme.

Grego.Tomoueistostirre,andtobevaliant,istostand:

Thereforeifthouartmouedthourunistaway.

Samp.Adogofthathouseshallmouemetostand

IwilltakethewallofanymanormaideofAfounta.gues.

Grego.Thatshewestheeaweakeflaue,fortheweakestgoestothewall.

Samp.Tis true,&therforewomenbeingtheweakervesselsareeuer thrust to thewalhthcrforeIwilpushMountaguesmenfromthewall,andthrushismaidestothewall.

Greg.Thequarellisbetweeneourmaisters,andvstheirmen.

Samp.Tisallone,Imillshewmyselfeatyrant,whenIhauefoughtwiththemen,Iwillbeclullwitlithewiides,Iwillcutofftheirheads.

A3Grego.The

[DramatisPersonae

ChorusEscalus,PrinceofVeronaParis,ayoungcount,kinsmantothePrinceMontagueCapuletAnoldman,oftheCapuletfamilyRomeo,sontoMontagueMercutio,kinsmantothePrinceandfriendtoRomeoBenvolio,nephewtoMontagueandfriendtoRomeoTybalt,nephewtoLadyCapulet

Balthasar,servanttoRomeo

Peter,servanttoJuliet’snurseAbram,servanttoMontagueAnApothecaryThreeMusiciansAnOfficerLadyMontague,wifetoMontagueLadyCapulet,wifetoCapuletJuliet,daughtertoCapuletNursetoJulietCitizensofVerona,GentlemenandGentlewomenofbothhouses,Maskers,Torchbearers,Pages,Guards,Watch-men,Servants,andAttendants

Scene:Verona;Mantua]

TheTragedyofRomeoandJuliet

THEPROLOGUE

[EnterChorus.]

Chorus.Twohouseholds,bothalikeindignity,°1InfairVerona,wherewelayourscene,

Fromancientgrudgebreaktonewmutiny,°Wherecivilbloodmakescivilhandsunclean.FromforththefatalloinsofthesetwofoesApairofstar-crossed°loverstaketheirlife;Whosemisadventuredpiteousoverthrows

Dothwiththeirdeathburytheirparents’strife.Thefearfulpassageoftheirdeath-markedlove,Andthecontinuanceoftheirparents’rage,Which,buttheirchildren’send,naughtcould

remove,Isnowthetwohours’trafficofourstage;°Thewhichifyouwithpatientearsattend,

Whathereshallmiss,ourtoilshallstrivetomend.

[Exit.]

[ACT1

Scene1.Verona.Apublicplace.]

EnterSampsonandGregory,withswordsandbucklers,°ofthehouseofCapulet.

Sampson.Gregory,onmyword,we’llnotcarrycoals.°

Gregory.No,forthenweshouldbecolliers.°

Sampson.Imean,and°webeincholer,we’lldraw.°

Gregory.Ay,whileyoulive,drawyourneckoutofcollar.

Sampson.Istrikequickly,beingmoved.

Gregory.Butthouartnotquicklymovedtostrike.

Sampson.AdogofthehouseofMontaguemovesme.

Gregory.Tomoveistostir,andtobevaliantistostand.Therefore,ifthouartmoved,thourun’staway.

Sampson. A dog of that house shall move me to stand. I will take the wall° of any man or maid ofMontague’s.

1.1.s.d.bucklers small shields1carrycoals endure insults2colliers coalvenders (this leads topunson“choler”=anger,and“collar”=hang-man’snoose)3andif3drawdrawswords13takethewalltakethepreferredplaceonthewalk

Gregory.Thatshowstheeaweakslave;fortheweakestgoestothewall.°

Sampson. ’Tis true; and therefore women, being the weaker vessels, are ever thrust to the wall.°ThereforeIwillpushMontague’smenfromthewallandthrusthismaidstothewall.

Gregory.Thequarrelisbetweenourmastersandustheirmen.

Sampson.’Tisallone.Iwillshowmyselfatyrant.WhenIhavefoughtwiththemen,Iwillbecivilwiththemaids—Iwillcutofftheirheads.

Gregory.Theheadsofthemaids?

Sampson.Ay,theheadsofthemaidsortheirmaiden-heads.Takeitinwhatsensethouwilt.

Gregory.Theymusttakeitinsensethatfeelit.

Sampson.MetheyshallfeelwhileIamabletostand;and’tisknownIamaprettypieceofflesh.

Gregory. ’Tiswell thou art not fish; if thou hadst, thou hadst been Poor John.°Draw thy tool!°HerecomestwoofthehouseofMontagues.

EntertwootherServingmen[AbramandBalthasar].

Sampson.Mynakedweaponisout.Quarrel!Iwillbackthee.

Gregory.How?Turnthybackandrun?

Sampson.Fearmenot.

Gregory.No,marry.°Ifearthee!

15-16weakestgoestothewalli.e.,ispushedtotherear18thrusttothewallassaultedagainstthewall33PoorJohnhakesaltedanddried(poorman’sfare)33toolweapon(withbawdyinnuendo)39marry(aninterjection,from“BytheVirginMary”)

Sampson.Letustakethelawofoursides;°letthembegin.

Gregory.IwillfrownasIpassby,andletthemtakeitastheylist.

Sampson.Nay,astheydare.Iwillbitemythumb°atthem,whichisdisgracetothemiftheybearit.

Abram.Doyoubiteyourthumbatus,sir?

Sampson.Idobitemythumb,sir.

Abram.Doyoubiteyourthumbatus,sir?

Sampson.[AsidetoGregory]IsthelawofoursideifIsayay?

Gregory.[AsidetoSampson]No.

Sampson.No,sir,Idonotbitemythumbatyou,sir;butIbitemythumb,sir.

Gregory.Doyouquarrel,sir?

Abram.Quarrel,sir?No,sir.

Sampson.Butifyoudo,sir,Iamforyou.Iserveasgoodamanasyou.

Abram.Nobetter.

Sampson.Well,sir.

EnterBenvolio.

Gregory.Say“better.”Herecomesoneofmymaster’skinsmen.

Sampson.Yes,better,sir.

Abram.Youlie.

Sampson.Draw,ifyoubemen.Gregory,rememberthyswashing°blow.Theyfight.

40takethelawofoursideskeepourselvesintheright44bitemythumb i.e.,makeagestureofcontempt65swashingslashing

Benvolio.Part,fools!Putupyourswords.Youknownotwhatyoudo.

EnterTybalt.

Tybalt.What,artthoudrawnamongtheseheartlesshinds?°Turnthee,Benvolio;lookuponthydeath.

Benvolio.Idobutkeepthepeace.Putupthysword,Ormanageittopartthesemenwithme.

Tybalt.What,drawn,andtalkofpeace?IhatethewordAsIhatehell,allMontagues,andthee.Haveat

thee,coward![Theyfight.]

Enter[anOfficer,and]threeorfourCitizenswithclubsorpartisans.

Officer.Clubs,bills,andpartisans!°Strike!Beat themdown!Downwith theCapulets!Downwith theMontagues!

EnteroldCapuletinhisgown,andhisWife.

Capulet.Whatnoiseisthis?Givememylongsword,ho!

LadyCapulet.Acrutch,acrutch!Whycallyouforasword?

Capulet.Mysword,Isay!OldMontagueiscomeAndflourisheshisbladeinspite°ofme.

EnteroldMontagueandhisWife.

Montague.ThouvillainCapulet!—Holdmenot;letmego.

LadyMontague.Thoushaltnotstironefoottoseekafoe.

68heartless hinds cowardly rustics 75 bills, and partisans varieties of halberd, a combinationspearandbattle-ax81spitedefiance

EnterPrinceEscalus,withhisTrain.

Prince.Rebellioussubjects,enemiestopeace,Profanersofthisneighbor-stainèdsteel—Willtheynothear?What,ho!Youmen,youbeasts,ThatquenchthefireofyourperniciousrageWithpurplefountainsissuingfromyourveins!Onpainoftorture,fromthosebloodyhandsThrowyourmistempered°weaponstothegroundAndhearthesentenceofyourmovèdprince.Threecivilbrawls,bredofanairywordBythee,oldCapulet,andMontague,HavethricedisturbedthequietofourstreetsAndmadeVerona’sancientcitizensCastbytheirgravebeseeming°ornamentsTowieldoldpartisans,inhandsasold,Cank’redwithpeace,topartyourcank’red°hate.Ifeveryoudisturbourstreetsagain,Yourlivesshallpaytheforfeitofthepeace.Forthistimealltherestdepartaway.You,Capulet,shallgoalongwithme;And,Montague,comeyouthisafternoon,Toknowourfartherpleasureinthiscase,TooldFreetown,ourcommonjudgmentplace.Oncemore,onpainofdeath,allmendepart.

Exeunt[allbutMontague,hisWife,andBenvolio].

Montague.Whosetthisancientquarrelnewabroach?°

Speak,nephew,wereyoubywhenitbegan?

Benvolio.HereweretheservantsofyouradversaryAndyours,closefightingereIdidapproach.Idrewtopartthem.IntheinstantcameThefieryTybalt,withhisswordprepared;Which,ashebreatheddefiancetomyears,Heswungabouthisheadandcutthewinds,

90mistempered(1)ill-made(2)usedwithillwill96gravebeseemingdignifiedandappropriate98cank’red...cank’redrusted...malig-nant107newabroachnewlyopen

Who,nothinghurtwithal,°hissedhiminscorn.Whilewewereinterchangingthrustsandblows,Camemoreandmore,andfoughtonpartandpart,°TillthePrincecame,whopartedeitherpart.

LadyMontague.O,whereisRomeo?Sawyouhimtoday?RightgladIamhewasnotatthisfray.

Benvolio.Madam,anhourbeforetheworshipedsunPeeredforththegoldenwindowoftheEast,Atroubledminddravemetowalkabroad;Where,underneaththegroveofsycamoreThatwestwardrootethfromthiscityside,SoearlywalkingdidIseeyourson.TowardshimImade,buthewasware°ofmeAndstoleintothecovertofthewood.I,measuringhisaffectionsbymyown,Whichthenmostsoughtwheremostmightnotbefound,°Beingonetoomanybymywearyself,Pursuedmyhumornotpursuinghis,°Andgladlyshunnedwhogladlyfledfromme.

Montague.Manyamorninghathhetherebeenseen,Withtearsaugmentingthefreshmorning’sdew,Addingtocloudsmorecloudswithhisdeepsighs;Butallsosoonastheall-cheeringsunShouldinthefarthestEastbegintodrawTheshadycurtainsfromAurora’s°bed,Awayfromlightstealshomemyheavy°sonAndprivateinhischamberpenshimself,Shutsuphiswindows,locksfairdaylightout,Andmakeshimselfanartificialnight.

115withalthereby117onpartandpartsomeononeside,someonanother127wareaware130mostsought . . . found i.e.,wantedmosttobealone132Pursued. . .his i.e., followedmyowninclinationbynotinquiringintohismood139Auroragoddessofthedawn140heavymelancholy,moody

Blackandportentousmustthishumor°proveUnlessgoodcounselmaythecauseremove.

Benvolio.Mynobleuncle,doyouknowthecause?

Montague.Ineitherknowitnorcanlearnofhim.

Benvolio.Haveyouimportunedhimbyanymeans?

Montague.Bothbymyselfandmanyotherfriends;Buthe,hisownaffections’counselor,Istohimself—Iwillnotsayhowtrue—Buttohimselfsosecretandsoclose,Sofarfromsounding°anddiscovery,Asisthebudbitwithanenvious°wormErehecanspreadhissweetleavestotheairOrdedicatehisbeautytothesun.Couldwebutlearnfromwhencehissorrowsgrow,Wewouldaswillinglygivecureasknow.

EnterRomeo.

Benvolio.See,wherehecomes.Sopleaseyoustepaside;I’llknowhisgrievance,orbemuchdenied.

Montague.Iwouldthouwertsohappy°bythystayToheartrueshrift.°Come,madam,let’saway.

Exeunt[MontagueandWife].

Benvolio.Goodmorrow,°cousin.

Romeo.Isthedaysoyoung?

Benvolio.Butnewstrucknine.

Romeo.Ayme!Sadhoursseemlong.Wasthatmyfatherthatwenthencesofast?

Benvolio.Itwas.WhatsadnesslengthensRomeo’shours?

144humor mood 153 So far from sounding so far frommeasuring the depth of his mood 154enviousmalign161happylucky162trueshrifti.e.,Romeo’sconfessionofthetruth163morrowmorning

Romeo.Nothavingthatwhichhavingmakesthemshort.

Benvolio.Inlove?

Romeo.Out—

Benvolio.Oflove?

Romeo.OutofherfavorwhereIaminlove.

Benvolio.Alasthatlove,sogentleinhisview,°Shouldbesotyrannousandroughinproof!

Romeo.Alasthatlove,whoseviewismuffledstill,°Shouldwithouteyesseepathwaystohiswill!Whereshallwedine?Ome!Whatfraywashere?Yettellmenot,forIhavehearditall.Here’smuchtodowithhate,butmorewithlove.°Whythen,Obrawlinglove,Olovinghate,Oanything,ofnothingfirstcreated!°Oheavylightness,seriousvanity,Misshapenchaosofwell-seemingforms,Featheroflead,brightsmoke,coldfire,sickhealth,Still-wakingsleep,thatisnotwhatitis!ThislovefeelI,thatfeelnoloveinthis.Dostthounotlaugh?

Benvolio.No,coz,°Iratherweep.

Romeo.Goodheart,atwhat?

Benvolio.Atthygoodheart’soppression.

Romeo.Why,suchislove’stransgression.Griefsofmineownlieheavyinmybreast,Whichthouwiltpropagate,tohaveitprest°Withmoreofthine.Thislovethatthouhastshown

172gentleinhisviewmildinappearance174muffledstillalwaysblindfolded178morewithlovei.e.,thecombatantsenjoyedtheirfight-ing180Oanything,ofnothingfirstcreated(Romeohererelates his own succession of witty paradoxes to the dogma that God created everything out ofnothing) 186 coz cousin (relative) 190Which . . .prest i.e., which griefs youwill increase byburdeningmybreast

Dothaddmoregrieftotoomuchofmineown.Loveisasmokemadewiththefumeofsighs;Beingpurged,afiresparklinginlovers’eyes;Beingvexed,aseanourishedwithlovingtears.Whatisitelse?Amadnessmostdiscreet,°Achokinggall,andapreservingsweet.Farewell,mycoz.

Benvolio.Soft!°Iwillgoalong.

Andif°youleavemeso,youdomewrong.

Romeo.Tut!Ihavelostmyself;Iamnothere;ThisisnotRomeo,he’ssomeotherwhere.

Benvolio.Tellmeinsadness,°whoisthatyoulove?

Romeo.What,shallIgroanandtellthee?

Benvolio.Groan?Why,no;Butsadly°tellmewho.

Romeo.Bidasickmaninsadness°makehiswill.Ah,wordillurgedtoonethatissoill!Insadness,cousin,Idoloveawoman.

Benvolio.IaimedsonearwhenIsupposedyouloved.

Romeo.Arightgoodmarkman.Andshe’sfairIlove.

Benvolio.Arightfairmark,°faircoz,issoonesthit.

Romeo.Well,inthathityoumiss.She’llnotbehitWithCupid’sarrow.ShehathDian’swit,°And,instrongproof°ofchastitywellarmed,FromLove’sweakchildishbowshelivesun-charmed.Shewillnotstay°thesiegeoflovingterms,Norbide°th’encounterofassailingeyes,

196discreetdiscriminating198Softholdon199Andif if202 insadness inall seriousness204sadly seriously205 insadness (1) in seriousness (2) inunhappinessat theprospectofdeath210fairmarktargeteasilyseen212Dian’swit thecunningofDiana,huntressandgoddessofchastity213prooftestedpower215staysubmitto216bideabide(putupwith)

Noropeherlaptosaint-seducinggold.O,sheisrichinbeauty;onlypoorThat,whenshedies,withbeautydiesherstore.°

Benvolio.Thenshehathswornthatshewillstill°livechaste?

Romeo.Shehath,andinthatsparingmakehugewaste;Forbeauty,starvedwithherseverity,Cutsbeautyofffromallposterity.Sheistoofair,toowise,wiselytoofair,Tomeritbliss°bymakingmedespair.Shehathforsworntolove,andinthatvowDoIlivedeadthatlivetotellitnow.

Benvolio.Beruledbyme;forgettothinkofher.

Romeo.O,teachmehowIshouldforgettothink!

Benvolio.Bygivinglibertyuntothineeyes.Examineotherbeauties.

Romeo.’TisthewayTocallhers,exquisite,inquestion°more.Thesehappymasksthatkissfairladies’brows,Beingblackputsusinmindtheyhidethefair.HethatisstruckenblindcannotforgetTheprecioustreasureofhiseyesightlost.Showmeamistressthatispassingfair:Whatdothherbeautyservebutasanote°WhereImayreadwhopassedthatpassingfair?Farewell.Thoucanstnotteachmetoforget.

Benvolio.I’llpaythatdoctrine,orelsedieindebt.°

Exeunt.

219withbeautydiesherstore i.e., shewill leavenoprogeny toperpetuateherbeauty220stillalways225meritblisswinheavenlybliss232Tocallhers . . . inquestion tokeepbringingherbeautytomind238notewrittenreminder241I’ll...debtIwillteachyouorelsedietrying

[Scene2.Astreet.]

EnterCapulet,CountyParis,andtheClown,[hisServant].

Capulet.ButMontagueisbound°aswellasI,Inpenaltyalike;and’tisnothard,Ithink,Formensooldaswetokeepthepeace.

Paris.Ofhonorablereckoning°areyouboth,Andpity’tisyoulivedatoddssolong.Butnow,mylord,whatsayyoutomysuit?

Capulet.Butsayingo’erwhatIhavesaidbefore:Mychildisyetastrangerintheworld,Shehathnotseenthechangeoffourteenyears;LettwomoresummerswitherintheirprideErewemaythinkherripetobeabride.

Paris.Youngerthanshearehappymothersmade.

Capulet.Andtoosoonmarredarethosesoearlymade.Earthhathswallowèdallmyhopes°butshe;Sheisthehopefulladyofmyearth.

Butwooher,gentleParis,getherheart;Mywilltoherconsentisbutapart.Andsheagreed,°withinherscopeofchoice°Liesmyconsentandfairaccording°voice.ThisnightIholdanoldaccustomed°feast,WheretoIhaveinvitedmanyaguest,SuchasIlove;andyouamongthestore,Onemore,mostwelcome,makesmynumbermore.

1.2.1boundunderbond4reckoningreputation14hopeschildren18Andsheagreedifsheagrees18withinherscopeofchoiceamongthoseshefavors19accordingagreeing20accustomedestab-lishedbycustom

AtmypoorhouselooktobeholdthisnightEarth-treadingstars°thatmakedarkheavenlight.SuchcomfortasdolustyyoungmenfeelWhenwell-appareledAprilontheheelOflimpingWintertreads,evensuchdelightAmongfreshfennel°budsshallyouthisnightInherit°atmyhouse.Hearall,allsee,Andlikehermostwhosemeritmostshallbe;Which,onmoreviewofmany,mine,beingone,Maystandinnumber,°thoughinreck’ningnone.°Come,gowithme.[ToServant,givinghimapaper]Go,sirrah,°trudgeaboutThroughfairVerona;findthosepersonsoutWhosenamesarewrittenthere,andtothemsayMyhouseandwelcomeontheirpleasurestay.°

Exit[withParis].

Servant.Findthemoutwhosenamesarewrittenhere?Itiswrittenthattheshoemakershouldmeddlewithhisyardandthetailorwithhislast,thefisherwithhispencilandthepainterwithhisnets;°butIamsenttofindthosepersonswhosenamesareherewrit,andcanneverfind°whatnamesthewritingpersonhathherewrit.Imusttothelearned.Ingoodtime!°

EnterBenvolioandRomeo.

Benvolio.Tut,man,onefireburnsoutanother’sburning;Onepainisless’nedbyanother’sanguish;°Turngiddy,andbeholpbybackwardturning;°

25Earth-treading stars i.e., young girls 29 fennel flowering herb 30 Inherit have 33 stand in

numberconstituteoneofthecrowd33inreck’ningnonenotworthspecialconsideration34sirrah(atermoffamiliaraddress)37staywait39-41shoemaker...netsi.e.,oneshouldsticktowhatoneknowshowtodo(buttheservant,beingilliterate,reversestheproverbialexpressions)43findunder-stand44-45Ingoodtimei.e.,herecomesomelearnedones47another’sanguishthepainofanother48beholpbybackwardturningbehelpedbyturningintheoppositedirection

Onedesperategriefcureswithanother’slanguish.Takethousomenewinfectiontothyeye,Andtherankpoisonoftheoldwilldie.

Romeo.Yourplantainleafisexcellentforthat.

Benvolio.Forwhat,Ipraythee?

Romeo.Foryourbroken°shin.

Benvolio.Why,Romeo,artthoumad?

Romeo.Notmad,butboundmorethanamadmanis;Shutupinprison,keptwithoutmyfood,Whippedandtormentedand—God-den,°goodfel-low.

Servant.Godgi’go-den.Ipray,sir,canyouread?

Romeo.Ay,mineownfortuneinmymisery.

Servant.Perhapsyouhavelearneditwithoutbook.But,Ipray,canyoureadanythingyousee?

Romeo.Ay,ifIknowthelettersandthelanguage.°

Servant.Yesayhonestly.Restyoumerry.°

Romeo.Stay,fellow;Icanread.Hereadstheletter.“SigniorMartinoandhiswifeanddaughters;CountyAnselmandhisbeauteoussisters;TheladywidowofVitruvio;SigniorPlacentioandhislovelynieces;MercutioandhisbrotherValentine;MineuncleCapulet,hiswifeanddaughters;MyfairnieceRosaline;Livia;SigniorValentioandhiscousinTybalt;LucioandthelivelyHelena.”Afairassembly.Whithershouldtheycome?

Servant.Up.

53brokenscratched57God-dengoodevening(goodafternoon)62ifIknowthelettersandthelanguagei.e.,ifIalreadyknowwhatthewritingsays63RestyoumerrymayGodkeepyoumerry

Romeo.Whither?Tosupper?

Servant.Toourhouse.

Romeo.Whosehouse?

Servant.Mymaster’s.

Romeo.IndeedIshouldhaveaskedyouthatbefore.

Servant.NowI’lltellyouwithoutasking.MymasteristhegreatrichCapulet;andifyoubenotofthehouseofMontagues,Ipraycomeandcrushacup°ofwine.Restyoumerry.[Exit.]

Benvolio.Atthissameancient°feastofCapulet’sSupsthefairRosalinewhomthousoloves;WithalltheadmirèdbeautiesofVerona.Gothither,andwithunattainted°eyeCompareherfacewithsomethatIshallshow,AndIwillmaketheethinkthyswanacrow.

Romeo.WhenthedevoutreligionofmineeyeMaintainssuchfalsehood,thenturntearstofires;Andthese,who,oftendrowned,couldneverdie,Transparent°heretics,beburntforliars!Onefairerthanmylove?Theall-seeingsunNe’ersawhermatchsincefirsttheworldbegun.

Benvolio.Tut!yousawherfair,noneelsebeingby,Herselfpoised°withherselfineithereye;Butinthatcrystalscales°lettherebeweighedYourlady’sloveagainstsomeothermaidThatIwillshowyoushiningatthisfeast,Andsheshallscant°showwellthatnowseemsbest.

Romeo.I’llgoalong,nosuchsighttobeshown,Buttorejoiceinsplendorofmineown.°[Exeunt.]

83 crush a cup have a drink 85 ancient established by custom 88 unattainted impartial 94Transparentobvious98poised balanced99crystalscales i.e.,Romeo’spair of eyes102 scantscarcely104splendorofmineownmyownlady’ssplendor

[Scene3.AroominCapulet’shouse.]

EnterCapulet’sWife,andNurse.

LadyCapulet.Nurse,where’smydaughter?Callherforthtome.

Nurse.Now,bymymaidenheadattwelveyearold,

Ibadehercome.What,°lamb!What,ladybird!Godforbid,where’sthisgirl?What,Juliet!

EnterJuliet.

Juliet.Hownow?Whocalls?

Nurse.Yourmother.

Juliet.Madam,Iamhere.Whatisyourwill?

LadyCapulet.Thisisthematter—Nurse,giveleaveawhile;Wemusttalkinsecret.Nurse,comebackagain.Ihaverememb’redme;thou’s°hearourcounsel.Thouknowestmydaughter’sofaprettyage.

Nurse.Faith,Icantellherageuntoanhour.

LadyCapulet.She’snotfourteen.

Nurse.I’lllayfourteenofmyteeth—Andyet,tomyteen°beitspoken,Ihavebutfour—She’snotfourteen.HowlongisitnowToLammastide?°

LadyCapulet.Afortnightandodddays.

1.3.3What(animpatientcall)9thou’sthoushalt13teensorrow15LammastideAugust1

Nurse.Evenorodd,ofalldaysintheyear,ComeLammasEveatnightshallshebefourteen.Susanandshe(GodrestallChristiansouls!)Wereofanage.°Well,SusaniswithGod;Shewastoogoodforme.But,asIsaid,OnLammasEveatnightshallshebefourteen;Thatshallshe,marry;Irememberitwell.’Tissincetheearthquake°nowelevenyears;Andshewasweaned(Inevershallforgetit),Ofallthedaysoftheyear,uponthatday;ForIhadthenlaidwormwoodtomydug,Sittinginthesununderthedovehousewall.MylordandyouwerethenatMantua.Nay,Idobearabrain.°But,asIsaid,WhenitdidtastethewormwoodonthenippleOfmydugandfeltitbitter,prettyfool,Toseeittetchy°andfalloutwiththedug!Shake,quoththedovehouse!°’Twasnoneed,Itrow,°Tobidmetrudge.

Andsincethattimeitiselevenyears,Forthenshecouldstandhigh-lone;°nay,byth’rood,°Shecouldhaverunandwaddledallabout;Foreventhedaybefore,shebrokeherbrow;Andthenmyhusband(Godbewithhissoul!’A°wasamerryman)tookupthechild.“Yea,”quothhe,“dostthoufalluponthyface?Thouwiltfallbackwardwhenthouhastmorewit;Wiltthounot,Jule?”and,bymyholidam,°Theprettywretchleftcryingandsaid,“Ay.”Toseenowhowajestshallcomeabout!Iwarrant,andIshouldliveathousandyears,

19ofanagethesameage23earthquake(seeIntroduction)29Idobearabraini.e.,mymindisstillgood32tetchyirritable33Shake,quoththedovehousei.e.,thedovehouse(whichtheNursepersonifies) began to tremble 33 trow believe 36 high-lone alone 36 rood cross 40 ’A he 43holidamholything,relic

Inevershouldforgetit.“Wiltthounot,Jule?”quothhe,And,prettyfool,itstinted°andsaid,“Ay.”

LadyCapulet.Enoughofthis.Ipraytheeholdthypeace.

Nurse.Yes,madam.YetIcannotchoosebutlaughTothinkitshouldleavecryingandsay,“Ay.”Andyet,Iwarrant,ithaduponit°browAbumpasbigasayoungcock’rel’sstone;Aperilousknock;anditcriedbitterly.“Yea,”quothmyhusband,“fall’stuponthyface?Thouwiltfallbackwardwhenthoucomesttoage,Wiltthounot,Jule?”Itstintedandsaid,“Ay.”

Juliet.Andstintthoutoo,Ipraythee,nurse,sayI.

Nurse.Peace,Ihavedone.GodmarktheetoHisgrace!Thouwasttheprettiestbabethate’erInursed.AndImightlivetoseetheemarriedonce,Ihavemywish.

LadyCapulet.Marry,°that“marry”istheverythemeIcametotalkof.Tellme,daughterJuliet,Howstandsyourdispositionstobemarried?

Juliet.ItisanhonorthatIdreamnotof.

Nurse.Anhonor?WerenotIthineonlynurse,Iwouldsaythouhadstsuckedwisdomfromthyteat.

LadyCapulet.Well,thinkofmarriagenow.Youngerthanyou,HereinVerona,ladiesofesteem,Aremadealreadymothers.Bymycount,Iwasyourmothermuchupontheseyears°Thatyouarenowamaid.Thustheninbrief:ThevaliantParisseeksyouforhislove.

48stintedstopped52itits63Marryindeed72muchupontheseyearsthesamelengthoftime

Nurse.Aman,younglady!Lady,suchamanAsalltheworld—Why,he’samanofwax.°

LadyCapulet.Verona’ssummerhathnotsuchaflower.

Nurse.Nay,he’saflower,infaith—averyflower.

LadyCapulet.Whatsayyou?Canyoulovethegentle-man?Thisnightyoushallbeholdhimatourfeast.Reado’erthevolumeofyoungParis’face,Andfinddelightwrittherewithbeauty’spen;Examineeverymarriedlineament,°Andseehowoneanotherlendscontent;°AndwhatobscuredinthisfairvolumeliesFindwritteninthemargent°ofhiseyes.Thispreciousbookoflove,thisunbound°lover,Tobeautifyhimonlylacksacover.°Thefishlivesinthesea,and’tismuchprideForfairwithoutthefairwithintohide.°Thatbookinmany’seyesdothsharetheglory,Thatingoldclaspslocksinthegoldenstory;Soshallyoushareallthathedothpossess,Byhavinghimmakingyourselfnoless.

Nurse.Noless?Nay,bigger!Womengrowbymen.

LadyCapulet.Speakbriefly,canyoulikeof°Paris’love?

Juliet.I’lllooktolike,iflookinglikingmove;ButnomoredeepwillIendartmineeyeThanyourconsentgivesstrengthtomakeitfly.

EnterServingman.

Servingman.Madam,theguestsarecome,supper

76manofwaxmanofperfectfigure83marriedlineamentharmo-niousfeature84oneanotherlendscontent all enhanceoneanother86margentmarginalcommentary87unbound (1)withoutcover(2)uncaught88onlylacksacoveri.e.,onlyawifeislacking89-90Thefish...tohidei.e.,thefairseaismadeevenfairerbyhidingfairfishwithinit96likeofbefavorableto

servedup,youcalled,myyoungladyaskedfor,thenursecursed°inthepantry,andeverythinginextremity.Imusthencetowait.°Ibeseechyoufollowstraight.°[Exit.]

LadyCapulet.Wefollowthee.Juliet,theCountystays.°

Nurse.Go,girl,seekhappynightstohappydays.

Exeunt.

[Scene4.Astreet.]

EnterRomeo,Mercutio,Benvolio,withfiveorsixotherMaskers;Torchbearers.

Romeo.What,shallthisspeechbespokeforourexcuse?°Orshallweonwithoutapology?

Benvolio.Thedateisoutofsuchprolixity.°We’llhavenoCupidhoodwinked°withascarf,BearingaTartar’spaintedbowoflath,Scaringtheladieslikeacrowkeeper;°Nornowithout-bookprologue,°faintlyspokeAftertheprompter,forourentrance;But,letthemmeasure°usbywhattheywill,We’llmeasurethemameasure°andbegone.

Romeo.Givemeatorch.Iamnotforthisambling.Beingbutheavy,Iwillbearthelight.

102thenursecursedi.e.,becausesheisnothelping103towaittoserve104straightstraightway105theCountystaystheCountiswaiting1.4.1shall...excusei.e.,shallweintroduceourselveswith thecustomaryprepared speech3date . . .prolixity i.e., suchwordiness is out of fashion4hoodwinked blindfolded 6 crowkeeper boy set to scare crows away 7without-book prologuememorizedspeech9measurejudge10measurethemameasuredanceonedancewiththem

Mercutio.Nay,gentleRomeo,wemusthaveyoudance.

Romeo.NotI,believeme.YouhavedancingshoesWithnimblesoles;IhaveasoulofleadSostakesmetothegroundIcannotmove.

Mercutio.Youarealover.BorrowCupid’swingsAndsoarwiththemaboveacommonbound.°

Romeo.IamtoosoreenpiercèdwithhisshaftTosoarwithhislightfeathers;andsoboundIcannotboundapitch°abovedullwoe.Underlove’sheavyburdendoIsink.

Mercutio.And,tosinkinit,shouldyouburdenlove—Toogreatoppressionforatenderthing.

Romeo.Isloveatenderthing?Itistoorough,Toorude,tooboist’rous,anditprickslikethorn.

Mercutio.Ifloveberoughwithyou,beroughwithlove;Prickloveforpricking,°andyoubeatlovedown.Givemeacasetoputmyvisagein.Avisorforavisor!WhatcareIWhatcuriouseyedothquotedeformities?°Herearethebeetlebrows°shallblush°forme.

Benvolio.Come,knockandenter;andnosoonerinButeverymanbetakehimtohislegs.°

Romeo.Atorchforme!LetwantonslightofheartTicklethesenselessrushes°withtheirheels;ForIamproverbedwithagrandsirephrase,°I’llbeacandleholder°andlookon;

18bound(1)leap(2)limit21pitchheight(asinafalcon’ssoaring)28Prickloveforprickingi.e.,givelovethespurinreturn29-31Give...deformitiesi.e.,givemeabagformymask.Amaskforamask.WhatdoIcarewhonoticesmyugliness?32beetlebrowsbushyeyebrows(?)32blushbered,i.e.,begrotesque34betakehimtohislegsbegindancing36rushes(usedforfloorcovering)37grandsirephraseoldsaying38candleholderattendant

Thegamewasne’ersofair,andIamdone.°

Mercutio.Tut!Dun’sthemouse,theconstable’sownword!°IfthouartDun,°we’lldrawtheefromthemireOfthissir-reverence°love,whereinthoustickestUptotheears.Come,weburndaylight,°ho!

Romeo.Nay,that’snotso.

Mercutio.Imean,sir,indelay

Wewasteourlights°invain,likelightsbyday.Takeourgoodmeaning,forourjudgmentsitsFivetimesinthat°ereonceinourfivewits.

Romeo.Andwemeanwellingoingtothismasque,But’tisnowit°togo.

Mercutio.Why,mayoneask?

Romeo.Idreamtadreamtonight.°

Mercutio.AndsodidI.

Romeo.Well,whatwasyours?

Mercutio.Thatdreamersoftenlie.

Romeo.Inbedasleep,whiletheydodreamthingstrue.

Mercutio.O,thenIseeQueenMab°hathbeenwithyou.Sheisthefairies’midwife,andshecomesInshapenobiggerthananagatestone

39Thegame...donei.e.,I’llgiveupdancing,nowthatIhaveenjoyeditasmuchasIevershall40Dun’s...word(MercutiopunsonRomeo’slastclause,sayingineffect“Youarenotdone[i.e.,“dun”:“dark,”byextension,“silent”]butthemouseis,andit’stimetobequiet)41Dun(acommonnameforahorse,usedinanoldgame,“Dunisinthemire,”inwhichtheplayerstrytohaulaheavylog)42sir-reverencesaveyourreverence(anapologeticexpression,usedto introduce indelicateexpressions; here used humorously with the word “love”) 43 burn daylight delay 45 lights (1)torches(2)mentalfaculties47thati.e.,ourgoodmeaning49’tisnowititshowsnodiscretion50tonightlastnight53QueenMabFairyQueen(Celtic)

Ontheforefingerofanalderman,Drawnwithateamoflittleatomies°Overmen’snosesastheylieasleep;Herwagonspokesmadeoflongspinners’°legs,Thecover,ofthewingsofgrasshoppers;Hertraces,ofthesmallestspiderweb;Hercollars,ofthemoonshine’swat’rybeams;Herwhip,ofcricket’sbone;thelash,offilm;°Herwagoner,asmallgray-coatedgnat,NothalfsobigasaroundlittlewormPrickedfromthelazyfingerofamaid;°Herchariotisanemptyhazelnut,Madebythejoinersquirreloroldgrub,°Timeouto’mindthefairies’coachmakers.Andinthisstate°shegallopsnightbynightThroughlovers’brains,andthentheydreamoflove;

Oncourtiers’knees,thatdreamoncurtsiesstraight;O’erlawyers’fingers,whostraightdreamonfees;O’erladies’lips,whostraightonkissesdream,WhichofttheangryMabwithblistersplagues,Becausetheirbreathwithsweetmeatstaintedare.Sometimeshegallopso’eracourtier’snose,Andthendreamsheofsmellingoutasuit;°Andsometimecomesshewithatithepig’s°tailTicklingaparson’snoseas’aliesasleep,Thenhedreamsofanotherbenefice.°Sometimeshedrivetho’erasoldier’sneck,Andthendreamsheofcuttingforeignthroats,Ofbreaches,ambuscadoes,Spanishblades,Ofhealths°fivefathomdeep;andthenanonDrumsinhisear,atwhichhestartsandwakes,Andbeingthusfrighted,swearsaprayerortwo

57atomiestinycreatures59spinnersspiders63filmfinefilamentofsomekind65-66worm. . .maid(lazymaidsweresaidtohavewormsbreedingintheirfingers)68joinersquirreloroldgrub(bothwoodworkersandadeptathollowingoutnuts)70statestatelyarray78suiti.e.,apetitioner,whomaybeinducedtopayforthecourtier’sinfluence79tithepigtenthpig(consideredpartoftheparson’stithe)81beneficeincome,“living”85healthstoasts

Andsleepsagain.ThisisthatveryMabThatplatsthemanesofhorsesinthenightAndbakestheelflocks°infoulsluttishhairs,Whichonceuntangledmuchmisfortunebodes.Thisisthehag,°whenmaidslieontheirbacks,Thatpressesthemandlearnsthemfirsttobear,Makingthemwomenofgoodcarriage.°Thisisshe—

Romeo.Peace,peace,Mercutio,peace!Thoutalk’stofnothing.

Mercutio.True,Italkofdreams;Whicharethechildrenofanidlebrain,Begotofnothingbutvainfantasy;°Whichisasthinofsubstanceastheair,Andmoreinconstantthanthewind,whowoosEvennowthefrozenbosomoftheNorthAnd,beingangered,puffsawayfromthence,Turninghissidetothedew-droppingSouth.

Benvolio.Thiswindyoutalkofblowsusfromour-selves.Supperisdone,andweshallcometoolate.

Romeo.Ifear,tooearly;formymindmisgivesSomeconsequence°yethanginginthestarsShallbitterlybeginhisfearfuldate°Withthisnight’srevelsandexpirethetermOfadespisèdlife,closedinmybreast,Bysomevileforfeitofuntimelydeath.°ButhethathaththesteerageofmycourseDirectmysail!On,lustygentlemen!

Benvolio.Strike,drum.

Theymarchaboutthestage,and[retiretooneside].

90elflockshairtangledbyelves92hagnightmareorincubus94carriage(1)posture(2)capacityfor carrying children 98 fantasy fancy 107 consequence future event 108 date duration (of theconsequence or event) 109-11 expire . . . death (the event is personified here as one whodeliberatelylendsinexpectationthattheborrowerwillhavetoforfeitatgreatloss)

[Scene5.AhallinCapulet’shouse.]

Servingmencomeforthwithnapkins.°

FirstServingman.Where’sPotpan,thathehelpsnottotakeaway?Heshiftatrencher!°Hescrapeatrencher!

SecondServingman.Whengoodmannersshalllieallinoneortwomen’shands,andtheyunwashedtoo,’tisafoulthing.

FirstServingman.Awaywiththejoin-stools,°removethecourtcupboard,°looktotheplate.Goodthou,savemeapieceofmarchpane,°and,asthoulovesme,lettheporterletinSusanGrindstoneandNell.Anthony,andPotpan!

SecondServingman.Ay,boy,ready.

FirstServingman.Youarelookedforandcalledfor,askedforandsoughtfor,inthegreatchamber.

ThirdServingman.Wecannotbehereandtheretoo.Cheerly,boys!Bebriskawhile,andthelongerlivertakeall.Exeunt.

Enter[Capulet,hisWife,Juliet,Tybalt,Nurse,and]alltheGuestsandGentlewomentotheMaskers.

Capulet.Welcome,gentlemen!Ladiesthathavetheir

toes

1.5.s.d. (although for reference purposes this edition employs the con ventional post-Elizabethandivisionsintoscenes,thereaderisremindedthattheyaremerelyeditorial;inthequartothisstagedirectionispartoftheprecedingone)2trencherwoodenplate7join-stoolsstoolsfittedtogetherbyajoiner8courtcupboardsideboard,displayingplate9marchpanemarzipan,aconfectionmadeofsugarandalmonds

Unplaguedwithcornswillwalkabout°withyou.Ah,mymistresses,whichofyouallWillnowdeny°todance?Shethatmakesdainty,°SheI’llswearhathcorns.AmIcomenearyenow?Welcome,gentlemen!IhaveseenthedayThatIhavewornavisorandcouldtellAwhisperingtaleinafairlady’sear,Suchaswouldplease.’Tisgone,’tisgone,’tisgone.Youarewelcome,gentlemen!Come,musicians,play.

Musicplays,andtheydance.

Ahall,°ahall!Giveroom!Andfootit,girls.Morelight,youknaves,andturnthetablesup,Andquenchthefire;theroomisgrowntoohot.Ah,sirrah,thisunlooked-forsport°comeswell.Nay,sit;nay,sit,goodcousinCapulet;ForyouandIarepastourdancingdays.Howlongis’tnowsincelastyourselfandIWereinamask?

SecondCapulet.By’rLady,thirtyyears.

Capulet.What,man?’Tisnotsomuch,’tisnotsomuch;’TissincethenuptialofLucentio,ComePentecostasquicklyasitwill,Somefive-and-twentyyears,andthenwemasked.

SecondCapulet.’Tismore,’tismore.Hissoniselder,sir;Hissonisthirty.

Capulet.Willyoutellmethat?Hissonwasbutaward°twoyearsago.

Romeo.[ToaServingman]Whatlady’sthatwhichdothenrichthehandOfyonderknight?

Servingman.Iknownot,sir.

19walkaboutdanceaturn21denyrefuse21makesdaintyseemstohesitate28Ahallclearthefloor31unlooked-forsport(theyhadnotexpectedmaskers)42wardminor

Romeo.O,shedothteachthetorchestoburnbright!ItseemsshehangsuponthecheekofnightAsarichjewelinanEthiop’sear—Beautytoorichforuse,forearthtoodear!SoshowsasnowydovetroopingwithcrowsAsyonderladyo’erherfellowsshows.Themeasuredone,I’llwatchherplaceofstandAnd,touchinghers,makeblessèdmyrude°hand.Didmyheartlovetillnow?Forswearit,sight!ForIne’ersawtruebeautytillthisnight.

Tybalt.This,byhisvoice,shouldbeaMontague.Fetchmemyrapier,boy.What!DarestheslaveComehither,coveredwithananticface,°Tofleer°andscornatoursolemnity?Now,bythestockandhonorofmykin,TostrikehimdeadIholditnotasin.

Capulet.Why,hownow,kinsman?Whereforestormyouso?

Tybalt.Uncle,thisisaMontague,ourfoe,Avillain,thatishithercomeinspite°Toscornatoursolemnitythisnight.

Capulet.YoungRomeoisit?

Tybalt.’Tishe,thatvillainRomeo.

Capulet.Contentthee,gentlecoz,lethimalone.’Abearshimlikeaportly°gentleman,And,tosaytruth,VeronabragsofhimTobeavirtuousandwell-governedyouth.IwouldnotforthewealthofallthistownHereinmyhousedohimdisparagement.Thereforebepatient;takenonoteofhim.Itismywill,thewhichifthourespect,Showafairpresenceandputoffthesefrowns,Anill-beseemingsemblanceforafeast.

Tybalt.Itfitswhensuchavillainisaguest.

53ruderough58anticfacefantasticmask59fleer jeer64 inspite insultingly68portlyofgooddeportment

I’llnotendurehim.

Capulet.Heshallbeendured.

What,goodman°boy!Isayheshall.Goto!°AmIthemasterhere,oryou?Goto!You’llnotendurehim,Godshallmendmysoul!°You’llmakeamutiny°amongmyguests!Youwillsetcock-a-hoop.°You’llbetheman!

Tybalt.Why,uncle,’tisashame.

Capulet.Goto,goto!Youareasaucyboy.Is’tso,indeed?Thistrickmaychancetoscathe°you.Iknowwhat.Youmustcontraryme!Marry,’tistime—Wellsaid,myhearts!—Youareaprincox°—go!Bequiet,or—Morelight,morelight!—Forshame!I’llmakeyouquiet.What!—Cheerly,myhearts!

Tybalt.Patienceperforce°withwillfulcholer°meetingMakesmyfleshtrembleintheirdifferentgreeting.Iwillwithdraw;butthisintrusionshall,Nowseemingsweet,converttobitt’restgall.Exit.

Romeo.If°IprofanewithmyunworthiesthandThisholyshrine,°thegentlesinisthis:°Mylips,twoblushingpilgrims,readystandTosmooththatroughtouchwithatenderkiss.

Juliet.Goodpilgrim,youdowrongyourhandtoomuch,Whichmannerlydevotionshowsinthis;Forsaintshavehandsthatpilgrims’handsdotouch,Andpalmtopalmisholypalmers’°kiss.

79 goodman (a term applied to someone below the rank of gentleman) 79 Go to (impatientexclamation) 81 God shall mend my soul (roughly equivalent to our “Indeed”) 82 mutinydisturbance83setcock-a-hoopbecockof thewalk86scathehurt,harm88princox impertinentyoungster91Patienceperforceenforcedself-control91choleranger95If(herebeginsanEnglish,orShakespearean, sonnet) 96 shrine i.e., Juliet’shand96 thegentle sin is this this is the sin ofwell-bred people 102palmer religious pilgrim (the term originally signified one who carried apalmbranch;hereitisusedasapunmeaningonewhoholdsanother’shand)

Romeo.Havenotsaintslips,andholypalmerstoo?

Juliet.Ay,pilgrim,lipsthattheymustuseinprayer.

Romeo.O,then,dearsaint,letlipsdowhathandsdo!Theypray;grantthou,lestfaithturntodespair.

Juliet.Saintsdonotmove,°thoughgrantforprayers’sake.

Romeo.Thenmovenotwhilemyprayer’seffectItake.

Thusfrommylips,bythinemysinispurged.

[Kissesher.]

Juliet.Thenhavemylipsthesinthattheyhavetook.

Romeo.Sinfrommylips?Otrespasssweetlyurged!Givememysinagain.[Kissesher.]

Juliet.Youkissbyth’book.°

Nurse.Madam,yourmothercravesawordwithyou.

Romeo.Whatishermother?

Nurse.Marry,bachelor,Hermotheristheladyofthehouse,Andagoodlady,andawiseandvirtuous.Inursedherdaughterthatyoutalkedwithal.°Itellyou,hethatcanlayholdofherShallhavethechinks.°

Romeo.IssheaCapulet?Odearaccount!Mylifeismyfoe’sdebt.°

Benvolio.Away,begone;thesportisatthebest.

Romeo.Ay,soIfear;themoreismyunrest.

Capulet.Nay,gentlemen,preparenottobegone;Wehaveatriflingfoolishbanquettowards.°Isite’enso?°Whythen,Ithankyouall.

107donotmove (1) donot initiate action (2) stand still 112kissby th’book i.e., you takemywordsliterallytogetmorekisses117withalwith119thechinksplentyofmoney120Mylifeismyfoe’sdebtmyfoenowownsmylife124 towards inpreparation125Is ite’enso? (themaskersinsistonleaving)

Ithankyou,honestgentlemen.Goodnight.Moretorcheshere!Comeonthen;let’stobed.Ah,sirrah,bymyfay,°itwaxeslate;I’lltomyrest.[ExeuntallbutJulietandNurse.]

Juliet.Comehither,nurse.Whatisyondgentleman?

Nurse.ThesonandheirofoldTiberio.

Juliet.What’shethatnowisgoingoutofdoor?

Nurse.Marry,that,Ithink,beyoungPetruchio.

Juliet.What’shethatfollowshere,thatwouldnotdance?

Nurse.Iknownot.

Juliet.Goaskhisname.—Ifheismarrièd,Mygraveisliketobemyweddingbed.

Nurse.HisnameisRomeo,andaMontague,Theonlysonofyourgreatenemy.

Juliet.Myonlylove,sprungfrommyonlyhate!Tooearlyseenunknown,andknowntoolate!Prodigious°birthofloveitistomeThatImustlovealoathèdenemy.

Nurse.What’sthis?What’sthis?

Juliet.ArhymeIlearntevennowOfoneIdancedwithal.Onecallswithin,“Juliet.”

Nurse.Anon,°anon!Come,let’saway;thestrangersallaregone.

Exeunt.

128fayfaith142Prodigious(1)monstrous(2)ofevilportent145Anonatonce

[ACT2

PROLOGUE.

Enter]Chorus.

Chorus.Nowolddesiredothinhisdeathbedlie,Andyoungaffectiongapes°tobehisheir;Thatfair°forwhichlovegroanedforandwoulddie,WithtenderJulietmatched,isnownotfair.NowRomeoisbelovedandlovesagain,Alikebewitchèd°bythecharmoflooks;Buttohisfoesupposedhemustcomplain,°Andshesteallove’ssweetbaitfromfearfulhooks.Beingheldafoe,hemaynothaveaccessTobreathesuchvowsasloversuseto°swear,Andsheasmuchinlove,hermeansmuchlessTomeethernewbelovèdanywhere;Butpassionlendsthempower,timemeans,tomeet,Temp’ringextremitieswithextremesweet.°[Exit.]

2. Prologue 2 young affection gapes the new love is eager 3That fair i.e., Rosaline 6Alikebewitchèd i.e., botharebewitched7complain addresshis lover’s suit10useto customarily 14Temp’ring...sweetsofteningdifficultieswithextraordinarydelights33

[Scene1.NearCapulet’sorchard.]

EnterRomeoalone.

Romeo.CanIgoforwardwhenmyheartishere?Turnback,dullearth,andfindthycenterout.°EnterBenvoliowithMercutio.[Romeoretires.]

Benvolio.Romeo!MycousinRomeo!Romeo!

Mercutio.HeiswiseAnd,onmylife,hathstol’nhimhometobed.

Benvolio.Heranthiswayandleaptthisorchardwall.Call,goodMercutio.

Mercutio.Nay,I’llconjuretoo.Romeo!Humors!Madman!Passion!Lover!Appearthouinthelikenessofasigh;Speakbutonerhyme,andIamsatisfied!Crybut“Ayme!”pronouncebut“love”and“dove”;Speaktomygossip°Venusonefairword,Onenicknameforherpurblind°sonandheir,YoungAbrahamCupid,°hethatshotsotrueWhenKingCophetualovedthebeggarmaid!°Hehearethnot,hestirrethnot,hemovethnot;Theapeisdead,°andImustconjurehim.IconjuretheebyRosaline’sbrighteyes,Byherhighforeheadandherscarletlip,

2.1.1-2Can...out(RomeorefusestopassCapulet’shouse,commandinghisbody,orearth,tostopandjoinitspropersoul,orcenter—i.e.,Juliet)11gossipcrony12purblindquiteblind13AbrahamCupid (the phrase may mean “ancient youth” or, since “abram man” was slang for “trickster,”“rascallyCupid”)14KingCophetua...maid(referencetoanoldfamiliarballad)16Theapeisdeadi.e.,Romeoplaysdead,likeaperformingape

Byherfinefoot,straightleg,andquiveringthigh,Andthedemesnes°thatthereadjacentlie,Thatinthylikenessthouappeartous!

Benvolio.Andif°hehearthee,thouwiltangerhim.

Mercutio.Thiscannotangerhim.’TwouldangerhimToraiseaspiritinhismistress’circle°Ofsomestrangenature,lettingittherestandTillshehadlaiditandconjureditdown.Thatweresomespite;°myinvocationIsfairandhonest:°inhismistress’name,Iconjureonlybuttoraiseuphim.

Benvolio.Come,hehathhidhimselfamongthesetreesTobeconsorted°withthehumorous°night.Blindishisloveandbestbefitsthedark.

Mercutio.Iflovebeblind,lovecannothitthemark.NowwillhesitunderamedlartreeAndwishhismistresswerethatkindoffruitAsmaidscallmedlars°whentheylaughalone.O,Romeo,thatshewere,OthatshewereAnopenetcetera,thouapop’rin°pear!Romeo,goodnight.I’lltomytrucklebed;°Thisfieldbedistoocoldformetosleep.

Come,shallwego?

Benvolio.Gothen,for’tisinvainToseekhimherethatmeansnottobefound.

Exit[withothers].

20demesnesdomains22Andifif24circle(conjurersworkedwithinamagiccircle,butthereisalso a bawdy innuendo, as in stand, laid, down, raise) 27 spite vexation 28 fair and honestrespectable31consortedassociated31humorous(1)damp(2)moody36medlarsapplelikefruit,eatenwhendecayed(likepop’rin,inline38,thewordwasoftenusedtorefertosexualorgans)39I’ll tomy trucklebed I’llgo tomy trundlebed,orbabybed (i.e., I’m innocent inaffairsof thiskind)

[Scene2.Capulet’sorchard.]

Romeo.[Comingforward]Hejestsatscarsthatneverfeltawound.

[EnterJulietatawindow.]

Butsoft!Whatlightthroughyonderwindowbreaks?ItistheEast,andJulietisthesun!Arise,fairsun,andkilltheenviousmoon,WhoisalreadysickandpalewithgriefThatthouhermaid°artfarmorefairthanshe.Benothermaid,sincesheisenvious.Hervestallivery°isbutsickandgreen,°Andnonebutfoolsdowearit.Castitoff.Itismylady!O,itismylove!O,thatsheknewshewere!Shespeaks,yetshesaysnothing.Whatofthat?Hereyediscourses;Iwillanswerit.Iamtoobold;’tisnottomeshespeaks.Twoofthefaireststarsinalltheheaven,Havingsomebusiness,doentreathereyesTotwinkleintheirspheres°tilltheyreturn.Whatifhereyeswerethere,theyinherhead?ThebrightnessofhercheekwouldshamethosestarsAsdaylightdothalamp;hereyesinheavenWouldthroughtheairyregionstreamsobrightThatbirdswouldsingandthinkitwerenotnight.Seehowsheleanshercheekuponherhand!O,thatIwereagloveuponthathand,ThatImighttouchthatcheek!

Juliet.Ayme!

2.2.6hermaid (themoon ishere thoughtofasDiana,goddessandpatronessofvirgins)8vestallivery i.e., virginity 8 sick and green sickly, bearing the characteristics of greensickness, thevirgin’smalady17spheresorbits

Romeo.Shespeaks.O,speakagain,brightangel,forthouartAsglorioustothisnight,beingo’ermyhead,AsisawingèdmessengerofheavenUntothewhite-upturnèdwond’ringeyesOfmortalsthatfallbacktogazeonhimWhenhebestridesthelazypuffingcloudsAndsailsuponthebosomoftheair.

Juliet.ORomeo,Romeo!WhereforeartthouRomeo?Denythyfatherandrefusethyname;Or,ifthouwiltnot,bebutswornmylove,AndI’llnolongerbeaCapulet.

Romeo.[Aside]ShallIhearmore,orshallIspeakatthis?

Juliet.’Tisbutthynamethatismyenemy.Thouartthyself,thoughnot°aMontague.What’sMontague?Itisnorhand,norfoot,Norarm,norface.O,besomeothernameBelongingtoaman.What’sinaname?ThatwhichwecallaroseByanyotherwordwouldsmellassweet.SoRomeowould,werehenotRomeocalled,Retainthatdearperfectionwhichheowes°Withoutthattitle.Romeo,doffthyname;Andforthyname,whichisnopartofthee,Takeallmyself.

Romeo.Itaketheeatthyword.Callmebutlove,andI’llbenewbaptized;HenceforthIneverwillbeRomeo.

Juliet.Whatmanartthou,that,thusbescreenedinnight,Sostumblestonmycounsel?

Romeo.ByanameIknownothowtotelltheewhoIam.Myname,dearsaint,ishatefultomyself

39thoughnotevenifyouwerenot46owesowns

Becauseitisanenemytothee.

HadIitwritten,Iwouldteartheword.

Juliet.MyearshaveyetnotdrunkahundredwordsOfthytongue’suttering,yetIknowthesound.ArtthounotRomeo,andaMontague?

Romeo.Neither,fairmaid,ifeithertheedislike.°

Juliet.Howcamestthouhither,tellme,andwhere-fore?Theorchardwallsarehighandhardtoclimb,Andtheplacedeath,consideringwhothouart,Ifanyofmykinsmenfindtheehere.

Romeo.Withlove’slightwingsdidIo’erperch°thesewalls;Forstonylimitscannotholdloveout,Andwhatlovecando,thatdaresloveattempt.Thereforethykinsmenarenostoptome.

Juliet.Iftheydoseethee,theywillmurderthee.

Romeo.Alack,thereliesmoreperilinthineeyeThantwentyoftheirswords!Lookthoubutsweet,AndIamproof°againsttheirenmity.

Juliet.Iwouldnotfortheworldtheysawtheehere.

Romeo.Ihavenight’scloaktohidemefromtheireyes;Andbut°thouloveme,letthemfindmehere.MylifewerebetterendedbytheirhateThandeathproroguèd,°wantingofthylove.

Juliet.Bywhosedirectionfound’stthououtthisplace?

Romeo.Bylove,thatfirstdidpromptmetoinquire.Helentmecounsel,andIlenthimeyes.Iamnopilot;yet,wertthouasfarAsthatvastshorewashedwiththefarthestsea,Ishouldadventure°forsuchmerchandise.

Juliet.Thouknowestthemaskofnightisonmyface;

61 dislike displeases 66 o’erperch fly over 73 proof protected 76 but if only 78 proroguèddeferred84adventureriskthejourney

ElsewouldamaidenblushbepaintmycheekForthatwhichthouhastheardmespeaktonight.FainwouldIdwellonform—fain,faindenyWhatIhavespoke;butfarewellcompliment!°Dostthouloveme?Iknowthouwiltsay“Ay”;

AndIwilltakethyword.Yet,ifthouswear’st,Thoumaystprovefalse.Atlovers’perjuries,TheysayJovelaughs.OgentleRomeo,Ifthoudostlove,pronounceitfaithfully.OrifthouthinkestIamtooquicklywon,I’llfrownandbeperverseandsaytheenay,Sothouwiltwoo;butelse,notfortheworld.Intruth,fairMontague,Iamtoofond,°Andthereforethoumaystthinkmyhavior°light;Buttrustme,gentleman,I’llprovemoretrueThanthosethathavemorecunningtobestrange.°Ishouldhavebeenmorestrange,Imustconfess,Butthatthouoverheard’st,ereIwasware,Mytruelovepassion.Thereforepardonme,Andnotimputethisyieldingtolightlove,Whichthedarknighthathsodiscoverèd.°

Romeo.Lady,byyonderblessèdmoonIvow,Thattipswithsilverallthesefruit-treetops—

Juliet.O,swearnotbythemoon,th’inconstantmoon,Thatmonthlychangesinhercircleorb,Lestthatthyloveprovelikewisevariable.

Romeo.WhatshallIswearby?

Juliet.Donotswearatall;Orifthouwilt,swearbythygraciousself,Whichisthegodofmyidolatry,AndI’llbelievethee.

Romeo.Ifmyheart’sdearlove—

Juliet.Well,donotswear.AlthoughIjoyinthee,Ihavenojoyofthiscontracttonight.

89complimentformalcourtesy98fond(1)affectionate(2)foolishlytender99haviorbehavior101strangealoof106discoverèdrevealed

Itistoorash,toounadvised,toosudden;Toolikethelightning,whichdothceasetobeEreonecansayitlightens.Sweet,goodnight!Thisbudoflove,bysummer’sripeningbreath,Mayproveabeauteousflow’rwhennextwemeet.Goodnight,goodnight!AssweetreposeandrestCometothyheartasthatwithinmybreast!

Romeo.O,wiltthouleavemesounsatisfied?

Juliet.Whatsatisfactioncanstthouhavetonight?

Romeo.Th’exchangeofthylove’sfaithfulvowformine.

Juliet.Igavetheeminebeforethoudidstrequestit;AndyetIwoulditweretogiveagain.

Romeo.Wouldstthouwithdrawit?Forwhatpurpose,love?

Juliet.Buttobefrank°andgiveittheeagain.AndyetIwishbutforthethingIhave.Mybounty°isasboundlessasthesea,Myloveasdeep;themoreIgivetothee,ThemoreIhave,forbothareinfinite.Ihearsomenoisewithin.Dearlove,adieu!

[Nursecallswithin.]

Anon,goodnurse!SweetMontague,betrue.Staybutalittle,Iwillcomeagain.[Exit.]

Romeo.Oblessèd,blessèdnight!Iamafeard,Beinginnight,allthisisbutadream,Tooflattering-sweettobesubstantial.

[EnterJulietagain.]

Juliet.Threewords,dearRomeo,andgoodnightindeed.Ifthatthybent°oflovebehonorable,Thypurposemarriage,sendmewordtomorrow,ByonethatI’llprocuretocometothee,Whereandwhattimethouwiltperformtherite;

131frankgenerous133bountycapacityforgiving143bentaim

AndallmyfortunesatthyfootI’lllayAndfollowtheemylordthroughouttheworld.

[Nurse.Within]Madam!

Juliet.Icomeanon.—Butifthoumeanestnotwell,Idobeseechthee—[Nurse.Within]Madam!

Juliet.Byandby°Icome.—Toceasethystrife°andleavemetomygrief.TomorrowwillIsend.

Romeo.Sothrivemysoul—

Juliet.Athousandtimesgoodnight![Exit.]

Romeo.Athousandtimestheworse,towantthylight!Lovegoestowardloveasschoolboysfromtheirbooks;Butlovefromlove,towardschoolwithheavylooks.

EnterJulietagain.

Juliet.Hist!Romeo,hist!Oforafalc’ner’svoiceTolurethistasselgentle°backagain!Bondageishoarse°andmaynotspeakaloud,ElsewouldItearthecavewhereEcholiesAndmakeherairytonguemorehoarsethanmineWithrepetitionof“MyRomeo!”

Romeo.Itismysoulthatcallsuponmyname.Howsilver-sweetsoundlovers’tonguesbynight,Likesoftestmusictoattending°ears!

Juliet.Romeo!

Romeo.Mysweet?

Juliet.Whato’clocktomorrowShallIsendtothee?

151Byandbyatonce152strifeefforts159tasselgentletercelgentle,malefalcon160Bondageishoarsei.e.,beingsurroundedby“protectors,”Icannotcryloudly166attendingattentive

Romeo.Bythehourofnine.

Juliet.Iwillnotfail.’Tistwentyyeartillthen.IhaveforgotwhyIdidcalltheeback.

Romeo.Letmestandheretillthourememberit.

Juliet.Ishallforget,tohavetheestillstandthere,Rememb’ringhowIlovethycompany.

Romeo.AndI’llstillstay,tohavetheestillforget,Forgettinganyotherhomebutthis.

Juliet.’Tisalmostmorning.Iwouldhavetheegone—Andyetnofartherthanawanton’s°bird,Thatletsithopalittlefromhishand,Likeapoorprisonerinhistwistedgyves,°Andwithasilkenthreadplucksitbackagain,Soloving-jealousofhisliberty.

Romeo.IwouldIwerethybird.

Juliet.Sweet,sowouldI.YetIshouldkilltheewithmuchcherishing.Goodnight,goodnight!Partingissuchsweet

sorrowThatIshallsaygoodnighttillitbemorrow.°

[Exit.]

Romeo.Sleepdwelluponthineeyes,peaceinthybreast!WouldIweresleepandpeace,sosweettorest!°HencewillItomyghostlyfriar’s°closecell,Hishelptocraveandmydearhap°totell.Exit.

177wanton’scapriciouschild’s179gyvesfetters185morrowmorning187rest(thefourlinesthatfollowinthequartoareheredeletedbecausetheyarevirtuallyidenticalwiththefirstfourlinesofthenextscene.SeeTextualNote.ApparentlyShakespearewrotethemandthendecidedtousethematthestartofthenextscene,butforgottodeletetheirfirstoccurrence)188ghostlyfriar spiritualfather(i.e.,confessor)189dearhapgoodfortune

[Scene3.FriarLawrence’scell.]

EnterFriar[Lawrence]alone,withabasket.

Friar.Thegray-eyedmornsmilesonthefrowningnight,Check’ringtheeasterncloudswithstreaksoflight;Andfleckèd°darknesslikeadrunkardreelsFromforthday’spathandTitan’sburningwheels.°Now,erethesunadvancehisburningeyeThedaytocheerandnight’sdankdewtodry,Imustupfillthisosiercage°ofoursWithbaleful°weedsandprecious-juicèdflowers.Theearththat’snature’smotherishertomb.Whatisherburyinggrave,thatisherwomb;AndfromherwombchildrenofdiverskindWesuckingonhernaturalbosomfind,Manyformanyvirtuesexcellent,Nonebutforsome,andyetalldifferent.O,mickle°isthepowerfulgracethatliesInplants,herbs,stones,andtheirtruequalities;FornaughtsovilethatontheearthdothliveButtotheearthsomespecialgooddothgive;Noraughtsogoodbut,strained°fromthatfairuse,Revoltsfromtruebirth,°stumblingonabuse.Virtueitselfturnsvice,beingmisapplied,Andvicesometimebyactiondignified.°

EnterRomeo.°

2.3.3 fleckèd spotted4Titan’sburningwheelswheelsof the sun’s chariot 7osiercage willowbasket8baleful(1)evil(2)poisonous15micklemuch19straineddiverted20Revoltsfromtruebirthfallsawayfromitsrealpurpose22dignifiedmadeworthy22s.d.EnterRomeo(theentryofRomeoatthispoint,unseenbytheFriar,emphasizestheappropriatenessoftheremainingeightlinesoftheFriar’sspeech,notonlytotheflowerbuttoRomeo)

Withintheinfantrind°ofthisweakflowerPoisonhathresidenceandmedicine°power;Forthis,beingsmelt,withthatpartcheerseachpart;°Beingtasted,staysallsenseswiththeheart.Twosuchopposèdkingsencampthemstill°Inmanaswellasherbs—graceandrudewill;Andwheretheworserispredominant,Fullsoonthecanker°deatheatsupthatplant.

Romeo.Goodmorrow,father.

Friar.Benedicite!°Whatearlytonguesosweetsalutethme?Youngson,itarguesadistemperèdhead°Sosoontobidgoodmorrowtothybed.Carekeepshiswatchineveryoldman’seye,Andwherecarelodges,sleepwillneverlie;Butwhereunbruisèdyouthwithunstuffed°brainDothcouchhislimbs,theregoldensleepdothreign.ThereforethyearlinessdothmeassureThouartuprousedwithsomedistemp’rature;Orifnotso,thenhereIhititright—OurRomeohathnotbeeninbedtonight.

Romeo.Thatlastistrue.Thesweeterrestwasmine.

Friar.Godpardonsin!WastthouwithRosaline?

Romeo.WithRosaline,myghostlyfather?No.Ihaveforgotthatnameandthatname’swoe.

Friar.That’smygoodson!Butwherehastthoubeenthen?

Romeo.I’lltelltheeerethouaskitmeagain.Ihavebeenfeastingwithmineenemy,WhereonasuddenonehathwoundedmeThat’sbymewounded.Bothourremedies

23 infantrind tenderbark, skin24medicinemedicinal25For . . .part i.e., being smelled, thisflowerstimulateseverypartofthebody27stillalways30cankercankerworm,larvathatfeedson

leaves31Benediciteblessyou33distemperèdheadtroubledmind37unstuffeduntroubled

Withinthyhelpandholyphysic°lies.Ibearnohatred,blessèdman,for,lo,Myintercession°likewisesteads°myfoe.

Friar.Beplain,goodson,andhomelyinthydrift.°Riddlingconfessionfindsbutriddlingshrift.°

Romeo.Thenplainlyknowmyheart’sdearloveissetOnthefairdaughterofrichCapulet;Asmineonhers,sohersissetonmine,Andallcombined,°savewhatthoumustcombineByholymarriage.WhenandwhereandhowWemet,wewooed,andmadeexchangeofvow,I’lltelltheeaswepass;butthisIpray,Thatthouconsenttomarryustoday.

Friar.HolySaintFrancis!Whatachangeishere!IsRosaline,thatthoudidstlovesodear,Sosoonforsaken?Youngmen’slovethenliesNottrulyintheirhearts,butintheireyes.JesuMaria!WhatadealofbrineHathwashedthysallowcheeksforRosaline!HowmuchsaltwaterthrownawayinwasteToseason°love,thatofitdothnottaste!Thesunnotyetthysighsfromheavenclears,Thyoldgroansringyetinmineancientears.Lo,hereuponthycheekthestaindothsitOfanoldtearthatisnotwashedoffyet.Ife’erthouwastthyself,andthesewoesthine,ThouandthesewoeswereallforRosaline.Andartthouchanged?Pronouncethissentencethen:Womenmayfall°whenthere’snostrength°inmen.

Romeo.ThouchidstmeoftforlovingRosaline.

Friar.Fordoting,notforloving,pupilmine.

52physicmedicine54 intercessionentreaty54steadshelps55homelyinthydriftplaininyourtalk56shriftabsolution60combined(1)broughtintounity(2)settled72season(1)preserve(2)flavor80mayfalli.e.,maybeexpectedtobefickle80strengthconstancy

Romeo.Andbadstmeburylove.

Friar.NotinagraveTolayonein,anotherouttohave.

Romeo.Ipraytheechidemenot.HerIlovenowDothgrace°forgraceandloveforloveallow.Theotherdidnotso.

Friar.O,sheknewwellThylovedidreadbyrote,thatcouldnotspell.°Butcome,youngwaverer,comegowithme.Inonerespect°I’llthyassistantbe;ForthisalliancemaysohappyproveToturnyourhouseholds’rancortopurelove.

Romeo.O,letushence!Istandon°suddenhaste.

Friar.Wiselyandslow.Theystumblethatrunfast.

Exeunt.

[Scene4.Astreet.]

EnterBenvolioandMercutio.

Mercutio.WherethedevilshouldthisRomeobe?Camehenothometonight?

Benvolio.Nottohisfather’s.Ispokewithhisman.

Mercutio.Why,thatsamepalehardheartedwench,thatRosaline,Tormentshimsothathewillsurerunmad.

Benvolio.Tybalt,thekinsmantooldCapulet,Hathsentalettertohisfather’shouse.

Mercutio.Achallenge,onmylife.

86gracefavor88didread...spelli.e.,saidwordswithoutunderstandingthem90Inonerespectwithrespecttooneparticular93standoninsiston

Benvolio.Romeowillanswerit.

Mercutio.Anymanthatcanwritemayansweraletter.

Benvolio.Nay,hewillanswertheletter’smaster,howhedares,beingdared.

Mercutio.Alas,poorRomeo,heisalreadydead:stabbedwithawhitewench’sblackeye;runthroughtheearwithalovesong;theverypin°ofhisheartcleftwiththeblindbow-boy’sbutt-shaft;°andisheamantoencounterTybalt?

Benvolio.Why,whatisTybalt?

Mercutio.MorethanPrinceofCats.°O,he’sthecourageouscaptainofcompliments.°Hefightsasyousingpricksong°—keepstime,distance,andpro-portion;herestshisminimrests,°one,two,andthethirdinyourbosom!Theverybutcherofasilkbutton,°aduelist,aduelist!Agentlemanoftheveryfirsthouse,°ofthefirstandsecondcause.°Ah,theimmortalpassado!°Thepuntoreverso!°Thehay!°

Benvolio.Thewhat?

Mercutio.Thepoxofsuchantic,lisping,affectingfantasticoes°—thesenewtunersofaccent!“ByJesu,averygoodblade!Averytall°man!Averygoodwhore!”Why,isnotthisalamentablething,grandsir,thatweshouldbethusafflictedwiththese

2.4.15pincenter(ofatarget)16blindbow-boy’sbutt-shaftCupid’sbluntarrow19PrinceofCats(Tybalt’sname,orsomevariantofit,wasgiventothecatinmedievalstoriesofReynardtheFox)20com-pliments formalcourtesies21singpricksong (1) sing froma text (2) singwithattention toaccuracy22he restshisminimrests i.e., he scrupulouslyobserves every formality (literally, heobserveseventheshortestrestsinthenotation)24button(onhisopponent’sshirt)25firsthousefirstrank25firstandsecondcause(duelingterms,meaningformalgroundsfortakingoffenseandgiving a challenge) 26 passado lunge 26 punto reverso backhanded stroke 27 hay home thrust(Italianhai)30fantasticoesfops31tallbrave

strangeflies,thesefashionmongers,thesepardon-me’s,°whostandsomuchonthenewform°thattheycannotsitateaseontheoldbench?O,theirbones,°theirbones!

EnterRomeo.

Benvolio.HerecomesRomeo!HerecomesRomeo!

Mercutio.Withouthisroe,°likeadriedherring.Oflesh,flesh,howartthoufishified!Nowisheforthenumbers°thatPetrarchflowedin.Laura,°tohislady,wasakitchenwench(marry,shehadabetterlovetoberhymeher),Dido°adowdy,°Cleopatraagypsy,°HelenandHero°hildings°andharlots,Thisbe°agrayeye°orso,butnottothepurpose.SigniorRomeo,bonjour!There’saFrenchsalutationtoyourFrenchslop.°Yougaveusthecounterfeitfairlylastnight.

Romeo.Goodmorrowtoyouboth.WhatcounterfeitdidIgiveyou?

Mercutio.Theslip,°sir,theslip.Canyounotcon-ceive?

Romeo.Pardon,goodMercutio.Mybusinesswasgreat,andinsuchacaseasmineamanmaystraincourtesy.

Mercutio.That’sasmuchastosay,suchacase°asyoursconstrainsamantobowinthehams.

34-35pardon-me’s i.e., personswho affect foreignphrases (cf. Italianperdonami) 35 form (1)fashion(2)bench37bones(punonFrenchbon)39Withouthisroei.e.,(1)emaciatedlikeafishthathasspawnedor(2)strippedof“Ro,”leavingonly“me-o”(asigh)41numbersverses41Laura(Petrarch’sbeloved)43Dido(QueenofCarthage,enamoredofAeneas)43dowdyadrabwoman44gypsyadeceitfulwoman(gypsieswerecommonlybelievedtobeEgyptians)44HelenandHero(belovedrespectivelyofParisandLeander)44hildingsgood-for-nothings45Thisbe (belovedofPyramusinastoryanalogoustothatofRomeoandJuliet)45grayeyei.e.,gleamintheeye47sloploosebreeches51slip(1)escape(2)counterfeitcoin56case(1)situation(2)physicalcondition

Romeo.Meaning,tocurtsy.

Mercutio.Thouhastmostkindlyhit°it.

Romeo.Amostcourteousexposition.

Mercutio.Nay,Iamtheverypink°ofcourtesy.

Romeo.Pinkforflower.

Mercutio.Right.

Romeo.Why,thenismypump°well-flowered.°

Mercutio.Surewit,followmethisjestnowtillthouhastwornoutthypump,that,whenthesinglesoleofitisworn,thejestmayremain,afterthewearing,solelysingular.°

Romeo.Osingle-soledjest,solelysingularforthesingleness!

Mercutio.Comebetweenus,goodBenvolio!Mywitsfaints.

Romeo.Swits°andspurs,switsandspurs;orI’llcryamatch.°

Mercutio.Nay,ifourwitsrunthewild-goosechase,°Iamdone;forthouhastmoreofthewildgooseinoneofthywitsthan,Iamsure,Ihaveinmywholefive.WasIwithyouthereforthegoose?°

Romeo.Thouwastneverwithmeforanythingwhenthouwastnotthereforthegoose.°

Mercutio.Iwillbitetheebytheearforthatjest.

59mostkindlyhitmostpolitelyinterpreted61pinkperfection(butRomeoproceedstoexploittwoothermeanings: [1] flower[2]punches inanornamentaldesign)64pump shoe64well-floweredornamentedwithpinking(withpunon“floored”)68solelysingular(1)single-soled(i.e.,weak)(2)uniquely remarkable (literally, “uniquely unique”) 73Swits switches 73-74 cryamatch claim avictory75wild-goosechasecross-countrygameof“followtheleader”onhorseback78gooseendofthechase(i.e.,endofthepunningmatch)80gooseprostitute

Romeo.Nay,goodgoose,bitenot!°

Mercutio.Thywitisaverybittersweeting;°itisamostsharpsauce.

Romeo.Andisitnot,then,wellservedintoasweetgoose?°

Mercutio.O,here’sawitofcheveril,°thatstretchesfromaninchnarrowtoanellbroad!°

Romeo.Istretchitoutforthatword“broad,”whichaddedtothegoose,provestheefarandwideabroad°goose.

Mercutio.Why,isnotthisbetternowthangroaningforlove?Nowartthousociable,nowartthouRomeo;nowartthouwhatthouart,byartaswellasbynature.Forthisdrivelingloveislikeagreatnatural°thatrunslolling°upanddowntohidehisbauble°inahole.

Benvolio.Stopthere,stopthere!

Mercutio.Thoudesirestmetostopinmytaleagainstthehair.°

Benvolio.Thouwouldstelsehavemadethytalelarge.°

Mercutio.O,thouartdeceived!Iwouldhavemadeitshort;forIwascometothewholedepthofmytale,andmeantindeedtooccupytheargument°nolonger.

Romeo.Here’sgoodlygear!°

82goodgoose,bitenot(proverbialfor“Spareme!”)83bittersweeting tartkindofapple85-86sweetgoosetendergoose(hereprobablyreferringtoMercutio;buttheexpression“Soursauceforsweetmeat”wasproverbial)87cheverilkidleather,easilystretched88ellbroadforty-fiveincheswide91broad indecent (?)96natural idiot96 lollingwith tonguehangingout97bauble trinket

(with ribald innuendo) 99-100 against the hair against my inclination 102 large indecent 105occupytheargumentdiscussthematter107gearstuff

EnterNurseandherMan[Peter].

Asail,asail!

Mercutio.Two,two!Ashirtandasmock.°

Nurse.Peter!

Peter.Anon.

Nurse.Myfan,Peter.

Mercutio.GoodPeter,tohideherface;forherfan’sthefairerface.

Nurse.Godyegoodmorrow,gentlemen.

Mercutio.Godyegood-den,°fairgentlewoman.

Nurse.Isitgood-den?

Mercutio.’Tisnoless,Itellye;forthebawdyhandofthedialisnowupontheprick°ofnoon.

Nurse.Outuponyou!Whatamanareyou!

Romeo.One,gentlewoman,thatGodhathmade,him-selftomar.

Nurse.Bymytroth,itiswellsaid.“Forhimselftomar,”quoth’a?°Gentlemen,cananyofyoutellmewhereImayfindtheyoungRomeo?

Romeo.Icantellyou;butyoungRomeowillbeolderwhenyouhavefoundhimthanhewaswhenyousoughthim.Iamtheyoungestofthatname,forfaultofaworse.°

Nurse.Yousaywell.

Mercutio.Yea,istheworstwell?Verywelltook,°i’faith!Wisely,wisely.

Nurse.Ifyoubehe,sir,Idesiresomeconfidence°withyou.

109Ashirtandasmocki.e.,amanandawoman116good-dengoodevening(i.e.,afternoon)119prickpointonthedialofaclock(withbawdyinnuendo)124quoth’aindeed(literally,“saidhe”)128-29forfaultofaworse(mock-modestlyparodying“forwantofabetter”)131tookunderstood133confidenceconference(possiblyamalapropism)

Benvolio.Shewillendite°himtosomesupper.

Mercutio.Abawd,abawd,abawd!Soho!°

Romeo.Whathastthoufound?

Mercutio.Nohare,°sir;unlessahare,sir,inalentenpie,°thatissomethingstaleandhoar°ereitbespent.

[Hewalksbythemandsings.]

Anoldharehoar,Andanoldharehoar,IsverygoodmeatinLent;ButaharethatishoarIstoomuchforascoreWhenithoarsereitbespent.

Romeo,willyoucometoyourfather’s?We’lltodinnerthither.

Romeo.Iwillfollowyou.

Mercutio.Farewell,ancientlady.Farewell,[singing]“Lady,lady,lady.”°Exeunt[Mercutio,Benvolio].

Nurse.Iprayyou,sir,whatsaucymerchantwasthisthatwassofullofhisropery?°

Romeo.Agentleman,nurse,thatlovestohearhimselftalkandwillspeakmoreinaminutethanhewillstandtoinamonth.

Nurse.And’aspeakanythingagainstme,I’lltakehimdown,and’awerelustierthanheis,andtwentysuchJacks;andifIcannot,I’llfindthosethatshall.Scurvyknave!Iamnoneofhisflirt-gills;°Iam

135enditeinvite(Benvolio’sintentionalmalapropism?)136Soho!(cryonsightingaquarry)138hareprostitute138-39lentenpierabbitpie(eatensparinglyandhencestale)139hoargray-haired,moldy (wordplay on “hare” and “whore”) 151 Lady, lady, lady (ballad refrain from “ChasteSusanna”)153roperyrascallytalk160flirt-gillsflirtingwenches

noneofhisskainsmates.°Andthoumuststandbytoo,andsuffereveryknavetousemeathispleasure!

Peter.Isawnomanuseyouathispleasure.IfIhad,myweaponshouldquicklyhavebeenout,Iwarrantyou.Idaredrawassoonasanotherman,ifIseeoccasioninagoodquarrel,andthelawonmyside.

Nurse.Now,aforeGod,Iamsovexedthateverypartaboutmequivers.Scurvyknave!Prayyou,sir,a

word;and,asItoldyou,myyoungladybidmeinquireyouout.Whatshebidmesay,Iwillkeeptomyself;butfirstletmetellye,ifyeshouldleadherinafool’sparadise,°astheysay,itwereaverygrosskindofbehavior,astheysay;forthegentle-womanisyoung;andtherefore,ifyoushoulddealdoublewithher,trulyitwereanillthingtobeoff’redtoanygentlewoman,andveryweak°dealing.

Romeo.Nurse,commendmetothyladyandmistress.Iprotestuntothee—

Nurse.Goodheart,andi’faithIwilltellherasmuch.Lord,Lord,shewillbeajoyfulwoman.

Romeo.Whatwiltthoutellher,nurse?Thoudostnotmarkme.

Nurse.Iwilltellher,sir,thatyoudoprotest,which,asItakeit,isagentlemanlikeoffer.

Romeo.BidherdeviseSomemeanstocometoshriftthisafternoon;AndtheresheshallatFriarLawrence’cellBeshrivedandmarried.Hereisforthypains.

Nurse.No,truly,sir;notapenny.

Romeo.Goto!Isayyoushall.

Nurse.Thisafternoon,sir?Well,sheshallbethere.

161skainsmatesharlots(?)daggers’mates(i.e.,outlaws’mates)173fool’sparadiseseduction177weakunmanly,unscrupulous

Romeo.Andstay,goodnurse,behindtheabbeywall.WithinthishourmymanshallbewiththeeAndbringtheecordsmadelikeatackledstair,°Whichtothehightopgallant°ofmyjoyMustbemyconvoy°inthesecretnight.Farewell.Betrusty,andI’llquit°thypains.Farewell.Commendmetothymistress.

Nurse.NowGodinheavenblessthee!Harkyou,sir.

Romeo.Whatsay’stthou,mydearnurse?

Nurse.Isyourmansecret?Didyoune’erhearsay,Twomaykeepcounsel,puttingoneaway?

Romeo.Warranttheemyman’sastrueassteel.

Nurse.Well,sir,mymistressisthesweetestlady.Lord,

Lord!When’twasalittlepratingthing—O,thereisanoblemanintown,oneParis,thatwouldfainlayknifeaboard;°butshe,goodsoul,hadaslieve°seeatoad,averytoad,asseehim.Iangerhersome-times,andtellherthatParisisthepropererman;butI’llwarrantyou,whenIsayso,shelooksaspaleasanyclout°intheversalworld.°DothnotrosemaryandRomeobeginbothwithaletter?

Romeo.Ay,nurse;whatofthat?BothwithanR.

Nurse.Ah,mocker!That’sthedog’sname.°Risforthe—No;Iknowitbeginswithsomeotherletter;andshehaththeprettiestsententious°ofit,ofyouandrosemary,thatitwoulddoyougoodtohearit.

Romeo.Commendmetothylady.

Nurse.Ay,athousandtimes.[ExitRomeo.]Peter!

Peter.Anon.

Nurse.Before,andapace.Exit[afterPeter].

195 tackled stair rope ladder 196 topgallant summit (mast above the topmast) 197 convoyconveyance198quitreward207-08 layknifeaboard takeaslice208hadas lievewouldrather212cloutcloth212versalworlduniverse215dog’sname (theR soundsuggestsadog’sgrowl)217sententioussentences,pithysayings

[Scene5.Capulet’sorchard.]

EnterJuliet.

Juliet.TheclockstruckninewhenIdidsendthenurse;Inhalfanhourshepromisedtoreturn.Perchanceshecannotmeethim.That’snotso.O,sheislame!Love’sheraldsshouldbethoughts,Whichtentimesfasterglidesthanthesun’sbeamsDrivingbackshadowsoverlow’ringhills.Thereforedonimble-pinioneddoves°drawLove,Andthereforehaththewind-swiftCupidwings.NowisthesunuponthehighmosthillOfthisday’sjourney,andfromninetilltwelveIsthreelonghours;yetsheisnotcome.Hadsheaffectionsandwarmyouthfulblood,Shewouldbeasswiftinmotionasaball;

Mywordswouldbandyher°tomysweetlove,Andhistome.Butoldfolks,manyfeignastheyweredead°—Unwieldy,slow,heavyandpaleaslead.

EnterNurse[andPeter].

OGod,shecomes!Ohoneynurse,whatnews?Hastthoumetwithhim?Sendthymanaway.

Nurse.Peter,stayatthegate.[ExitPeter.]

Juliet.Now,goodsweetnurse—OLord,whylookestthousad?Thoughnewsbesad,yettellthemmerrily;

2.5.7nimble-pinioneddovesswift-wingeddoves(sacredtoVenus)14bandyherspeedher16old...deadi.e.,manyoldpeoplemoveaboutasiftheywerealmostdead

Ifgood,thoushamestthemusicofsweetnewsByplayingittomewithsosouraface.

Nurse.Iamaweary,givemeleaveawhile.Fie,howmybonesache!Whatajaunce°haveI!

Juliet.Iwouldthouhadstmybones,andIthynews.Nay,come,Ipraytheespeak.Good,goodnurse,speak.

Nurse.Jesu,whathaste!Canyounotstay°awhile?DoyounotseethatIamoutofbreath?

Juliet.HowartthououtofbreathwhenthouhastbreathTosaytomethatthouartoutofbreath?TheexcusethatthoudostmakeinthisdelayIslongerthanthetalethoudostexcuse.Isthynewsgoodorbad?Answertothat.Sayeither,andI’llstaythecircumstance.°Letmebesatisfied,is’tgoodorbad?

Nurse.Well,youhavemadeasimple°choice;youknownothowtochooseaman.Romeo?No,nothe.Thoughhisfacebebetterthananyman’s,yethislegexcelsallmen’s;andforahandandafoot,andabody,thoughtheybenottobetalkedon,yettheyarepastcompare.Heisnottheflowerofcourtesy,but,I’llwarranthim,asgentleasalamb.Gothyways,wench;serveGod.What,haveyoudinedathome?

Juliet.No,no.ButallthisdidIknowbefore.Whatsaysheofourmarriage?Whatofthat?

Nurse.Lord,howmyheadaches!WhataheadhaveI!Itbeatsasitwouldfallintwentypieces.Mybacka°t’otherside—ah,myback,myback!Beshrew°yourheartforsendingmeaboutTocatchmydeathwithjauncingupanddown!

26 jaunce jaunt, fatiguing walk 29 stay wait 36 stay the circumstance wait for the details 38simplefoolish51aon52Beshrewcurse(inthesenseof“shameon”)

Juliet.I’faith,Iamsorrythatthouartnotwell.Sweet,sweet,sweetnurse,tellme,whatsaysmylove?

Nurse.Yourlovesays,likeanhonestgentleman,andacourteous,andakind,andahandsome,and,Iwarrant,avirtuous—Whereisyourmother?

Juliet.Whereismymother?Why,sheiswithin.Whereshouldshebe?Howoddlythourepliest!“Yourlovesays,likeanhonestgentleman,‘Whereisyourmother?’”

Nurse.OGod’sLadydear!Areyousohot?°Marrycomeup,Itrow.°Isthisthepoulticeformyachingbones?Henceforwarddoyourmessagesyourself.

Juliet.Here’ssuchacoil!°Come,whatsaysRomeo?

Nurse.Haveyougotleavetogotoshrifttoday?

Juliet.Ihave.

Nurse.ThenhieyouhencetoFriarLawrence’cell;Therestaysahusbandtomakeyouawife.Nowcomesthewantonbloodupinyourcheeks:They’llbeinscarletstraight°atanynews.Hieyoutochurch;Imustanotherway,Tofetchaladder,bythewhichyourloveMustclimbabird’snestsoonwhenitisdark.Iamthedrudge,andtoilinyourdelight;Butyoushallbeartheburdensoonatnight.Go;I’lltodinner;hieyoutothecell.

Juliet.Hietohighfortune!Honestnurse,farewell.

Exeunt.

63hotangry63Marry...trow indeed,comenow,bytheVirgin66coildisturbance72straight

straightway

[Scene6.FriarLawrence’scell.]

EnterFriar[Lawrence]andRomeo.

Friar.SosmiletheheavensuponthisholyactThatafterhourswithsorrowchideusnot!

Romeo.Amen,amen!Butcomewhatsorrowcan,Itcannotcountervail°theexchangeofjoyThatoneshortminutegivesmeinhersight.Dothoubutcloseourhandswithholywords,Thenlove-devouringdeathdowhathedare—ItisenoughImaybutcallhermine.

Friar.TheseviolentdelightshaveviolentendsAndintheirtriumphdie,likefireandpowder,Which,astheykiss,consume.ThesweetesthoneyIsloathsomeinhisowndeliciousnessAndinthetasteconfounds°theappetite.Thereforelovemoderately:longlovedothso;Tooswiftarrivesastardyastooslow.

EnterJuliet.

Herecomesthelady.O,solightafootWillne’erwearouttheeverlastingflint.°Alovermaybestridethegossamers°Thatidlesinthewanton°summerair,Andyetnotfall;solightisvanity.°

Juliet.Goodeventomyghostlyconfessor.

Friar.Romeoshallthankthee,daughter,forusboth.

2.6.4countervailequal13confoundsdestroys17Will . . . flint i.e., Juliet’s feet are lighter thanwaterdrops, which are proverbially said to wear away stones 18 gossamers spiders’ webs 19wantoncapricious20vanityatransitorything(anearthlyloverandhislove)

Juliet.Asmuchtohim,°elseishisthankstoomuch.

Romeo.Ah,Juliet,ifthemeasureofthyjoyBeheapedlikemine,andthatthyskillbemoreToblazonit,°thensweetenwiththybreathThisneighborair,andletrichmusic’stongueUnfoldtheimaginedhappinessthatbothReceiveineitherbythisdearencounter.

Juliet.Conceit,morerichinmatterthaninwords,Bragsofhissubstance,notofornament.°Theyarebutbeggarsthatcancounttheirworth;ButmytrueloveisgrowntosuchexcessIcannotsumupsumofhalfmywealth.

Friar.Come,comewithme,andwewillmakeshortwork;For,byyourleaves,youshallnotstayaloneTillHolyChurchincorporatetwoinone.[Exeunt.]

23Asmuchtohimi.e.,thesamegreetingtoRomeo25-26thyskill...blazonityouarebetterabletoset itforth30-31Conceit . . .ornament i.e., trueunderstanding is itsownproudmanifestationanddoesnotneedwords

[ACT3

Scene1.Apublicplace.]

EnterMercutio,Benvolio,andMen.

Benvolio.Ipraythee,goodMercutio,let’sretire.Thedayishot,theCapelsareabroad,And,ifwemeet,weshallnot’scapeabrawl,Fornow,thesehotdays,isthemadbloodstirring.

Mercutio.Thouartlikeoneofthesefellowsthat,whenheenterstheconfinesofatavern,clapsmehissworduponthetableandsays,“Godsendmenoneedofthee!”andbytheoperationofthesecondcupdrawshimonthedrawer,°whenindeedthereisnoneed.

Benvolio.AmIlikesuchafellow?

Mercutio.Come,come,thouartashotaJackinthymoodasanyinItaly;andassoonmovedtobemoody,°andassoonmoodytobemoved.°

Benvolio.Andwhatto?

Mercutio.Nay,andthereweretwosuch,weshouldhavenoneshortly,foronewouldkilltheother.Thou!Why,thouwiltquarrelwithamanthathath

3.1.9drawshimonthedrawerdrawshisswordon thewaiter14moodyangry14moodytobemovedquick-tempered

ahairmoreorahairlessinhisbeardthanthouhast.Thouwiltquarrelwithamanforcrackingnuts,havingnootherreasonbutbecausethouhasthazeleyes.Whateyebutsuchaneyewouldspyoutsuchaquarrel?Thyheadisasfullofquarrelsasaneggisfullofmeat;andyetthyheadhathbeenbeatenasaddleasaneggforquarreling.Thouhasquarreledwithamanforcoughinginthestreet,becausehehathwakenedthydogthathathlainasleepinthesun.Didstthounotfalloutwithatailorforwearinghisnewdoublet°beforeEaster?Withanotherfortyinghisnewshoeswithold

riband?°Andyetthouwilttutormefromquarreling!

Benvolio.AndIweresoapttoquarrelasthouart,anymanshouldbuythefeesimple°ofmylifeforanhourandaquarter.°

Mercutio.Thefeesimple?Osimple!°

EnterTybalt,Petruchio,°andothers.

Benvolio.Bymyhead,herecomestheCapulets.

Mercutio.Bymyheel,Icarenot.

Tybalt.Followmeclose,forIwillspeaktothem.Gentlemen,good-den.°Awordwithoneofyou.

Mercutio.Andbutonewordwithoneofus?Coupleitwithsomething;makeitawordandablow.

Tybalt.Youshallfindmeaptenoughtothat,sir,andyouwillgivemeoccasion.

Mercutio.Couldyounottakesomeoccasionwithoutgiving?

Tybalt.Mercutio,thouconsortestwithRomeo.

29doublet jacket31riband ribbon33 feesimple absolute possession 33-34 for anhour and aquarter i.e., the life expectancy of one withMercutio’s penchant for quarreling 35O simple Ostupid35Petruchio(in1.5hewasoneofCapulet’sguests,buthehasnolines)39good-dengoodevening(i.e.,afternoon)

Mercutio.Consort?°What,dostthoumakeusmin-strels?Andthoumakeminstrelsofus,looktohearnothingbutdiscords.Here’smyfiddlestick;°here’sthatshallmakeyoudance.Zounds,°consort!

Benvolio.Wetalkhereinthepublichauntofmen.Eitherwithdrawuntosomeprivateplace,Orreasoncoldlyofyourgrievances,Orelsedepart.Herealleyesgazeonus.

Mercutio.Men’seyesweremadetolook,andletthemgaze.Iwillnotbudgefornoman’spleasure,I.

EnterRomeo.

Tybalt.Well,peacebewithyou,sir.Herecomesmyman.°

Mercutio.ButI’llbehanged,sir,ifhewearyourlivery.°

Marry,gobeforethefield,°he’llbeyourfollower!Yourworshipinthatsensemaycallhimman.

Tybalt.Romeo,theloveIbeartheecanaffordNobettertermthanthis:thouartavillain.°

Romeo.Tybalt,thereasonthatIhavetolovetheeDothmuchexcusetheappertaining°rageTosuchagreeting.VillainamInone.Thereforefarewell.Iseethouknowestmenot.

Tybalt.Boy,thisshallnotexcusetheinjuriesThatthouhastdoneme;thereforeturnanddraw.

Romeo.IdoprotestIneverinjuredthee,Butlovetheebetterthanthoucanstdevise°Tillthoushaltknowthereasonofmylove;Andso,goodCapulet,whichnameItender°Asdearlyasmineown,besatisfied.

47Consort (1) to keep company with (2) company of musicians 49 fiddlestick i.e., sword 50ZoundsbyGod’swounds57man (Mercutio takes this tomean“manservant”)58 livery servant’suniform59fieldduelingfield62villainlowfellow64appertainingappropriate70deviseimagine72tendervalue

Mercutio.Ocalm,dishonorable,vilesubmission!Allastoccata°carriesitaway.[Draws.]Tybalt,youratcatcher,willyouwalk?°

Tybalt.Whatwouldstthouhavewithme?

Mercutio.GoodKingofCats,nothingbutoneofyourninelives.ThatImeantomakeboldwithal,°and,asyoushallusemehereafter,dry-beat°therestoftheeight.Willyoupluckyourswordoutofhispilcher°bytheears?Makehaste,lestminebeaboutyourearsereitbeout.

Tybalt.Iamforyou.[Draws.]

Romeo.GentleMercutio,putthyrapierup.

Mercutio.Come,sir,yourpassado!°[Theyfight.]

Romeo.Draw,Benvolio;beatdowntheirweapons.Gentlemen,forshame!Forbearthisoutrage!Tybalt,Mercutio,thePrinceexpresslyhathForbidthisbandying°inVeronastreets.Hold,Tybalt!GoodMercutio!

[TybaltunderRomeo’sarmthrustsMercutioin,andflies.]

Mercutio.Iamhurt.

Aplaguea°bothhouses!Iamsped.°Ishegoneandhathnothing?

Benvolio.What,artthouhurt?

Mercutio.Ay,ay,ascratch,ascratch.Marry,’tisenough.Whereismypage?Go,villain,fetchasurgeon.

[ExitPage.]

Romeo.Courage,man.Thehurtcannotbemuch.

Mercutio.No,’tisnotsodeepasawell,norsowide

75Alla stoccata (a term in fencing, “At the thrust,” which Mercutio uses contemptuously as anicknameforTybalt)76walk stepaside79makeboldwithalmakeboldwith, take80dry-beatthrash82pilcherscabbard86passadolunge90bandyingbrawling92aon92spedwounded

asachurchdoor;but’tisenough,’twillserve.Askformetomorrow,andyoushallfindmeagrave°man.Iampeppered,°Iwarrant,forthisworld.Aplagueabothyourhouses!Zounds,adog,arat,amouse,acat,toscratchamantodeath!Abraggart,arogue,avillain,thatfightsbythebookofarith-metic!°Whythedevilcameyoubetweenus?Iwashurtunderyourarm.

Romeo.Ithoughtallforthebest.

Mercutio.Helpmeintosomehouse,Benvolio,OrIshallfaint.Aplagueabothyourhouses!Theyhavemadeworms’meatofme.Ihaveit,°Andsoundlytoo.Yourhouses!

Exit[MercutioandBenvolio].

Romeo.Thisgentleman,thePrince’snearally,°Myvery°friend,hathgotthismortalhurtInmybehalf—myreputationstainedWithTybalt’sslander—Tybalt,thatanhourHathbeenmycousin.OsweetJuliet,ThybeautyhathmademeeffeminateAndinmytempersoft’nedvalor’ssteel!°

EnterBenvolio.

Benvolio.ORomeo,Romeo,braveMercutioisdead!Thatgallantspirithathaspired°theclouds,Whichtoountimelyheredidscorntheearth.

Romeo.Thisday’sblackfateonmoe°daysdoth

depend;°Thisbutbeginsthewoeothersmustend.

[EnterTybalt.]

Benvolio.HerecomesthefuriousTybaltbackagain.

Romeo.Aliveintriumph,andMercutioslain?

99 grave (1) extremely serious (2) ready for the grave 100 am peppered have been given adeathblow103-04bythebookofarithmeticbyformalrules109Ihaveiti.e.,Ihavereceivedmydeathblow111allyrelative112verytrue117in...steelsoftenedthevalorouspartofmycharacter119aspiredclimbedto121moemore121dependhangover

Awaytoheavenrespectivelenity,°Andfire-eyedfurybemyconduct°now!Now,Tybalt,takethe“villain”backagainThatlatethougavestme;forMercutio’ssoulIsbutalittlewayaboveourheads,Stayingforthinetokeephimcompany.EitherthouorI,orboth,mustgowithhim.

Tybalt.Thou,wretchedboy,thatdidstconsorthimhere,Shaltwithhimhence.

Romeo.Thisshalldeterminethat.

Theyfight.Tybaltfalls.

Benvolio.Romeo,away,begone!Thecitizensareup,andTybaltslain.Standnotamazed.ThePrincewilldoomtheedeathIfthouarttaken.Hence,begone,away!Romeo.O,Iamfortune’sfool!°Benvolio.Whydostthoustay?

ExitRomeo.

EnterCitizens.

Citizen.WhichwayranhethatkilledMercutio?Tybalt,thatmurderer,whichwayranhe?

Benvolio.ThereliesthatTybalt.

Citizen.Up,sir,gowithme.IchargetheeinthePrince’snameobey.EnterPrince,oldMontague,Capulet,theirWives,andall.

Prince.Wherearethevilebeginnersofthisfray?

Benvolio.OnoblePrince,Icandiscover°all

Theunluckymanage°ofthisfatalbrawl.

125respectivelenitydiscriminatingmercifulness126conductguide138foolplaything,dupe144discoverreveal145managecourse

Thereliestheman,slainbyyoungRomeo,Thatslewthykinsman,braveMercutio.

LadyCapulet.Tybalt,mycousin!Omybrother’schild!OPrince!Ocousin!Husband!O,thebloodisspilledOfmydearkinsman!Prince,asthouarttrue,ForbloodofoursshedbloodofMontague.Ocousin,cousin!

Prince.Benvolio,whobeganthisbloodyfray?

Benvolio.Tybalt,hereslain,whomRomeo’shanddidslay.Romeo,thatspokehimfair,bidhimbethinkHownice°thequarrelwas,andurged°withalYourhighdispleasure.Allthis—utterèdWithgentlebreath,calmlook,kneeshumblybowed—Couldnottaketrucewiththeunrulyspleen°OfTybaltdeaftopeace,butthathetilts°WithpiercingsteelatboldMercutio’sbreast;Who,allashot,turnsdeadlypointtopoint,And,withamartialscorn,withonehandbeatsColddeathasideandwiththeothersendsItbacktoTybalt,whosedexterityRetortsit.Romeohecriesaloud,“Hold,friends!Friends,part!”andswifterthanhistongue,Hisagilearmbeatsdowntheirfatalpoints,And’twixtthemrushes;underneathwhosearmAnenvious°thrustfromTybalthitthelifeOfstoutMercutio,andthenTybaltfled;ButbyandbycomesbacktoRomeo,Whohadbutnewlyentertained°revenge,Andto’ttheygolikelightning;for,ereICoulddrawtopartthem,wasstoutTybaltslain;And,ashefell,didRomeoturnandfly.Thisisthetruth,orletBenvoliodie.

156nice trivial 156urgedmentioned 159 spleen ill nature 160 tilts thrusts 170 envious full ofenmity173entertainedcontemplated

LadyCapulet.HeisakinsmantotheMontague;

Affectionmakeshimfalse,hespeaksnottrue.Sometwentyofthemfoughtinthisblackstrife,Andallthosetwentycouldbutkillonelife.Ibegforjustice,whichthou,Prince,mustgive.RomeoslewTybalt;Romeomustnotlive.

Prince.Romeoslewhim;heslewMercutio.Whonowthepriceofhisdearblooddothowe?

Capulet.NotRomeo,Prince;hewasMercutio’sfriend;Hisfaultconcludesbutwhatthelawshouldend,ThelifeofTybalt.

Prince.AndforthatoffenseImmediatelywedoexilehimhence.Ihaveaninterestinyourhate’sproceeding,Myblood°foryourrudebrawlsdothliea-bleeding;ButI’llamerce°youwithsostrongafineThatyoushallallrepentthelossofmine.Iwillbedeaftopleadingandexcuses;Nortearsnorprayersshallpurchaseoutabuses.Thereforeusenone.LetRomeohenceinhaste,Else,whenheisfound,thathourishislast.Bearhencethisbodyandattendourwill.°Mercybutmurders,pardoningthosethatkill.

Exit[withothers].

[Scene2.Capulet’sorchard.]

EnterJulietalone.

Juliet.Gallopapace,youfiery-footedsteeds,°TowardsPhoebus’lodging!°Suchawagoner

191Myblood(MercutiowasthePrince’srelative)192amercepunishbyfine198attendourwillrespectmydecision3.2.1fiery-footedsteedshorsesofthesungod,Phoebus2TowardsPhoebus’lodgingi.e.,beneaththehorizon

AsPhaëton°wouldwhipyoutothewestAndbringincloudynightimmediately.Spreadthyclosecurtain,love-performingnight,Thatrunaways’°eyesmaywink,°andRomeoLeaptothesearmsuntalkedofandunseen.Loverscanseetodotheiramorousrites,

Andbytheirownbeauties;or,iflovebeblind,Itbestagreeswithnight.Come,civilnight,Thousober-suitedmatronallinblack,Andlearnmehowtoloseawinningmatch,Playedforapairofstainlessmaidenhoods.Hood°myunmanned°blood,bating°inmycheeks,Withthyblackmantletillstrange°lovegrowbold,Thinktrueloveactedsimplemodesty.Come,night;come,Romeo;come,thoudayinnight;ForthouwiltlieuponthewingsofnightWhiterthannewsnowuponaraven’sback.Come,gentlenight;come,loving,black-browednight;GivememyRomeo;and,whenIshalldie,Takehimandcuthimoutinlittlestars,AndhewillmakethefaceofheavensofineThatalltheworldwillbeinlovewithnightAndpaynoworshiptothegarishsun.O,Ihaveboughtthemansionofalove,Butnotpossessedit;andthoughIamsold,Notyetenjoyed.SotediousisthisdayAsisthenightbeforesomefestivalToanimpatientchildthathathnewrobesAndmaynotwearthem.O,herecomesmynurse,

EnterNurse,withcords.

Andshebringsnews;andeverytonguethatspeaksButRomeo’snamespeaksheavenlyeloquence.

3Phaëton Phoebus’ son,whomismanaged thehorses and let them run away6runaways’ of thehorses(?)6winkshut14Hoodi.e.,coverwithahood,asinfalconry14unmanned(1)untamed(2)unmated14batingfluttering15strangeunfamiliar

Now,nurse,whatnews?Whathastthouthere,thecordsThatRomeobidtheefetch?

Nurse.Ay,ay,thecords.

Juliet.Ayme!Whatnews?Whydostthouwringthyhands?

Nurse.Ah,weraday!°He’sdead,he’sdead,he’sdead!Weareundone,lady,weareundone!Alacktheday!He’sgone,he’skilled,he’sdead!

Juliet.Canheavenbesoenvious?

Nurse.Romeocan,Thoughheavencannot.ORomeo,Romeo!Whoeverwouldhavethoughtit?Romeo!

Juliet.Whatdevilartthouthatdosttormentmethus?Thistortureshouldberoaredindismalhell.HathRomeoslainhimself?Saythoubut“Ay,”Andthatbarevowel“I”shallpoisonmoreThanthedeath-dartingeyeofcockatrice.°IamnotI,iftherebesuchan“Ay,”°Orthoseeyes’shot°thatmakestheeanswer“Ay.”Ifhebeslain,say“Ay”;orifnot,“No.”Briefsoundsdetermineofmywealorwoe.

Nurse.Isawthewound,Isawitwithmineeyes,(Godsavethemark!°)hereonhismanlybreast.Apiteouscorse,°abloodypiteouscorse;Pale,paleasashes,allbedaubedinblood,Allingore-blood.Isounded°atthesight.

Juliet.O,break,myheart!Poorbankrout,°breakatonce!Toprison,eyes;ne’erlookonliberty!

37weradaywellaway,alas47cockatricebasilisk(aserpentfabledtohaveakillingglance)48Ay(1)I(2)eye49eyes’shoti.e.,theNurse’sglance53GodsavethemarkGodavertthebadomen54corsecorpse56soundedswooned57bankroutbankrupt

Vileearth,°toearthresign°endmotionhere,AndthouandRomeopressoneheavybier!

Nurse.OTybalt,Tybalt,thebestfriendIhad!OcourteousTybalt!Honestgentleman!ThateverIshouldlivetoseetheedead!

Juliet.Whatstormisthisthatblowssocontrary?IsRomeoslaught’red,andisTybaltdead?Mydearestcousin,andmydearerlord?Then,dreadfultrumpet,soundthegeneraldoom!°Forwhoisliving,ifthosetwoaregone?

Nurse.Tybaltisgone,andRomeobanishèd;Romeothatkilledhim,heisbanishèd.

Juliet.OGod!DidRomeo’shandshedTybalt’sblood?

Nurse.Itdid,itdid!Alastheday,itdid!

Juliet.Oserpentheart,hidwithaflow’ringface!Dideverdragonkeepsofairacave?

Beautifultyrant!Fiendangelical!Dove-featheredraven!Wolvish-raveninglamb!Despisèdsubstanceofdivinestshow!Justoppositetowhatthoujustlyseem’st—Adamnèdsaint,anhonorablevillain!Onature,whathadstthoutodoinhellWhenthoudidstbowerthespiritofafiendInmortalparadiseofsuchsweetflesh?WaseverbookcontainingsuchvilematterSofairlybound?O,thatdeceitshoulddwellInsuchagorgeouspalace!Nurse.There’snotrust,Nofaith,nohonestyinmen;allperjured,Allforsworn,allnaught,alldissemblers.Ah,where’smyman?Givemesomeaquavitae.°Thesegriefs,thesewoes,thesesorrowsmakemeold.

59vile earth referring to her own body 59 resign return 67dreadful . . . doom i.e., sound thetrumpetofDoomsday88aquavitaespirits

ShamecometoRomeo!

JulietBlisteredbethytongueForsuchawish!Hewasnotborntoshame.Uponhisbrowshameisashamedtosit;For’tisathronewherehonormaybecrownedSolemonarchoftheuniversalearth.O,whatabeastwasItochideathim!

Nurse.Willyouspeakwellofhimthatkilledyourcousin?

Juliet.ShallIspeakillofhimthatismyhusband?Ah,poormylord,whattongueshallsmooththynameWhenI,thythree-hourswife,havemangledit?Butwherefore,villain,didstthoukillmycousin?Thatvillaincousinwouldhavekilledmyhusband.Back,foolishtears,backtoyournativespring!Yourtributary°dropsbelongtowoe,Whichyou,mistaking,offeruptojoy.Myhusbandlives,thatTybaltwouldhaveslain;AndTybalt’sdead,thatwouldhaveslainmyhus-band.Allthisiscomfort;whereforeweepIthen?Somewordtherewas,worserthanTybalt’sdeath,Thatmurd’redme.Iwouldforgetitfain;

ButO,itpressestomymemoryLikedamnèdguiltydeedstosinners’minds!“Tybaltisdead,andRomeo—banishèd.”That“banishèd,”thatoneword“banishèd,”HathslaintenthousandTybalts.Tybalt’sdeathWaswoeenough,ifithadendedthere;Or,ifsourwoedelightsinfellowshipAndneedlywillberankedwith°othergriefs,Whyfollowednot,whenshesaid“Tybalt’sdead,”

103tributarycontributed117needly...withmustbeaccompaniedby

Thyfather,orthymother,nay,orboth,Whichmodern°lamentationmighthavemoved?Butwitharearward°followingTybalt’sdeath,“Romeoisbanishèd”—tospeakthatwordIsfather,mother,Tybalt,Romeo,Juliet,Allslain,alldead.“Romeoisbanishèd”—Thereisnoend,nolimit,measure,bound,Inthatword’sdeath;nowordscanthatwoesound.Whereismyfatherandmymother,nurse?

Nurse.WeepingandwailingoverTybalt’scorse.Willyougotothem?Iwillbringyouthither.

Juliet.Washtheyhiswoundswithtears?Mineshallbespent,Whentheirsaredry,forRomeo’sbanishment.Takeupthosecords.Poorropes,youarebeguiled,BothyouandI,forRomeoisexiled.Hemadeyouforahighwaytomybed;ButI,amaid,diemaiden-widowèd.Come,cords;come,nurse.I’lltomyweddingbed;Anddeath,notRomeo,takemymaidenhead!

Nurse.Hietoyourchamber.I’llfindRomeoTocomfortyou.Iwot°wellwhereheis.Harkye,yourRomeowillbehereatnight.I’lltohim;heishidatLawrence’cell.

Juliet.O,findhim!GivethisringtomytrueknightAndbidhimcometotakehislastfarewell.

Exit[withNurse].

[Scene3.FriarLawrence’scell.]

EnterFriar[Lawrence].

Friar.Romeo,comeforth;comeforth,thoufearful°man.Afflictionisenamoredofthyparts,°Andthouartweddedtocalamity.

120modernordinary121rearwardrearguard139wotknow3.3.1fearfulfrightened2Affliction...partsafflictionisinlovewithyourattractivequalities

[EnterRomeo.]

Romeo.Father,whatnews?WhatisthePrince’sdoom?°WhatsorrowcravesacquaintanceatmyhandThatIyetknownot?

Friar.ToofamiliarIsmydearsonwithsuchsourcompany.IbringtheetidingsofthePrince’sdoom.

Romeo.Whatlessthandoomsday°isthePrince’sdoom?

Friar.Agentlerjudgmentvanished°fromhislips—Notbody’sdeath,butbody’sbanishment.

Romeo.Ha,banishment?Bemerciful,say“death”;Forexilehathmoreterrorinhislook,Muchmorethandeath.Donotsay“banishment.”

Friar.HerefromVeronaartthoubanishèd.Bepatient,fortheworldisbroadandwide.

Romeo.ThereisnoworldwithoutVeronawalls,Butpurgatory,torture,hellitself.Hencebanishèdisbanishedfromtheworld,Andworld’sexileisdeath.Then“banishèd”Isdeathmistermed.Callingdeath“banishèd,”Thoucut’stmyheadoffwithagoldenaxAndsmilestuponthestrokethatmurdersme.

Friar.Odeadlysin!Orudeunthankfulness!Thyfaultourlawcallsdeath;butthekindPrince,Takingthypart,hathrushed°asidethelaw,Andturnedthatblackword“death”to“banish-ment.”Thisisdearmercy,andthouseestitnot.

Romeo.’Tistorture,andnotmercy.Heavenishere,WhereJulietlives;andeverycatanddogAndlittlemouse,everyunworthything,Livehereinheavenandmaylookonher;

ButRomeomaynot.Morevalidity,°

4doomfinaldecision9doomsdayi.e.,mydeath10vanishedescaped26rushedpushed33validityvalue

Morehonorablestate,morecourtship°livesIncarrionfliesthanRomeo.TheymayseizeOnthewhitewonderofdearJuliet’shandAndstealimmortalblessingfromherlips,Who,eveninpureandvestal°modesty,Stillblush,asthinkingtheirownkissessin;°ButRomeomaynot,heisbanishèd.FliesmaydothisbutIfromthismustfly;Theyarefreemen,butIambanishèd.Andsayestthouyetthatexileisnotdeath?Hadstthounopoisonmixture,nosharp-groundknife,Nosuddenmeanofdeath,thoughne’ersomean,°But“banishèd”tokillme—“banishèd”?Ofriar,thedamnèdusethatwordinhell;Howlingattendsit!Howhastthoutheheart,Beingadivine,aghostlyconfessor,Asin-absolver,andmyfriendprofessed,Tomanglemewiththatword“banishèd”?

Friar.Thoufond°madman,hearmealittlespeak.

Romeo.O,thouwiltspeakagainofbanishment.

Friar.I’llgivetheearmortokeepoffthatword;Adversity’ssweetmilk,philosophy,Tocomfortthee,thoughthouartbanishèd.

Romeo.Yet°“banishèd”?Hangupphilosophy!UnlessphilosophycanmakeaJuliet,Displantatown,reverseaprince’sdoom,Ithelpsnot,itprevailsnot.Talknomore.

Friar.O,thenIseethatmadmenhavenoears.

Romeo.Howshouldthey,whenthatwisemenhavenoeyes?

Friar.Letmedispute°withtheeofthyestate.°

34courtshipopportunity forcourting38vestalvirgin39 theirownkissessin i.e., sinwhen theytouch each other 45mean . . .meanmethod . . . lowly 52 fond foolish 57Yet still 63disputediscuss63estatesituation

Romeo.Thoucanstnotspeakofthatthoudostnot

feel.WertthouasyoungasI,Julietthylove,Anhourbutmarried,Tybaltmurderèd,Dotinglikeme,andlikemebanishèd,Thenmightstthouspeak,thenmightstthoutearthyhair,Andfallupontheground,asIdonow,Takingthemeasure°ofanunmadegrave.

EnterNurseandknock.

Friar.Arise,oneknocks.GoodRomeo,hidethyself.

Romeo.NotI;unlessthebreathofheartsickgroansMistlikeinfoldmefromthesearchofeyes.[Knock.]

Friar.Hark,howtheyknock!Who’sthere?Romeo,arise;Thouwiltbetaken.—Stayawhile!—Standup;

[Knock.]

Runtomystudy.—Byandby!°—God’swill,Whatsimpleness°isthis.—Icome,Icome!Knock.Whoknockssohard?Whencecomeyou?What’syourwill?

EnterNurse.

Nurse.Letmecomein,andyoushallknowmyer-rand.IcomefromLadyJuliet.

Friar.Welcomethen.

Nurse.Oholyfriar,O,tellme,holyfriar,Whereismylady’slord,where’sRomeo?

Friar.Thereontheground,withhisowntearsmadedrunk.

Nurse.O,heiseveninmymistress’case,°

70Takingthemeasurei.e.,measuringbymyoutstretchedbody76Byandbyinamoment(saidtothepersonknocking)77simple-nesssillybehavior(Romeorefusestorise)84case (withbawdyinnuendo complementing “stand,” “rise,” etc. But the Nurse is unaware of this possibleinterpretation)

Justinhercase!Owoefulsympathy!Piteouspredicament!Evensoliesshe,Blubb’ringandweeping,weepingandblubb’ring.Standup,standup!Stand,andyoubeaman.

ForJuliet’ssake,forhersake,riseandstand!WhyshouldyoufallintosodeepanO?°

Romeo.[Rises.]Nurse—

Nurse.Ahsir,ahsir!Death’stheendofall.

Romeo.SpakestthouofJuliet?Howisitwithher?Dothnotshethinkmeanoldmurderer,NowIhavestainedthechildhoodofourjoyWithbloodremovedbutlittlefromherown?Whereisshe?Andhowdothshe!AndwhatsaysMyconcealedladytoourcanceled°love?

Nurse.O,shesaysnothing,sir,butweepsandweeps;Andnowfallsonherbed,andthenstartsup,AndTybaltcalls;andthenonRomeocries,Andthendownfallsagain.

Romeo.Asifthatname,Shotfromthedeadlylevel°ofagun,Didmurderher;asthatname’scursèdhandMurderedherkinsman.O,tellme,friar,tellme,InwhatvilepartofthisanatomyDothmynamelodge?Tellme,thatImaysack°Thehatefulmansion.

[Heofferstostabhimself,andNursesnatchesthedaggeraway.]

Friar.Holdthydesperatehand.Artthouaman?Thyformcriesoutthouart;Thytearsarewomanish,thywildactsdenoteTheunreasonable°furyofabeast.Unseemly°womaninaseemingman!Andill-beseemingbeastinseemingboth!°

90sodeepanOsuchafitofmoaning98canceledinvalidated103levelaim107sackplunder111unreasonable irrational112Unseemly indecorous113 ill-beseeming . . .both i.e., inappropriateeventoabeastinbeingbothmanandwoman

Thouhastamazedme.Bymyholyorder,Ithoughtthydispositionbettertempered.HastthouslainTybalt?Wiltthouslaythyself?Andslaythyladythatinthylifelives,Bydoingdamnèdhateuponthyself?Whyrailestthouonthybirth,theheaven,andearth?Sincebirthandheavenandearth,°allthreedomeetIntheeatonce;whichthouatoncewouldstlose.°Fie,fie,thoushamestthyshape,thylove,thywit,°

Which,°likeausurer,abound’stinall,AndusestnoneinthattrueuseindeedWhichshouldbedeck°thyshape,thylove,thywit.Thynobleshapeisbutaformofwax,Digressingfromthevalorofaman;°Thydearloveswornbuthollowperjury,Killingthatlovewhichthouhastvowedtocherish;Thywit,thatornamenttoshapeandlove,Misshapenintheconduct°ofthemboth,Likepowderinaskillesssoldier’sflask,°Issetafirebythineownignorance,Andthoudismemb’redwiththineowndefense.°What,rousethee,man!ThyJulietisalive,Forwhosedearsakethouwastbutlatelydead.°Therearethouhappy.°Tybaltwouldkillthee,ButthouslewestTybalt.Thereartthouhappy.Thelaw,thatthreat’neddeath,becomesthyfriendAndturnsittoexile.Thereartthouhappy.Apackofblessingslightuponthyback;Happinesscourtstheeinherbestarray;But,likeamisbehavedandsullenwench,Thouputsupthyfortuneandthylove.Takeheed,takeheed,forsuchdiemiserable.

120birthandheavenandearthfamilyorigin,soul,andbody121loseabandon122wit intellect123Whichwho125bedeckdohonorto127valorofamani.e.,hismanlyqualities131conductmanagement132flaskpowderflask134dismemb’red...defense(i.e.,yourintellect,properlythedefender of shape and love, is set off independently and destroys all) 136 dead i.e., declaringyourselfdead137happyfortunate

Gogettheetothylove,aswasdecreed,Ascendherchamber,henceandcomforther.Butlookthoustaynottillthewatchbeset,ForthenthoucanstnotpasstoMantua,WherethoushaltlivetillwecanfindatimeToblaze°yourmarriage,reconcileyourfriends,BegpardonofthePrince,andcalltheebackWithtwentyhundredthousandtimesmorejoyThanthouwent’stforthinlamentation.Gobefore,nurse.Commendmetothylady,Andbidherhastenallthehousetobed,Whichheavysorrowmakesthemaptunto.Romeoiscoming.

Nurse.OLord,IcouldhavestayedhereallthenightToheargoodcounsel.O,whatlearningis!Mylord,I’lltellmyladyyouwillcome.

Romeo.Doso,andbidmysweetpreparetochide.[Nurseofferstogoinandturnsagain.]

Nurse.Here,sir,aringshebidmegiveyou,sir.Hieyou,makehaste,foritgrowsverylate.[Exit.]

Romeo.Howwellmycomfortisrevivedbythis!

Friar.Gohence;goodnight;andherestandsallyourstate:°Eitherbegonebeforethewatchbeset,Orbythebreakofdaydisguisedfromhence.SojourninMantua.I’llfindoutyourman,AndheshallsignifyfromtimetotimeEverygoodhaptoyouthatchanceshere.Givemethyhand.’Tislate.Farewell;goodnight.

Romeo.Butthatajoypastjoycallsoutonme,Itwereagriefsobrieftopartwiththee.Farewell.Exeunt.

151blazeannouncepublicly166here...statethisisyoursituation

[Scene4.AroominCapulet’shouse.]

EnteroldCapulet,hisWife,andParis.

Capulet.Thingshavefall’nout,sir,sounluckilyThatwehavehadnotimetomove°ourdaughter.Lookyou,shelovedherkinsmanTybaltdearly,AndsodidI.Well,wewereborntodie.’Tisverylate;she’llnotcomedowntonight.Ipromise°you,butforyourcompany,Iwouldhavebeenabedanhourago.

Paris.Thesetimesofwoeaffordnotimestowoo.Madam,goodnight.Commendmetoyourdaughter.

LadyCapulet.Iwill,andknowhermindearlytomorrow;Tonightshe’smeweduptoherheaviness.°

Capulet.SirParis,Iwillmakeadesperatetender°Ofmychild’slove.IthinkshewillberuledInallrespectsbyme;naymore,Idoubtitnot.Wife,goyoutoherereyougotobed;AcquaintherhereofmysonParis’loveAndbidher(markyoume?)onWednesdaynext—

Butsoft!Whatdayisthis?

Paris.Monday,mylord.

Capulet.Monday!Ha,ha!Well,Wednesdayistoosoon.A°Thursdayletitbe—aThursday,tellher,Sheshallbemarriedtothisnobleearl.Willyoubeready?Doyoulikethishaste?We’llkeepnogreatado—afriendortwo;Forharkyou,Tybaltbeingslainsolate,

3.4.2movediscussthematterwith6promiseassure11mewed...heavinessshutupwithhergrief12make...tenderriskanoffer20Aon

Itmaybethoughtweheldhimcarelessly,Beingourkinsman,ifwerevelmuch.Thereforewe’llhavesomehalfadozenfriends,Andthereanend.ButwhatsayyoutoThursday?

Paris.Mylord,IwouldthatThursdayweretomorrow.

Capulet.Well,getyougone.AThursdaybeitthen.GoyoutoJulietereyougotobed;Prepareher,wife,against°thisweddingday.Farewell,mylord.—Lighttomychamber,ho!Aforeme,°itissoverylateThatwemaycallitearlybyandby.°GoodnightExeunt.

[Scene5.Capulet’sorchard.]

EnterRomeoandJulietaloft.

Juliet.Wiltthoubegone?Itisnotyetnearday.Itwasthenightingale,andnotthelark,Thatpiercedthefearful°hollowofthineear.Nightlyshesingsonyondpomegranatetree.Believeme,love,itwasthenightingale.

Romeo.Itwasthelark,theheraldofthemorn;Nonightingale.Look,love,whatenviousstreaksDolacetheseveringcloudsinyonderEast.Night’scandlesareburntout,andjocunddayStandstiptoeonthemistymountaintops.Imustbegoneandlive,orstayanddie.

Juliet.Yondlightisnotdaylight;Iknowit,I.Itissomemeteorthatthesunexhales°TobetotheethisnightatorchbearerAndlighttheeonthywaytoMantua.

32against inpreparationfor34Aforeme indeed(a lightoath)35byandby soon3.5.3 fearfulfearing13exhalesgivesout

Thereforestayyet;thouneed’stnottobegone.

Romeo.Letmebeta’en,letmebeputtodeath.Iamcontent,sothouwilthaveitso.I’llsayyongrayisnotthemorning’seye,’TisbutthepalereflexofCynthia’sbrow;°NorthatisnotthelarkwhosenotesdobeatThevaultyheavensohighaboveourheads.Ihavemorecaretostaythanwilltogo.Come,death,andwelcome!Julietwillsitso.Howis’t,mysoul?Let’stalk;itisnotday.

Juliet.Itis,itis!Hiehence,begone,away!Itisthelarkthatsingssooutoftune,Strainingharshdiscordsandunpleasingsharps.Somesaythelarkmakessweetdivision;°Thisdothnotso,forshedividethus.Somesaythelarkandloathèdtoadchangeeyes;O,nowIwouldtheyhadchangedvoicestoo,Sincearmfromarmthatvoicedothusaffray,°Huntingtheehencewithhunt’s-up°totheday.O,nowbegone!Morelightandlightitgrows.

Romeo.Morelightandlight—moredarkanddarkourwoes.

EnterNurse.

Nurse.Madam!

Juliet.Nurse?

Nurse.Yourladymotheriscomingtoyourchamber.Thedayisbroke;bewary,lookabout.[Exit.]

Juliet.Then,window,letdayin,andletlifeout.

Romeo.Farewell,farewell!Onekiss,andI’lldescend.

[Hegoethdown.]

Juliet.Artthougoneso,love-lord,ayhusband-friend?°

20reflexofCynthia’sbrowreflectionoftheedgeofthemoon29divisionmelody(i.e.,adivisionofnotes)33affray frighten34hunt’s-upmorningsong (forhunters)43husband-friend husband-

lover

Imusthearfromtheeeverydayinthehour,Forinaminutetherearemanydays.O,bythiscountIshallbemuchinyears°EreIagainbeholdmyRomeo!

Romeo.Farewell!IwillomitnoopportunityThatmayconveymygreetings,love,tothee.

Juliet.O,think’stthouweshallevermeetagain?

Romeo.Idoubtitnot;andallthesewoesshallserveForsweetdiscoursesinourtimestocome.

Juliet.OGod,Ihaveanill-divining°soul!MethinksIseethee,nowthouartsolow,Asonedeadinthebottomofatomb.Eithermyeyesightfails,orthoulookestpale.

Romeo.Andtrustme,love,inmyeyesodoyou.Dry°sorrowdrinksourblood.Adieu,adieu!Exit.

Juliet.OFortune,Fortune!Allmencalltheefickle.Ifthouartfickle,whatdostthou°withhimThatisrenownedforfaith?Befickle,Fortune,ForthenIhopethouwiltnotkeephimlongButsendhimback.

EnterMother.

LadyCapulet.Ho,daughter!Areyouup?

Juliet.Whois’tthatcalls?Itismyladymother.Isshenotdownsolate,°orupsoearly?Whatunaccustomedcauseprocuresherhither?

LadyCapulet.Why,hownow,Juliet?

Juliet.Madam,Iamnotwell.

LadyCapulet.Evermoreweepingforyourcousin’sdeath?

46muchinyearsmucholder54ill-diviningforeseeingevil59Drythirsty(asgriefwasthoughttobe)61whatdostthouwhatbusinesshaveyou67notdownsolatesolategettingtobed

What,wiltthouwashhimfromhisgravewithtears?Andifthoucouldst,thoucouldstnotmakehimlive.Thereforehavedone.Somegriefshowsmuchoflove;Butmuchofgriefshowsstillsomewantofwit.

Juliet.Yetletmeweepforsuchafeelingloss.°

LadyCapulet.Soshallyoufeeltheloss,butnotthefriendWhichyouweepfor.

Juliet.Feelingsotheloss,Icannotchoosebuteverweepthefriend.

LadyCapulet.Well,girl,thouweep’stnotsomuchforhisdeathAsthatthevillainliveswhichslaughteredhim.

Juliet.Whatvillain,madam?

LadyCapulet.ThatsamevillainRomeo.

Juliet.[Aside]Villainandhebemanymilesasunder.—Godpardonhim!Ido,withallmyheart;Andyetnomanlikehedothgrievemyheart.

LadyCapulet.Thatisbecausethetraitormurdererlives.

Juliet.Ay,madam,fromthereachofthesemyhands.WouldnonebutImightvengemycousin’sdeath!

LadyCapulet.Wewillhavevengeanceforit,fearthounot.Thenweepnomore.I’llsendtooneinMantua,Wherethatsamebanishedrunagate°dothlive,ShallgivehimsuchanunaccustomeddramThatheshallsoonkeepTybaltcompany;AndthenIhopethouwiltbesatisfied.

Juliet.IndeedInevershallbesatisfiedWithRomeotillIbeholdhim—dead°—

75 feeling loss loss tobefelt90runagate renegade95dead (LadyCapulet takes this to refer to“him”;Juliettakesittoreferto“heart”)

Ismypoorheartsoforakinsmanvexed.Madam,ifyoucouldfindoutbutamanTobearapoison,Iwouldtemper°it;ThatRomeoshould,uponreceiptthereof,Soonsleepinquiet.O,howmyheartabhorsTohearhimnamedandcannotcometohim,Towreak°theloveIboremycousinUponhisbodythathathslaughteredhim!

LadyCapulet.Findthouthemeans,andI’llfindsuchaman.ButnowI’lltelltheejoyfultidings,girl.

Juliet.Andjoycomeswellinsuchaneedytime.

Whatarethey,beseechyourladyship?

LadyCapulet.Well,well,thouhastacareful°father,child;Onewho,toputtheefromthyheaviness,Hathsortedout°asuddendayofjoyThatthouexpectsnotnorIlookednotfor.

Juliet.Madam,inhappytime!°Whatdayisthat?

LadyCapulet.Marry,mychild,earlynextThursdaymornThegallant,young,andnoblegentleman,TheCountyParis,atSaintPeter’sChurch,Shallhappilymaketheethereajoyfulbride.

Juliet.NowbySaintPeter’sChurch,andPetertoo,Heshallnotmakemethereajoyfulbride!Iwonderatthishaste,thatImustwedErehethatshouldbehusbandcomestowoo.Iprayyoutellmylordandfather,madam,Iwillnotmarryyet;andwhenIdo,IswearItshallbeRomeo,whomyouknowIhate,RatherthanParis.Thesearenewsindeed!

98temper(1)mix(2)weaken102wreak(1)avenge(2)giveexpressionto108carefulsolicitous110sortedoutselected112inhappytimemostopportunely

LadyCapulet.Herecomesyourfather.Tellhimsoyourself,Andseehowhewilltakeitatyourhands.

EnterCapuletandNurse.

Capulet.Whenthesunsetstheearthdothdrizzledew,Butforthesunsetofmybrother’ssonItrainsdownright.Hownow?Aconduit,°girl?What,stillintears?Evermoreshow’ring?InonelittlebodyThoucounterfeitsabark,asea,awind:Forstillthyeyes,whichImaycallthesea,Doebbandflowwithtears;thebarkthybodyis,Sailinginthissaltflood;thewinds,thysighs,Who,ragingwiththytearsandtheywiththem,Withoutasudden°calmwilloversetThytempest-tossèdbody.Hownow,wife?Haveyoudeliveredtoherourdecree?

LadyCapulet.Ay,sir;butshewillnone,shegivesyouthanks.°

Iwouldthefoolweremarriedtohergrave!

Capulet.Soft!Takemewithyou,°takemewithyou,wife.How?Willshenone?Dothshenotgiveusthanks?Isshenotproud?Dothshenotcountherblest,Unworthyassheis,thatwehavewrought°Soworthyagentlemantobeherbride?

Juliet.Notproud°youhave,butthankfulthatyouhave.ProudcanIneverbeofwhatIhate,Butthankfulevenforhatethatismeantlove.

Capulet.How,how,how,how,chopped-logic?°Whatisthis?

130conduitwaterpipe137suddenunanticipated,immediate140shegivesyouthanksshe’llhavenoneofit,thankyou142Soft...youWait!Helpmetounderstandyou145wroughtarranged147proudhighlypleased150chopped-logicchoplogic,sophistry

“Proud”—and“Ithankyou”—and“Ithankyounot”—Andyet“notproud”?Mistressminion°you,Thankmenothankings,norproudmenoprouds,Butfettle°yourfinejoints’gainstThursdaynextTogowithParistoSaintPeter’sChurch,OrIwilldragtheeonahurdle°thither.Out,yougreensickness°carrion!Out,youbaggage!°Youtallow-face!

LadyCapulet.Fie,fie!What,areyoumad?

Juliet.Goodfather,Ibeseechyouonmyknees,Hearmewithpatiencebuttospeakaword.

Capulet.Hangthee,youngbaggage!Disobedientwretch!Itelltheewhat—gettheetochurchaThursdayOrneverafterlookmeintheface.Speaknot,replynot,donotanswerme!Myfingersitch.Wife,wescarcethoughtusblestThatGodhadlentusbutthisonlychild;ButnowIseethisoneisonetoomuch,Andthatwehaveacurseinhavingher.Outonher,hilding!°

Nurse.Godinheavenblessher!Youaretoblame,mylord,torate°herso.

Capulet.Andwhy,myLadyWisdom?Holdyourtongue,GoodPrudence.Smatterwithyourgossips,°go!

Nurse.Ispeaknotreason.

Capulet.O,God-i-god-en!°

Nurse.Maynotonespeak?

152minionminx154fettlemakeready156hurdlesledgeonwhichtraitorsweretakentoexecution157 greensickness anemic, after the fashion of young girls 157 baggage strumpet 169 hildingworthlessperson170ratescold172Smatterwithyourgossipssaveyourchatterforyourcronies173God-i-god-enGodgiveyougoodeven(hereequivalentto“Getonwithyou!”)

Capulet.Peace,youmumblingfool!Utteryourgravityo’eragossip’sbowl,Forhereweneeditnot.

LadyCapulet.Youaretoohot.

Capulet.God’sbread!°Itmakesmemad.Day,night;hour,tide,time;work,play;Alone,incompany;stillmycarehathbeenTohavehermatched;andhavingnowprovidedAgentlemanofnobleparentage,Offairdemesnes,°youthful,andnoblytrained,Stuffed,astheysay,withhonorableparts,Proportionedasone’sthoughtwouldwishaman—Andthentohaveawretchedpuling°fool,Awhiningmammet,°inherfortune’stender,°Toanswer“I’llnotwed,Icannotlove;Iamtooyoung,Iprayyoupardonme”!But,andyouwillnotwed,I’llpardonyou!°Grazewhereyouwill,youshallnothousewithme.Lookto’t,thinkon’t;Idonotusetojest.°Thursdayisnear;layhandonheart,advise:°Andyoubemine,I’llgiveyoutomyfriend;Andyoubenot,hang,beg,starve,dieinthestreets,For,bymysoul,I’llne’eracknowledgethee,Norwhatismineshallneverdotheegood.Trustto’t.Bethinkyou.I’llnotbeforsworn.Exit.

Juliet.IstherenopitysittinginthecloudsThatseesintothebottomofmygrief?Osweetmymother,castmenotaway!Delaythismarriageforamonth,aweek;Orifyoudonot,makethebridalbedInthatdimmonumentwhereTybaltlies.

LadyCapulet.Talknottome,forI’llnotspeakaword.

177God’s bread by the sacred host 182 demesnes domains 185 puling whining 186mammetpuppet186inherfortune’stender(1)ongoodfortune’soffer(2)subjecttofortuitouscircumstance(?)189I’llpardonyoui.e.,inawayyoudon’texpect191donotusetojestamnotinthehabitofjoking192adviseconsider

Doasthouwilt,forIhavedonewiththee.Exit.

Juliet.OGod!—Onurse,howshallthisbeprevented?Myhusbandisonearth,myfaithinheaven.°HowshallthatfaithreturnagaintoearthUnlessthathusbandsenditmefromheavenByleavingearth?°Comfortme,counselme.Alack,alack,thatheavenshouldpracticestratagemsUponsosoftasubjectasmyself!Whatsay’stthou?Hastthounotawordofjoy?Somecomfort,nurse.

Nurse.Faith,hereitis.Romeoisbanished;andalltheworldtonothing°Thathedaresne’ercomebacktochallengeyou;Orifhedo,itneedsmustbebystealth.Then,sincethecasesostandsasnowitdoth,IthinkitbestyoumarriedwiththeCounty.O,he’salovelygentleman!Romeo’sadishclout°tohim.Aneagle,madam,Hathnotsogreen,soquick,sofairaneyeAsParishath.Beshrew°myveryheart,Ithinkyouarehappyinthissecondmatch,Foritexcelsyourfirst;orifitdidnot,Yourfirstisdead—or’twereasgoodhewereAslivinghereandyounouseofhim.

Juliet.Speak’stthoufromthyheart?

Nurse.Andfrommysoultoo;elsebeshrewthemboth.

Juliet.Amen!

Nurse.What?

Juliet.Well,thouhastcomfortedmemarvelousmuch.Goin;andtellmyladyIamgone,Havingdispleasedmyfather,toLawrence’cell,Tomakeconfessionandtobeabsolved.

207myfaithinheavenmyvowisrecordedinheaven210Byleavingearthi.e.,bydying215alltheworld tonothing (theNurse advises a safe bet) 221dishclout dishcloth 223Beshrew curse(usedinlightoaths)

Nurse.Marry,Iwill;andthisiswiselydone.[Exit.]

Juliet.Ancientdamnation!°Omostwickedfiend!Isitmoresintowishmethusforsworn,°OrtodispraisemylordwiththatsametongueWhichshehathpraisedhimwithabovecompareSomanythousandtimes?Go,counselor!Thouandmybosomhenceforthshallbetwain.°I’lltothefriartoknowhisremedy.Ifallelsefail,myselfhavepowertodie.Exit.

237Ancient damnation (1) damned oldwoman (2) ancient devil (note the term “wicked fiend”immediatelyfollowing)238forswornguiltyofbreakingavow242Thou...twain i.e.,youshallhenceforthbeseparatedfrommytrust

[ACT4

Scene1.FriarLawrence’scell.]

EnterFriar[Lawrence]andCountyParis.

Friar.OnThursday,sir?Thetimeisveryshort.

Paris.MyfatherCapuletwillhaveitso,AndIamnothingslowtoslackhishaste.°

Friar.Yousayyoudonotknowthelady’smind.Uneven°isthecourse;Ilikeitnot.

Paris.ImmoderatelysheweepsforTybalt’sdeath,AndthereforehaveIlittletalkedoflove;ForVenussmilesnotinahouseoftears.Now,sir,herfathercountsitdangerousThatshedogivehersorrowsomuchsway,AndinhiswisdomhastesourmarriageTostoptheinundationofhertears,Which,toomuchminded°byherselfalone,°Maybeputfromherbysociety.Nowdoyouknowthereasonofthishaste.

Friar.[Aside]IwouldIknewnotwhyitshouldbeslowed.—Look,sir,herecomestheladytowardmycell.

4.1.3I...hastei.e.,Ishallnotcheckhishastebybeingslowmyself5Unevenirregular13mindedthoughtabout13byherselfalonewhensheisalone

EnterJuliet.

Paris.Happilymet,myladyandmywife!

Juliet.Thatmaybe,sir,whenImaybeawife.

Paris.That“maybe”mustbe,love,onThursdaynext.

Juliet.Whatmustbeshallbe.

Friar.That’sacertaintext.

Paris.Comeyoutomakeconfessiontothisfather?

Juliet.Toanswerthat,Ishouldconfesstoyou.

Paris.Donotdenytohimthatyouloveme.

Juliet.IconfesstoyouthatIlovehim.

Paris.Sowillye,Iamsure,thatyouloveme.

Juliet.IfIdoso,itwillbeofmoreprice,Beingspokebehindyourback,thantoyourface.

Paris.Poorsoul,thyfaceismuchabusedwithtears.

Juliet.Thetearshavegotsmallvictorybythat,Foritwasbadenoughbeforetheirspite.°

Paris.Thouwrong’stitmorethantearswiththatreport.

Juliet.Thatisnoslander,sir,whichisatruth;AndwhatIspake,Ispakeittomyface.

Paris.Thyfaceismine,andthouhastsland’redit.

Juliet.Itmaybeso,foritisnotmineown.Areyouatleisure,holyfather,now,OrshallIcometoyouateveningmass?°

Friar.Myleisureservesme,pensivedaughter,now.Mylord,wemustentreatthetimealone.°

31 before their spite before they marred it 38 evening mass (evening mass was still saidoccasionallyinShakespeare’stime)40entreatthetimealoneasktohavethistimetoourselves

Paris.Godshield°Ishoulddisturbdevotion!Juliet,onThursdayearlywillIrouseye.Tillthen,adieu,andkeepthisholykiss.Exit.

Juliet.O,shutthedoor,andwhenthouhastdoneso,Comeweepwithme—pasthope,pastcare,pasthelp!

Friar.OJuliet,Ialreadyknowthygrief;Itstrainsmepastthecompassofmywits.Ihearthoumust,andnothingmayprorogue°it,OnThursdaynextbemarriedtothisCounty.

Juliet.Tellmenot,friar,thatthouhearestofthis,UnlessthoutellmehowImaypreventit.Ifinthywisdomthoucanstgivenohelp,DothoubutcallmyresolutionwiseAndwiththisknifeI’llhelpitpresently.°GodjoinedmyheartandRomeo’s,thouourhands;Anderethishand,bytheetoRomeo’ssealed,Shallbethelabel°toanotherdeed,°OrmytrueheartwithtreacherousrevoltTurntoanother,thisshallslaythemboth.Therefore,outofthylong-experiencedtime,

Givemesomepresentcounsel;or,behold,’TwixtmyextremesandmethisbloodyknifeShallplaytheumpire,arbitratingthatWhichthecommission°ofthyyearsandartCouldtonoissueoftruehonorbring.Benotsolongtospeak.IlongtodieIfwhatthouspeak’stspeaknotofremedy.

Friar.Hold,daughter.Idospyakindofhope,WhichcravesasdesperateanexecutionAsthatisdesperatewhichwewouldprevent.If,ratherthantomarryCountyParis,Thouhastthestrengthofwilltoslaythyself,Thenisitlikelythouwiltundertake

41GodshieldGodforbid48proroguedelay54presentlyatonce57 labelbearerof theseal57deed(1)act(2)legaldocument64com-missionauthority

Athinglikedeathtochideawaythisshame,Thatcop’st°withdeathhimselftoscapefromit;And,ifthoudarest,I’llgivetheeremedy.

Juliet.O,bidmeleap,ratherthanmarryParis,Fromoffthebattlementsofanytower,Orwalkinthievish°ways,orbidmelurkWhereserpentsare;chainmewithroaringbears,Orhidemenightlyinacharnelhouse,°O’ercoveredquitewithdeadmen’srattlingbones,Withreeky°shanksandyellowchapless°skulls;Orbidmegointoanew-madegraveAndhidemewithadeadmaninhisshroud—Thingsthat,tohearthemtold,havemademetremble—AndIwilldoitwithoutfearordoubt,Toliveanunstainedwifetomysweetlove.

Friar.Hold,then.Gohome,bemerry,giveconsentTomarryParis.Wednesdayistomorrow.Tomorrownightlookthatthouliealone;Letnotthenurseliewiththeeinthychamber.Takethouthisvial,beingtheninbed,Andthisdistilling°liquordrinkthouoff;WhenpresentlythroughallthyveinsshallrunAcoldanddrowsyhumor;°fornopulseShallkeephisnative°progress,butsurcease;°Nowarmth,nobreath,shalltestifythoulivest;Therosesinthylipsandcheeksshallfade

Towanny°ashes,thyeyes’windows°fallLikedeathwhenheshutsupthedayoflife;Eachpart,deprivedofsupplegovernment,°Shall,stiffandstarkandcold,appearlikedeath;AndinthisborrowedlikenessofshrunkdeathThoushaltcontinuetwo-and-fortyhours,Andthenawakeasfromapleasantsleep.

75 cop’st negotiates 79 thievish infestedwith thieves 81 charnel house vault for old bones 83reeky damp 83 chapless jawless 94 distilling infusing 96 humor fluid 97 native natural 97surcease stop 100 wanny pale 100 windows lids 102 supple government i.e., faculty formaintainingmotion

Now,whenthebridegroominthemorningcomesTorousetheefromthybed,thereartthoudead.Then,asthemannerofourcountryis,InthybestrobesuncoveredonthebierThoushaltbebornetothatsameancientvaultWhereallthekindredoftheCapuletslie.Inthemeantime,against°thoushaltawake,ShallRomeobymylettersknowourdrift;°Andhithershallhecome;andheandIWillwatchthywaking,andthatverynightShallRomeobeartheehencetoMantua.Andthisshallfreetheefromthispresentshame,Ifnoinconstanttoy°norwomanishfearAbatethyvalorintheactingit.

Juliet.Giveme,giveme!O,tellnotmeoffear!

Friar.Hold!Getyougone,bestrongandprosperousInthisresolve.I’llsendafriarwithspeedToMantua,withmyletterstothylord.

Juliet.Lovegivemestrength,andstrengthshallhelpafford.Farewell,dearfather.Exit[withFriar].

[Scene2.HallinCapulet’shouse.]

EnterFatherCapulet,Mother,Nurse,andServingmen,twoorthree.

Capulet.Somanyguestsinviteasherearewrit.

[ExitaServingman.]

Sirrah,gohiremetwentycunning°cooks.

Servingman.Youshallhavenoneill,sir;forI’lltry°iftheycanlicktheirfingers.

113againstbefore114driftpurpose119inconstanttoywhim4.2.2cunningskillful3trytest

Capulet.Howcanstthoutrythemso?

Servingman.Marry,sir,’tisanillcookthatcannotlickhisownfingers.°Thereforehethatcannotlickhisfingersgoesnotwithme.

Capulet.Go,begone.[ExitServingman.]Weshallbemuchunfurnished°forthistime.What,ismydaughtergonetoFriarLawrence?

Nurse.Ay,forsooth.

Capulet.Well,hemaychancetodosomegoodonher.Apeevishself-willedharlotryitis.°

EnterJuliet.

Nurse.Seewhereshecomesfromshriftwithmerrylook.

Capulet.Hownow,myheadstrong?Wherehaveyoubeengadding?

Juliet.WhereIhavelearntmetorepentthesinOfdisobedientoppositionToyouandyourbehests,andamenjoinedByholyLawrencetofallprostratehereTobegyourpardon.Pardon,Ibeseechyou!HenceforwardIameverruledbyyou.

Capulet.SendfortheCounty.Gotellhimofthis.I’llhavethisknotknituptomorrowmorning.

Juliet.ImettheyouthfullordatLawrence’cellAndgavehimwhatbecomèd°loveImight,Notsteppingo’ertheboundsofmodesty.

Capulet.Why,Iamgladon’t.Thisiswell.Standup.Thisisas’tshouldbe.LetmeseetheCounty.Ay,marry,go,Isay,andfetchhimhither.Now,aforeGod,thisreverendholyfriar,Allourwholecityismuchboundtohim.

6-7cannotlickhisownfingersi.e.,cannottastehisowncooking10unfurnishedunprovisioned14Apeevishself-willedharlotryitisshe’sasillygood-for-nothing26becomèdproper

Juliet.Nurse,willyougowithmeintomycloset°Tohelpmesortsuchneedfulornaments

Asyouthinkfittofurnishmetomorrow?

LadyCapulet.No,nottillThursday.Thereistimeenough.

Capulet.Go,nurse,gowithher.We’lltochurchtomorrow.Exeunt[JulietandNurse].

LadyCapulet.Weshallbeshortinourprovision.’Tisnownearnight.

Capulet.Tush,Iwillstirabout,Andallthingsshallbewell,Iwarrantthee,wife.GothoutoJuliet,helptodeckupher.I’llnottobedtonight;letmealone.I’llplaythehousewifeforthisonce.What,ho!Theyareallforth;well,IwillwalkmyselfToCountyParis,toprepareuphimAgainst°tomorrow.Myheartiswondrouslight,Sincethissamewaywardgirlissoreclaimed.

Exit[withMother].

[Scene3.Juliet’schamber.]

EnterJulietandNurse.

Juliet.Ay,thoseattiresarebest;but,gentlenurse,Ipraytheeleavemetomyselftonight;ForIhaveneedofmanyorisons°Tomovetheheavenstosmileuponmystate,°Which,wellthouknowest,iscross°andfullofsin.

EnterMother.

LadyCapulet.What,areyoubusy,ho?Needyoumyhelp?

33closetprivatechamber46Against inanticipationof4.3.3orisonsprayers4statecondition5crossperverse

Juliet.No,madam;wehaveculledsuchnecessariesAsarebehoveful°forourstate°tomorrow.Sopleaseyou,letmenowbeleftalone,Andletthenursethisnightsitupwithyou;ForIamsureyouhaveyourhandsfullallInthissosuddenbusiness.

LadyCapulet.Goodnight.Gettheetobed,andrest;forthouhastneed.

Exeunt[MotherandNurse].

Juliet.Farewell!Godknowswhenweshallmeetagain.Ihaveafaint°coldfearthrillsthroughmyveinsThatalmostfreezesuptheheatoflife.I’llcallthembackagaintocomfortme.Nurse!—Whatshouldshedohere?MydismalsceneIneedsmustactalone.Come,vial.Whatifthismixturedonotworkatall?ShallIbemarriedthentomorrowmorning?No,no!Thisshallforbidit.Liethouthere.

[Laysdownadagger.]

WhatifitbeapoisonwhichthefriarSubtlyhathminist’red°tohavemedead,LestinthismarriageheshouldbedishonoredBecausehemarriedmebeforetoRomeo?Ifearitis;andyetmethinksitshouldnot,Forhehathstill°beentried°aholyman.Howif,whenIamlaidintothetomb,IwakebeforethetimethatRomeoCometoredeemme?There’safearfulpoint!ShallInotthenbestifledinthevault,Towhosefoulmouthnohealthsomeairbreathesin,AndtherediestranglederemyRomeocomes?Or,ifIlive,isitnotverylikeThehorribleconceit°ofdeathandnight,Togetherwiththeterroroftheplace—Asinavault,anancientreceptacle

8behoveful expedient 8 state pomp 15 faint causing faintness 25minist’red provided 29 stillalways29triedproved37conceitthought

WhereforthismanyhundredyearsthebonesOfallmyburiedancestorsarepacked;WherebloodyTybalt,yetbutgreeninearth,°Liesfest’ringinhisshroud;where,astheysay,Atsomehoursinthenightspiritsresort—Alack,alack,isitnotlikethatI,Soearlywaking—whatwithloathsomesmells,Andshriekslikemandrakes°tornoutoftheearth,Thatlivingmortals,hearingthem,runmad—

O,ifIwake,shallInotbedistraught,°Environèdwithallthesehideousfears,Andmadlyplaywithmyforefathers’joints,AndpluckthemangledTybaltfromhisshroud,And,inthisrage,withsomegreatkinsman’sboneAswithaclubdashoutmydesp’ratebrains?O,look!MethinksIseemycousin’sghostSeekingoutRomeo,thatdidspithisbodyUponarapier’spoint.Stay,Tybalt,stay!Romeo,Romeo,Romeo,Idrinktothee.

[Shefallsuponherbedwithinthecurtains.]

[Scene4.HallinCapulet’shouse.]

EnterLadyoftheHouseandNurse.

LadyCapulet.Hold,takethesekeysandfetchmorespices,nurse.

Nurse.Theycallfordatesandquincesinthepastry.°

EnteroldCapulet.

Capulet.Come,stir,stir,stir!Thesecondcockhathcrowed,Thecurfewbellhathrung,’tisthreeo’clock.

42green in earth newly entombed 47mandrakes plantwith forked root, resembling the humanbody(supposedtoshriekwhenuprootedanddrivethehearermad)49distraughtdrivenmad4.4.2pastrypastrycook’sroom

Looktothebakedmeats,°goodAngelica;°Sparenotforcost.

Nurse.Go,youcotquean,°go,Getyoutobed!Faith,you’llbesicktomorrowForthisnight’swatching.°

Capulet.No,notawhit.What,IhavewatchederenowAllnightforlessercause,andne’erbeensick.

LadyCapulet.Ay,youhavebeenamousehunt°inyourtime;ButIwillwatchyoufromsuchwatchingnow.

ExitLadyandNurse.

Capulet.Ajealoushood,°ajealoushood!

Enterthreeorfour[Fellows]withspitsandlogsandbaskets.

Now,fellow,

Whatisthere?

FirstFellow.Thingsforthecook,sir;butIknownotwhat.

Capulet.Makehaste,makehaste.[ExitfirstFellow.]Sirrah,fetchdrierlogs.CallPeter;hewillshowtheewheretheyare.

SecondFellow.Ihaveahead,sir,thatwillfindoutlogs°AndnevertroublePeterforthematter.

Capulet.Mass,°andwellsaid;amerrywhoreson,°ha!Thoushaltbeloggerhead.°[ExitsecondFellow,withtheothers.]Goodfaith,’tisday.TheCountywillbeherewithmusicstraight,Forsohesaidhewould.Playmusic.

5bakedmeatsmeatpies5Angelica(theNurse’sname)6cotqueanmanwhodoeswoman’swork8watchingstayingawake11mousehuntnightprowler,womanchaser13Ajealoushoodi.e.,youwearthecapofajealousperson18willfindoutlogshasanaffinityforlogs(i.e.,iswoodenalso)20MassbytheMass20whoresonrascal21loggerheadblockhead

Ihearhimnear.

Nurse!Wife!What,ho!What,nurse,Isay!

EnterNurse.

GowakenJuliet;goandtrimherup.I’llgoandchatwithParis.Hie,makehaste,Makehaste!Thebridegroomheiscomealready:Makehaste,Isay.[Exit.]

[Scene5.Juliet’schamber.]

Nurse.°Mistress!What,mistress!Juliet!Fast,°Iwar-ranther,she.Why,lamb!Why,lady!Fie,youslugabed.°Why,love,Isay!Madam;Sweetheart!Why,bride!What,notaword?Youtakeyourpennyworths°now;Sleepforaweek;forthenextnight,Iwarrant,

TheCountyParishathsetuphisrest°Thatyoushallrestbutlittle.Godforgiveme!Marry,andamen.Howsoundissheasleep!Ineedsmustwakeher.Madam,madam,madam!Ay,lettheCountytakeyouinyourbed;He’llfrightyouup,i’faith.Willitnotbe?

[Drawsasidethecurtains.]

What,dressed,andinyourclothes,anddown°again?Imustneedswakeyou.Lady!Lady!Lady!Alas,alas!Help,help!Mylady’sdead!

4.5.1Nurse (at the conclusion of the last scene the nurse presumably did not go offstage butremained on the forestage, and after Capulet’s departure she now walks to the rear to open thecurtains,revealingJuliet)1Fastfastasleep2slugabedsleepyhead4pennyworths smallportions(i.e., short naps) 6 set up his rest firmly resolved (with bawdy suggestion of having a lance inreadiness)12downgonebacktobed

Oweraday°thateverIwasborn!Someaquavitae,°ho!Mylord!Mylady!

[EnterMother.]

LadyCapulet.Whatnoiseishere?

Nurse.Olamentableday!

LadyCapulet.Whatisthematter?

Nurse.Look,look!Oheavyday!

LadyCapulet.Ome,Ome!Mychild,myonlylife!Revive,lookup,orIwilldiewiththee!Help,help!Callhelp.

EnterFather.

Capulet.Forshame,bringJulietforth;herlordiscome.

Nurse.She’sdead,deceased;she’sdead,alacktheday!

LadyCapulet.Alacktheday,she’sdead,she’sdead,she’sdead!

Capulet.Ha!Letmeseeher.Outalas!She’scold,Herbloodissettled,andherjointsarestiff;Lifeandtheselipshavelongbeenseparated.Deathliesonherlikeanuntimelyfrost.Uponthesweetestflowerofallthefield.

Nurse.Olamentableday!

LadyCapulet.Owoefultime!

Capulet.Death,thathathta’enherhencetomakemewail,Tiesupmytongueandwillnotletmespeak.EnterFriar[Lawrence]andtheCounty[Paris,withMusicians].

Friar.Come,isthebridereadytogotochurch?

Capulet.Readytogo,butnevertoreturn.

15weradaywelladay,alas16aquavitaespirits

Oson,thenightbeforethyweddingdayHathDeathlainwiththywife.Thereshelies,Flowerasshewas,deflowerèdbyhim.Deathismyson-in-law,Deathismyheir;Mydaughterhehathwedded.IwilldieAndleavehimall.Life,living,allisDeath’s.

Paris.HaveIthought,love,toseethismorning’sface,Anddothitgivemesuchasightasthis?

LadyCapulet.Accursed,unhappy,wretched,hatefulday!Mostmiserablehourthate’ertimesawInlastinglaborofhispilgrimage!Butone,poorone,onepoorandlovingchild,Butonethingtorejoiceandsolacein,AndcruelDeathhathcatcheditfrommysight.

Nurse.Owoe!Owoeful,woeful,woefulday!Mostlamentableday,mostwoefuldayThatevereverIdidyetbehold!Oday,Oday,Oday!Ohatefulday!Neverwasseensoblackadayasthis.Owoefulday!Owoefulday!

Paris.Beguiled,divorcèd,wrongèd,spited,slain!MostdetestableDeath,bytheebeguiled,Bycruel,crueltheequiteoverthrown.Olove!Olife!—notlife,butloveindeath!

Capulet.Despised,distressèd,hated,martyred,killed!Uncomfortable°time,whycam’stthounowTomurder,murderoursolemnity?Ochild,Ochild!Mysoul,andnotmychild!Deadartthou—alack,mychildisdead,Andwithmychildmyjoysareburièd!

Friar.Peace,ho,forshame!Confusion’scurelivesnotIntheseconfusions.HeavenandyourselfHadpartinthisfairmaid—nowheavenhathall,Andallthebetterisitforthemaid.

60Uncomfortablediscomforting

Yourpartinheryoucouldnotkeepfromdeath,Butheavenkeepshispartineternallife.Themostyousoughtwasherpromotion,For’twasyourheavensheshouldbeadvanced;Andweepyenow,seeingsheisadvancedAbovetheclouds,ashighasheavenitself?O,inthislove,youloveyourchildsoillThatyourunmad,seeingthatsheiswell.°She’snotwellmarriedthatlivesmarriedlong,Butshe’sbestmarriedthatdiesmarriedyoung.Dryupyourtearsandstickyourrosemary°Onthisfaircorse,and,asthecustomis,Andinherbestarraybearhertochurch;Forthoughfondnature°bidsusalllament,Yetnature’stearsarereason’smerriment.

Capulet.AllthingsthatweordainèdfestivalTurnfromtheirofficetoblackfuneral—Ourinstrumentstomelancholybells,Ourweddingcheertoasadburialfeast;Oursolemnhymnstosullendirgeschange;Ourbridalflowersserveforaburiedcorse;Andallthingschangethemtothecontrary.

Friar.Sir,goyouin;and,madam,gowithhim;Andgo,SirParis.EveryoneprepareTofollowthisfaircorseuntohergrave.Theheavensdolow’r°uponyouforsomeill;Movethemnomorebycrossingtheirhighwill.

Exeunt[castingrosemaryonherandshuttingthecurtains].

Manet°[theNursewithMusicians].

FirstMusician.Faith,wemayputupourpipesandbegone.

Nurse.Honestgoodfellows,ah,putup,putup!Forwellyouknowthisisapitifulcase.°[Exit.]

76welli.e.,inblessedcondition,inheaven79rosemaryanevergreen,signifyingremembrance82fond nature foolish human nature 94 low’r frown 95 s.d.Manet remains (Latin) 99 case (1)situation(2)instrumentcase

FirstMusician.Ay,bymytroth,thecasemaybeamended.

Enter[Peter].

Peter.Musicians,O,musicians,“Heart’sease,”“Heart’sease”!O,andyouwillhavemelive,play“Heart’sease.”

FirstMusician.Why“Heart’sease”?

Peter.O,musicians,becausemyheartitselfplays“Myheartisfull.”O,playmesomemerrydump°tocomfortme.

FirstMusician.Notadumpwe!’Tisnotimetoplaynow.

Peter.Youwillnotthen?

FirstMusician.No.

Peter.Iwillthengiveityousoundly.

FirstMusician.Whatwillyougiveus?

Peter.Nomoney,onmyfaith,butthegleek.°Iwillgiveyou°theminstrel.

FirstMusician.ThenwillIgiveyoutheserving-creature.

Peter.ThenwillIlaytheserving-creature’sdaggeronyourpate.Iwillcarry°nocrotchets.°I’llreyou,I’llfa°you.Doyounote°me?

FirstMusician.Andyoureusandfaus,younoteus.°

SecondMusician.Prayyouputupyourdagger,andputout°yourwit.Thenhaveatyouwithmywit!

107dump sad tune 115 gleek gibe 116 give you call you 120 carry endure 120 crotchets (1)whims(2)quarternotes120-21re...fa(musicalnotes,butusedperhapswithpunson“ray,”or“bewray”[“befoul”],and“fay”[“polish”];seeH.Kökeritz,Shakespeare’sPronunciation,pp.105-06)121noteunderstand122-23noteussetustomusic125putoutsetout,display

Peter.Iwilldry-beatyouwithanironwit,andputupmyirondagger.Answermelikemen.

“Whengripinggrieftheheartdothwound,Anddolefuldumpsthemindoppress,Thenmusicwithhersilversound”°—

Why“silversound”?Why“musicwithhersilversound”?Whatsayyou,SimonCatling?°

FirstMusician.Marry,sir,becausesilverhathasweet

sound.

Peter.Pretty!Whatsayyou,HughRebeck?°

SecondMusician.Isay“silversound”becausemu-sicianssoundforsilver.

Peter.Prettytoo!Whatsayyou,JamesSoundpost?°

ThirdMusician.Faith,Iknownotwhattosay.

Peter.O,Icryyoumercy,°youarethesinger.Iwillsayforyou.Itis“musicwithhersilversound”be-causemusicianshavenogoldforsounding.

“ThenmusicwithhersilversoundWithspeedyhelpdothlendredress.”Exit.

FirstMusician.Whatapestilentknaveisthissame!

SecondMusician.Hanghim,Jack!Come,we’llinhere,tarryforthemourners,andstaydinner.

Exit[withothers].

128-30When...sound(thesongisfromRichardEdwards’“InCommendationofMusic,”inTheParadiseofDaintyDevices,1576)132Catling catgut, a lute string135Rebeck a three-stringedfiddle138Soundpostpegthatgivesinternalsupporttoaviolin140cryyoumercybegyourpardon

[ACT5

Scene1.Mantua.Astreet.]

EnterRomeo.

Romeo.IfImaytrusttheflattering°truthofsleep,Mydreamspresagesomejoyfulnewsathand.Mybosom’slord°sitslightlyinhisthrone,AndallthisdayanunaccustomedspiritLiftsmeabovethegroundwithcheerfulthoughts.Idreamtmyladycameandfoundmedead(Strangedreamthatgivesadeadmanleavetothink!)AndbreathedsuchlifewithkissesinmylipsThatIrevivedandwasanemperor.Ahme!Howsweetisloveitselfpossessed,Whenbutlove’sshadows°aresorichinjoy!

EnterRomeo’sMan[Balthasar,booted].

NewsfromVerona!Hownow,Balthasar?Dostthounotbringmelettersfromthefriar?Howdothmylady?Ismyfatherwell?HowfaresmyJuliet?ThatIaskagain,Fornothingcanbeillifshebewell.

Man.Thensheiswell,andnothingcanbeill.HerbodysleepsinCapel’smonument,°Andherimmortalpartwithangelslives.

5.1.1flatteringillusory3bosom’slordi.e.,heart11shadowsdreams18monumenttomb

Isawherlaidlowinherkindred’svaultAndpresentlytookpost°totellityou.O,pardonmeforbringingtheseillnews,Sinceyoudidleaveitformyoffice,°sir.

Romeo.Isite’enso?ThenIdefyyou,stars!Thouknowestmylodging.GetmeinkandpaperAndhireposthorses.Iwillhencetonight.

Man.Idobeseechyou,sir,havepatience.Yourlooksarepaleandwildanddoimport°Somemisadventure.

Romeo.Tush,thouartdeceived.

LeavemeanddothethingIbidtheedo.Hastthounoletterstomefromthefriar?

Man.No,mygoodlord.

Romeo.Nomatter.Gettheegone.Andhirethosehorses.I’llbewiththeestraight.

Exit[Balthasar].

Well,Juliet,Iwillliewiththeetonight.Let’sseeformeans.Omischief,thouartswiftToenterinthethoughtsofdesperatemen!Idorememberanapothecary,Andhereabouts’adwells,whichlateInotedIntatt’redweeds,°withoverwhelming°brows,Cullingofsimples.°Meagerwerehislooks,Sharpmiseryhadwornhimtothebones;Andinhisneedyshopatortoisehung,Analligatorstuffed,andotherskinsOfill-shapedfishes;andabouthisshelvesAbeggarlyaccount°ofemptyboxes,Greenearthenpots,bladders,andmustyseeds,Remnantsofpackthread,andoldcakesofroses°Werethinlyscatterèd,tomakeupashow.Notingthispenury,tomyselfIsaid,

21 post post horses 23 office duty 28 import suggest 39 weeds clothes 39 overwhelmingoverhanging40Cullingofsimplescollectingmedicinalherbs45accountnumber47cakesofrosespressedrosepetals(forperfume)

“AndifamandidneedapoisonnowWhosesaleispresentdeathinMantua,Herelivesacaitiff°wretchwouldsellithim.”O,thissamethoughtdidbutforerunmyneed,Andthissameneedymanmustsellitme.AsIremember,thisshouldbethehouse.Beingholiday,thebeggar’sshopisshut.What,ho!Apothecary!

[EnterApothecary.]

Apothecary.Whocallssoloud?

Romeo.Comehither,man.Iseethatthouartpoor.Hold,thereisfortyducats.LetmehaveAdramofpoison,suchsoon-speedinggear°AswilldisperseitselfthroughalltheveinsThatthelife-wearytakermayfalldead,Andthatthetrunk°maybedischargedofbreath

AsviolentlyashastypowderfiredDothhurryfromthefatalcannon’swomb.

Apothecary.SuchmortaldrugsIhave;butMantua’slawIsdeathtoanyhethatutters°them.

Romeo.ArtthousobareandfullofwretchednessAndfearesttodie?Famineisinthycheeks,Needandoppressionstarveth°inthyeyes,Contemptandbeggaryhangsuponthyback:Theworldisnotthyfriend,northeworld’slaw;Theworldaffordsnolawtomaketheerich;Thenbenotpoor,butbreakitandtakethis.

Apothecary.Mypovertybutnotmywillconsents.

Romeo.Ipaythypovertyandnotthywill.

Apothecary.PutthisinanyliquidthingyouwillAnddrinkitoff,andifyouhadthestrengthOftwentymen,itwoulddispatchyoustraight.

52caitiffmiserable60soon-speedinggear fast-workingstuff63trunkbody67uttersdispenses70starvethstandstarving

Romeo.Thereisthygold—worsepoisontomen’ssouls,Doingmoremurderinthisloathsomeworld,Thanthesepoorcompoundsthatthoumaystnotsell.Iselltheepoison;thouhastsoldmenone.Farewell.Buyfoodandgetthyselfinflesh.Come,cordial°andnotpoison,gowithmeToJuliet’sgrave;fortheremustIusethee.

Exeunt.

[Scene2.FriarLawrence’scell.]

EnterFriarJohntoFriarLawrence.

John.HolyFranciscanfather,brother,ho!

Enter[Friar]Lawrence.

Lawrence.ThissameshouldbethevoiceofFriarJohn.WelcomefromMantua.WhatsaysRomeo?

Or,ifhismindbewrit,givemehisletter.

John.Goingtofindabarefootbrotherout,Oneofourorder,toassociate°meHereinthiscityvisitingthesick,Andfindinghim,thesearchers°ofthetown,SuspectingthatwebothwereinahouseWheretheinfectiouspestilencedidreign,Sealedupthedoors,andwouldnotletusforth,SothatmyspeedtoMantuatherewasstayed.

Lawrence.Whobaremyletter,then,toRomeo?

John.Icouldnotsendit—hereitisagain—Norgetamessengertobringitthee,Sofearfulweretheyofinfection.

85cordialrestorative5.2.6associateaccompany8searchershealthofficers

Lawrence.Unhappyfortune!Bymybrotherhood,°Theletterwasnotnice,°butfullofcharge,°Ofdearimport;andtheneglectingitMaydomuchdanger.FriarJohn,gohence,Getmeanironcrow°andbringitstraightUntomycell.

John.Brother,I’llgoandbringitthee.Exit.

Lawrence.NowmustItothemonumentalone.WithinthisthreehourswillfairJulietwake.Shewillbeshrew°memuchthatRomeoHathhadnonoticeoftheseaccidents;°ButIwillwriteagaintoMantua,AndkeepheratmycelltillRomeocome—

Poorlivingcorse,closedinadeadman’stomb!Exit.

[Scene3.Achurchyard;initamonumentbelongingtotheCapulets.]

EnterParisandhisPage[withflowersandsweetwater].

Paris.Givemethytorch,boy.Hence,andstandaloof.Yetputitout,forIwouldnotbeseen.Underyondyewtreeslaytheeallalong,°Holdingthyearclosetothehollowground.Soshallnofootuponthechurchyardtread(Beingloose,unfirm,withdiggingupofgraves)

Butthoushalthearit.Whistlethentome,Assignalthatthouhearestsomethingapproach.Givemethoseflowers.DoasIbidthee,go.

Page.[Aside]Iamalmostafraidtostandalone

17brotherhoodreligiousorder18nicetrivial18chargeimportance21crowcrowbar25beshrewblame26accidentshappenings5.3.3laytheeallalonglieatfulllength

Hereinthechurchyard;yetIwilladventure.°

[Retires.]

Paris.Sweetflower,withflowersthybridalbedIstrew(Owoe!thycanopyisdustandstones)Whichwithsweet°waternightlyIwilldew;Or,wantingthat,withtearsdistilledbymoans.TheobsequiesthatIfortheewillkeepNightlyshallbetostrewthygraveandweep.

WhistleBoy.

Theboygiveswarningsomethingdothapproach.WhatcursèdfootwandersthiswaytonightTocross°myobsequiesandtruelove’srite?What,withatorch?Muffle°me,night,awhile.

[Retires.]

EnterRomeo,[andBalthasarwithatorch,amattock,andacrowofiron].

Romeo.Givemethatmattockandthewrenchingiron.Hold,takethisletter.EarlyinthemorningSeethoudeliverittomylordandfather.Givemethelight.UponthylifeIchargethee,Whate’erthouhearestorseest,standallaloofAnddonotinterruptmeinmycourse.WhyIdescendintothisbedofdeathIspartlytobeholdmylady’sface,ButchieflytotakethencefromherdeadfingerApreciousring—aringthatImustuse.Indearemployment.°Thereforehence,begone.Butifthou,jealous,°dostreturntopryInwhatIfarthershallintendtodo,Byheaven,IwillteartheejointbyjointAndstrewthishungrychurchyardwiththylimbs.Thetimeandmyintentsaresavage-wild,MorefierceandmoreinexorablefarThanemptytigersortheroaringsea.

11adventure risk it14sweetperfumed20cross interrupt21Muffle hide32dear employmentimportantbusiness33jealouscurious

Balthasar.Iwillbegone,sir,andnottroubleye.

Romeo.Soshaltthoushowmefriendship.Takethouthat.Live,andbeprosperous;andfarewell,goodfellow.

Balthasar.[Aside]Forallthissame,I’llhidemehere-about.HislooksIfear,andhisintentsIdoubt.°[Retires.]

Romeo.Thoudetestablemaw,°thouwombofdeath,Gorgedwiththedearestmorseloftheearth,ThusIenforcethyrottenjawstoopen,Andindespite°I’llcramtheewithmorefood.

[Romeoopensthetomb.]

Paris.ThisisthatbanishedhaughtyMontagueThatmurd’redmylove’scousin—withwhichgriefItissupposedthefaircreaturedied—AndhereiscometodosomevillainousshameTothedeadbodies.Iwillapprehendhim.Stopthyunhallowèdtoil,vileMontague!Canvengeancebepursuedfurtherthandeath?Condemnèdvillain,Idoapprehendthee.Obey,andgowithme;forthoumustdie.

Romeo.Imustindeed;andthereforecameIhither.Goodgentleyouth,temptnotadesp’rateman.Flyhenceandleaveme.Thinkuponthesegone;Letthemaffrightthee.Ibeseechthee,youth,PutnotanothersinuponmyheadByurgingmetofury.O,begone!Byheaven,Ilovetheebetterthanmyself,ForIcomehitherarmedagainstmyself.Staynot,begone.Live,andhereaftersayAmadman’smercybidtheerunaway.

Paris.Idodefythyconjurations.°Andapprehendtheeforafelonhere.

Romeo.Wiltthouprovokeme?Thenhaveatthee,boy!

[Theyfight.]

44doubtsuspect45mawstomach48indespitetospiteyou68conjurationssolemncharges

Page.OLord,theyfight!Iwillgocallthewatch.

[Exit.Parisfalls.]

Paris.O,Iamslain!Ifthoubemerciful,Openthetomb,laymewithJuliet.[Dies.]

Romeo.Infaith,Iwill.Letmeperusethisface.Mercutio’skinsman,nobleCountyParis!WhatsaidmymanwhenmybetossèdsoulDidnotattend°himaswerode?IthinkHetoldmeParisshouldhavemarriedJuliet.Saidhenotso,ordidIdreamitso?OramImad,hearinghimtalkofJuliet,Tothinkitwasso?O,givemethyhand,Onewritwithmeinsourmisfortune’sbook!I’llburytheeinatriumphantgrave.Agrave?O,no,alanthorn,°slaught’redyouth,ForhereliesJuliet,andherbeautymakesThisvaultafeastingpresence°fulloflight.Death,liethouthere,byadeadmaninterred.

[Layshiminthetomb.]

HowoftwhenmenareatthepointofdeathHavetheybeenmerry!Whichtheirkeepers°callAlightningbeforedeath.O,howmayICallthisalightning?Omylove,mywife!Death,thathathsuckedthehoneyofthybreath,Hathhadnopoweryetuponthybeauty.Thouartnotconquered.Beauty’sensign°yetIscrimsoninthylipsandinthycheeks,Anddeath’spaleflagisnotadvancèdthere.Tybalt,liestthouthereinthybloodysheet?O,whatmorefavorcanIdototheeThanwiththathandthatcutthyyouthintwainTosunderhisthatwasthineenemy?Forgiveme,cousin!Ah,dearJuliet,Whyartthouyetsofair?ShallIbelieveThatunsubstantialDeathisamorous,

77attendgiveattentionto84lanthornlantern(awindowederectiononthetopofadomeorroomtoadmitlight)86feastingpresencefestivepresencechamber89keepersjailers94ensignbanner

AndthattheleanabhorrèdmonsterkeepsTheehereindarktobehisparamour?ForfearofthatIstillwillstaywiththeeAndneverfromthispalletofdimnightDepartagain.Here,herewillIremainWithwormsthatarethychambermaids.O,here

WillIsetupmyeverlastingrestAndshaketheyokeofinauspiciousstarsFromthisworld-weariedflesh.Eyes,lookyourlast!Arms,takeyourlastembrace!And,lips,OyouThedoorsofbreath,sealwitharighteouskissAdateless°bargaintoengrossing°death!Come,bitterconduct;°come,unsavoryguide!Thoudesperatepilot,°nowatoncerunonThedashingrocksthyseasickwearybark!Here’stomylove![Drinks.]Otrueapothecary!Thydrugsarequick.ThuswithakissIdie.[Falls.]

EnterFriar[Lawrence],withlanthorn,crow,andspade.

Friar.SaintFrancisbemyspeed!°HowofttonightHavemyoldfeetstumbled°atgraves!Who’sthere?

Balthasar.Here’sone,afriend,andonethatknowsyouwell.

Friar.Blissbeuponyou!Tellme,goodmyfriend,WhattorchisyondthatvainlylendshislightTogrubsandeyelessskulls?AsIdiscern,ItburnethintheCapels’monument.

Balthasar.Itdothso,holysir;andthere’smymaster,Onethatyoulove.

Friar.Whoisit?

Balthasar.Romeo.

Friar.Howlonghathhebeenthere?

115datelesseternal115engrossingall-buying,all-encompassing116conductguide117desperatepiloti.e.,himself121speedhelp122stumbled(abadomen)

Balthasar.Fullhalfanhour.

Friar.Gowithmetothevault.

Balthasar.Idarenot,sir.MymasterknowsnotbutIamgonehence,AndfearfullydidmenacemewithdeathIfIdidstaytolookonhisintents.

Friar.Staythen;I’llgoalone.Fearcomesuponme.O,muchIfearsomeillunthrifty°thing.

Balthasar.AsIdidsleepunderthisyewtreehere,Idreamtmymasterandanotherfought,Andthatmymasterslewhim.

Friar.Romeo!Alack,alack,whatbloodisthiswhichstainsThestonyentranceofthissepulcher?WhatmeanthesemasterlessandgoryswordsToliediscoloredbythisplaceofpeace?

[Entersthetomb.]

Romeo!O,pale!Whoelse?What,Paristoo?Andsteepedinblood?Ah,whatanunkind°hourIsguiltyofthislamentablechance!Theladystirs.[Julietrises.]

Juliet.Ocomfortable°friar!Whereismylord?IdorememberwellwhereIshouldbe,AndthereIam.WhereismyRomeo?

Friar.Ihearsomenoise.Lady,comefromthatnestOfdeath,contagion,andunnaturalsleep.AgreaterpowerthanwecancontradictHaththwartedourintents.Come,comeaway.Thyhusbandinthybosomthereliesdead;AndParistoo.Come,I’lldisposeoftheeAmongasisterhoodofholynuns.Staynottoquestion,forthewatchiscoming.Come,go,goodJuliet.Idarenolongerstay.

136unthriftyunlucky145unkindunnatural148comfortablecomforting

Juliet.Go,gettheehence,forIwillnotaway.

Exit[Friar].

What’shere?Acup,closedinmytruelove’shand?Poison,Isee,hathbeenhistimeless°end.Ochurl!°Drunkall,andleftnofriendlydropTohelpmeafter?Iwillkissthylips.HaplysomepoisonyetdothhangonthemTomakemediewitharestorative.[Kisseshim.]Thylipsarewarm!

ChiefWatchman.[Within]Lead,boy.Whichway?

Juliet.Yea,noise?ThenI’llbebrief.Ohappy°dagger![SnatchesRomeo’sdagger.]Thisisthysheath;thererust,andletmedie.

[Shestabsherselfandfalls.]

Enter[Paris’]BoyandWatch.

Boy.Thisistheplace.There,wherethetorchdoth

burn.

ChiefWatchman.Thegroundisbloody.Searchaboutthechurchyard.Go,someofyou;whoe’eryoufindattach.

[ExeuntsomeoftheWatch.]

Pitifulsight!HereliestheCountyslain;AndJulietbleeding,warm,andnewlydead,Whoherehathlainthistwodaysburièd.Go,tellthePrince;runtotheCapulets;RaiseuptheMontagues;someotherssearch.

[ExeuntothersoftheWatch.]

Weseethegroundwhereonthesewoesdolie,Butthetrueground°ofallthesepiteouswoesWecannotwithoutcircumstance°descry.

Enter[someoftheWatch,with]Romeo’sMan[Balthasar].

SecondWatchman.Here’sRomeo’sman.Wefoundhiminthechurchyard.

162 timeless untimely 163 churl rude fellow 169 happy opportune 180 ground cause 181circumstancedetails

ChiefWatchman.HoldhiminsafetytillthePrincecomehither.

EnterFriar[Lawrence]andanotherWatchman.

ThirdWatchman.Hereisafriarthattrembles,sighs,andweeps.WetookthismattockandthisspadefromhimAshewascomingfromthischurchyard’sside.

ChiefWatchman.Agreatsuspicion!Staythefriartoo.

EnterthePrince[andAttendants].

Prince.Whatmisadventureissoearlyup,Thatcallsourpersonfromourmorningrest?

EnterCapuletandhisWife[withothers].

Capulet.Whatshoulditbe,thatissoshriekedabroad?

LadyCapulet.O,thepeopleinthestreetcry“Romeo,”Some“Juliet,”andsome“Paris”;andallrunWithopenoutcrytowardourmonument.

Prince.Whatfearisthiswhichstartlesinyourears?

ChiefWatchman.Sovereign,hereliestheCountyParisslain;AndRomeodead;andJuliet,deadbefore,Warmandnewkilled.

Prince.Search,seek,andknowhowthisfoulmurdercomes.

ChiefWatchman.Hereisafriar,andslaughteredRomeo’sman,WithinstrumentsuponthemfittoopenThesedeadmen’stombs.

Capulet.Oheavens!Owife,lookhowourdaughterbleeds!Thisdaggerhathmista’en,for,lo,hishouse°IsemptyonthebackofMontague,Anditmissheathèdinmydaughter’sbosom!

203hishouseitssheath

LadyCapulet.Ome,thissightofdeathisasabellThatwarnsmyoldagetoasepulcher.

EnterMontague[andothers].

Prince.Come,Montague;forthouartearlyupToseethysonandheirmoreearlydown.

Montague.Alas,myliege,mywifeisdeadtonight!Griefofmyson’sexilehathstoppedherbreath.Whatfurtherwoeconspiresagainstmineage?

Prince.Look,andthoushaltsee.

Montague.Othouuntaught!Whatmannersisinthis,Topressbeforethyfathertoagrave?

Prince.Sealupthemouthofoutrage°forawhile,TillwecancleartheseambiguitiesAndknowtheirspring,theirhead,theirtruedescent;AndthenwillIgeneralofyourwoes°Andleadyoueventodeath.Meantimeforbear,Andletmischancebeslavetopatience.Bringforththepartiesofsuspicion.

Friar.Iamthegreatest,abletodoleast,Yetmostsuspected,asthetimeandplaceDothmakeagainstme,ofthisdirefulmurder;AndhereIstand,bothtoimpeachandpurge°Myselfcondemnèdandmyselfexcused.

Prince.Thensayatoncewhatthoudostknowinthis.

Friar.Iwillbebrief,formyshortdateofbreath°Isnotsolongasisatedioustale.Romeo,theredead,washusbandtothatJuliet;Andshe,theredead,that’sRomeo’sfaithfulwife.Imarriedthem;andtheirstol’nmarriagedayWasTybalt’sdoomsday,whoseuntimelydeathBanishedthenew-madebridegroomfromthiscity;

216themouthofoutragetheseviolentcries219generalofyourwoesleaderinyoursorrowing226impeachandpurgemakechargesandexonerate229dateofbreathtermoflife

Forwhom,andnotforTybalt,Julietpined.You,toremovethatsiegeofgrieffromher,BetrothedandwouldhavemarriedherperforceToCountyParis.ThencomesshetomeAndwithwildlooksbidmedevisesomemeanToridherfromthissecondmarriage,Orinmycelltherewouldshekillherself.ThengaveIher(sotutoredbymyart)Asleepingpotion;whichsotookeffectAsIintended,foritwroughtonherTheformofdeath.MeantimeIwrittoRomeoThatheshouldhithercomeas°thisdirenightTohelptotakeherfromherborrowedgrave,Beingthetimethepotion’sforceshouldcease.Buthewhichboremyletter,FriarJohn,Wasstayedbyaccident,andyesternightReturnedmyletterback.ThenallaloneAttheprefixèdhourofherwakingCameItotakeherfromherkindred’svault;Meaningtokeepherclosely°atmycellTillIconvenientlycouldsendtoRomeo.ButwhenIcame,someminuteerethetimeOfherawakening,hereuntimelylayThenobleParisandtrueRomeodead.Shewakes;andIentreatedhercomeforthAndbearthisworkofheavenwithpatience;Butthenanoisedidscaremefromthetomb,Andshe,toodesperate,wouldnotgowithme,But,asitseems,didviolenceonherself.AllthisIknow,andtothemarriageHernurseisprivy;°andifaughtinthisMiscarriedbymyfault,letmyoldlifeBesacrificedsomehourbeforehistimeUntotherigorofseverestlaw.

Prince.Westill°haveknowntheeforaholyman.Where’sRomeo’sman?Whatcanhesaytothis?

Balthasar.IbroughtmymasternewsofJuliet’sdeath;

247ason255closelyhidden266privyaccessory270stillalways

AndtheninposthecamefromMantuaTothissameplace,tothissamemonument.Thisletterheearlybidmegivehisfather,Andthreat’nedmewithdeath,goinginthevault,IfIdepartednotandlefthimthere.

Prince.Givemetheletter.Iwilllookonit.WhereistheCounty’spagethatraisedthewatch?Sirrah,whatmadeyourmaster°inthisplace?

Boy.Hecamewithflowerstostrewhislady’sgrave;Andbidmestandaloof,andsoIdid.Anoncomesonewithlighttoopethetomb;Andbyandby°mymasterdrewonhim;AndthenIranawaytocallthewatch.

Prince.Thisletterdothmakegoodthefriar’swords,Theircourseoflove,thetidingsofherdeath;AndherehewritesthathedidbuyapoisonOfapoorapothecaryandtherewithal°CametothisvaulttodieandliewithJuliet.Wherebetheseenemies?Capulet,Montague,Seewhatascourgeislaiduponyourhate,Thatheavenfindsmeanstokillyourjoyswithlove.AndI,forwinkingat°yourdiscords,too,Havelostabrace°ofkinsmen.Allarepunished.

Capulet.ObrotherMontague,givemethyhand.Thisismydaughter’sjointure,°fornomoreCanIdemand.

Montague.ButIcangivetheemore;ForIwillraiseherstatueinpuregold,ThatwhilesVeronabythatnameisknown,Thereshallnofigureatsuchrate°besetAsthatoftrueandfaithfulJuliet.

Capulet.AsrichshallRomeo’sbyhislady’slie—Poorsacrificesofourenmity!

280madeyourmasterwasyourmasterdoing284byandbysoon289therewithaltherewith294winking at closing eyes to 295 brace pair (i.e., Mercutio and Paris) 297 jointure marriage

settlement301ratevalue

Prince.Aglooming°peacethismorningwithitbrings.Thesunforsorrowwillnotshowhishead.Gohence,tohavemoretalkofthesesadthings;Someshallbepardoned,andsomepunishèd;ForneverwasastoryofmorewoeThanthisofJulietandherRomeo.

[Exeuntomnes.]

FINIS

305gloomingcloudy

TextualNote

The First Quarto (Q1) of Romeo and Juliet was printed in 1597 without previous entry in theStationers’Register.Itborethefollowingtitlepage:“An/EXCELLENT/conceitedTragedie/OF/RomeoandIuliet./Asithathbeenoften(withgreatapplause)/plaidpubliquely,bytherightHo-/nourabletheL.ofHunsdon/hisSeruants./LONDON,/PrintedbyIohnDanter./1597.”Untilthepresentcentury,editorsfrequentlyassumedthatthistext,curtailedandmanifestlycorrupt,representedanearlydraftoftheplay.MostnowagreethatQ1,liketheother“bad”Shakespearequartos,isamemorialreconstruction;thatis,aversionwhichsomeof theactors (accusingfingershavebeenpointedat thosewhoplayedRomeoandPeter)put togetherfrommemoryandgave to theprinter.TheSecondQuarto(Q2)wasprinted in1599with the following title page: “THE/MOST/ EX-/ cellent and lamentable / Tragedie, of Romeo/ andIuliet./Newlycorrected,augmented,and/amended:As ithathbenesundry timespubliquelyacted,bythe/ right Honourable the Lord Chamberlaine/ his Seruants./ London/ Printed by Thomas Creede, forCuthbert Burby, and are to/ be sold at his shop neare the Exchange./ 1599.” Apparently Q2 derivesdirectlyfromthesameactingversionthatisimperfectlyreflectedinthememoriallyreconstructedQ1,butitisbasedonawrittenscriptoftheplayratherthanonactors’memories.Q2,however,istheproductofcarelessorhastyprintinganddoesnotinspirecompleteconfidence.Linesthattheauthordoubtlesshadcanceled are sometimes printed alongwith the lines intended to replace them, and occasionally notesaboutstagingappearwhichareprobablytheprompter’s,orpossiblyShakespeare’s.Vexingmatterslikethese,togetherwiththefactthatsomespeechesinQ2areclearlybasedonQ1(possiblythemanuscriptthat provided the copy formost ofQ2was illegible in places), have caused editors tomake at leastlimiteduseofQ1.Theother textsofRomeoandJuliethavenoclaimtoauthority.TheSecondQuartoprovidedthebasisforaThirdQuarto(1609),whichinturnservedascopyforanundatedFourthQuartoandforthetextintheFolioof1623.AFifthQuarto,basedontheFourth,appearedin1637.Noneofthesetexts—includingtheSecondQuarto,uponwhichthepresenteditionisbased—makesany

realdivisionoftheplayintoactsandscenes.(ThelastthirdofQ1doeshavearoughindicationofscenedivision in the formof stripsofornamentalborderacross thepage, and theFoliohasat thebeginningActusPrimus.ScenaPrima,butnothingfurther.)Thedivisionusedhere,likethatinmostmoderntexts,derives from the Globe edition, as do theDramatis Personae and the various indications of place.Spellingandpunctuationhavebeenmodernized,anumberofstagedirectionshavebeenadded(insquarebrackets), and speechprefixeshavebeen regularized.This last changewill be regrettedby thosewhofeel,perhapsrightly,thatatleastsomeofthespeechprefixesofQ2showhowShakespearethoughtofthecharacter at each moment of the dialogue. Lady Capulet, for example, is variously designated in thespeech prefixes of Q2 asWife,Lady, and sometimesMother; Capulet is occasionally referred to asFather, andBalthasar asPeter; the FirstMusician of our text (4.5) is once calledFidler in Q2 andseveraltimesMinstrelorMinstrels.Otherdeviations(apartfromobvioustypographicalerrors)fromQ2arelistedinthetextualnotes.Theretheadoptedreadingisgivenfirst, in italics,followedbyanoteinsquare brackets if the source of the reading isQ1; this is followed by the rejected reading in roman.Absenceofanoteinsquarebracketsindicatesthattheadoptedreadinghasbeentakenfromsomeothersourceand representsguessworkatbest.Apparently theeditorsofFaswell asofQ3andQ4hadnoaccesstoanyauthenticdocument.Indealingwiththetroublesomestagedirectionattheendof1.4,Ihavefollowedthesolutionadopted

byH.R.HoppeinhisCroftsClassicsedition(1947);andIhaveadoptedthereadingof“eyes’shot”for

thecustomary“eyesshut”at3.2.49fromthePelicaneditionofJohnE.Hankins(Penguin,1960),whichpresentsagoodargumentforretainingthereadingofQ2withtheadditionofanapostrophe.

1.1.29insense[Q1]sense34comestwo[Q1]comes65swashingwashing123dravedriue150hisis156sun same182well-seeming [Q1]welseeing205Bida sick [Q1]A sicke 205make [Q1]makes206Ah[Q1]A

1.2.32onone65-73Signior...Helena[proseinQ1andF]92firesfier

1.3.2-76[Q2printsNurse’sspeechesinprose]66,67honor[Q1]houre99makeit[Q1]make

1.4.7-8Nor...entrance[addedfromQ1]23MercutioHoratio39done[Q1]dum42ofthissir-reverence[Q1]orsaueyoureuerence45likelights47fivefine53-91O...bodes[versefromQ1;Q2hasprose]57atomiesottamie63 filmPhilome66maid [Q1]man113sail [Q1]sute114s.d.They...and[Q2combineswiths.d.usedhereatbeginningof1.5]

1.5.s.d.[Q2adds“EnterRomeo”]1,4,7,12FirstServingman...SecondServingman...FirstServingman...FirstServingman[Q2has“Ser.,”“I.,”“Ser.,”and“Ser.”]97ready[Q1]didreadie144What’sthis?What’sthis?Whatstis?whatstis

2.1.9one[Q1]on10pronounce[Q1]prouaunt10dove[Q1]day12heir[Q1]her38etcetera[Q1]or

2.2.16do to 20 eyes eye 45were wene 83washed washeth 99havior [Q1] behauior 101morecunning [Q1]coying162 thanmine then167sweetNeece186Romeo [Q1] Iu.187-88 [betweenthese linesQ2 has “The grey eydemorne smiles on the frowning night, / Checkring theEasterneCloudswith streaks of light, /And darknesse fleckted like a drunkard reeles, / From forth daiespathway,madebyTytanswheeles,” linesnearly identicalwith thosegiven to theFriarat2.3.1-4;presumably Shakespeare first wrote the lines for Romeo, then decided to use them in FriarLawrence’snextspeech,butneglectedtodeletethefirstversion,andtheprintermistakenlyprintedit]

2.3.2Check’ringChecking3fleckèd[Q1]fleckeld74ringyet[Q1]yetringing

2.4.18Benvolio[Q1]Ro.30fantasticoes[Q1]phantacies215AhA

2.5.11threethere

2.6.27music’smusicke

3.1.2are[Q1;Q2omits]91s.d.Tybalt...flies[Q1;Q2has“AwayTybalt”]110soundlytoo.Yoursoundly, toyour124Alive [Q1]Hegan126eyed [Q1]end168agile [Q1]aged190hate’s [Q1]

hearts194IIt

3.2.51determineofdetermine60one on72-73 [Q2gives line72 to Juliet, line73 toNurse]76Dove-featheredRauenousdoue-featherd79damnèddimme

3.3.s.d.EnterFriar[Q1]EnterFrierandRomeo40But...banishèd[inQ2thislineisprecededbyoneline,“Thismayflyesdo,whenIfromthismustflie,”whichissubstantiallythesameasline41,andbyline43,whichisprobablymisplaced]52Thou[Q1]Then61madmen[Q1]madman73s.d.KnockTheyknocke75s.d.KnockSludknock108s.d.He...away[Q1;Q2omits]117liveslies143misbehavedmishaued162s.d.Nurse...again[Q1;Q2omits]168disguiseddisguise

3.5.13exhales [Q1]exhale36s.d.EnterNurse [Q1]EnterMadameandNurse42 s.d.He goethdown[Q1;Q2omits]54JulietRo.83pardonhimpadon140givesgiue182trained[Q1]liand

4.1.7talked talke72slay [Q1]stay83chaplesschapels85hisshroudhis98breath [Q1]breast100wannymany110InIs110[afterthislineQ2has“Bebornetoburiallinthykindredsgraue”;presumablyassoonasShakespearewrotethesewordshedecidedhecoulddobetter,andexpressedthegistof the idea in thenext two lines,but thecanceled linewaserroneouslyprinted]111shaltshall116wakingwalking

4.3.49wakewalke58Romeo,Idrink[after“Romeo”Q2has“heeresdrinke,”whichisprobablyastagedirectionprintedinerror]58s.d.She...curtains[Q1;Q2omits]

4.4.21faith[Q1]father

4.5.65curecare82 fond some95s.d.casting . . .curtains [Q1;Q2omits]101by [Q1]my101amendedamended.Exitomnes101s.d.Peter[Q2has“WillKemp,”thenameoftheactorplayingtherole]128grief[Q1]griefes129And...oppress[Q1;Q2omits]135,138Pretty[Q1]Prates

5.1.11s.d.booted[detailfromQl]15faresmy[Q1]dothmyLady24e’en[Q1“euen”]in24defy[Q1]denie50AndAn76pay[Q1]pray

5.3.s.d.with...water[Q1;Q2omits]3yew[Q1]young21s.d.andBalthasar...iron[Q1;Q2has“EnterRomeoandPeter,” andgives lines40and43 toPeter insteadof toBalthasar]48 s.d.Romeo...tomb[Q1;Q2omits]68conjurations[Q1]commiration71Page[Q2omitsthisspeechprefix]102fair[Q2followswith“Iwillbeleeue,”presumablywordsthatShakespearewrote,thenrewroteinthenextline,butneglectedtodelete]108again.Here[betweenthesewordsQ2hasthefollowingmaterial,whichShakespeareapparentlyneglectedtodelete:“comelyethouinmyarme,/Heer’stothyhealth,whereerethoutumblestin./OtrueAppothecarie/Thydrugsarequicke.Thuswithakisse Idie. /Depart againe”]137yew yong187 too too too189 s.d.Enter . . .wife [Q2placesafter line201,with“EnterCapels”at line189]190shrieked [Q1]shrike199slaughtered

Slaughter209moreearly[Q1]nowearling

ANoteontheSourceofRomeoandJuliet

ThestoryofRomeoandJulietwaspopularinElizabethantimes,andShakespearecouldhavegothisworkingoutlineof it fromanumberofplaces.Belleforest’sHistoiresTragiqueshadaversion,asdidWilliam Painter’s Palace of Pleasure; and there had apparently been a play on the subject. ArthurBrooke, inanaddress“To theReader”prefaced tohis longnarrativepoemTheTragicallHistoryeofRomeus and Juliet, mentioned seeing “the same argument lately set foorth on stage”; but there is noevidence thatShakespeareworked fromanolderplayoreven thatheconsultedBelleforestorPainter,though he undoubtedly knew their works. All the evidence indicates that he worked directly fromBrooke’spoem,whichRichardTottellhadprintedin1562andRobertRobinsonhadreissuedin1587,shortlybeforethetimethatShakespearemusthavebegunwritingfortheLondonstage.Actuallythestorywaspopular,ontheContinentatleast,wellbeforeElizabeth’stime.Leavingoutof

accountsuchobviousbutdistantanaloguesasthestoriesofHeroandLeander,AeneasandDido,PyramusandThisbe,andTroilusandCressida, thefirstversionof thestorywasonethatappearedinMasuccioSalernitano’sIlNovellinoin1476.Thisversionhadtheclandestinelovers,theaccommodatingfriar,thekillingthatledtotheyoungman’sbanishment,therivalsuitor,sleepingpotion,thwartedmessenger,andunhappy conclusion, but no suicides. It might have passed into oblivion had it not been for Luigi daPorto’sIstorianovellamenteritrovatadidueNobiliAmanti(publishedca.1530),whichlaidthesceneinVeronaandidentifiedthefeudingfamiliesasMontecchiandCapellettiandtheloversasRomeoandGiulietta. Da Porto’s story also named the friar Lorenzo and the slain man Thebaldo Capelletti andintroducedtheball,thebalconyscene,andthedoublesuicideatthetomb.ItwasdaPorto,moreover,whofirstnamedaminorcharacterMarcuccioandgavehim the icyhands that subsequent tellersof the taleregularlymentioneduntilShakespearediscardedthedetailandreplaceditwithadistinctivepersonality.DaPortoisalsorememberedforhavingGiuliettacommitsuicidebyholdingherbreath—adetailwhichfortunatelynoonebotheredtoperpetuate.DaPorto’stalewaswidelyimitatedbothinItalyandinFrance,buttheversionofmostimportanceto

readersofShakespearewasthatofMatteoBandello,whoputthestoryintohisNovelle(1554).OfalltheversionsbeforeShakespeare’s,Bandello’sisgenerallyconsideredthebest.Itisaplain,straightforwardnarrative, unmarred by the sentimentality and moralizing that characterized the work of some of hisadapters.InBandello’sstorythemaskingappears;Peteristhere(butasRomeo’sservant),theNursehasasignificantpartintheplot,andtheropeladdercomesintoplay.AlmostasimportantistheversionofPierre Boaistuau (1559), adapted from Bandello, which was included in Belleforest’s HistoiresTragiques.BoaistuaumadeRomeogototheballinthehopeofseeinghisindifferentlady(theRosalineof Shakespeare’s play), worked out the business of the Capulets’ restraint at discovering Romeo’spresence,anddevelopedthedilemmathatJulietfindsherselfinwhenshefirsthearsofTybalt’sdeath;healsodevelopedthecharacteroftheapothecary.AllthesethingswentintoPainter’sversion(1567),whichwas a translation of Boaistuau, and into Brooke’s, which was based on Boaistuau. The line oftransmissionfromMasucciotoShakespearethusincludesdaPorto,Bandello,Boaistuau,andBrooke,inthat order, with Painter standing unconsulted to one side. Shakespeare, however, used only BrookedirectlyandthusderivedfromthetraditiononlyasmuchasBrookepassedontohim;butheborrowedfreelyfromthegreatwealthofdetailthatBrookehimselfhadadded.AnyoneinterestedinconsultingBrooke’sversionforhimselfwillfinditinthefirstvolumeofGeoffrey

Bullough’sNarrativeandDramaticSourcesofShakespeare(London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1957).

Inspiteofthetediouspoulter’smeasure(iambiccoupletsinwhichthefirstlinehastwelvesyllablesandthesecond,fourteen)thepoemisnotentirelydull;andnoothersinglesourcegaveShakespearesomuchthatwas immediately useful.Readers should recognize at once the character and function ofBenvolio(though Brooke neglected to give him a name), the Capulet that stormed at what he took to be hisdaughter’swillfuldisobedienceandthreatenedherwithincarcerationandendlessmisery,thegarrulous,amoralNurseandherconversationswiththeyounglovers,andtheneedyapothecary.Theywillevenfindthe clue toMercutio’s character (whichBrookedidnot develop) in the lines: “Even as aLyonwouldemongthelambesbebolde,/Suchwasemongthebashfullmaydes,Mercutiotobeholde.”Numeroussuchhints,togetherwithbitsofbusiness,suggestionsformetaphors,andpassagesofdialogue,catchtheeyeasonescansBrooke’slines,notsomuchbecausetheyarearrestinginthemselvesbutbecausetheycalltomind the use Shakespeare has made of them. And if one gets safely past Brooke’s “Address to theReader,”with its heavy-handed condemnation of lust, disobedience, and superstitious friars, one findsthat Brooke too treated the loverswith sympathy and allowed his friar the best of intentions. In fact,Brooke,havingdischargedhimselfofhisProtestantmoralizinginthe“Address,”tendedtomakeFortuneresponsibleformostthingsinthestory;andShakespeare,asweknow,tookBrooke’sFortunealongwithalltherest.What Shakespeare did with Brooke’s clean but relatively inert story was to add complication and

focus, intensify it by drastic compression, and establish the intricate relationship of part to part in atextureoflanguagethatfunctionsadmirablyasdialogueevenasitcreatestheunityofadramaticpoem.InthistransformationhemadeitpossibleforustotoleratetheNurse,loveCapulet,andpitytheapothecary.HerelievedtheFriarofthetediumthatBrookehadencumberedhimwith,andhechangedEscalusintoamanwhogenuinely suffers and commands sympathy. InbringingTybalt to theball andmakinghim thediscovererofRomeo’spresencethere,hegaverealpointtothedisastrousstreetfightinAct3;healsoenlargedParis’partinthestoryandennobledhischaracter,andhecreatedMercutio.Moreimportant,hemadeallthreeoftheseserveasfoilstoaRomeowhodevelopsandmaturesinresponsetothechallengesthey present and who, before the end, has ironically become responsible for the deaths of all three.Shakespeare’s real miracle, however, was Juliet, transformed from an adolescent arrogantly eager tooutdo her elders to an appealing child-woman, barely fourteen, who learns to mix courage with herinnocence, yet falls victim to a world that only briefly and unintentionally but fatally treats her as aplaything.

Commentaries

SAMUELJOHNSON

FromThePlaysofWilliamShakespeare

Thisplayisoneofthemostpleasingofourauthor’sperformances.Thescenesarebusyandvarious,theincidentsnumerousandimportant,thecatastropheirresistiblyaffecting,andtheprocessoftheactioncarriedonwithsuchprobability,atleastwithsuchcongruitytopopularopinions,astragedyrequires.HereisoneofthefewattemptsofShakespearetoexhibittheconversationofgentlemen,torepresent

theairysprightlinessofjuvenileelegance.Mr.Drydenmentionsatradition,whichmighteasilyreachhistime,ofadeclarationmadebyShakespeare,that“hewasobligedtokillMercutiointhethirdact,lestheshouldhavebeenkilledbyhim.”Yethe thinkshim“nosuchformidableperson,but thathemighthavelivedthroughtheplay,anddiedinhisbed,”withoutdangertothepoet.Drydenwellknew,hadhebeeninquestoftruth,that,inapointedsentence,moreregardiscommonlyhadtothewordsthanthethought,andthat it is very seldom to be rigorously understood. Mercutio’s wit, gaiety, and courage, will alwaysprocurehimfriendsthatwishhimalongerlife;buthisdeathisnotprecipitated,hehaslivedoutthetimeallottedhimintheconstructionoftheplay;nordoIdoubttheabilityofShakespearetohavecontinuedhisexistence,thoughsomeofhissalliesare,perhaps,outofthereachofDryden;whosegeniuswasnotveryfertileofmerriment,norductiletohumor,butacute,argumentative,comprehensive,andsublime.

FromTheWorksofSamuelJohnson,LL.D.9vols.Oxford,1825.ThisselectionfirstappearedinThePlaysofWilliamShakespeare(London,1765).

The nurse is one of the characters in which the author delighted; he has, with great subtlety ofdistinction,drawnheratonceloquaciousandsecret,obsequiousandinsolent,trustyanddishonest.His comic scenes are happily wrought, but his pathetic strains are always polluted with some

unexpected depravations.His persons, however distressed, have a conceit left them in theirmisery, amiserableconceit.

[1765]

SAMUELTAYLORCOLERIDGE

FromTheLecturesof1811-1812,LectureVII

Ina former lecture Iendeavored topointout theunionof thepoetand thephilosopher,or rather thewarmembracebetweenthem,intheVenusandAdonisandLucreceofShakespeare.FromthenceIpassedontoLove’sLabor’sLost,as thelinkbetweenhischaracterasapoet,andhisartasadramatist;andIshowedthat,althoughinthatworktheformerwasstillpredominant,yetthatthegermsofhissubsequentdramaticpowerwereeasilydiscernible.Iwillnow,as Ipromised inmy last,proceed toRomeoandJuliet,notbecause it is theearliest,or

amongtheearliestofShakespeare’sworksof thatkind,butbecause in itare tobefoundspecimens, indegree, of all the excellenceswhichhe afterwardsdisplayed inhismoreperfectdramas, butdifferingfrom them inbeing less forcibly evidenced, and less happily combined: all theparts aremoreor lesspresent,buttheyarenotunitedwiththesameharmony.Thereare,however,inRomeoandJulietpassageswherethepoet’swholeexcellenceisevinced,so

thatnothingsuperiortothemcanbemetwithintheproductionsofhisafteryears.Themaindistinctionbetweenthisplayandothersis,asIsaid,thatthepartsarelesshappilycombined,ortoborrowaphrasefromthepainter,thewholeworkislessinkeeping.

FromShakespearean Criticism by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. 2nd ed., ed. Thomas MiddletonRaysor.2vols.NewYork:E.P.DuttonandCompany,Inc.,1960;London:J.M.Dent&Sons,Ltd.,1961.TheexacttextofColeridge’slecturedoesnotexist;whatisgivenhereisthetranscriptofashorthandreporttakenbyanauditor,J.P.Collier.

Grandportionsareproduced:wehavelimbsofgiantgrowth;buttheproduction,asawhole,inwhicheachpart givesdelight for itself, and thewhole, consistingof thesedelightful parts, communicates thehighestintellectualpleasureandsatisfaction,istheresultoftheapplicationofjudgmentandtaste.Thesearenottobeattainedbutbypainfulstudy,andtothesacrificeofthestrongerpleasuresderivedfromthedazzlinglightwhichamanofgeniusthrowsovereverycircumstance,andwherewearechieflystruckbyvividanddistinctimages.Tasteisanattainmentafterapoethasbeendisciplinedbyexperienceandhasadded to genius that talent by which he knows what part of his genius he can make acceptable, andintelligibletotheportionofmankindforwhichhewrites.Inmyminditwouldbeahopelesssymptom,asregardsgenius,ifIfoundayoungmanwithanything

like perfect taste. In the earlier works of Shakespeare we have a profusion of double epithets, andsometimeseventhecoarsesttermsareemployed,iftheyconveyamorevividimage;butbydegreestheassociationsareconnectedwiththeimagetheyaredesignedtoimpress,andthepoetdescendsfromtheidealintotherealworldsofarastoconjoinboth—togiveasphereofactiveoperationstotheideal,andtoelevateandrefinethereal.InRomeoandJuliettheprincipalcharactersmaybedividedintotwoclasses:inoneclasspassion—

the passion of love—is drawn and drawn truly, as well as beautifully; but the persons are notindividualizedfartherthanastheactorappearsonthestage.Itisaveryjustdescriptionanddevelopmentoflove,withoutgiving,ifImaysoexpressmyself,thephilosophicalhistoryofit—withoutshowinghowthemanbecameacteduponbythatparticularpassion,butleadingitthroughalltheincidentsofthedramaandrenderingitpredominant.Tybaltis,inhimself,acommonplacepersonage.Andhereallowmetoremarkuponagreatdistinction

between Shakespeare and allwho havewritten in imitation of him. I know no character in his plays,(unlessindeedPistolbeanexception)whichcanbecalledthemereportraitofanindividual:whilethereader feels all the satisfaction arising from individuality, yet that very individual is a sort of classcharacter,andthiscircumstancerendersShakespearethepoetofallages.Tybalt is aman abandoned tohis passions—with all theprideof family, onlybecausehe thought it

belongedtohimasamemberofthatfamily,andvaluinghimselfhighly,simplybecausehedoesnotcarefordeath.Thisindifferencetodeathisperhapsmorecommonthananyotherfeeling:menareapttoflatterthemselvesextravagantly,merelybecause theypossessaqualitywhich it isadisgracenot tohave,butwhichawisemanneverputsforward,butwhenitisnecessary.JeremyTaylorinonepartofhisvoluminousworks,speakingofagreatman,saysthathewasnaturally

acoward,asindeedmostmenare,knowingthevalueoflife,butthepowerofhisreasonenabledhim,whenrequired,toconducthimselfwithuniformcourageandhardihood.Thegoodbishop,perhaps,hadinhismindastory, toldbyoneof theancients,ofaPhilosopherandaCoxcomb,onboard thesameshipduring a storm: the Coxcomb reviled the Philosopher for betraying marks of fear: “Why are you sofrightened?Iamnotafraidofbeingdrowned:Idonotcareafarthingformylife.”—“Youareperfectlyright,”saidthePhilosopher,“foryourlifeisnotworthafarthing.”Shakespeare never takes pains tomake his characterswin your esteem, but leaves it to the general

commandofthepassionsandtopoeticjustice.Itismostbeautifultoobserve,inRomeoandJuliet, thatthecharactersprincipallyengagedintheincidentsarepreservedinnocentfromallthatcouldlowerthemin our opinion,while the rest of the personages, deserving little interest in themselves, derive it frombeinginstrumentalinthosesituationsinwhichthemoreimportantpersonagesdeveloptheirthoughtsandpassions.LookatCapulet—aworthy,noble-mindedoldmanofhighrank,withalltheimpatiencethatislikelyto

accompanyit.Itisdelightfultoseeallthesensibilitiesofournaturesoexquisitelycalledforth;asifthepoet had the hundred arms of the polypus, and had thrown them out in all directions to catch thepredominant feeling.Wemay see inCapulet themanner inwhich anger seizes hold of everything thatcomesinitsway,inordertoexpressitself,asinthelineswherehereprovesTybaltforhisfiercenessofbehavior,whichledhimtowishtoinsultaMontague,anddisturbthemerriment.

Goto,goto;

Youareasaucyboy.Is’tso,indeed?Thistrickmaychancetoscathyou;—Iknowwhat.Youmustcontraryme!marry,’tistime.—Wellsaid,myhearts!—Youareaprincox:go:Bequietor—Morelight,morelight!—Forshame!I’llmakeyouquiet.—What!cheerly,myhearts!

(1.5.84-90)

Theline

Thistrickmaychancetoscathyou;—Iknowwhat,

wasanallusiontothelegacyTybaltmightexpect;andthen,seeingthelightsburndimly,Capuletturnshisangeragainsttheservants.Thusweseethatnoonepassionissopredominant,butthatitincludesallthepartsofthecharacter,andthereaderneverhasamereabstractofapassion,asofwrathorambition,but

thewholemanispresentedtohim—theonepredominantpassionacting,ifImaysosay,astheleaderofthebandtotherest.

ItcouldnotbeexpectedthatthepoetshouldintroducesuchacharacterasHamletintoeveryplay;buteveninthosepersonages,whicharesubordinatetoaherosoeminentlyphilosophical, thepassionisatleast rendered instructive, and induces the reader to lookwith a keener eye and a finer judgment intohumannature.Shakespeare has this advantage over all other dramatists—that he has availed himself of his

psychologicalgeniustodevelopalltheminutiaeofthehumanheart:showingusthethingthat,tocommonobservers,heseemssolelyintentupon,hemakesvisiblewhatweshouldnototherwisehaveseen:justas,after lookingatdistantobjects througha telescope,whenwebehold themsubsequentlywith thenakedeye,weseethemwithgreaterdistinctness,andinmoredetail,thanweshouldotherwisehavedone.Mercutioisoneofourpoet’strulyShakespeareancharacters;forthroughouthisplays,butespeciallyin

thoseof thehighestorder, it isplain that thepersonagesweredrawn rather frommeditation than fromobservation, or to speak correctly,more fromobservation, the child ofmeditation. It is comparativelyeasyforamantogoabouttheworld,asifwithapocketbookinhishand,carefullynotingdownwhathesees and hears: by practice he acquires considerable facility in representing what he has observed,himselffrequentlyunconsciousofitsworthoritsbearings.Thisisentirelydifferentfromtheobservationofamind,which,havingformeda theoryandasystemuponitsownnature, remarksall things thatareexamples of its truth, confirming it in that truth and, above all, enabling it to convey the truths ofphilosophy,asmereeffectsderivedfrom,whatwemaycall,theoutwardwatchingsoflife.Hence it is thatShakespeare’s favoritecharactersare fullofsuch lively intellect.Mercutio isaman

possessingalltheelementsofapoet:thewholeworldwas,asitwere,subjecttohislawofassociation.Wheneverhewishestoimpressanything,allthingsbecomehisservantsforthepurpose:allthingstellthesametale,andsoundinunison.Thisfaculty,moreover, iscombinedwiththemannersandfeelingsofaperfectgentleman,himselfutterlyunconsciousofhispowers.Byhislossitwascontrivedthatthewholecatastropheof the tragedy shouldbebrought about: it endearshim toRomeoandgives to thedeathofMercutioanimportancewhichitcouldnototherwisehaveacquired.I say this in answer to an observation, I think by Dryden (to which indeed Dr. Johnson has fully

replied), that Shakespeare having carried the part ofMercutio as far as he could, till his geniuswasexhausted,hadkilledhiminthethirdact, togethimoutoftheway.Whatshallownonsense!AsIhaveremarked,uponthedeathofMercutiothewholecatastrophedepends;itisproducedbyit.Thesceneinwhichitoccursservestoshowhowindifferencetoanysubjectbutone,andaversiontoactivityonthepart of Romeo, may be overcome and roused to the most resolute and determined conduct. Had notMercutiobeenrenderedsoamiableandsointeresting,wecouldnothavefeltsostronglythenecessityforRomeo’s interference, connecting it immediately, andpassionately,with the future fortunesof the loverandhismistress.ButwhatamItosayoftheNurse?Wehavebeentoldthathercharacteristhemerefruitofobservation

—thatitislikeSwift’s“PoliteConversation,”certainlythemoststupendousworkofhumanmemory,andofunceasinglyactiveattentiontowhatpassesaroundus,uponrecord.TheNurseinRomeoandJuliethassometimesbeencomparedtoaportraitbyGerardDow,inwhicheveryhairwassoexquisitelypainted,thatitwouldbearthetestofthemicroscope.Now,Iappealconfidentlytomyhearerswhethertheclosestobservation of the manners of one or two old nurses would have enabled Shakespeare to draw thischaracterofadmirablegeneralization?Surelynot.Letanymanconjureupinhismindallthequalitiesandpeculiaritiesthatcanpossiblybelongtoanurse,andhewillfindtheminShakespeare’spictureoftheold

woman: nothing is omitted.This effect is not produced bymere observation.The great prerogative ofgenius(andShakespearefeltandavailedhimselfofit)isnowtoswellitselftothedignityofagod,andnow to subdue and keep dormant some part of that lofty nature, and to descend even to the lowestcharacter—tobecomeeverything,infact,butthevicious.Thus,intheNurseyouhaveallthegarrulityofoldage,andallitsfondness;fortheaffectionofoldage

isoneofthegreatestconsolationsofhumanity.Ihaveoftenthoughtwhatamelancholyworldthiswouldbewithoutchildren,andwhataninhumanworldwithouttheaged.YouhavealsointheNursethearroganceofignorance,withtheprideofmeannessatbeingconnected

withagreatfamily.Youhavethegrossness,too,whichthatsituationneverremoves,thoughitsometimessuspendsit;and,arisingfromthatgrossness,thelittlelowvicesattendantuponit,which,indeed,insuchmindsarescarcelyvices.—Romeoatonetimewasthemostdelightfulandexcellentyoungman,andtheNurse all willingness to assist him; but her disposition soon turns in favor of Paris, for whom sheprofessespreciselythesameadmiration.Howwonderfullyaretheselowpeculiaritiescontrastedwithayoungandpuremind,educatedunderdifferentcircumstances!AnotherpointoughttobementionedascharacteristicoftheignoranceoftheNurse:itis,thatinallher

recollections,sheassistsherselfbytheremembranceofvisualcircumstances.Thegreatdifference,inthisrespect,betweenthecultivatedandtheuncultivatedmindisthis—thatthecultivatedmindwillbefoundtorecallthepastbycertainregulartrainsofcauseandeffect;whereas,withtheuncultivatedmind,thepastisrecalledwhollybycoincidentimagesorfactswhichhappenedatthesametime.ThispositionisfullyexemplifiedinthefollowingpassagesputintothemouthoftheNurse:

Evenorodd,ofalldaysintheyear,ComeLammaseveatnightshallshebefourteen.Susanandshe—GodrestallChristiansouls!—Wereofanage.—Well,SusaniswithGod;Shewastoogoodforme.But,asIsaid,OnLammaseveatnightshallshebefourteen;Thatshallshe,marry:Irememberitwell.’Tissincetheearthquakenowelevenyears;Andshewaswean’d,—Inevershallforgetit,—Ofallthedaysoftheyear,uponthatday;ForIhadthenlaidwormwoodtomydug,Sittinginthesununderthedove-housewall:MylordandyouwerethenatMantua.—Nay,Idobearabrain:—but,asIsaid,

WhenitdidtastethewormwoodonthenippleOfmydug,andfeltitbitter,prettyfool,Toseeittetchy,andfalloutwiththedug!Shake,quoththedove-house:’twasnoneed,Itrow,Tobidmetrudge.Andsincethattimeitiselevenyears;Forthenshecouldstandalone.

(1.3.16-36)

Sheafterwardsgoesonwithsimilarvisualimpressions,sotruetothecharacter.Moreisherebroughtinto

one portrait than could have been ascertained by one man’s mere observation, and without theintroductionofasingleincongruouspoint....

Another remarkImaymakeuponRomeoandJuliet is, that in this tragedy thepoet isnot,as Ihavehinted,entirelyblendedwiththedramatist—atleast,notinthedegreetobeafterwardsnoticedinLear,Hamlet,Othello,orMacbeth.CapuletandMontaguenotunfrequentlytalkalanguageonlybelongingtothepoet,andnotsocharacteristicof,andpeculiarto,thepassionsofpersonsinthesituationsinwhichtheyareplaced—amistake,orratheranindistinctness,whichmanyofourlaterdramatistshavecarriedthroughthewholeoftheirproductions.When I read the song ofDeborah, I never think that she is a poet, although I think the song itself a

sublimepoem:itisassimpleadithyrambicproductionasexistsinanylanguage;butitistheproperandcharacteristiceffusionofawomanhighlyelevatedby triumph,by thenaturalhatredofoppressors,andresulting from a bitter sense of wrong: it is a song of exultation on deliverance from these evils, adeliveranceaccomplishedbyherself.Whensheexclaims,“The inhabitantsof thevillagesceased, theyceased in Israel,until that I,Deborah,arose, that Iaroseamother in Israel,” it ispoetry in thehighestsense:wehavenoreason,however,tosupposethatifshehadnotbeenagitatedbypassion,andanimatedbyvictory, shewouldhavebeenable so toexpressherself;or that if shehadbeenplaced indifferentcircumstances, she would have used such language of truth and passion. We are to remember thatShakespeare,notplacedundercircumstancesofexcitement,andonlywroughtuponbyhisownvividandvigorous imagination, writes a language that invariably, and intuitively becomes the condition andpositionofeachcharacter.Ontheotherhand,thereisalanguagenotdescriptiveofpassion,notutteredundertheinfluenceofit,

whichisatthesametimepoetic,andshowsahighandactivefancy,aswhenCapuletsaystoParis,

Suchcomfortasdolustyyoungmenfeel,Whenwell-apparell’dAprilontheheelOflimpingwintertreads,evensuchdelightAmongfreshfemalebuds,shallyouthisnightInheritatmyhouse.

(1.2.26-30)

Here thepoetmaybe said to speak, rather than thedramatist; and itwouldbeeasy toadduceotherpassagesfromthisplay,whereShakespeare,foramomentforgettingthecharacter,uttershisownwordsinhisownperson.Inmymind,whathaveoftenbeen censured asShakespeare’s conceits are completely justifiable, as

belonging to the state, age,or feelingof the individual.Sometimes,when theycannotbevindicatedonthesegrounds,theymaywellbeexcusedbythetasteofhisownandoftheprecedingage;asforinstance,inRomeo’sspeech,

Here’smuchtodowithhate,butmorewithlove:—Whythen,Obrawlinglove!Olovinghate!Oanything,ofnothingfirstcreated!Oheavylightness!seriousvanity!Misshapenchaosofwell-seemingforms!Featheroflead,brightsmoke,coldfire,sickhealth!Still-wakingsleep,thatisnotwhatitis!

(1.1.178-84)

Idarenotpronouncesuchpassagesasthesetobeabsolutelyunnatural,notmerelybecauseIconsidertheauthoramuchbetterjudgethanIcanbe,butbecauseIcanunderstandandallowforaneffortofthemind,whenitwoulddescribewhatitcannotsatisfyitselfwiththedescriptionof,toreconcileoppositesandqualify contradictions, leaving amiddle state ofmindmore strictly appropriate to the imaginationthananyother,whenit is,asitwere,hoveringbetweenimages.Assoonasit isfixedononeimage, itbecomesunderstanding;butwhileitisunfixedandwaveringbetweenthem,attachingitselfpermanentlytonone,itisimagination....Itremainsformetospeakoftheheroandheroine,ofRomeoandJulietthemselves;andIshalldoso

with unaffected diffidence, not merely on account of the delicacy, but of the great importance of thesubject.IfeelthatitisimpossibletodefendShakespearefromthemostcruelofallcharges—thatheisanimmoralwriter—withoutenteringfullyintohismodeofportrayingfemalecharacters,andofdisplayingthepassionoflove.Itseemstomethathehasdonebothwithgreaterperfectionthananyotherwriteroftheknownworld,perhapswiththesingleexceptionofMiltoninhisdelineationofEve....Shakespearehasdescribed thispassion invariousstatesandstages,beginning,aswasmostnatural,

withloveintheyoung.DoesheopenhisplaybymakingRomeoandJulietinloveatfirstsight—atthefirstglimpse,asanyordinarythinkerwoulddo?Certainlynot:heknewwhathewasabout,andhowhewastoaccomplishwhathewasabout:hewastodevelopthewholepassion,andhecommenceswiththefirstelements—thatsenseofimperfection,thatyearningtocombineitselfwithsomethinglovely.Romeobecameenamoredoftheideahehadformedinhisownmind,andthen,asitwere,christenedthefirstrealbeing of the contrary sex as endowedwith the perfections he desired.He appears to be in lovewithRosaline;but,intruth,heisinloveonlywithhisownidea.Hefeltthatnecessityofbeingbelovedwhichnonoblemindcanbewithout.Thenourpoet,orpoetwhosowellknewhumannature,introducesRomeotoJuliet,andmakesitnotonlyaviolent,butapermanentlove—apointforwhichShakespearehasbeenridiculedbytheignorantandunthinking.Romeoisfirstrepresentedinastatemostsusceptibleof love,andthen,seeingJuliet,hetookandretainedtheinfection.ThisbringsmetoobserveuponacharacteristicofShakespeare,whichbelongstoamanofprofound

thoughtandhighgenius.Ithasbeentoomuchthecustom,whenanythingthathappenedinhisdramascouldnoteasilybeexplainedbythefewwordsthepoethasemployed,topassitidlyover,andtosaythatitisbeyondourreach,andbeyondthepowerofphilosophy—asortofterraincognitafordiscoverers—agreatoceantobehereafterexplored.Othershavetreatedsuchpassagesashintsandglimpsesofsomethingnownonexistent, as the sacred fragments of an ancient and ruined temple, all the portions of which arebeautiful,althoughtheirparticularrelationtoeachotherisunknown.Shakespeareknewthehumanmind,anditsmostminuteandintimateworkings,andheneverintroducesaword,orathought,invainoroutofplace:ifwedonotunderstandhim,itisourownfaultorthefaultofcopyistsandtypographers;butstudy,and thepossessionofsomesmall stockof theknowledgebywhichheworked,willenableusoften todetectandexplainhismeaning.Heneverwroteatrandom,orhituponpointsofcharacterandconductbychance;andthesmallestfragmentofhismindnotunfrequentlygivesacluetoamostperfect,regular,andconsistentwhole.AsImaynothaveanotheropportunity,theintroductionofFriarLawrenceintothistragedyenablesme

toremarkuponthedifferentmannerinwhichShakespearehastreatedthepriestlycharacter,ascomparedwith other writers. In Beaumont and Fletcher priests are represented as a vulgarmockery; and, as inothersoftheirdramaticpersonages,theerrorsofafewaremistakenforthedemeanorofthemany:butinShakespearetheyalwayscarrywiththemourloveandrespect.Hemadenoinjuriousabstracts:hetook

nocopiesfromtheworstpartsofournature;and,liketherest,hischaractersofpriestsaretrulydrawnfromthegeneralbody.

H.B.CHARLTON

FromShakespearianTragedy

In their general structure and idea, the three tragedies so far reviewedwere in the current dramatictradition of their day. ButRomeo and Juliet is a departure, a comprehensive experiment. It links theEnglishstagetotheRenaissancetragedywhichbypreceptandbypracticeCinthio2 inthemiddleofthesixteenthcenturyhadestablishedinItaly.Cinthio’s principles were in the main an adaptation of Seneca’s, or rather of what he took to be

Seneca’spurposes,totheimmediateneedsofCinthio’scontemporarytheatre.Hisownobjecthedeclaredtobe“servirel’età,aglispettatori.”Tragedymustgripitsaudience.Itmustthereforereflectarangeofexperienceandbase itselfonasystemofvalueswhicharefeltby itsaudience tobereal.Manyofhisproposalsarethedirectoutcomeofthisgeneralprinciple,andoneortwoofthemareespeciallypertinenttoourargument.Forinstance,tragedymustnolongerrelymainlyforitsmaterialonancientmythologynoron accredited history; for these depict a world which may have lost urgent contact with a modernaudience’ssenseoflife.Thebestplotsformoderntragedywillbefoundinmodernfiction.Formodernfictionisthemythologyoftoday.Itisthecorpusofstorythroughwhichtheworldappearsasitseemstobetolivingmen;

FromShakespearianTragedybyH.B.Charlton.LondonandNewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1948.ReprintedbypermissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.

itmirrorsacceptedcodesofconduct,displays theparticularmannerofcontemporaryconsciousness,andadoptsthecurrentassumptionsofhumanvalues.Letthedramatist,therefore,drawhisplotsfromthenovelists.An inevitableconsequence followed from this.There isnothing inwhich theoutlookon lifeadopted by the modern world is more different from that of the ancient classical world than in itsapprehensionofthehumanandspiritualsignificanceoftheloveofmanforwoman.Lovehasbecomeforthemodernworld itsmost engrossing interest and often its supreme experience.Modern fiction turnsalmostexclusivelyonlove.Sowhendramatiststooktheirtalesfromthenovelists,theytookloveoverasthemainthemeoftheirplays.SevenofCinthio’snineplaysborrowtheirplotsfromnovels(mostofthemfromhisownseries,theHecatommithi);theothertwoare“classical,”butaretwoofthegreatclassicallove stories,Dido andCleopatra. JasondeNores, amuchmore conservativelyAristotelian expositorthanhiscontemporaryCinthio,toexemplifytheformwhichthemostperfecttragedycouldtake,constructstheplotforitfromoneofBoccaccio’stales.Whetherbydirectinfluenceorbymereforceofcircumstance,Cinthio’spracticeprevailed.Sixteenth-

centurytragedyfoundrichmaterial in thenovels.But the traditionalistswereperpetuallyremindingtheinnovators that tragedyalwayshadhadandalwaysmusthaveanhistoricalhero.“In tragoedia reges,principes, exurbibus,arcibus, castris,”Scaliger, theParnassian legislator, announced.Noonewouldacceptaheroasgreatunlesshismemorywerepreservedinthehistorian’spages.“C’est l’histoirequipersuade avec empire,” as Corneille put it. Shakespeare, an eager and humble apprentice, naturallyfollowed traditional custom.Titus Andronicus,Richard III, andRichard II belong in the main to theconventional pattern. They deal with historical material. Their heroes are of high rank and potent indeterminingthedestinyofnations.Theplotisnevermainlyalovers’story,thoughaloveintrigueintrudessporadicallyhereandtherewithinthemajortheme.Butsomehowtheprescriptionshadnotproducedtheexpectedresult.Therewassomethingunsatisfyingintheseplaysasdivinationsofman’stragiclot.Andso

theconventionswerejettisonedinRomeoandJuliet.Shakespearewascastinginfreshdirectionstofindtheuniversality,themomentousness,andaboveall

the inevitability of all-compelling tragedy. In particular, he was experimenting with a new propellingforce, a new final sanction as the determinant energy, the ultima ratio of tragedy’s inner world; andthough Romeo and Juliet is set in a modern Christian country, with church and priest and fullecclesiastical institution, thewholeuniverseofGod’s justice, vengeance, andprovidence is discardedandrejectedfromthedirectingforcesoftheplay’sdramaticmovement.Initsplace,thereisatheatricalresuscitationofthehalf-barbarian,half-RomandeitiesofFateandFortune.The plot ofRomeo and Juliet is pure fiction. Shakespeare took it fromArthur Broke’s poem,The

TragicallHistorieofRomeusandJuliet(1562).ShakespeareknewfromBroke’stitlepagethatthetalewastakenfromanItaliannovelist,“writtenfirstinItalianbyBandell.”Heknew,too,whatsortofnovelsBandellowrote,forPainterhadretoldtheminhisPalaceofPleasure(1567).Theywereclearfictions.Moreover the hero and the heroine,Romeo and Juliet, had none of the pomp of historic circumstanceaboutthem;theyweresociallyoftheminoraristocracywhoweretostockShakespeare’scomedies,andtheir onlypolitical significancewas an adventitious role in the civic disturbanceof a small city-state.RomeoandJulietwere ineffect justaboyandagirl inanovel;andas such theyhadnoclaim to theworld’sattentionexceptthroughtheirpassionandtheirfate.Tochoosesuchfolkasthesefortragicheroeswasaestheticallywell-nighananarchist’sgesture;and

thedramatistprovidedasortofprogram-prologuetoprompttheaudiencetoseetheplayfromtherightpoint of view. In this playbill the dramatist draws special attention to two features of his story. First,Veronawasbeingtornbyaterrible,bloodthirstyfeudwhichnohumanendeavorhadbeenabletosettle;thiswas thedirectcauseof thedeathof the lovers,andbut for thosedeaths itneverwouldhavebeenhealed.Second,thecourseoftheyounglovers’livesisfromtheoutsetgovernedbyamalignantdestiny;fatal,star-crossed,death-marked,theyaredoomedtopiteousdestruction.Theintentofthisemphasisisclear.Thetalewillendwiththedeathoftworavishinglyattractiveyoung

folk;andthedramatistmustexoneratehimselffromallcomplicityintheirmurder,lesthebefoundguiltyofpanderingtoalikingforahumanshambles.HedisownsresponsibilityandthrowsitonDestiny,Fate.Thedeviceiswellwarrantedinthetragictradition,andespeciallyinitsSenecanmodels.Butwhether,infact,itsucceedsisamatterforfurtherconsideration.TheinvocationofFateisstrengthenedbythesecondfeaturescoredheavilyintheprologue,thefeud.Thefeudis,sotospeak,themeansbywhichFateacts.Thefeudistoprovidethesenseofimmediate,andFatethatofultimate,inevitability.Foritmayhappenthat, however the dramatist deploys his imaginative suggestions, he may fail to summon up a Fatesufficientlycompellingtoforceitselfupontheaudienceasunquestionedshaperofthetragicend.Insuchcircumstance Romeo’s and Juliet’s death would be by mere chance, a gratuitous intervention by adramatistexercisinghishomicidalproclivitiesfor thejoyofhisaudience.Hencethefeudhasafurtherfunction.Itwillbethedramatist’slastpleaforexculpationorformercy;anditwillallowhisaudiencetoabsolvehimortoforgivehimwithoutlossofitsown“philanthropy”;forthroughdeathcamethehealingofthefeud,andwithit,theremovalofthethreattosomanyotherlives.It becomes, therefore, of critical importance towatchShakespeare’s handling of these twomotives,

FateandFeud,toseehowhefitsthemtofulfilltheirfunction,andtoaskhowfarinfacttheyareadequateto the role theymust perforce play. Both Fate and Feud, although absent asmotives from the earliestEuropeanformoftheRomeoandJulietstory,hadgrownvariouslyinthesuccessivetellingsofthetalebeforeitcametoBroke.3Thegeneraltrendhadbeentomagnifythevirulenceofthefeud,and,evenmorenotably, to swell the sententious apostrophizing of Fate’s malignity. Broke, for instance, misses noopportunity for such sententiousness.Longer or shorter, there are at least fifteen passages in his poem

wherethemalignityofFateishisconventionallypoetictheme.“Frowardfortune,”“fortune’scruelwill,”“wavering fortune,” “tickel fortune,” “when fortune list to strike,” “false fortune cast for her, poorewretch,amyschiefenewetobrewe,”“damefortunedidassent,”“withpiteousplaint,fiercefortunedothheblame,”“tillAttroposshallcutmyfatall threadoflyfe,”“thoughcruelfortunebesomuchmydedlyfoe,”“theblyndfyldgoddessethatwithfrowningfacedothfraye,andfromtheyrseatethemightykingesthrowesdownewithhedlongsway,”“Hecryedout,withopenmouth,againstthestarresabove,Thefatallsistersthree,hesaid,haddonehimwrong”—so,againandagain,doesBrokebringin

Thediversenes,andeketheaccidentssostraunge,OffrayleunconstantFortune,thatdelytethstillinchaunge.4

Romeocriesaloud

Againsttherestlesstarres,inrollingskyesthatraunge,Againstthefatallsistersthree,andFortunefullofchaunge.5

Therearemoreelaboratesetspeechesonthesametheme:

ForFortunechaungethmore,thanfickelfantasie;InnothingFortuneconstantis,saveinunconstancie.Herhastyronningwheele,isofarestlescoorse,Thatturnestheclymershedlongdowne,frombettertothewoorse,andthosethatarebeneth,sheheavethupagayne.6

SowhenShakespeare took up the story,Broke had already sought to drench it in fatality.But sinceShakespearewasadramatist,hecouldnothandleFateandFeudascouldanarrativepoet.Hisfeudwillenter,notdescriptively,butasaction;andforfatehemustdependonthesentimentsofhischaractersandonanatmospheregeneratedbythesweepoftheaction.ThefeudmaybedeferredforamomenttowatchShakespeare’shandlingofFate.Hismost frequent device is to adaptwhatBroke’s practice had been; instead of letting his persons

declaim formally, as Broke’s do, against the inconstancy of Fortune, he endows them with dramaticpremonitions.SettingoutforCapulet’sball,Romeoissuddenlysad:

mymindmisgives

Someconsequence,yethanginginthestars,ShallbitterlybeginhisfearfuldateWiththisnight’srevels;andexpirethetermOfadespisedlife,clos’dinmybreast,Bysomevileforfeitofuntimelydeath:ButhethathaththesteerageofmycourseDirectmysail!

(1.4.106-13)

Astheloversfirstdeclaretheirpassion,JulietbegsRomeonottoswear,asifanoathmightbeanevilomen:

Ihavenojoyofthiscontracttonight:

Itistoorash,toounadvised,toosudden;

Toolikethelightning,whichdothceasetobeEreonecansay“Itlightens.”

(2.2.117-20)

Romeo, involved in the fatal fight, cries “O, I am fortune’s fool!” (3.1.138). Looking down from herwindowatRomeoashegoesintoexile,Julietmurmurs

OGod,Ihaveanill-diviningsoul!MethinksIseethee,nowthouartbelow,Asonedeadinthebottomofatomb.

(3.5.54-56)

WithdramaticironyJulietimploresherparentstodeferhermarriagewithParis:

Or,ifyoudonot,makethebridalbedInthatdimmonumentwhereTybaltlies.

(202-03)

Besides thesepromptingsof impendingdoom therearepremonitionsof a lessdirectkind.The friarfearstheviolenceofthelover’spassion:

TheseviolentdelightshaveviolentendsAndintheirtriumphdie,likefireandpowder,Whichastheykissconsume.

(2.6.9-11)

Anothersourceofomenintheplayisthepresagingofdreams;forfromthebeginningoftime,“theworldofsleep,therealmofwildreality”hasbroughtdreamswhichlooklikeheraldsofeternityandspeaklikeSybils of the future. There ismuch dreaming inRomeo and Juliet.Mercutiomaymock at dreams aschildrenofanidlebrain,begotofnothingbutvainfantasy.ButwhenRomeosayshe“dream’dadreamtonight,”Mercutio’sfamousflightoffancyrecallstheuniversalbeliefindreamsasforeshadowingsofthefuture.AgainRomeodreams;thistime,“Idreamtmyladycameandfoundmedead”(5.1.6).AshismanBalthasarwaitsoutsideJuliet’stomb,hedreamsthathismasterandanotherarefightingandtheaudienceknowshowaccuratelythedreammirrorsthetruefacts.

ButShakespearenotonlyhangsomensthicklyroundhisplay.Hegivestotheactionitselfaqualityapttoconjurethesenseofrelentlessdoom.Itspringsmainlyfromhiscompressionofthetimeoverwhichthestorystretches.Inallearlierversionsthereisamuchlongerlapse.Romeo’swooingisprolongedoverweeks before the secretwedding; then, after thewedding, there is an interval of three or fourmonthsbeforetheslayingofTybalt;andRomeo’sexilelastsfromEasteruntilashorttimebeforemid-SeptemberwhenthemarriagewithPariswasatfirstplannedtotakeplace.ButinShakespeareallthisispressedintothreeorfourdays.Theworldseemsforamomenttobecaughtupinthefierceplayoffuriesrevelinginsomemadsupernaturalgame.Butbeforeaskingwhetherthesenseofanall-controllingFateismadestrongenoughtofulfillitstragic

purpose letus turn to thefeud.HereShakespeare’sdifficultiesareevengreater. Italiannovelistsof thequattro- or cinquecento, throwing their story back through twoor three generations,might expect their

readerseasilytoacceptafiercevendetta.ButtheVeronawhichShakespearedepictsisahighlycivilizedworld,withanintellectualandartisticcultureandanimpliedsocialattainmentaltogetheralienfromthesortofsocietyinwhichafeudisamoreor lessnaturalmanifestationofenmity.Thebordercountryofcivilizationisthehomeoffeuds,aregionwheresocialorganizationisstilloftheclan,wheretheheadofthefamily-clanisastrongdespot,andwherelawhasnotprogressedbeyondthesortofwildjusticeofwhichoneinstrumentisthefeud.

ForereIcrosstheborderfells,Thetaneofusshalldie

Itwaswell-nighimpossibleforShakespearetofitthebloodlustofaborderfeudintothesocialsettingofhisVerona.Theheadsof the rival houses are not at all the fierce chieftainswho rulewith ruthlessdespotism.WhenoldCapulet,infiresidegown,bustlestothesceneofthefrayandcallsforhissword,hiswifetellshimbluntlythatitisacrutchwhichanoldmansuchasheshouldwant,andnotaweapon.Montague,too,spitsalittleverbalfire,buthiswifepluckshimbythearmandtellshimtocalmdown:“thoushaltnotstironefoottoseekafoe.”Indeed,theseoldmenarealmostcomicfigures,andespeciallyCapulet. His querulous fussiness, his casual bonhomie, his almost senile humor, and his childishirascibilityhardlymakehimthepatternofaclanchieftain.Evenhisdomesticsputhiminhisplace:

Go,youcotquean,go,Getyoutobed;faith,you’llbesicktomorrowForthisnight’swatching,

(4.4.6-8)

the Nurse tells him; and the picture is filled in by his wife’s reminder that she has put a stop to his“mouse-hunting.”Thereisofcoursetheprince’swordthat

Threecivilbrawls,bredofanairyword,Bythee,oldCapulet,andMontague,Havethricedisturb’dthequietofourstreets.

(1.1.92-94)

But these brawls bred of an airy word are no manifestations of a really ungovernable feud. WhenMontagueandCapuletareboundbytheprincetokeepthepeace,oldCapulethimselfsays

’tisnothard,Ithink,Formensooldaswetokeepthepeace.

(1.2.2-3)

andthereisageneralfeelingthattheoldquarrelhasrunitscourse.Paris,suitortoJuliet,saysitisapitythat the Capulets and the Montagues have lived at odds so long. And Benvolio, a relative of theMontagues, is a consistent peacemaker. He tries to suppress a brawl amongst the rival retainers andinvitesTybalt,aCapulet,toassisthiminthework.LaterhebegshisfriendstoavoidtroublebykeepingoutofthewayoftheCapulets,foritistheseasonofhotblood:

Ipraythee,goodMercutio,let’sretire:Thedayishot,theCapuletsabroad,Andifwemeet,weshallnotscapeabrawl;Fornow,thesehotdays,isthemadbloodstirring.

(3.1.1-4)

Whenthehot-bloodedMercutiodoesinciteTybalttoaquarrelitisagainBenvoliowhotriestopreservethepeace:

Wetalkhereinthepublichauntofmen:Eitherwithdrawuntosomeprivateplace,Andreasoncoldlyofyourgrievances,Orelsedepart.

(51-54)

HencethejestofMercutio’sfamousdescriptionofBenvolioasaninveteratequarreler,thirstingfortheslightestexcusetodrawsword.

Moreover,therivalhouseshavemutualfriends.Mercutio,MontagueRomeo’scloseacquaintance,isaninvitedguestattheCapulets’ball.Strangerstill,soisRomeo’scruellady,Rosaline,whointheinvitationisaddressedasCapulet’scousin.ItisoddthatRomeo’sloveforher,sinceshewasaCapulet,hadgivenhimnoqualmsonthescoreofthefeud.WhenRomeoispersuadedtogogate-crashingtotheballbecauseRosalinewillbethere,thereisnotalkatallofitsbeingahazardousundertaking.Safetywillrequire,ifeven somuch, nomore than amask.7On theway to the ball, as talk is running gaily, there is still nomentionofdangerinvolved.Indeed,thefeudisalmostadeadlettersofar.ThesonoftheMontaguedoesnotknowwhat theCapuletdaughter looks like,norshewhathe is like.Thetraditionalhatredsurvivesonlyinoneortwohigh-spirited,hot-bloodedscionsoneitherside,andinthekitchenfolk.TybaltaloneresentsRomeo’s presence at the ball, yet it is easy for all to recognize him; and becauseTybalt feelsRomeo’scomingtobeaninsult,heseekshimoutnextdaytochallengehim,soprovidingtheimmediateoccasionofthenewoutburst.Naturally,oncebloodisrousedagain,andmurderdone,theancientrancorsprings up with new life. Even Lady Capulet has comically Machiavellian plans for having RomeopoisonedinMantua.ButpriortothistheevidencesofthefeudaresounsubstantialthattheforebodingsofRomeoandJuliet,discoveringeachother’sname,seempromptedmorebyfatethanfeud.Therewill,ofcourse,be familydifficulties; but the friarmarries themwithout ahesitatingqualm, feeling that suchaunionisboundtobeacceptedeventuallybytheparents,whowillthusbebroughttoamity.Themostremarkableepisode,however,isstilltobenamed.WhenTybaltdiscoversRomeoattheball,

infuriatedherushestoCapuletwiththenews.ButCapulet,inhisfestivemood,ispleasantlyinterested,sayingthatRomeoisreputedtobegood-lookingandquiteapleasantboy.HetellsTybalttocalmhimself,torememberhismanners,andtotreatRomeoproperly:

Contentthee,gentlecoz,lethimalone:Hebearshimlikeaportlygentleman;

And,tosaytruth,VeronabragsofhimTobeavirtuousandwellgovern’dyouth:IwouldnotforthewealthofallthetownHereinmyhousedohimdisparagement:Thereforebepatient,takenonoteofhim:Itismywill,thewhichifthourespect,Showafairpresenceandputoffthesefrowns,Anill-beseemingsemblanceforafeast.

(1.5.67-76)

WhenTybaltisreluctant,oldCapuletisannoyedandtestilytellshimtostopbeingasaucyyoungster:

Heshallbeendured:What,goodmanboy!Isay,heshall:goto.AndIthemasterhereoryou?Goto.You’llnotendurehim!Godshallmendmysoul!You’llmakeamutinyamongmyguestsYouwillsetcock-a-hoop.You’llbetheman!...Goto,goto;Youareasaucyboy:is’tsoindeed?Thistrickmaychancetoscatheyou,Iknowwhat:Youmustcontraryme!marry,tis’time.Wellsaid,myhearts!Youareaprincox;go.(78-88)

This is a scene which sticks in the memory; for here the dramatist, unencumbered by a story, isinterpolating a lively scene in his own kind, a vignette of two very amusing people in an amusingsituation. But it is unfortunate for the feud that this episode takes sowell. For clearly oldCapulet isunwillingtoletthefeudinterruptadance;andaquarrelwhichisoflessmomentthanagalliardisbeingappeasedatanextravagantprice,ifthepriceisthedeathoftwosuchdelightfulcreaturesasRomeoandJuliet;

theirparents’rage,Which,buttheirchildren’send,naughtcouldremove,

(Prologue,10-11)

loses all its plausibility. A feud like this will not serve as the bribe it was meant to be; it is noatonementforthedeathoflovers.Nor,indeed,isitcoherentandimpressiveenoughaspartoftheplottopropelthesweepofnecessityinthesequenceofevents.Ifthetragedyistomarchrelentlesslytoitsend,leaving no flaw in the sense of inevitabilitywhich it seeks to prompt, it clearlymust depend for thatindispensabletragicimpressionnotonitsfeud,butonitsscatteredsuggestionsofdoomandofmalignantfate.And,ashasbeenseen,Shakespeareharpsfrequentlyonthistheme.ButhowfarcanaRomansenseofFatebemaderealforamodernaudience?Itisnomerematterof

excitingthoughtto“wanderthrougheternity”inthewakeofthemysterywhichsurroundsthehumanlot.Mysterymusttakeonpositiveshape,andhalf-loseitselfindreadfigurescontrollinghumanlifeintheirmalice.TheformsandthephrasesbywhichthesepowershadbeeninvokedwereatraditionalpartintheinheritanceoftheSenecandramawhichcametosixteenth-centuryEurope.Fortuna,Fatum,Fata,Parcae:allwere firmly established in its dramatis personae.Moreover their role inVirgilian theocracywasfamiliartoallwithbutalittleLatin:

QuavisaestfortunapatiParcaequesinebantCedereresLatio,Turnumettuamoeniatexi;Nunciuvenemimparibusvideoconcurrerefatis,Parcarumquediesetvisinimicapropinquat.8

ForRoman here indeedwere the shapers of destiny, the ultimate ἀ’ἀἀγκηwhich compels human fate,whetherastheµοιρἀofindividuallot,ortheἐιµἀρµἐηofaworldorder.HoracehimselflinkedFortunain

closestcompanionshipwithNecessitas:“tesemperanteitservaNecessitas,”hewritesinhisprayertoFortuna.9ItwasanotewhichreverberatedthroughSenecanstoicism.

Butwithwhatconvictioncouldasixteenth-centuryspectatortakeovertheseancientfigures?Eventhehumanbeings of an oldmythologymay lose their compelling power; “what’sHecuba to him, or he toHecuba?”Butthegodsareinamuchworsecase;pagan,theyhadfadedbeforetheGodoftheChristians:Vicisti,Galilæe!Fatewasnolongeradeitystrongenoughtocarrytheresponsibilityofatragicuniverse;atmost,itcouldintervenecasuallyaspureluck,andbadluckasamotiveturnstragedytomerechance.Itlacksentirelytheultimatetragicἀἀγκη.Itfailstoprovidetheindispensableinevitability.Is thenShakespeare’sRomeoand Juliet an unsuccessful experiment? To say somay seem not only

profanebutfoolish.Initsownday,asthedog’s-earedBodleyFolioshows,andeversince,ithasbeenoneofShakespeare’smostpreferredplays.Itisindeedrichinspellsofitsown.Butasapatternoftheidea of tragedy, it is a failure. Even Shakespeare appears to have felt that, as an experiment, it haddisappointedhim.Atallevents,heabandonedtragedyforthenextfewyearsandgavehimselftohistoryandtocomedy;andevenafterwards,hefoughtshyofthesimplethemeoflove,andoftheloveofanybodylessthanagreatpoliticalfigureasthemainmatterforhistragedies.Neverthelessitisobviousthatneithersadismnormasochismisremotelyconsciousinourappreciation

ofRomeoandJuliet,norisour“philanthropy”offendedbyit.ButtheachievementisduetothemagicofShakespeare’spoeticgeniusandtotheintermittentforceofhisdramaticpowerratherthantohisgraspofthefoundationsoftragedy.There isnoneedhere tofollowthemeetingsofRomeoandJuliet throughtheplay,and torecall the

spellofShakespeare’spoetryasittransportsusalongtherushingstreamofthelovers’passion,fromitssuddenoutbreak to itsconsummation indeath.Romeosealshis“datelessbargain toengrossingdeath,”choosingshipwreckonthedashingrockstosecurepeaceforhis“sea-sickwearybark.”Juliethasbutaword:“I’llbebrief.Ohappydagger!”Thereisneedfornothingbeyondthis.Shakespeare,diviningtheirnakedpassion,liftsthemabovetheworldandoutoflifebythemereforceofit.Itisthesheermightofpoetry.Dramatically,however,hehassubsidiaryresources.HehasMercutioandtheNurse.Shakespeare’sMercutiohasthegaypoiseandtheripplingwitofthemanoftheworld.Bytemperament

heisirrepressibleandmerry;hischarmisinfectious.Hisspeechrunsfreelybetweenfanciesofexquisitedelicacyandthecoarserfringeofworldlyhumor;andhehasthesensitivenessofsympatheticfellowship.Suchaman,ifanyatall,mighthaveunderstoodthedepthofRomeo’sloveforJuliet.Butthecamaraderieandtheworldlysavoir-faireofMercutiogivehimnoinklingofthenatureofRomeo’spassion.TheloveofRomeoandJulietisbeyondthekenoftheirfriends;itbelongstoaworldwhichisnottheirworld;andsothepassingofRomeoandJulietisnotasotherdeathsareintheirimpactonoursentiments.Similarly, too, theNurse. She is Shakespeare’s greatest debt to Broke, inwhose poem she plays a

curiouslyunexpectedandyetincongruouslyentertainingpart.SheistheonegreatadditionwhichBrokemadetothesaga.Sheisgarrulous,worldly,coarse,vulgar,andbabblinglygiventoreminiscencestuffedwithnativeanimalhumorandself-assurance.Shakespearegladlyborrowedher,andsogavehisJulietforhermostintimatedomesticcompanionagrossworldlycreaturewhotalksmuchofloveandnevermeansanythingbeyondsensuality.LikeRomeo’s,Juliet’sloveiscompletelyunintelligibletothepeopleinherfamiliar circle.Tohernurse, love is animal lust.Toher father,whohasbeena “mouse-hunter” inhistime,andtohermother,itismerelyasocialinstitution,aworldlyarrangementinaveryworldlyworld.Thisearth,itwouldseem,hasnoplaceforpassionlikeRomeo’sandJuliet’s.Andso,stirredtosympathybyShakespeare’spoeticpower,wetolerate,perhapsevenapprove,theirdeath.Atleastforthemoment.But tragedy livesnot only for its ownmoment, nor by long “suspensionsof disbelief.”There is the

inevitable afterthought and all its “obstinate questionings.” Our sentiments were but momentarilygratified.Andfinallyourdeeperconsciousnessprotests.Shakespearehasbutconqueredusbyatrick:theexperimentcarrieshimnonearertotheheartoftragedy.

MICHAELGOLDMAN

RomeoandJuliet:TheMeaningofaTheatricalExperience

EverythinginRomeoandJulietisintense,impatient,threatening,explosive.Wearecaughtupinspeed,heat, desire, riots, running, jumping, rapid-fire puns, dirty jokes, extravagance, compressed and urgentpassion,thepressureofsecrets,fire,blood,death.Visually,theplayremainsmemorableforanumberofrepeatedimages—streetbrawls,swordsflashingtothehand,torchesrushingonandoff,crowdsrapidlygathering. The upper stage is used frequently, with many opportunities for leaping or scrambling orstretchingupanddownandmuchplaybetweenupperandlowerareas.Thedominantbodilyfeelingsweget as an audience areoppressiveheat, sexualdesire, a frequentwhiz-bang exhilaratingkinesthesiaofspeedandclash,andabovealla feelingof thekeeping-downandseparationofhighlychargedbodies,whosepressuretowardreleaseandwhosesuddendischargedeterminetherhythmoftheplay.ThethematicappropriatenessofthesesensationstoShakespeare’sfirstgreattragedyoftheunsounded

selfisobviousenough,perhapstooobvious.Shakespeare’stragicheroesusuallypassfromisolationtoisolation.RomeocannotbeoneoftheboysorHamletoneofhisnorthernworld’scompetent,adaptableyoungmen.At the beginning the isolation is that of the unsounded self, some form of self-sufficiency,remoteness,orwithdrawal.

FromMichael Goldman, Shakespeare and the Energies of Drama (Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonUniversityPress,1972),pp.33-44.

Theherostrikesusasakindofclosedstructure.Heveryclearlycarriesapackagedenergy;onfirstmeeting him we recognize the container and the seal. (Think of Romeo or Hamlet for swift openingindicationsofthese.)Theultimateisolationcomesintheruptureofthepackage,theenergy’sdischarge.Thedramamarksthechange.RomeoandJulietareisolatedbythesuddendemandsoflovereturned,andtheworldoftheirplayreflectstheviolenceofthetransformation.Thetypeofoutlinejustgivenisusefulbuttreacherous.Itisusefulbecauseitsharpensoursenseofthe

Shakespearean dramatic situation and gives us a reasonably pertinent norm by which to measureindividualdevelopments.Buttofollowitoutindetail,totranslateeachtragedybackintotheoutline,totellitlikeastoryforanyoftheplayswouldbetoloseexactlywhatmakestheideaoftheunsoundedselfimportant—thatitisbasictodrama,somethingfardifferentfromstoryorsubjectortheme.Thisiswhatiswrong with thinking about theatrical impressions in terms of thematic appropriateness, as a kind ofvarnishoverthepoetryandplot.WhatideallyhastobedoneandisperhapsmoreeasilyattemptedforRomeoandJulietthanforlater

plays is to talk about what the experience of the whole amounts to. The impression is strong anddistinctive;whydowemark it aswedo?Theproblem is to takeall theelements that affectus in thetheater and examine them as they arrange themselves in our response, asking what relevance thisconfigurationbearstoourlives.Ifwetrytoseewhatthedeepeffectofthecombinationoftheseelementsis,thecrucialquestionisthat

oftherelationthatconnectstheplot,thevisualspectacle,andthewordplay.Clearlytheyshareacommonbusyness,suddenness,andviolence.“Theseviolentdelightshaveviolentends”isenoughtoexplaintheircongruenceatleastsuperficially.Butitdoesnotaccountfortherichnessofourresponsetotheelaboratedetailofthedrama.Nordoesitaccountforthepeculiaraptnesswesenseincertainkindsofdetail.Whyare there so many puns and such obscene ones?Why shouldMercutio and the Nurse be given long,

digressive bravura speeches?Why is the balcony stressed, and the athleticism it entails?Why shouldcertainlines like“Whereforeart thouRomeo?”or“What’s inaname?”or“Afeastingpresencefulloflight”stickinthememory?Thelastmaybeexplainedbyits“beautyoutofcontext”—alwaysadoubtfulprocedure—buttheotherlinesresisteventhateasyquestion-beggingmethod,andconsequentlygiveusagoodplacetobegin.

“WhereforeartthouRomeo?”(2.2.33)

Romeo’snamepresentsaproblemtoothersbesidesJulietbutshecharacteristicallyseesmoredeeplyinto the difficulty. For it is not enough to decide whether Romeo should be called humors, madman,passion,lunatic,villain,coward,boy,Capulet,Montague,orevenRomeo.Thequestionisreallywhyhemusthaveanameatall.RomeoandJulietisatragedyofnaming,atragedyinwhichattimesRomeo’snameseemstobethevillain:

Asifthatname,Shotfromthedeadlylevelofagun,Didmurderher,asthatname’scursedhandMurder’dherkinsman.O,tellme,friar,tellme,InwhatvilepartofthisanatomyDothmynamelodge?Tellme,thatImaysackThehatefulmansion.

(3.3.102-8)

ButthoughthisechoesJuliet’sotherfamousquestionandherinsistencethatanameisafterall“norhand,nor foot, / Nor arm, nor face,” it is far different from “What’s in a name?” in even its immediateimplications.ThetroublewithRomeo’snamehereisnotthatitisatrivialattributethatraisesaccidentaldifficulties,butthat“Romeo”nowhasahistory,aninescapablerealityofitsown.It isthenameofthemanwhohaskilledTybalt;itisattachedtoapastandRomeoisresponsibleforit.

ItisRomeowhoisbanishedforwhatRomeohasdone.Hisanguish,thoughemotionallyanintensificationofJuliet’sinthebalconyscene,islogicallyananswertoherquestion.This,amongotherthings,iswhat’sinaname.

Notonlydonameshaveapeculiarsubstantialityintheplay(theycanmurder,die,betorn;everytonguethatspeaks“ButRomeo’snamespeaksheavenlyeloquence”)butwords themselves takeonanamelikeintensity.Thatis,theytakeon,usuallybyrepetition,theimportanceandattributesofpersons:

Saythoubut“I”Andthatbarevowel“I”shallpoisonmoreThanthedeath-dartingeyeofcockatrice.IamnotI,iftherebesuchanI;Orthoseeyesshut,thatmakestheeanswer“I.”10

“...banished.”That“banished,”thatoneword“banished,”HathslaintenthousandTybalts.

(3.2.45-49,112-14)

Here,aswith“day”in4.5,11theeffectinthetheaterisnottodeepenthemeaningofthewordbutatoncetostripthemeaningawaythroughendlessrepetitionandtogiveitanamelikelifeofitsown.

Astheseexamplessuggest,namingischaracteristicallyassociatedwithseparationintheplay.Itisnoaccidentthatatthetimeofpainfulseparationonthemorningaftertheirmarriagethelovers’aubadeturnsonthenameofabird:

Itwasthenightingale,andnotthelark...

Itwasthelark,theheraldofthemorn,Nonightingale.

(3.5.2-7)

Theyarepassingfromanightofsensualuniontoadayofexile.Night,asMercutiohasobserved, isatimeoffreeassociation,offantasticinvention,butdaymakesstricterdemandsuponourconsciousness.WhenRomeoagreestocallthebirdbysomeothername,Julietmustquicklyadmitthatit isindeedthelark. The lovers relinquish the right to rename theworld as they please; theymust know theworld’snamesforthingsiftheywishtostayaliveinit.

Theplay’severpresentthrusttowardpunningheightensoursenseoftheacceptedmeaningofwordsandoftherampantpsychicenergythatrisestobreakthemeaningsdown.Thewordplaymakesitscontributionasmuchbyitsquantityandirrepressibilityasbyitscontent.Thepunsarerapidandraw,emphasizingthesuddennessandviolencethatispartofallpunning,whiletheveryprocessofpunningraisesissuesthatare central to the play. A pun is a sudden exchange of names, uniting objects we are not ordinarilyallowedtounite,withaconsequentreleaseofenergy,oftenviolentandsatisfying,andalwayssatisfyingtotheextentthatit isviolent.Itissomethingbothterribleandlovely;wesay“That’sawful,”whenwemean“That’sgood.”RomeoandJulietthemselvesarelikethecomponentsofaparticularlygoodpun—naturalmateswhomauthoritystrivestokeepapartandwhoseunionisnotonlyviolentbutilluminating,sinceittransformsandimprovestheorderitviolates,thoughitisnecessarilyimpermanent.Thefuryofthepunisthefuryofoursubmergedinnocence;weplaywithwordsasRomeoandJuliet

playwiththelarkandnightingale.Punningrestorestous—undercertainverynarrowconditions,andforabriefinterval—ourfreedomtochangenamesandtomakeconnectionswehavebeentaughttosuppress,toinventlanguage,toreconstitutetheworldasweplease.RomeoandJulietbeginswithaseriesofpunsleadingtoastreetbrawlculminatinginadangerousmistake(Benvolio,intendingtorestoreorder,drawshissword)thatspreadstheconflicttoincludenearlytheentirecompany.Thesequenceissignificant,fortheenergyofthepun,fullyreleasedinanorganizedsocietywherenamesandrulesareimportant,tendstobedisastrous.CapuletandMontaguelackeyslurkaroundthestagelikeforbiddenmeaningslookingforanopportunity to discharge themselves. And at the level of responsible authority, the equivalent of thelackeys’idlebrawling(ortheoverwhelmingpassionoftheyounglovers)isthecapacityforinstantandmistakendecision.FromBenvolio’s intervention in theopening streetbrawl toRomeo’s suicide in thetomb,theplayisatissueofprecipitousmistakes.Capulethandsaguestlisttoaservantwhocannotreadand the tragedy is initiated (significantly it is a list of names—all of which are read out—that is thevillain).Mercutio’sdeathisamistake;andRomeo’serror,likeCapulet’sandBenvolio’s,enactsitselfasa backfiring gesture, an action that—like a pun—subverts its manifest intention. Romeo’s pathetic “Ithought all for thebest,” rings inour earswhenwe seeLawrence andCapulet strickenby the lovers’death.

Counter to all the hasty and disastrous action of the play, there runs a surge of simple authoritativeconfidence,voicedatdifferenttimesbyalmosteverymajorcharacter.ThefirstsceneendswithRomeo’sassertionthathewillalwaysloveRosaline.AsRomeogoesoff,Capuletentersinsistingthatitwillbeeasy tokeep thepeace.The juxtapositionof these twoerrorsgoesbeyond simple irony; the encounterbetween confident assumption and the sudden event is one of the play’s important motifs, just as thedisparity between principle and practice is one of its recurrent themes. The Friar’s first speech, forexample,isoftenseenasamoralizationoftheactionofRomeoandJuliet,andindeedthereisaclearandeffectivedramaticconnectionbetweenhishomilyandtheactionthatsurroundsit.Thecontrastbetweenthenight-timeintensityofthesceneimmediatelypreceding,andthecomplacenttranquilityofLawrence’sreflections is obviously intended, and to further enforce the connection, he begins by moralizing thecontrast:

Thegrey-ey’dmornsmilesonthefrowningnight...AndfleckeddarknesslikeadrunkardreelsFromforthday’spath(2.3.1-4)

Ashegoeson,heseemstoanticipateeventsthataretofollow,butoncloserinspection,hisremarksarenotpreciselyappropriate:

Virtueitselfturnsvice,beingmisapplied;Andvicesometime’sbyactiondignified.(21-22)

The first of these lines fits the lovers andmuchelse in theplay, but the second, thoughon the surfaceequallyfitting,turnsouttobehardertoapply.Romeoisapparentlyactinginaccordancewithitsteachingwhenhebuys forbiddenpoison touseonhimself,as isCapuletwhenhedecides thatahastymarriage(whichhehasearlierroundlydenounced)willrouseJulietfromhersorrows,orastheNurseiswhensheadvisesJuliettomarryParis.AndFriarLawrencecertainlyimaginesheistakingavirtuouscoursewhenheofferspoisontoJuliet.Bytheplay’send,ofcourse,Lawrence’sinterventionhasprovedanexampleofvirtuemisapplied.Theveryconfidenceofhisassertionsbecomesasourceofdisasterwhenheacts,andtheveryeaseofhisrhetoricispartofthetextureofhisactions.FriarLawrencemakesastrongbidtobethemoralcenteroftheplay,butitishisbidthatfinallyinterestsusmorethanhisvision.Justashesharesa penchant for confidently interpreting eventswithCapulet, theNurse, andRomeo, among others, likethemhehasadisturbingcapacityforguessingwrong.

At theendof theplayLawrence ispardoned.“Westillhaveknown thee foraholyman.”TheFriardeserveshisreputation,anditisasnecessarytosocietythathehavehisnameforholinessasthatheutterhissoundandinappropriatesententiae.Ifhewerenotcapableofmakingterriblemistakes,therewouldbenoneedofhim.Wemusthave friarsand fathers,andall thesystemof responsibility thatgoeswithnaming, for thevery reason that these figures fail in their responsibility: there is an energy in life thatchangesnames,thatbreaksdowntherulesoflanguage,oflaw,andevenofluck.12RomeoandJulietbearthebruntofdiscoveringthisenergy,and,likealltragicvictims,theyareisolated

—evenfromeachother—beforetheyaredestroyed.Characteristically,werememberthemasseparated:thedrugcomesbetweentheminthefinalscene,earlierthebalconydividesthem;inthenightingale-larkscenetheyaretogetheronlyatthemomentofleave-taking.Onallthreeoccasions,theprobableuseofthestageservestounderlinethestrainthattheefforttowardcontactdemandsofthem—inRomeo’syearningupwardtowardthebalcony,theperilousrope-ladderdescent,thetorchesandcrowbarsbreakingintothetomb.Andofcourse therearealways insistentvoices—Mercutioandhis friends, theNurse,Paris, thewatch—callingthemaway,repeatingtheirnames,threateningtointerruptthem.

Itisnotfancifultoseetheirlastsceneinthetombassuggestiveofsexualunionandofthesexualact.Abattletakesplaceatthedoor,itistornopen—andonstagethebarrierisfinallyonlyacurtainthatgiveseasilyenoughafter somebloodshed. It is alsoalmostcertainly the same inner stageorpavilionwhereJuliet has gone to bed on the eve of herwedding toParis, and so itmust remind the audience of thatinnocentchamber.(Thecurtainscloseasshefallsonthebed,areopenedin4.5toshowherapparentlydead, and only open again, revealing her still prostrate, as Romeo breaks into the tomb.) Theidentification is given force by the new stream of wordplay that has entered since Tybalt’s death,reversingthedominantpunoftheplay.Uptothatpointthelanguageofcombathasbeentransformedbypunningintosuggestionsofsexualencounter(“Drawthytool”);butintheconcludingscenes,violentdeathisrepeatedlydescribedintermsofsexandthemarriagefestival.Romeovows,“Well,Juliet,Iwillliewith thee tonight,”meaninghewill die; the lovers toast eachotherwithpoison (“Here’s tomy love,”“ThisdoIdrinktothee”);and,inoneofthegreatcondensingimagesoftheplay,Juliet’sbeautymakesthe“vaulta feastingpresence fullof light.”This lastphrasecatchesup theplay’s repeated impressionsoflightandfire illuminating thenightandsuffuses thedeathof the loverswithasuggestionof their long-deniedmarriagebanquet.RomeoandJuliet,with itsemphasison language,young love,and theaffectationsandconfusionsof

both, has clear affinities with the Shakespearean comedies of its period. Except for its fatalities, itfollowsthestandardformofNewComedy.Thetwoloversarekeptapartbyapowerfulexternalauthority(someformofparentaloppositionisofcoursetypical),andmuchoftheactionconcernstheireffortstoget around the obstacles placed in their path. Their ultimate union—in amarriage feast—results in atransformationofthesocietythathasopposedthem.LikeRomeo,Juliet,asshemovestowardtragedy,issometimestreatedinamannerfamiliarfromthe

earlycomedies:asenseofthe“real”isproducedbycontrastingseriousandsuperficialversionsofthesamesituationorevent.AsRomeoprogressesinseriousnessfromRosalinetoJuliet,soJulietadvancesthroughat least three stages toherwaking in the tomb.Lawrence sendsheronherwaywithhisusualcheeryassurance,andevenRomeoapproacheshisdescentintothegravewithakindofboyisheagerness,butJulietgoesbeyondthem.Originallyshesharestheirconfidentreadingofthescene:

...bidmegointoanew-madegraveAndhidemewithadeadmaninhisshroud,—Thingsthat,tohearthemtold,havemademetremble;AndIwilldoitwithoutfearordoubt.(4.1.84-87)

Butheranticipatoryvisionofthetombin4.3powerfullyforecastsheractualfate:

Whatifitbeapoison,whichthefriarSubtlyhathminist’redtohavemedead...Howif,whenIamlaidintothetomb,IwakebeforethetimethatRomeoCometoredeemme?...Thehorribleconceitofdeathandnight,Togetherwiththeterroroftheplace,—Asinavault,anancientreceptacle,Where,forthismanyhundredyears,thebonesOfallmyburiedancestorsarepack’d;WherebloodyTybalt,yetbutgreeninearth,Liesfest’ringinhisshroud.(24-43)

“Fear anddoubt”doafflicther,but it is evenmorenotable that Juliet is theonlyone in theplaywhobeginstoguesswhatthefinalscenewillbelike.

Inthetombitself,Julietcontinuestodisplayherdistinctiveisolationandawareness.Herfateisgivenafinalimpressivenessbyagesturethatcarriesonthespecialviolenceoftheplay.Shakespearefollowshissource, Brooke’s The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet, in having Juliet commit suicide withRomeo’sknife.Buthis Juliet, unlikeBrooke’s, first canvassesotherways todie—thepoisonedcup, akiss. These deaths, like Romeo’s, are elegant, leave nomark upon the body, and have the comfortingtheatricalimportofaneasytranscendenceofdeath—buttheyarenotavailabletoher;theimpulsivepaceoftheactionwillnotallowit.Thewatchisheard.Shereachesforthedaggerinstead:

Thisisthysheath;thererust,andletmedie.(5.3.170)

Thedeathismessy,violent,sexual.ItisinterestingthatRomeo’sisthemorevirginal,andthatJuliet’sisthefirstintheplaythathasnotbeenimmediatelycausedbyamisunderstanding.

Against the play’s general background, its rapidly assembling crowds, its fevered busyness, itscontinualnoteofimpatienceandthequickviolenceofitsencounters,theimagethatremainsmoststronglyinourmindsisnotoftheloversasacouple,butofeachasaseparateindividualgrapplingwithinternalenergiesthatboththreatenandexpresstheself,energiesforwhichlanguageisinadequatebutthatlieattherootof language, thatbothoverturnandenrichsociety.Touchedbyadultdesire, theunsoundedselfbursts outwith the explosive, subversive, dangerous energy of the sword, gunpowder, the plague; andeveryaspectofourexperienceofRomeoandJulietinthetheaterengagesusinthisphenomenon—fromthecruderushof thebrawlinglackeystothesubliminalviolenceof thepuns.Weundergo, inaterriblecondensationlikethelightning-flash, theself-defining,self-immolatingsurgewithwhichadolescenceisleftbehind.AsJuliet swiftlyoutgrows thecomfortsof the familycircle, soRomeomoves far fromtheyouthfulpacksthatroamthestreetsofVerona,somanyAdoniseshuntingandscorning.Theloversremainin the audience’sminds in a typical pose and atmosphere, lights burning in the darkness, their namescalled,theirfarewellstaken,eachisolatedinamomentofviolentandenlighteningdesire.

SUSANSNYDER

BeyondComedy:RomeoandJuliet

BothRomeoandJulietandOthellousetheworldofromanticcomedyasapointofdeparture,thoughin different ways. In the early play a well-developed comic movement is diverted into tragedy bymischance.Thechangeofdirectionismoreorlessimposedontheyounglovers,whothereforeimpressus primarily as victims. Othello and Desdemona are victims too, in one sense, but in their tragedydestruction comes fromwithin aswell, and comedy is onemeans bywhichShakespeare probesmoredeeply into his characters and their love.He gives us in the early scenes a brief but complete comicstructureandthendevelopshistragedyoflovebyexploitingthepointsofstrainandparadoxwithinthesystemofcomicassumptionsthatinformsthatstructure.ThatthesetwoplaysareShakespeare’sonlyventuresintotheItalianatetragedyofloveandintrigueis

nocoincidence.Theveryfeaturesthatdistinguishthissubgenrefromthemoredominantfall-of-the-mightystrainmove it closer to comedy: its sources are typicallynovelle rather thanwell-knownhistories, itsheroes are of lesser rank, its situations are private rather than public, its main motive force is love.MadeleineDoran,whosedesignationanddescriptionIfollowforthiskindoftragedy,haspointedoutitsaffinitywithcomedy:

FromSusanSnyder,TheComicMatrixof Shakespeare’sTragedies (Princeton,N.J.: PrincetonUniversityPress,1979),pp.56-70.

“Weareintheregionwheretragedyandcomedyarecutoutofthesamecloth.”13ThesourcetalesofRomeoandOthello14would,Ithink,suggestquitereadilytoShakespearethepossibilityofusingcomicconventionasaspringboardfortragedy.

ThemovementofRomeoandJulietisunlikethatofanyotherShakespeareantragedy.Itbecomes,ratherthan is, tragic. Other tragedies have reversals, but here the reversal is so complete as to constitute achange of genre.Action and characters begin in the familiar comicmold and are then transformed, ordiscarded, tocomposetheshapeof tragedy.15 In thisdiscussionIshallhave todisre-gardmuchof theplay’s richness, especiallyof languageandcharacterization, inorder to isolate that shapingmovement.ButisolatingitcanrevealagooddealaboutRomeo,andmaysuggestwhythisearlyexperimentaltragedyhasseemedtomanytofallshortoffulltragiceffect.

ItwasH.B.Charlton,concurringinthisjudgment,whoclassedtheplayas“experimental.”Accordingto Charlton, Shakespeare in his early history-based tragic plays failed to find a pattern of event andcharacterthatwouldmakethedramaticoutcomefeelinevitable;inRomeohetookawholenewdirection,that of the modern fiction-based tragedy advocated by the Italian critic Giraldi Cinthio.16 CertainlydramaticthrustandnecessityareunsolvedproblemsinTitusAndronicusandRichardIII,andperhapsinRichardII too.But oneneednot turn to Italian critical theory to explain the newdirectionofRomeo.Given the novella-source, full of marriageable young people and domestic concerns, it seems naturalenoughthatShakespearewouldthinkofturninghisownsuccessfulworkinromanticcomedytoaccountinhisapprenticeshipasatragedian.Wehaveseenthatcomedyisbasedonaprincipleof“evitability.”Itendorsesopportunisticshiftsand

realisticaccommodationsasmeanstonewsocialhealth.Itrendersimpotenttheimperativesoftimeandlaw, either stretching them to suit the favored characters’ needs or simply brushing them aside. In thetragicworld,which isgovernedby inevitabilityandwhichfinds itshighestvalue inpersonal integrity,these imperatives have full force. Unlike the extrinsic, alterable laws of comedy, law in tragedy isinherent—in the protagonist’s own nature and in the larger patterns, divine, natural, and social, withwhichthatpersonalnaturebringshimintoconflict.Tragiclawcannotbealtered,andtragictimecannotbe suspended. The events of tragedy acquire urgency in their uniqueness and irrevocability: theywillneverhappenagain,andonebyonetheymovetheheroclosertotheendofhisownpersonaltime.Comedyisorganizedlikeagame.Theascendancygoestothecleveroneswhocantakeadvantageof

suddenopenings,contrivestrategies,andadaptflexiblytoanunexpectedmovefromtheotherside.Butluckandinstinctwingamesaswellasskill,andIhavediscussedintheprecedingchapterthenaturallawofcomedythatcrownslovers,whethercleverornot,withfinalsuccess.RomeoandJuliet,youngandinloveanddefiantofobstacles,areattunedtothebasicmovementofthecomicgametowardmarriageandsocialregeneration.Buttheydonotwin:thegameturnsintoasacrifice,andthefavoredloversbecomevictimsoftimeandlaw.Wecanbetterunderstandthisshiftbylookingatthetwodistinctworldsoftheplayandatsomesecondarycharacterswhohelptodefinethem.Ifwe divide the play atMercutio’s death, the death that generates all those that follow, it becomes

apparentthattheplay’smovementuptothispointisessentiallycomic.Withtheusualintriguesandgo-betweens,theloversovercomeobstaclesanduniteinmarriage.Theirpersonalactionissetinabroadersocialcontext,sothatthemarriagepromisesnotonlyprivatesatisfactionbutrenewedsocialunity:

ForthisalliancemaysohappyproveToturnyourhouseholds’rancourtopurelove.

(2.3.91-92)

Thehousehold’srancorissetoutintheplay’sfirstscene.ThisVeronaoftheMontague-Capuletfeudisexactly the typicalstartingpointofacomedydescribedbyFrye—“asocietycontrolledbyhabit, ritualbondage, arbitrary law and the older characters.”17 The scene’s formal balletic structure, a series ofmatched representativesof thewarring familiesenteringneatlyoncue,conveys the inflexibilityof thissociety,thearbitrarybarriersthatlimitfreedomofaction.

Thefeuditselfseemsmoreamatterofmechanicalreflexthanofdeeplyfelthatred.Charltonnotedthecomictoneofitspresentationinthispartoftheplay.18The“parents’rage”thatsoundedsoominousintheprologue becomes in representation an irascible humour: two oldmen claw at each other, only to bedraggedbackbytheirwivesandscoldedbytheirprince.Charltonfoundtheplayflawedbythisfailuretoplant theseedsof tragedy;but the treatmentof thefeudmakesgoodsense ifShakespeare isplayingoncomicexpectations.Atthispoint,thefeudfunctionsinRomeoverymuchasthevariouslegalrestraintsdoinShakespeareancomedy.Imposedfromoutsideontheyouthfullovers,whofeelthemselvesnopartofit,thefeudisabarrierplacedarbitrarilybetweenthem,liketheAthenianlawgivingfathersthedispositionof their daughters which stands between Lysander and Hermia in A Midsummer Night’s Dream—somethingsetupinordertobebrokendown.OtheraspectsofthisinitialworldofRomeosuggestcomedyaswell.Itscharactersarethegentryand

servantsfamiliarinromanticcomedies,andtheyarepreoccupied,notwithwarsandthefateofkingdoms,butwitharrangingmarriagesandmanagingthekitchen.Moreimportant,itisaworldofpossibilities,withCapulet’s feast represented tomore thanoneyoungmanas a fieldof choice. “Hear all, all see,” saysCapulettoParis,“Andlikehermostwhosemeritmostshallbe”(1.2.30-31).“Gothither,”Benvoliotells

Romeo,whoisdisconsolateoverRosaline,“andwithunattaintedeye/CompareherfacewithsomethatIshall show” (88-89) and she will be forgotten for some more approachable lady. Romeo rejects thewords, of course, but in action he soon displays a classic comic adaptability, switching from theimpossiblelovetothepossible.Violenceanddisasterarenottotallyabsentfromthismilieu,buttheyareunrealizedthreats.Thefeast

again provides a kind of comic emblem, when Tybalt’s proposed violence is rendered harmless byCapulet’sfestiveaccommodation.

Thereforebepatient,takenonoteofhim;Itismywill;thewhichifthourespect,Showafairpresenceandputoffthesefrowns,Anill-beseemingsemblanceforafeast.(1.5.73-76)

ThisoverrulingofTybaltissignificantbecauseTybaltinhisinflexibilityisapotentiallytragiccharacter,indeedtheonlyoneinthefirstpartoftheplay.Ifwerecognizeinhimanirasciblehumourtype,analazon,weshouldalsorecognizethatthetragicheroisanalazontransposed.19Tybaltalonetakesthefeudreallyseriously.Itishisinnerlaw,thepropellerofhisfierynature.Hisnaturalframeofreferenceistheheroiconeofhonoranddeath:

What,darestheslaveComehither,cover’dwithananticface,Tofleerandscornatoursolemnity?Now,bythestockandhonourofmykin,TostrikehimdeadIholditnotasin.(57-61)

Tybalt’ssinglesetofabsolutescutshimofffromawholerangeofspeechandactionavailabletotheotheryoungmenoftheplay:lyriclove,wittyfooling,friendlyconversation.Ironically,hisimperativescometodominatetheplay’sworldonlywhenhehimselfdepartsfromit.Whileheisalive,Tybaltisanalien.

Inasimilarway,thepassingfearsofcalamityvoicedattimesbyRomeo,Juliet,andFriarLaurencearenotallowedtodominatetheatmosphereoftheearlyacts.TheloveofRomeoandJulietisalreadyimagedas a flash of light swallowed by darkness, an image invoking inexorable natural law; but it is alsoexpressedasaseaventure,whichsuggests luckandskillsetagainstnaturalhazardsandchanceseizedjoyouslyasanopportunityforaction.“Directmysail,”saysRomeotohiscaptainFortune.Soonhefeelshimselfincommand:

Iamnopilot;yet,wertthouasfarAsthatvastshorewash’dwiththefarthestsea,Ishouldadventureforsuchmerchandise.20

ThespiritisBassanio’sasheadventuresforPortia,aJasonvoyaginginquestoftheGoldenFleece(MV1.1.167-72).Romeoisreadyfordifficultieswithatraditionallovers’stratagem,onewhichShakespearehadusedbeforeinTwoGentlemen:Aropeladder,“cordsmadelikeatackledstair;/Whichtothehightop-gallantofmyjoy/Mustbemyconvoyinthesecretnight”(2.4.183-85).

But before Romeo canmount his tackled stair,Mercutio’s death intervenes to cut off thisworld ofexhilaratingventure.Shakespearedevelopedthischaracter,whointhesourceislittlemorethananameand a cold hand, into the very incarnation of comic atmosphere. Mercutio is the clown of romanticcomedy, recast inmore elegantmold but equally ready to take off from the plot in verbal play and to

challengeidealisticlovewithhisownbrandofcomicearthiness.

Nay,I’llconjuretoo.Romeo!humours!madman!passion!lover!Appearthouinthelikenessofasigh;SpeakbutonerhymeandIamsatisfied;Crybut‘Ayeme!’pronouncebut‘love’and‘dove’;IconjuretheebyRosaline’sbrighteyes,Byherhighforeheadandherscarletlip,Byherfinefoot,straightleg,andquiveringthigh,Andthedemesnesthatthereadjacentlie.(2.1.6-20)

Heisthebestofgame-players,endlesslyinventiveandfullofquickmovesandcountermoves.Speechforhim is a constant exercise inmultiple possibilities: puns abound, roles are taken up at whim (that ofconjuror,forinstance,inthepassagejustquoted),andhisQueenMabbringsdreamsnotonlytoloverslikeRomeobuttocourtiers,lawyers,parsons,soldiers,maids.Thesehavenothingtodowiththecaseathand,which isRomeo’s premonition of trouble, butMercutio is not bound by events. They serve himmerely as convenient launching pads for his flights of wit.When all this vitality, which has till nowignored all urgencies, is cut off abruptly by Tybalt’s sword, it must come as a shock to a spectatorunfamiliar with the play. In Mercutio’s sudden, violent end, Shakespeare makes the birth of tragedycoincideexactlywith the symbolicdeathofcomedy.Thealternativeview, theelementof freedomandplay,dieswithMercutio.Wheremanycourseswereopenbefore,nowthereseemsonlyone.Romeoseesatoncethatanirreversibleprocesshasbegun:

Thisday’sblackfateonmoredaysdothdepend[hangover];Thisbutbeginsthewoeothersmustend.(3.1.121-22)

Itisthefirstsignintheplay’sdialoguepointingunambiguouslytotragicnecessity.Romeo’sfutureisnowdetermined:hemustkillTybalt,hemustrunaway,heisFortune’sfool.

Thishelplessnessisthemoststrikingfeatureofthesecond,tragicworldofRomeo.Thetemperofthisnewworldislargelyafunctionofonrushingevents.Underpressureofevents,thefeudturnsfromfarcetofate;titfortatbecomesbloodforblood.LawlessasitseemstoPrinceEscalus,thefeudisdramatically“the law” in Romeo. Before, it was external and avoidable. Now it moves inside Romeo to be hispersonallaw.ThisiswhyhetakesoverTybalt’srhetoricofhonoranddeath:

AliveintriumphandMercutioslain!Awaytoheavenrespectivelenity,Andfire-ey’dfurybemyconductnow!Now,Tybalt,takethe‘villain’backagainThatlatethougav’stme.(124-28)

Even outside themain chain of vengeance, the world is suddenly full of imperatives. Others besidesRomeo feel helpless. Against his will Friar John is detained at the monastery; against his will theApothecary sells poison to Romeo. Urgency becomes the norm. Nights run into mornings, and thecharacters seem never to sleep. The newworld finds its emblem not in the aborted attack but in theabortedfeast.AsTybalt’sviolencewasoutoftunewiththeCapuletfestivitiesinAct2,sointhechangedworldofActs3and4 theprojectedweddingof JulietandParis ismadegrotesquewhenShakespeareinsistentlylinksitwithdeath.21Preparationsfortheweddingfeastparallelthosemadeforthepartyinthe

play’sfirstpart,soastomakemorewrenchingthecontrastwhenCapuletmustorder,

AllthingsthatweordainedfestivalTurnfromtheirofficetoblackfuneral:Ourinstrumentstomelancholybells,Ourweddingcheertoasadburialfeast,Oursolemnhymnstosullendirgeschange.(4.5.84-88)

Theplay’slastsceneshowshowcompletelythecomicmovementhasbeenreversed.Itisinherentinthatmovement,aswehaveseen,thattheyounggettheirwayattheexpenseoftheold.Thefinaltableauofcomedyfeaturesyoungcouplesjoinedinlove;parentsandauthorityfiguresarethere, ifatall, toratifywithmore or less good grace what has been accomplished against their wills. But here, the stage isstrikingly full of elders—the Friar, the Prince, Capulet, Lady Capulet, Montague. Their power is notpassedon. Indeed, therearenoyoung to takeover. IfBenvoliosurvivessomewhereoffstage,wehavelong since forgotten this adjunct character.Romeo, Juliet, Tybalt,Mercutio, andParis are all dead. Ineffect,theentireyoungergenerationhasbeenwipedout.I have been treating these two worlds as separate, consistent wholes in order to bring out their

opposition,butIdonotwishtodenydramaticunitytoRomeoandJuliet.Shakespearewaswritingoneplay,nottwo;andinspiteoftheclearlymarkedturningpointweareawareofpremonitionsofdisasterbeforethedeathofMercutio,andhopesforavoidingitcontinueuntilnear theendof theplay.Ourfullperception of the world-shift that converts Romeo and Juliet from instinctive winners into sacrificialvictimsthuscomesgradually.Inthisconnectionthecareersoftwosecondarycharacters,FriarLaurenceandtheNurse,areinstructive.In being and action, these two belong to the comic vision. Friar Laurence is one of the tribe of

manipulators,whose job it is to transformorotherwiseget roundseemingly intractable realities. Ifhisherbs and potions are less spectacular than the paraphernalia of Friar Bacon or John a Kent, heneverthelessbelongstotheirbrotherhood.Suchfiguresaboundinromanticcomedy,aswehaveseen,butnot in tragedy,where thefuture isnotsomanipulable.TheFriar’saimsare those implicit in theplay’scomicmovement:aninviolableunionforRomeoandJulietandanendtothefamilies’feud.TheNurse’sgoalislessloftybutequallyappropriatetocomedy.ShewantsJulietmarried—toanyone.

Herpreoccupationwithbeddingandbreedingremindsusofcomedy’sancientrootsinfertilityrites,andit is as indiscriminate as the life force itself. But she conveys no sense of urgency in all this.On thecontrary, her garrulity assumes the limitless time of comedy. In this sense her circumlocutions anddigressionsareanalogoustoMercutio’swittygamesand,forthatmatter,toFriarLaurence’scounselsofpatience.“Wiselyandslow,”theFriarcautionsRomeo;“theystumblethatrunfast”(2.3.94).TheNurseisnotverywise,butsheisslow.TheleisurelytimeassumptionsofbothFriarandNursecontrastwiththelovers’impatience,tocreatefirstthenormalcounterpointofcomedyandlateraradicalsplitthatpointsus,withthelovers,directlytowardstragedy.FriarLaurenceandtheNursehavenoplaceinthenewworldbroughtintobeingbyMercutio’sdeath,

theworldof limited time,noeffectivechoice,noescape.Theydefineandsharpen the tragedyby theirveryfailuretofindapartinthedramaticprogress,bytheirgrowingestrangementfromthetruespringsofthe action. “Be patient,” is the Friar’s advice to banishedRomeo, “for theworld is broad andwide”(3.3.16).But the roominessheperceives inboth timeandspacesimplydoesnotexist forRomeo.Histimehasbeenconstrictedintoachainofdaysworkingouta“blackfate,”andheseesnoworldoutsidethewallsofVerona(17).ComicadaptabilityagainconfrontstragicintegritywhenJulietisforcedtomarryParis—andturnsto

her Nurse for counsel, as Romeo has turned to Friar Laurence. In the Nurse’s response comedy’straditionalwisdomofaccommodationiscarriedtoanextreme.Romeohasbeenbanished,andParis isafterallverypresentable.Inshort,adjusttothenewstateofthings.

Then,sincethecasesostandsasnowitdoth,IthinkitbestyoumarriedwiththeCounty.O,he’salovelygentleman!Romeo’sadishclouttohim.(3.5.218-21)

Shestillspeaksforthelifeforce,againstbarrennessanddeath.EvenifJulietwillnotacceptthedishcloutcomparison,aninferiorhusbandisbetterthannohusbandatall:“Yourfirstisdead,or’twereasgoodhewere/Aslivinghereandyounouseofhim”(226-27).

But her advice is irrelevant, even shocking, in this new context. There was no sense of jar whenBenvolio,aspokesmanforcomicaccommodationliketheNurseandtheFriar,earlieradvisedRomeotosubstitute a possible love for an impossible one. True, the Nurse here is urging Juliet to violate hermarriagevows;butRomeoalsofelthimselfsworntoRosaline,andforJulietthemarriagevowisasealontheintegrityofherloveforRomeo,notaseparableissue.Theparallelpointsupthemoveintotragedy,forwhileBenvolio’s advice sounded sensible inAct 1 andwas in fact unintentionally carried out byRomeo,thecourseofactionthattheNurseproposesinAct3isunthinkabletotheaudienceaswellastoJuliet.Thememoryofthelovers’passionatedawnpartingthatbeganthissceneistoostrong.Julietandher nurse no longer speak the same language, and estrangement is inevitable. “Thou and my bosomhenceforthshallbetwain,”JulietvowswhentheNursehasleftthestage.22LiketheslayingofMercutio,Juliet’srejectionofheroldconfidantehassymbolicovertones.Thepossibilitiesofcomedyhaveagainbeenpresentedonlytobediscarded.BothRomeoandJuliethavenowcastofftheircomiccompanionsandthealternativemodesofbeing

thattheyrepresented.Butthereisonelasthopeforcomedy.Iftheloverswillnotadjusttothesituation,perhapsthesituationcanbeadjustedtothelovers.Thisistheusualcomicwaywithobstinatelyfaithfulpairs,andwehaveathandtheusualmanipulatorfiguretoarrangeit.TheFriar’s failure tobringoff thatsolution is the finaldefinitionof the tragicworldofRomeo and

Juliet.There isnovillain,onlychanceandbad timing. Incomedychancecreates thatelastic time thatallowslast-minuterescues.Buthere,eventsatMantuaandattheCapulettombwillsimplyhappen—bychance—in the wrong sequence. The Friar does his best: he makes more than one plan to avertcatastrophe.Thefirst,predictably, ispatienceandabroaderfieldofaction.Romeomustgo toMantuaandwait

tillwecanfindatimeToblazeyourmarriage,reconcileyourfriends,BegpardonofthePrince,andcalltheeback.

(3.3.150-52)

Itisagoodenoughplan,forlifeifnotfordrama,butitdependson“findingatime.”Asitturnsout,eventsmove tooquickly for theFriar.Thehastypreparations for Juliet’smarriage toParis leaveno time forcoolingtempersandreconciliations.

His secondplan is an attempt togain time: hewill create the necessary freedomby faking Juliet’sdeath.Thisis,ofcourse,afamiliarcomicformula.Shakespeare’slaterusesofitareallincomedies.23Indeed, the contrived “deaths” of Hero inMuch Ado, Helena in All’s Well, Claudio inMeasure for

Measure, and Hermione in The Winter’s Tale are more ambitiously intended than Juliet’s, aimed atbringingaboutachangeofheartinothercharacters.24Timemaybeimportant,asitisinWinter’sTale,butonlyas it promotes repentance.FriarLaurence,moredesperate thanhis fellowmanipulators, doesnothope that Juliet’s death will dissolve theMontague-Capulet feud, but only that it will give Romeo achancetocomeandcarryheroff.Timeandchance,whichintheotherplayscooperatebenevolentlywiththe forcesof regenerationand renewal,workagainstFriarLaurence.Romeo’sman isquickerwith thebad news of Juliet’s death than poor Friar Johnwith the good news that the death is only a pretense.Romeo himself beats Friar Laurence to the tomb of the Capulets. The onrushing tragic action quiteliterally outstrips the slower steps of accommodation before our eyes. The Friar arrives too late topreventonehalf of the tragic conclusion, andhis essential estrangement from theplay’sworld is onlyemphasizedwhen he seeks to avert the other half by sending Juliet to a nunnery. This last alternativemeanslittletotheaudienceortoJuliet,whosparesonlyalinetorejectthepossibilityofadjustmentandcontinuinglife:“Go,gettheehence,forIwillnotaway”(5.3.160).TheNurse and the Friar show that oneway comedy can operate in a tragedy is by its irrelevance.

Tragedyistunedtotheextraordinary.RomeoandJulietlocatesthisextraordinarinessnotsomuchinthetwoyouthfulloversasintheloveitself,itsintensityandintegrity.Astheplaymovesforward,oursenseofthisintensityandintegrityisstrengthenedbythecumulativeeffectofthelovers’lyricencountersandtheincreasingurgencyofevents,butalsobythegrowingirrelevanceofthecomiccharacters.DeQuinceysaw in theknockingat thegate inMacbeth the resumptionofnormalityafternightmare,

“thereestablishmentof thegoings-onof theworldinwhichwelive,[which]firstmakesusprofoundlysensible of the awful parenthesis that had suspended them.”25 I would say, rather, that the normalatmosphereofMacbethhasbeenandgoesonbeingnightmarish,andthatitistheknockingepisodethatturns out to be the contrasting parenthesis, but the notion of sharpened sensibility is important.As thepresenceofotherpathsmakesusmoreconsciousoftheroadweareinfacttraveling,sotheNurseandtheFriarmakeusmore“profoundlysensible”oftheloveofRomeoandJulietanditstragicdirection.Theplayoffers another sortof experiment inmingledgenres that is less successful, I think. It starts

well, in 4.4,with a striking juxtapositionofCapulet preparations for theweddingwith Juliet’s potionscene. On the one hand is the household group in a bustle over clothes, food, logs for the fire—theeverydaynecessariesandsmallchangeoflife.OntheotherisJuliet’stensemonologueoffear,madness,anddeath. It is finedramatic counterpoint, and its effect is stronger in stageproduction, asGranville-Barkerobserved,whenthecurtainedbedofJulietisvisibleupstageduringthecheerfuldomesticgoings-on.26Thecounterpoint,ofcourse,dependsontheCapulets’ignoranceofwhatisbehindthosecurtains.Itcomestoanendwheninscene5NurseandtheothersfindJuliet’sbody.ButShakespearekeepsthecomicstrainalivethroughtherestofthescene.Thehigh-pitched,repetitivemourningoftheNurse,Paris,andtheCapuletssoundsmorelikePyramusoverthebodyofThisbethanaserioustragicscene.FinallyPeterhashiscomic turnwith themusicians.WhatShakespeare is attemptinghere isnotcounterpointbut thefusion of tragic and comic. It doesn’t quitework. S. L. Bethell suggests that themourners’ rhetoricalexcessesdirecttheaudiencetoremaindetachedandthustoreservetheirtearsfortherealdeathscenethatwillshortlyfollow.27Thismakesgoodtheatricalsense.It isalsopossiblethatthemusicians’dialogue,modulatingasitdoesfromshocktoprofessionalshoptodinner,wasmeanttosetoffthetragicactionbyprojectingasenseoftheongoing,normallifethatisdeniedtoRomeoandJuliet.Still,thescenetendstoleavespectatorsuneasy—if,infact,theygettoseeitatall:oftenthemourningpassagesarecutandthemusicians’ business dropped altogether.28 Shakespeare’s hand is uncertain in this early essay at fusingtragicandcomic.Masterywasyettocome,firstinthegravediggers’sceneinHamletandthenmorefully

inKingLear.

Thestructuraluseofcomicconventionsdoeswork.Theresult,however,isaparticularkindoftragedy.Criticshaveoftenremarked,neutrallyorwithdisapproval,thatexternalfateratherthancharacteristheprincipaldeterminerofthetragicendsoftheyounglovers.ForthematureShakespeare,tragedyinvolvesbothcharacterandcircumstances,afatalinteractionbetweenmanandmoment.ButinRomeoandJuliet,althoughthecentralcharactershave theirweaknesses, theirdestructiondoesnotreallystemfromthoseweaknesses.WemayagreewithFriarLaurencethatRomeoisrash,butitisnotrashnessthatpropelshimintothetragicchainofevents.Justtheopposite,itwouldseem.InthecrucialduelbetweenMercutioandTybalt,Romeo is trying to keep the combatants apart, tomakepeace. Ironically, this very interventionleadstoMercutio’sdeath.

Mercutio.Whythedevilcameyoubetweenus?Iwashurtunderyourarm.

Romeo.Ithoughtallforthebest.(3.1.99-101)

IfShakespearehadwantedtoimplicateRomeo’srash,overemotionalnatureinhisfate,hehandledthisscene with an ineptness difficult to credit. Judging from the resultant effect, what he wanted wassomethingquitedifferent:anironicdissociationofcharacterfromthedirectionofevents.

Perhapsthissamepurposeliesbehindtheelaboratedevelopmentofcomicelementsintheearlyactsbeforethecharactersarepushedintotheopposedconditionsoftragedy.Tostressmilieuinthiswayisnecessarily to downgrade the importance of individual temperament and motivation. At the crucialmomentRomeodisplaysuntypicalprudencewith themostuprightof intentions—andbringsdisasteronhimselfandJuliet.InthisunusualShakespeareantragedy,itisnotwhatyouarethatcounts,buttheworldyoulivein.

MARIANNENOVY

Violence,Love,andGenderinRomeoandJuliet

InthreeofShakespeare’splays,femaleandmalecharacterssharethetitle.Theseplaysalldeviatefromthe male-actor-female-audience pattern that dominates in Hamlet, Lear, Macbeth, and Othello andresemble the comedies in other ways as well. InRomeo and Juliet and Troilus and Cressida, as inAntonyandCleopatra, theloversbeginasadmiringaudiencestoeachother.Juliet learnstopretendtoprotecther loveofRomeo,andwhileherpretensefails,Romeoneverdistrustsheras theotherheroesdistrust women. Cressida pretends from the very beginning, and in the climactic scene Troilus is anaudiencetoherinfidelitywithDiomedes.Oneherolacksdistrustofwomen,theotherseemstolearnitbypainfulexperience(thoughwecanfindimagerysuggestiveofsuchdistrustinhislanguageearlier);unlikeLadyMacbeth, Ophelia, or Desdemona, butmore like the women of comedy, the womenmaintain orincreasetheirabilitytoactthroughouttheplay.In these plays, then, suspicion ofwomen’s acting cannot be the cause of the disaster. But issues of

genderpoliticsarestillimportant.Unliketheromanticcomedies,theseplaysallincludewarorbloodandthatcallsonmentodefinetheir

masculinity by violence. In their privateworld, the loversmay achieve amutuality inwhich both areactiveandgendersarenotpolarized.Butintheexternalworld,masculinityis

FromMarianne Novy, Love’s Argument: Gender Relations in Shakespeare (University of NorthCarolinaPress,1984),pp.99-109.Usedbypermissionofthepublisherandtheauthor.

identifiedwithviolenceandfemininitywithweakness.RomeoandJulietestablisharole-transcendingprivateworldofmutuality in love.But thisworld isdestroyed,partlybyRomeo’sentanglement in thefeud,partlybyJuliet’scontinuedlifeinherparents’houseconcealinghermarriage.TheminorcharactersinRomeoandJulietestablishabackgroundofcommonbeliefscurrent inboth

plays: “women, being theweaker vessels, are ever thrust to thewall” (1.1.17-18)whilemenglory intheir “naked weapon” (35). In the Nurse’s view, there are compensations—“women grow by men”(1.3.95)—butsheassentstoherhusband’sequationoffemalesexualitywithfallingbackward.Twodifferent conventional images of this society link sex andviolence. First, sexual intercourse is

seen as the success of male attacks. For example, Benvolio consoles Romeo in his lovesickness forRosalinebysaying,“Arightfairmark,faircoz,issoonesthit”(1.1.210).Romeodescribesthefutilityofhiscourtshipofherthus,“Shewillnotstaythesiegeoflovingterms/Norbideth’encounterofassailingeyes”(215-16).Romeohasassayed thissiegebecausehehasalreadybeenhitwithadifferentkindofviolence—from “Cupid’s arrow” (212). As Mercutio will later put it, he is “stabbed with a whitewench’sblackeye:runthroughtheearwithalovesong;theverypinofhisheartcleftwiththeblindbow-boy’sbutt-shaft”(2.4.14-16).Rosalinedoesnotfeelthesameway,andthus“fromLove’sweakchildishbowshe livesunharmed” (1.1.209).Romeo’s imageryconflateshis sexualdesire forRosalineandhisconsequentdesirethatshefallinlovewithhim—imageryofhisattackingherandoflove’sattackingher.WhenRomeomeetsJuliet,hegivesupusingsuchviolent imageryaboutsexual intercourse:whenhe

usesitaboutfallinginlove,summinguptoFriarLaurenceinriddles,hisemphasisisonthereciprocityoftheirfeelings:

Ihavebeenfeastingwithmineenemy,

WhereonasuddenonehathwoundedmeThat’sbymewounded.(2.3.49-51)

Alternatively,hefollowstheimagewithaconceitthatmakesJuliet,ifaccepting,hisprotection:

Alack,thereliesmoreperilinthineeyeThantwentyoftheirswords!Lookthoubutsweet,AndIamproofagainsttheirenmity.(2.2.71-73)

Ingeneral,withJuliethegivesupimagesofhimselfasviolentaggressor.Hespeaksmoreofwantingtotouchherthantoconquerher,evenifthismeanswishingawayhisownidentity.“OthatIwereagloveuponthathand,/ThatImighttouchthatcheek...IwouldIwerethybird”(24-25,182).RomeoistheonlyShakespeareantragicherowhocouldoffertogiveuphisname,whocouldsay,“HadIitwritten,Iwouldteartheword”(57).Thestrangenineteenth-centurystagetraditionofcastingwomenasRomeoaswellasJulietmayhavebeeninpartaresponsetohislackofviolentimagery—excepttowardhisownname—intheirlovescenes.

Nevertheless,lackofviolenceintheimagerydoesnotmeanalackofsexualenergyandattraction,andShakespeare’sdialoguesensitivelysuggeststhepoweroftheirdevelopingrelationship.Theopennessanddirectness of Romeo and Juliet stand out against the background of the romantic comedies, whichcelebrate the gradual triumph of love over the inhibitions and defenses of the lovers. Only in TheMerchantofVenicedotwolovers(PortiaandBassanio) talkreadilyandwithoutdisguiseat theirfirstmeeting.Whiletheloversinthecomediesechoeachother’slanguageandimageryastheiraffinitygrowsbehind their disguises, Romeo and Juliet at once match their shared imagery with more emotionalopenness.Throughout this first meeting, Romeo takes the initiative; but at the same time, his language puts

aggressionatadistance.Hespeakshumblyabouthis“unworthiesthand”(1.5.95);ifhistouchissin,itis“gentle” (96); if it is too rough, hewould prefer “a tender kiss” (98). Thus his initiative is that of apilgrimtoasaintandclaimstoimplythedominanceof thewoman,not theman.Buthissaintdoesnotsimplystandmotionlessonherpedestal;she talksback,pickinguphis imageryandquatrainform,andacceptshishandasshowing“mannerlydevotion”(100).Evenwhensheclaimsthat“Saintsdonotmove”(107), she is still showing her willingness for the kiss that climaxes the sonnet their interchange hasbecome:

Juliet.Saintsdonotmove,thoughgrantforprayers’sake.

Romeo.Thenmovenotwhilemyprayer’seffectItake.

(107-8)

Afterthekiss,Julietgivesuptheimageryofsainthood:“Thenhavemylipsthesinthattheyhavetook”(110).Sheinsistsonhersharingofhishumanity.

Thenexttimetheymeet, theysharetheinitiativeaswell.Inthebalconyscene,Shakespeareusesthesoliloquyconventiontoshoweachoftheminfantasyspeakingtotheotherfirst,butbreaksthatconventionbyshowingRomeoastheaudiencewhorespondstobecomeactoralongwithJuliet.Eachspeechsetsthebelovedoutsidethesocialframework:RomeocomparesJuliettothesun,hereyestothestars;Julietmoreconsciously imagines removinghim fromsociety: “Deny thy father and refuse thyname” (2.2.34). It iswhenshemakesadirectoffertoherfantasyRomeothattherealonebreaksin,andproposesalovethatwillcreateaprivateworldbetweenthetwoofthem:

Juliet....Romeo,doffthyname;Andforthyname,whichisnopartofthee,Takeallmyself.

Romeo.Itaketheeatthyword.Callmebutlove,andI’llbenewbaptized;HenceforthIneverwillbeRomeo.(47-51)

Like adreamer startled to find adreammaterialize, Juliet is taken aback atRomeo’s response.Shebreaks the fantasy of renaming—“Whatman art thou . . . ? . . . Art thou not Romeo?” (52, 60)—andmomentarily appears to withdraw in fear. Thus the emphasis shifts from shared feeling to malepersuasion,asRomeospeaksofthepowerandvalueoflove,untilJulietrespondsandacknowledgestotherealRomeowhatshehassaidtothefantasyone—“Farewellcompliment!”(89).Whentheinterplayofcautionandpersuasionbeginsagain,Juliet’sanxietyoddlyfocusesonRomeo’soaths,asifhisfaithcouldbeguaranteedbyhisnotswearing.Theunrealityofherexpressionsofdistrustaddstothecharmofthisexchange:therearenohintsthatshefindsmenuntrustworthy,orthatRomeofindswomenuntrustworthy,or even that the family feud leads either of them to doubts about the other (as distinguished fromawarenessofthepracticaldifficulties).Itisasiftheonlyforceworkingagainsttheirtrustatthispointisthe feeling that their love is too good to be true. Romeo suggests this as he momentarily, in Juliet’sabsence,takesovertheverbalcaution:

Iamafeard,Beinginnight,allthisisbutadream,Tooflattering-sweettobesubstantial.(139-41)

By this time Juliet has given up her hesitation; her avowal evokes the self-renewing power of theirmutualitybutatthesametimegroundsitinherownautonomy:

Mybountyisasboundlessasthesea,Myloveasdeep;themoreIgivetothee,ThemoreIhave,forbothareinfinite.(133-35)

And as she has been more concerned with the external world in pointing out dangers, she takes theinitiativeinturningtheirlovefromsharedfantasyandpassiontosocialinstitution:“Ifthatthybentoflovebehonorable,/Thypurposemarriage,sendmewordtomorrow”(143-44).

As themovementof their scenescombinesmutuality andmalepersuasion, thewords theyuseabouttheir love can imply bothmutuality and patriarchy. “It is my lady” (10), says Romeo of Juliet at thebeginningofthebalconyscene,andneartheendshepromisesthatif theymarry“allmyfortunesat thyfoot I’ll lay / And follow thee my lord throughout the world” (147-48). This could reflect eitherreciprocityofserviceoraconventionalshiftfromfemalepowerincourtshiptomalepowerinmarriage.Similarly, when Juliet anticipates her secret wedding night with Romeo, the imagery of female

subordinationisbalancedbyimageryofsharing.Shespeaksoflosinghervirginityaslosingagame,butthenitbecomesavictory,andhervirginityparalleltoRomeo’s,asshepraystoNight,“learnmehowtoloseawinningmatch, /Played for apairof stainlessmaidenhoods” (3.2.12-13).Hereandelsewhere,financialimageryturnsJulietintopropertymoredirectlythanitdoesRomeo:whenshespeaksofherselfaspossessing,theobjectislessRomeothanlove.

O,Ihaveboughtthemansionofalove,

Butnotpossessedit;andthoughIamsold,Notyetenjoyed.(26-28)

Similarly, Romeo calls her “merchandise” forwhich hewould adventure “as far /As that vast shorewashedwith the farthest sea” (2.2.82-83),while Juliet says “my true love isgrown to suchexcess / Icannotsumupsumofhalfmywealth”(2.6.33-34).

RomeoandJulietuse the imageofwomanasproperty inaway that transcends its source in femalesocial subordination; both of themare far from the financial interest thatLadyCapulet suggests in herpraiseofParisandtheNurseinherobservationthatJuliet’shusband“shallhavethechinks”(1.5.119).Nevertheless,theasymmetryintheiruseoffinancialimagerycohereswiththeasymmetricaldemandsthatthemalecodeofviolencewillmakeonRomeoandthefemalecodeofdocilityonJuliet.Their use of other images is more symmetrical. Both lovers speak in words at once sensuously

descriptiveofbeautyandcelestiallyidealizing.Juliet,saysRomeo,

hangsuponthecheekofnightAsarichjewelinanEthiop’sear....Soshowsasnowydovetroopingwithcrows.

(47-48,50)

Romeo, according to Juliet, “will lie upon thewings of night /Whiter than new snowupon a raven’sback”(3.2.18-19).RomeohasimaginedJulietasthesunandhereyesasstars.JulietovergoesRomeo’spraiseinsayingthat,transformedintostars,

hewillmakethefaceofheavensofineThatalltheworldwillbeinlovewithnightAndpaynoworshiptothegarishsun.(23-25)

Unlike some of Shakespeare’smore solipsistic early lovers, such as Berowne and Proteus, Romeounderstandsthevalueofreciprocityinlove.Hewantsitsritual—“Th’exchangeofthylove’sfaithfulvowformine”(2.2.127)—andexplainstoFriarLaurence,“HerIlovenow/Dothgraceforgraceandloveforloveallow”(2.3.85-86);hespeaksof“theimaginedhappinessthatboth/Receiveineitherbythisdearencounter”(2.6.28-29).AllthisisfarfromtheidentificationofsexandviolencethattheimageryoftheservantsandMercutiosuggestsismoreusualinVerona.WhydoRomeoandJulietkeeptheirlovesecretnotonlyfromtheirparentsbutalsofromtheirpeers?

RomeonevertellsBenvolioorMercutioofhisloveforJuliet,thoughneitheroneissocommittedtotheMontaguesthattheywouldnecessarilybehostile.(BenvoliohadnoobjectiontoRosalineasaCapulet;Mercutio belongs to neither house.) This secrecy helps makeMercutio’s fight with Tybalt inevitable.Romeo’sexclusionofMercutiofromhisconfidencesuggeststhathisloveofJulietisnotonlyachallengeto the feud but also a challenge to associations of masculinity and sexuality with violence. How canRomeotalkofJuliettosomeonewhoseadviceis“Ifloveberoughwithyou,beroughwithlove,/Prickloveforpricking,andyoubeatlovedown”(1.4.27-28)?ItisinpartbecauseofthedifferencebetweentheirexperienceofloveandVerona’sexpecteddistortion

of it that Romeo and Juliet try to keep their relationship private. Yet this secrecy is avoidance of aproblemthattheycannotultimatelyescape.WhenRomeotriestoactaccordingtohissecretloveofJulietinsteadofaccordingtothefeud,TybaltandMercutioinsistonfighting.AndwhenRomeo’sintervention—to stop the fight—results in Mercutio’s death, it is clear that Verona’s definition of masculinity byviolence is partly Romeo’s definition as well. “O sweet Juliet,” he says, “Thy beauty hath mademe

effeminate”(3.1.115-16),ashepreparesforthefighttothedeaththatcauseshisbanishment.Just before their crucial fight, Tybalt and Mercutio, speaking of Romeo, quibble on the point that

“man,” a word so important as an ideal, has from the opening scene the less honorific meaning of“manservant.”

Tybalt.Well,peacebewithyou,sir.Herecomesmyman.

Mercutio.ButI’llbehanged,sir,ifhewearyourlivery.

(57-58)

Thispunisananalogueoftheironythatispreciselyinhis“manly”vengeanceforMercutio’sdeaththatRomeomostdecisivelylosescontrolofhisownfateandbecomes,ashesays,“fortune’sfool”(138).Inasense, asMercutio’s elaboration of his pun suggestswithout his awareness, a commitment to provingmanhoodbyviolencemakesoneeasilymanipulatedbywhoeveroffersachallenge.“Marry,gobeforetofield,he’llbeyourfollower!/Yourworshipinthatsensemaycallhimman”(59-60).Inthelargersense,thecodeofviolencethatpromisestomakeRomeoamanactuallymakeshimitsman—itspawn.

If Romeo sharesMercutio’s belief in themanhood of violence, he also shares the Friar’swish forreconciliation. But the Friar has his own version of gender polarization that also contributes to thedisaster.Herepeatedlyuses“womanish”asasynonymfor“weak”whenspeakingtobothJuliet(4.1.119)andRomeo(3.3.110),and,morecruciallyfortheplot,encouragesJuliettopretendobedienceanddeaththroughhispotionratherthanhelpingherescapetoRomeo(thoughshehasexpressedwillingnesstoleap“Fromoffthebattlementsofanytower,/Orwalkinthievishways”—4.1.78-79).Hisimageofmanhood(desirable as an ideal for both sexes) is emotional control: he chidesRomeo for his fury and grief atbanishmentbycallinghim“Unseemlywoman ina seemingman! /And ill-beseemingbeast in seemingboth!”(3.3.112-13).TheFriardistrustspassionatelove,and,likemuchoftheconventionalimageryoftheplay, identifiespassionate lovewithviolence: “Theseviolentdelightshaveviolent ends” (2.6.9). It isconsistent that he shouldnot encourage Juliet to elopement but rather hopes to stage their reunion in acontextoffamilyreconciliation.Juliet’sconfidante,theNurse,hasamorepositiveattitudetowardsexuality,butshetoounderestimates

thelovers’intensecommitmenttoeachother.LiketheFriar,too,shekeepsthelovesecretandencouragesJuliet toappeardocile toherparents,and finally tomarryParis, sinceRomeo, shesays,“isdead—or’twereasgoodhewere /As livinghereandyounouseofhim”(3.5.226-27).Thusshe iscounselingJuliettoaconventionalacceptanceofthehusbandchosenbyherparents.WhileJulietrefusesthisadvice,shefollowsthecounselofpretensethatshereceivesfromnurseandfriar.Thecontrolledstichomythiaofher dialoguewith Paris is a sad contrast to her spontaneous participation in Romeo’s sonnet. Juliet’sacceptanceoftheiradviceofpretenseandmockdeathisthepointanalogoustoRomeo’sduelwithTybaltwherefailuretotranscendthegenderpolarizationoftheirsocietymakesdisasterinevitable.Yetbeforetheirdeaths,RomeoandJulietcantranscendtheaggressionsandstereotypesoftheoutside

intheirsecretworld.Fulfillingthepromiseofthebalconyscene,theyrenameeachother“Love”intheiraubadescene,andtheirimagerysuggeststhecreationofaprivateworldwithatechniqueoddlysimilartothatofthecrucialsceneinTheTamingoftheShrew.TokeepRomeowithherlonger,Juliettransformsthelarkintothenightingaleandthentransformsthesuninto“somemeteorthatthesunexhales/Tobetothee thisnight a torchbearer” (3.5.13-14).Romeo, after initially contradictingher, showing the cautionthatwasprimarilyhers in thebalconyscene,goesalongwith thegameandacceptsher transformation,withawarenessofthelikelycost:

Letmebeta’en,letmebeputtodeath.Iamcontent,sothouwilthaveitso.I’llsayyongrayisnotthemorning’seye.’TisbutthepalereflexofCynthia’sbrow.

(17-20)

ThesceneinwhichKatejoinsinPetruchio’stransformationofthesunintothemoonandoldVincentiointoayounggirlisofcoursequitedifferentintone.KateandPetruchiohavebeenengagedinafarcicalcombat of wills; they are now returning to Kate’s father’s house, accompanied by Petruchio’s friendHortensio,ratherthaninaromanticsolitude,andtheyareundernosentenceofdeathorbanishment.Butbothscenesuseaverbaltransformationoftheworld—acreationofaprivateworldthroughwords—asametaphorforarelationship.SuchaprivateworldiscrucialtoShrew’smediationbetweenideologiesofpatriarchyandcompanionshipinmarriage,aswellastotheattemptthatRomeoandJulietmakelovetoeach other tenderly in aworld of violence. The secrecy of their love heightens at once its purity andintensityanditsvulnerability.Whentheprivateworldisestablisheditisalreadythreatened.AssoonasRomeoacceptsthepretense“it isnotday”(25),Julietresumeshercautionandreturnsthemtotherealworld,whereRomeomustflee.Nevertheless,theyhaveanabsolutetrustineachother;ontheirdeparturethere is noquestioningof eachother’s truths. . . . Presciently, they imaginedeath as theonlypossibleobstacletotheirreunion.Shakespearechangedhissourcetoreducetheageofthelovers,andhistoricalevidencesuggeststhathe

alsomade themmuch younger than the typical age ofmarriage for Elizabethan aristocrats (twenty forwomen, twenty-oneformen),whomarriedstillyounger thanotherclasses(medianage twenty-fourforwomen, twenty-sixformen).HoweveryoungthemembersofShakespeare’soriginalaudienceswere—probably a high proportion were in their late teens or early twenties—Romeo and Juliet were stillyounger than almost all of them. The extreme youth of the lovers emphasizes their innocence andinexperience.AnyonewhohaslivedlongerthanRomeoandJuliet—anyonewhohasgivenupafirstlove—hasmademorecompromisesthantheyhave.Itistheirextremepuritythatgivestheirloveitsspecialtragedy.Theplayexpressesboth theappealand thedangerofa love inwhich twopeoplebecome thewholeworld to each other. This littleworld precariously remedies the defects of the larger one—itscoldness, its hierarchies, its violence—but the lovers cannot negotiate recognition by the outerworldexceptbytheirdeathsbecauseoftheirresidualcommitmenttotheouterworldanditsgenderideals.

SYLVANBARNET

RomeoandJulietonStageandScreen

In“TotheMemorieofthedeceasedAuthor,MasterW.Shakespeare,”acommendatorypoempublishedinthefirstcollectionofShakespeare’sworks(1623),LeonardDiggeswrote,

NorshallIe’rebeleeue,orthinketheedead(Thoughmist)untillourbankroutStagebesped(Impossible)withsomenewstraint’out-doPassionsofJuliet,andherRomeo.

WhenDiggespublishedtheselines,RomeoandJuliethadbeenonthestageforsometwenty-fiveyears.The firstprinted textof theplay, issued in1597, claims (probably truly) that it “hathbeenoften (withgreat applause)plaidpubliquely”; the secondprinted text, issued in1599, says thatRomeoand Juliet“hathbeensundrytimespubliquelyacted.”Andyet,despiteallusionstotheplay,suchasDigges’spoem,we have no report of a specific production in England (there are some early references to Germanproductions)until1662,whenWilliamDavenantrevivedRomeoandJuliet.

Despitetheabsenceofearlyreferencestoproductions,weknowatleastalittleabouttheElizabethanstagingoftheplay.Becausetheearliesttext,aso-calledBadQuarto(seepage122),probablyisbasedonthememoriesofactorswhohadperformedintheplay,itgivesussomeideaofwhatRomeoandJulietwaslikewhenitwasputonthestage.Forinstance,certainstagedirectionsinQ1surelyreportwhatthespectatorssaw.Hereareafewofthesedirections,keyedtothelineationofthepresenttext:

“EnterJulietsomewhatfast,andembracethRomeo”(2.6.15);“Heofferstostabhimselfe,andNursesnatchesthedaggeraway”(3.3.107);“Nurseofferstogoeinandturnesagain”(3.3.161);“Shegoethdownfromthewindow”(3.5.68);“ShefalsuponherbedwithintheCurtaines”(4.3.58);“Allatoncecryoutandwringtheirhands”(4.1.50);“Shestabsherselfeandfalles”(5.3.170).

Itispossible,too,thatsomeoftheomissionsintheBadQuarto(evidentwhenitiscomparedtotheGoodQuarto,whichwaspublishedtwoyearslater)mayreflectanElizabethancutproductionoftheplay.True,mostofthecutsinthe1597textmustbeduetolapsesofmemory,butsomemayfaithfullyrepresentanabridged performance. For instance, Benvolio’s account (1.1) of the first brawl—ten lines in a later,bettertext—consistsofonlytwolinesinthe1597version,perhapsbecausetwolineswerethoughttobeenoughinproduction.Similarly, theservantswhoopen1.5withtalkabutpreparingforthebanquetaredeleted—perhapsbecausetheactorspreparingthetextdidnotrecallthespeech,butpossiblybecausethematerialwasnotgiveninastageperformance.Inanycase,manylaterdirectorshavesimilarlycutthesespeeches.

OneotherpointshouldbemadeaboutRomeoandJulietontheElizabethanstage:femalepartswereplayed by boys, which mean that Juliet, who is said to be almost fourteen, was in fact played by a

performerof approximately that age.Elizabethanchildactorswerecarefully trained, and judging fromsurvivingcommentsaboutthem,theywereremarkablyskillfulperformers.Latercenturieshavebeenlesssuccessfulintheirchildactors,andattemptstouseadolescentsinthetitlerolesoftheplayhaveusuallybeen unimpressive. Even JohnGielgud,when he first playedRomeo at nineteen in 1924,was judgedinadequate.Between1642and1660theLondontheaterswereclosed,butwiththerestorationofCharlesIItothe

throne the theaters reopened. Of Davenant’s revival of Romeo and Juliet in 1662, the self-assuredtheater-enthusiastanddiaristSamuelPepyswrote,“TotheOpera,andtheresawRomeoandJuliet, thefirsttimeitwaseveracted,butitisaplayofitselftheworstthateverIheard,andtheworstactedthateverIsawthesepeopledo,andIamresolvedtogonomoretoseethefirsttimeofacting.”AsPepys’scommentsonotherproductionsofShakespeare’splaysshow,histastedidnotruntoElizabethandrama(except when it was heavily adapted to Restoration taste); his comments on the ineptitude of theperformersaremoresurprising,sinceThomasBetterton(aleadingactoroftheperiod)playedMercutio,andthemuch-acclaimedMarySaunderson,latertobeBetterton’swife,playedJuliet.A little later—the exact date is not known—JamesHoward transformed the tragedy ofRomeo and

Juliet into a tragicomedy, keeping the lovers alive at the end. One report says that versions werealternated, “tragical one day and tragicomical another.” Howard’s adaptation, however, as well asShakespeare’soriginal,wasdriven fromthestagebyanevenfreeradaptation,ThomasOtway’sCaiusMarius (1679).Inthiswork,set inRepublicanRome,RomeoischangedtoCaiusMariusandJuliet toLavinia.Otway restoredShakespeare’s tragic ending, but Juliet revives briefly beforeRomeo’s death,and inaneffort to increase thepathos the lovers exchangedying speeches.CaiusMarius, virtually anoriginalplay,wasstagedregularlyuntil1727,utterlydisplacingShakespeare’splayduringtheseyears.In1744RomeoandJuliet—somewhatcut,andstillwithsomeaddedpassagesfromOtway,andstill

with Juliet awakening before Romeo dies—first reappeared on the stage, in a version by TheophilusCibber,withCibberplayingRomeo,andhisdaughterJennyplayingJuliet.Thisversion,however,washaltedafteronlynineperformancesbecauseitwasgiveninanunlicensedtheater.In1748DavidGarrick,managerofthetheaterinDruryLane,putonhisownadaptationofRomeoandJuliet,andthisadaptationheldthestagefortherestoftheeighteenthcentury.Duringthisperiod,infact,itwasthemostfrequentlyperformed Shakespeare play on the stage. Its life continued well into the first half of the nineteenthcentury, for John Philip Kemble’s modified version (1803) of Garrick’s version was performed until1845, thus in effect giving Garrick’sRomeo a run of ninety-seven years. Although Garrick’s versionmarked a significant step in the direction of restoring Shakespeare’s texts to the stage, by modernstandards Garrick treated the text very badly. Although at first he restored Romeo’s early love forRosaline,when he published his text in 1753 he bowed to critical opinion and, followingOtway andCibber,omittedallreferencetoRomeo’sloveforRosaline.Moreover,againtakingacuefromOtway,herestoredJuliet tolifebeforeRomeodiedsothat theloverscouldexchangewordsGarrickinventedforthem.Further,hecutalmosthalfoftheplay,includingthebawdry,andhetouchedupagoodmanylines—forinstancesimplifyingsomelinesforhishearers.Indeferencetotheeighteenth-centuryopinionthatpunsdonotbelongintragedy,mostofthepunsarecut—evenMercutio’slinethatheis“agraveman.”After1750GarrickaddedtothebeginningofthefifthactafuneraldirgeforJuliet.Andofcoursethereisaddeddialogue (about sixty-five lines) between the lovers at the end of the play.Here is a sample from theaddition:

Romeo.Ithoughttheedead!distractedatthesight(Fatalspeed)drankpoison,kiss’dthycoldlipsAndfoundwithin

thyarmsapreciousgrave—Butinthatmoment—O—

Juliet.AnddidIwakeforthis!

Romeo.Mypowersareblasted,TwixtdeathandloveI’mtorn—Iamdistracted!Butdeath’sstrongest,andImustleavethee,Juliet!Ocruel,cursedfate!—insightofheav’n—

Juliet.Thourav’st—leanonmybreast—

Romeo.Fathershaveflintyhearts,notearscanmelt’emNaturepleadsinvain—childrenmustbewretched.

Juliet.Omybreakingheart—

Romeo.Sheismywife—ourheartsaretwinedtogether;Capuletforbear;Paris,looseyourhold—Pullnotourheartstringsthus—theycrack—theybreak—OJuliet!Juliet!

Juliet.Stay,stayforme,Romeo;amomentstay;Fatemarriesusindeath,andweareone.Nopow’rshallpartus.[FaintsonRomeo’sbody.]

Garrickwenton,afterJulietkillsherself,toreduceFriarLawrence’slongsummary(5.3.229-69)byhalf,and to reduce lines270-94(by thePrince,Balthasar,and theBoy) to three linesspokenby thePrince.Capulet’s and Montague’s speeches of reconciliation are retained, and the play ends with a speechGarrickcomposed(drawingonShakespeare)forthePrince:

Agloomypeacethismorningwithitbrings,LetRomeo’smanandlettheboyattendus.We’llhenceandfartherscanthesesaddisasters.Wellmayyoumourn,mylords,nowwisetoolate,Thesetragicissuesofyourmutualhate.Fromprivatefeudswhatdiremisfortunesflow;Whate’erthecause,thesureeffectiswoe.

ItiseasytolaughatGarrick’sverse,andtobecomeindignantwithhiscutsandrevisions,butactedbySprangerBarryandMrs.Cibber(Cibber’sestrangedsecondwife),thisversionwasthetalkoftheage.WhenBarry andMrs. Cibber abandonedGarrick andDrury Lane, andwent over to the rival theater,Covent Garden, they continued to perform something close to this version ofRomeo and Juliet. TheensuingWaroftheTheatersarousedbothinterestandirritation,forifitallowedtheaterbuffstocompareperformers (Garrick andMiss George Anne Bellamy now took the title roles at Drury Lane), it alsonarrowed the choice of plays that one could see. A theatergoer expressed what must have been awidespreadfeeling:

“Well,what’stonight?”saysangryNed,Asupfrombedherouses;“Romeoagain!”andshakeshishead;“Ah,poxonbothyourhouses.”

Buttherewasalsoagooddealofexcitedcommentaryabouttherelativemeritsoftheperformers.Perhaps

themostengagingjudgmentwasthatoftheactressHannahPritchard,whosaidthatifshewereplayingJuliettoGarrick’sRomeo,hiswordsweresohotandpassionateinthegardenscenethatshewouldhaveexpectedhimatanymomenttoclimbuptothewindow—butifshewereplayingtoBarry’sRomeo,hiswordsweresosweetandseductive thatshewouldhavegonedowntohim.Oneotherpointshouldbemade about the eighteenth-century productions of Romeo and Juliet: they were done in fashionablecontemporary dress, not in the Italian Renaissance costumes used in most nineteenth- and twentieth-centuryproductions.DetailsaboutJuliet’scostumearenotknown,butRomeoworeaknee-lengthcoat,kneebreeches,andawigwiththehairgatheredtogetherbehindandtiedwithaknotofribbon.

AlthoughGarrick’s text, in Kemble’s adaptation, held the stage during the first four decades of thenineteenthcentury—eventhegreatWilliamCharlesMacreadyin1838usedtheGarrickversion—in1845CharlotteCushman, anAmerican actress in London, returning to Shakespeare’s ending, abandoned theaddeddialogueofthedyingloversinthefifthact.CushmanplayedRomeo,andhersister,Susan,playedJuliet. Since Ellen Tree had playedRomeo as early as 1829, and PriscillaHorton had played him in1834, thenoveltywasnot thatawomanplayedRomeo,but thatShakespeare’s textwasrestored to thestage.OnthewholethereviewsofCushman’sproductionwerefavorable,andtheplayhadasubstantialrun—substantialenoughforSamuelPhelpsin1846touseShakespeare’stextinhisrevivaloftheplay.TosaythatShakespeare’stextdisplacedGarrick’sisnottosay,ofcourse,thatShakespeare’stextwas

faithfully followed down to the last word. Few productions added speeches, but almost all madesubstantialcuts.Take,forexample,HenryIrving’sproductionof1882,withIrvingasRomeoandEllenTerry as Juliet. Irving, in his usual manner, employed illusionistic sets, for example an elaboratemarketplace(fountain,donkeys,andall) for theopeningscene,agreathall for themaskedball,andanimpressivemarblebalcony for Juliet.He thereforehad todeleteor rearrange somescenes, so that thecumbersome setswould not have to be struck, set up again, struck again, and set up again.MoreoverIrving,inthetraditionoftheVictorianactor-managers,cutmuchinordertoemphasizetherolesofthestaractors.Thusthefinalsceneinthetomb,afterthedeathofthelovers,wascompletelycutexceptforthePrince’sfinalfourlines,endingtheplaywithatableauthatEllenTerrydescribedas“magnificent.”HenryJames,however,wrylycommentedthattheplaywasnot“acted”butwas“obstructed,interrupted.”Irving,by theway,wasforty-threewhenheplayedRomeo,andEllenTerrywas thirty-five—ages thatarenotespecially remarkablewhenone recalls thatGarrickplayedRomeountilhewas forty-four, andwithinliving memory Olivia de Havilland was thirty-five, and Katharine Cornell was thirty-six, when theyplayedJuliet.Under the influence of William Poel, who argued that Shakespeare’s plays are best staged in

comparatively simple conditions approximating those of Shakespeare’s own stage, and of Poel’smoreimaginativesuccessor,HarleyGranville-Barker,mostproductionsofShakespeareinthefirsthalfofthetwentieth centurywere relatively simple and fast-movingwhen comparedwith Irving’s, but somehowRomeoandJulietremainedanexceptionuntilfairlyrecently;reluctanttolosethechanceofdazzlingwithshowyspectacle,directorsofthetwentiethcenturycontinuedtheVictoriantraditionofusingsplendidsetsthatsupposedlyevokedtheItalianRenaissance.Whatmaywellbethemostsuccessfulproductionofthetwentiethcentury(1935),however,achieveditsgreatnessnotthroughspectaclebutthroughtheactingofPeggyAshcroft(Juliet),EdithEvans(thenurse),andJohnGielgudandLaurenceOlivier(alternatingasRomeo and as Mercutio). Gielgud himself, however, in an autobiography entitled Early Stages, hasexpressedreservationsabouthisownperformance:

IknowRomeoandJulietbyheart,andIhaveplayedRomeothreetimes,yetIcannotsaythatIhaveever

pleasedmyselfinitcompletely.IhavealwaysfeltIknewexactlyhowthepartshouldbeplayed,butIhaveneitherthelooks,thedash,northevirilitytomakearealsuccessofit,howeverwellImayspeaktheverseandfeeltheemo-tion.MyRomeohasalwaysbeen“careful,”andIlovethelanguage,andrevelinittooobviously.

Ifthestagingoftheplay,atleastuntilthe1960s,continuedtosmackoftheVictorianperiod,sodidthetext,whichusuallywaspresentedwithmuchofthebawdrydeleted.Butthisfaulthasbeenamendedinour day. Thus, in Terry Hands’s 1973 production at Stratford, Mercutio (who was portrayed as ahomosexual)obscenelydalliedwithalife-sizefemaledollduringhisconjurationofRomeo:

IconjuretheebyRosaline’sbrighteyes,Byherhighforeheadandherscarletlip,Byherfinefoot,straightleg,andquiveringthigh,Andthedemesnesthatthereadjacentlie....

(2.1.17-20)

Thisproductionwasnotable, too, for theset (aseveremetallicaffair), thecostumes (somber),and themannerinwhichRomeokilledTybalt(athrustinthegroinwithashortdagger).

ProbablyHands’schoiceofasetwasdictatedbyourage’stendencytoavoidprettinessandtoseetheplaysthroughtheeyesofSamuelBeckett,buthemayalsohavefeltthattheonekindofsetthatsurelymustbeavoided,ifunfavorablecomparisonsweretobeavoided,istheshowyRenaissanceset(verymuchinHenryIrving’stradition)thatFrancoZeffirelliusedinhisproductionfortheOldVicin1960,withJohnStride (twenty-fouryearsold)andJudiDench (twenty-six) in the titleparts.One reviewer thought thatStrideseemed tobeachubbyMarlonBrando,andDench“ayoungerKimStanley.” Inan interview inShakespeareSurvey27DenchforthrightlysaysthatinthisheavilycutproductionZeffirelliofferedyouthinplaceofpoetry.Chiefly,however,heofferedspectacle,attheexpenseofactorsandofthetext.NolaterdirectorcouldhopetocompetewithZeffirelliinthisdepartment;orifadirectorhadanysuchhopes,theymusthavebeendashedbyZeffirelli’sfilmversion—tobediscussedinamoment—madein1968,withitsspectacularRenaissanceinteriors.In1968,theWashington,D.C.,SummerShakespeareFestivalstagedRomeoandJulietattheoutdoor

SylvanTheatre,ontheslopeoftheWashingtonMonumentgrounds.Theplay(perhapstakingacuefromthepopularityofWest SideStory byLeonardBernstein,ArthurLaurents, and Stephen Sondheim)wasconvertedintoaplayaboutrace:Juliet’sfamilywasblack.Romeo’swhite;thesettingwasNewVerona,inLouisianaintheearlynineteenthcentury,andtheballscenewaspartoftheMardiGras.Adecadelater,in 1978, LosAngeles saw a racial version, again with the Capulets black (though Juliet’s nurse waswhite)andtheMontagueswhite.Theproductionseemstohavebeenwellreceived,eventhoughitranforfourhours. (In thePrologue to theplay, theChorusspeaksof“the twohours’ trafficofourstage,”andthoughmostproductionsofRomeoandJulietruntomorethantwohours,fourhoursseemsexcessivelylongforwhatisoneofShakespeare’sshorterplays.)AnothermodernproductioninWashington—thisoneattheFolgerShakespeareTheatrein1986—turnedRomeoandJulietintoaplayaboutteenagesuicide.Atleast theprogramnotesaysthat theplay“addressesa tragiccrisisfacingournation—teensuicide,”andtheproductionwasco-sponsoredbytheFolgerandtheYouthSuicideNationalCenter.One other revival must be mentioned before we look at screen and television versions, Michael

Bogdanov’sproductionatStratford-upon-Avon,in1986,withNiamhCusackasJulietandSeanBeanas

Romeo.EschewingZeffirelli’s untoppableRenaissance Italy, theplaywas set inVerona at thepresenttime:thePrincewasaMafiadon;RomeoandJulietfirstmetattheCapulets’poolsideparty;Tybalt(inblackleather)droveanAlfaRomeo;Mercutio,Tybalt,andJulietdiedtorockmusic;Romeoinjectedthepoison into his arm (he got a packet, not a potion), and Juliet killed herselfwith a switchbladeknife.InevitablysomeofShakespeare’slineswereatoddswiththetext.Forinstance,Juliet,awakeningtofindthedeadRomeo,says,

Ochurl!Drunkall,andleftnofriendlydropTohelpmeafter?Iwillkissthylips.HaplysomepoisonyetdothhangonthemTomakemediewitharestorative.(5.3.163-66)

TheplayendedwiththePrinceatapressconference,standinginfrontof twogoldstatues,readingthefirst eight lines of the Chorus’s opening sonnet, with the tenses changed from present to past.Photographersthensnappedpicturesofthebereavedparentsshakinghands(LadyMontaguedidnotdie,asstatedinthetextat5.3.210),andfinallyBenvolio,alone,movedoffstage.Theimplicationwasthatthereconciliationwasamediaevent,andthatthetragiclossproducednothing.

Predictably,mostacademicviewerswereunhappy,buttheproductionattractedconsiderablefavorablecomment in the press, which saw in it a play that spoke to the materialism and brutality of the latetwentiethcentury.ThatmaynotbehowmostpeoplethinkofRomeoandJuliet,butinfacttheplaydoesinclude materialism and brutality; Bogdanov, making Shakespeare our contemporary, touched onsomethingthatinfactisthere.Butthereisnosuchthingasafreelunch;hisemphasisonthisaspecthadtobepaidfor,andsomepeoplethoughtthecosttoohigh.FilmversionsofRomeoandJuliethavebeenaroundfora long time.Apart fromat least twosilent

filmsofRomeoandJuliet,thereweretwosoundfilms,a1936versionwithLeslieHoward(thenforty-two)andNormaShearer(thirty-one)inthetitleparts,anda1954version,withLaurenceHarvey(twenty-seven)andSusanShentall(young,butherexactageisawell-keptsecret).Bothofthesefilmscutthetextfairlyheavily; the1954versionevenomitted such famouspassages asRomeo’s line about the light in“yonderorchard,”andJuliet’sspeech,“Gallopapace,youfiery-footedsteeds.”Neither of these two film versions, however, had anything like the popular success of Franco

Zeffirelli’sfilmof1968.Althoughhehadmadeextensivecutsinhisstageversionof1960,hemadeevenmoreextensivecutsinthefilm.Probablyhalfofthetexthasbeendroppedinorderto“openup”thefilm,thatis,toallowtimeforthecameratoconveyasenseofwhatissupposedtobezestyRenaissancelife,forinstancebyrovingthroughcrowdedstreets.Therearelotsoftorches,lotsofeating,lotsofswishingofcostumes,lotsofattentiontocodpieces,andlotsofquickcuttingtoheightentheactivity.Manybitsofbusinessareadded.Forinstance,inthemiddleofFriarJohn’sfirstspeechtheAngelussounds,allowingtheFriartogenuflect.InthebalconysceneRomeoclimbsatreeandsupportshimselfonaledgesothathemay touchJuliet’s fingertips (surelypartof thepointofShakespeare’s scene is that the two loversareseparated),andlaterheleapsfromthebalconyandrunsthroughaforestglade.Notalloftheadditions,however,aresobusy;inthefifthact,muchofthetextiscutinordertoallowforatableaueffectasthebodiesarelaidtorestinanelaboratefuneral.ThepopularsuccessofZefirelli’sfilmwasduetovisualmattersandtoNinoRota’smusic(thesound

trackbecameimmenselypopularwithyoungpeople)ratherthantoanythinginthetext.Especiallypopularwas Zeffirelli’s choice of his two leading performers, Leonard Whiting (age seventeen) and OliviaHussey(agesixteen),bothofwhombroughtanappropriate(andrare)youthandbeautytotheroles.NorwereWhitingandHusseyutterlyinexperiencedperformers;WhitinghadplayedintheLondoncompanyof

Oliver!whenhewastwelve,andHusseyhadplayedfortwoyearsinLondoninThePrimeofMissJeanBrodie.Nevertheless,despitethefactthatafilm,unlikeatheaterproduction,cankeepshootingasceneuntiltheperformersgetitright,anddespitetheirengaginglooks,WhitingandHusseywerenotadequatetothelanguageandtheemotionsoftheplay.JohnSimoncruellybutaptlycharacterizedZeffirelli’sfilmas“aRomeoandJulietforteenyboppersandpederasts.”BazLuhrmann’sfilmentitledWilliamShakespeare’sRomeoandJuliet,withClaireDanesasJulietand

LeonardoDiCaprioasRomeo,wasreleasedin1996.IfTerryHands’s1986stageproduction,withitsblackleatheranditsswitchbladesanditsredsportscar(anAlfaRomeo,ofcourse)soughttomakeusseeRomeoandJulietinafreshway,sotoodidLuhrmann’sfilm.ShotinMexico,itsVeronaBeachevokedcontemporaryMiamiBeach.MostofthecharactersareLatinoorblackexceptforRomeoandJuliet,whoarewhite.TheprologueisspokenbyaTVnewscaster,thereisashootoutatagasstation,CaptainPrincearrives in apolicehelicopter,Mercutio is adragqueen,Romeo shootspoolwithBenvolio, andFriarLawrencesendshismessagebyFederalExpress.Obviouslyinsuchaversionswordsandrapierscannotbeused;handgunsareused,buttheyarenamed“Swords”and“Rapiers”sothetextisnotalteredinthisrespect, though elsewhere there are cuts, especially in the parts of Paris, the Nurse, Capulet, andMontague.Itallsoundsodd,maybeevendreadful,butthetwoprincipalactorsareeffective.Whatmostviewersprobablyfindobjectionableisnotthemodernizationbutthedirector’swillingnesstodrownoutShakespeare’swordswithloudmusic.TheBBCtelevisionversion(1978)istolerable,butonlythat.Itschiefvirtueistheinclusionofalmost

theentiretext(thechiefcutisinFriarLawrence’slongspeechin5.3,beginningatline229).Thesetisclearlyastudioset,theactingundistinguishedexceptforMichaelHordern’sCapulet.Itisperhapssadtoend by saying that this dutiful, traditional production makes viewers think, despite their high-mindeddisapprovalofgimmicks,thatmaybethereissomethingtothevigorousreinterpretationsofBogdanovandLurhmann.

Bibliographic Note: For comments on productions, see below, Suggested References, Section 4(Shakespeare on Stage and Screen, p. 215). For a short book devoted entirely to the play, see Jill L.Levenson’sRomeoandJuliet(1987),inaseriescalled“ShakespeareinPerformance.”

SuggestedReferences

Thenumberofpossible references isvastandgrowsalarmingly. (TheShakespeareQuarterly devotesoneissueeachyeartoalistofthepreviousyear’swork,andShakespeareSurvey—anannualpublication—includes a substantial review of biographical, critical, and textual studies, as well as a survey ofperformances.)ThevastbibliographyisbestapproachedthroughJamesHarner,TheWorldShakespeareBibliographyonCD-Rom:1900-Present.Thefirstrelease,in1996,includedmorethan12,000annotateditems from 1990-93, plus references to several thousand book reviews, productions, films, and audiorecordings.Theplanistoupdatethepublicationannually,movingforwardoneyearandbackwardthreeyears. Thus, the second issue (1997), with 24,700 entries, and another 35,000 or so references toreviews,newspaperpieces,andsoon,covered1987-94.

Though no works are indispensable, those listed below have been found especially helpful. Thearrangementisasfollows:

1.Shakespeare’sTimes2.Shakespeare’sLife3.Shakespeare’sTheater4.ShakespeareonStageandScreen5.MiscellaneousReferenceWorks6.Shakespeare’sPlays:GeneralStudies7.TheComedies8.TheRomances9.TheTragedies10.TheHistories11.RomeoandJuliet

Thetitlesinthefirstfivesectionsareaccompaniedbybriefexplanatoryannotations.

1.Shakespeare’sTimes

Andrews,JohnF.,ed.WilliamShakespeare:HisWorld,HisWork,HisInfluence,3vols.(1985).Sixtyarticles,dealingnotonlywithsuchsubjectsas“TheState,”“TheChurch,”“Law,”“Science,Magic,andFolklore,”butalsowiththeplaysandpoemsthemselvesandShakespeare’sinfluence(e.g.,translations,films,reputation)

Byrne,MurielSt.Clare.ElizabethanLife inTownandCountry (8thed.,1970).Chaptersonmanners,beliefs,education,etc.,withillustrations.

Dollimore, John, andAlanSinfield, eds.PoliticalShakespeare:NewEssays inCulturalMaterialism(1985).Essaysonsuch topicsas thesubordinationofwomenandcolonialism,presented inconnectionwithsomeofShakespeare’splays.

Greenblatt,Stephen.Representing theEnglishRenaissance (1988).NewHistoricistessays,especiallyonconnectionsbetweenpoliticalandaestheticmatters,statecraftandstagecraft.

Joseph,B.L.Shakespeare’sEden:theCommonwealthofEngland1558-1629(1971).Anaccountofthe

social,political,economic,andculturallifeofEngland.

Kernan,Alvin.Shakespeare,theKing’sPlaywright:TheaterintheStuartCourt1603-1613(1995).Thesocial setting and the politics of the court of James I, in relation toHamlet,Measure for Measure,Macbeth,KingLear,AntonyandCleopatra,Coriolanus,andTheTempest.

Montrose,Louis.ThePurpose ofPlaying: Shakespeare and theCulturalPolitics of theElizabethanTheatre(1996).Apoststructuralistview,discussingtheprofessionaltheater“withintheideologicalandmaterial frameworks of Elizabethan culture and society,” with an extended analysis ofA MidsummerNight’sDream.

Mullaney,Steven.ThePlaceof theStage:License,Play,andPower inRenaissanceEngland (1988).NewHistoricistanalysis,arguingthatpopulardramabecameaculturalinstitution“onlyby...takingupaplaceonthemarginsofsociety.”

Schoenbaum, S. Shakespeare: The Globe and the World (1979). A readable, abundantly illustratedintroductorybookontheworldoftheElizabethans.

Shakespeare’s England, 2 vols. (1916). A large collection of scholarly essays on a wide variety oftopics, e.g., astrology, costume, gardening, horsemanship, with special attention to Shakespeare’sreferencestothesetopics.

2.Shakespeare’sLife

Andrews,JohnF.,ed.WilliamShakespeare:HisWorld,HisWork,HisInfluence,3vols.(1985).Seethedescriptionabove.

Bentley,GeraldE.Shakespeare:ABiographicalHandbook (1961).ThefactsaboutShakespeare,withvirtuallynoconjectureintermingled.

Chambers, E. K.William Shakespeare: A Study of Facts and Problems, 2 vols. (1930). The fullestcollectionofdata.

Fraser, Russell. Young Shakespeare (1988). A highly readable account that simultaneously considersShakespeare’slifeandShakespeare’sart.

———.Shakespeare:TheLaterYears(1992).Schoenbaum,S.Shakespeare’sLives(1970).Areviewoftheevidenceandanexaminationofmanybiographies,includingthoseofBaconiansandotherheretics.

———. William Shakespeare: A Compact Documentary Life (1977). An abbreviated version, in asmallerformat,ofthenexttitle.Thecompactversionreproducessomefiftydocumentsinreducedform.AreadablepresentationofallthatthedocumentstellusaboutShakespeare.

———. William Shakespeare: A Documentary Life (1975). A large-format book setting forth thebiography with facsimiles of more than two hundred documents, and with transcriptions andcommentaries.

3.Shakespeare’sTheater

Astington,JohnH.,ed.TheDevelopmentofShakespeare’sTheater(1992).Eightspecializedessayson

theatricalcompanies,playingspaces,andperformance.

Beckerman,Bernard.ShakespeareattheGlobe,1599-1609(1962).OntheplayhouseandonElizabethandramaturgy,acting,andstaging.

Bentley, Gerald E. The Profession of Dramatist in Shakespeare’s Time (1971). An account of thedramatist’sstatusintheElizabethanperiod.

———.TheProfessionofPlayerinShakespeare’sTime,1590-1642(1984).Anaccountofthestatusofmembers of London companies (sharers, hired men, apprentices, managers) and a discussion ofconditionswhentheytoured.

Berry,Herbert. Shakespeare’s Playhouses (1987). Usefully emphasizes how little we know about theconstructionofElizabethantheaters.

Brown,JohnRussell.Shakespeare’sPlaysinPerformance(1966).Aspeculativeandpracticalanalysisrelevanttoalloftheplays,butwithemphasisonTheMerchantofVenice,RichardII,Hamlet,RomeoandJuliet,andTwelfthNight.

———.WilliamShakespeare:WritingforPerformance(1996).Adiscussionaimedathelpingreaderstodeveloptheatricallyconscioushabitsofreading.

Chambers,E.K.TheElizabethanStage,4vols.(1945).Amajorreferenceworkontheaters,theatricalcompanies,andstagingatcourt.

Cook, Ann Jennalie. The Privileged Playgoers of Shakespeare’s London, 1576-1642 (1981). SeesShakespeare’s audience as wealthier, moremiddle-class, andmore intellectual than Harbage (below)does.

Dessen,AlanC.ElizabethanDrama and the Viewer’s Eye (1977).On how certain scenesmay havelookedtospectatorsinanElizabethantheater.

Gurr,Andrew.PlaygoinginShakespeare’sLondon(1987).SomethingofamiddlegroundbetweenCook(above)andHarbage(below).

———.TheShakespeareanStage,1579-1642(2nded.,1980).Ontheactingcompanies,theactors,theplayhouses,thestages,andtheaudiences.

Harbage,Alfred.Shakespeare’sAudience(1941).Astudyofthesizeandnatureofthetheatricalpublic,emphasizingtherepresentativenessofitsworkingclassandmiddle-classaudience.

Hodges,C.Walter.TheGlobeRestored(1968).Aconjecturalrestoration,withluciddrawings.

Hosley,Richard.“ThePlayhouses,”inTheRevelsHistoryofDramainEnglish,vol.3,generaleditorsClifford Leech and T.W. Craik (1975). An essay of a hundred pages on the physical aspects of theplayhouses.

Howard, Jane E. “Crossdressing, the Theatre, and Gender Struggle in Early Modern England,”ShakespeareQuarterly 39 (1988): 418-40. Judicious comments on the effects of boys playing femaleroles.

Orrell, John.TheHuman Stage: English Theatre Design, 1567-1640 (1988). Argues that the public,private,andcourtplayhousesarelessindebtedtopopularstructures(e.g.,innyardsandbear-baitingpits)thantobanquetinghallsandtoRenaissanceconceptionsofRomanamphitheaters.

Slater,AnnPasternak.ShakespearetheDirector (1982).Ananalysisof theatricaleffects (e.g.,kissing,kneeling)instagedirectionsanddialogue.

Styan, J. L. Shakespeare’s Stagecraft (1967). An introduction to Shakespeare’s visual and auralstagecraft,withchaptersonsuchtopicsasactingconventions,stagegroupings,andspeech.

Thompson,Peter.Shakespeare’sProfessionalCareer (1992).Anexaminationofpatronage and relatedtheatricalconditions.

———.Shakespeare’sTheatre(1983).AdiscussionofhowplayswerestagedinShakespeare’stime.

4.ShakespeareonStageandScreen

Bate, Jonathan, and Russell Jackson, eds. Shakespeare: An Illustrated Stage History (1996). HighlyreadableessaysonstageproductionsfromtheRenaissancetothepresent.

Berry,Ralph.ChangingStylesinShakespeare(1981).Discussesproductionsofsixplays(Coriolanus,Hamlet,HenryV,MeasureforMeasure,TheTempest,andTwelfthNight)ontheEnglishstage,chiefly1950-1980.

———. On Directing Shakespeare: Interviews with Contemporary Directors (1989). An enlargededitionofabookfirstpublishedin1977,thisversionincludestheseveninterviewsfromtheearly1970sandaddsfiveinterviewsconductedin1988.

Brockbank, Philip, ed. Players of Shakespeare: Essays in Shakespearean Performance (1985).Commentsbytwelveactors,reportingtheirexperienceswithroles.SeealsotheentryforRussellJackson(below).

Bulman,J.C.,andH.R.Coursen,eds.ShakespeareonTelevision(1988).Ananthologyofgeneralandtheoretical essays, essays on individual productions, and shorter reviews, with a bibliography and avideographylistingcassettesthatmayberented.

Coursen,H.P.WatchingShakespeareonTelevision(1993).AnalysesnotonlyofTVversionsbutalsooffilmsandvideotapesofstagepresentationsthatareshownontelevision.

Davies,Anthony,andStanleyWells,eds.ShakespeareandtheMovingImage:ThePlaysonFilmandTelevision(1994).Generalessays(e.g.,onthecomedies)aswellasessaysdevotedentirelytoHamlet,KingLear,andMacbeth.

Dawson,AnthonyB.Watching Shakespeare:APlaygoer’sGuide (1988).About half of the plays arediscussed,chieflyintermsofdecisionsthatactorsanddirectorsmakeinputtingtheworksontothestage.

Dessen, Alan. Elizabethan Stage Conventions and Modern Interpretations (1984). On interpretingconventionssuchastherepresentationoflightanddarknessandstageviolence(duels,battles).

Donaldson, Peter. Shakespearean Films/Shakespearean Directors (1990). Postmodernist analyses,drawingonFreudianism,Feminism,Deconstruction,andQueerTheory.

Jackson, Russell, and Robert Smallwood, eds. Players of Shakespeare 2: Further Essays inShakespeareanPerformancebyPlayerswiththeRoyalShakespeareCompany(1988).Fourteenactorsdiscusstheirrolesinproductionsbetween1982and1987.

———.PlayersofShakespeare3:FurtherEssaysinShakespeareanPerformancebyPlayerswiththeRoyalShakespeareCompany(1993).Commentsbythirteenperformers.

Jorgens, Jack.ShakespeareonFilm (1977). Fairly detailed studies of eighteen films, preceded by anintroductorychapteraddressingsuchissuesasmusic,andwhetherto“open”theplaybyincludingscenesoflandscape.

Kennedy,Dennis.LookingatShakespeare:AVisualHistoryofTwentieth-CenturyPerformance(1993).Luciddescriptions(with170photographs)ofEuropean,British,andAmericanperformances.

Leiter, SamuelL.ShakespeareAround theGlobe:AGuide toNotablePostwarRevivals (1986). Foreach play there are about two pages of introductory comments, then discussions (about five hundredwordsperproduction)oftenorsoproductions,andfinallybibliographicreferences.

McMurty, Jo.ShakespeareFilms in theClassroom (1994).Useful evaluations of the chief filmsmostlikelytobeshowninundergraduatecourses.

Rothwell, Kenneth, and Annabelle Henkin Melzer. Shakespeare on Screen: An InternationalFilmographyandVideography(1990).Areferenceguidetoseveralhundredfilmsandvideosproducedbetween1899and1989,includingspinoffssuchasmusicalsanddanceversions.

Sprague, Arthur Colby. Shakespeare and the Actors (1944). Detailed discussions of stage business(gestures,etc.)overtheyears.

Willis,Susan.TheBBCShakespearePlays:MakingtheTelevisedCanon(1991).Ahistoryoftheseries,withinterviewsandproductiondiariesforsomeplays.

5.MiscellaneousReferenceWorks

Abbott,E.A.AShakespeareanGrammar (newedition,1877).AnexaminationofdifferencesbetweenElizabethanandmoderngrammar.

Allen, Michael J. B., and Kenneth Muir, eds. Shakespeare’s Plays in Quarto (1981). One volumecontainingfacsimilesoftheplaysissuedinsmallformatbeforetheywerecollectedintheFirstFolioof1623.

Bevington,David.Shakespeare(1978).Ashortguidetohundredsofimportantwritingsonthesubject.

Blake,Norman.Shakespeare’sLanguage:AnIntroduction(1983).Onvocabulary,partsofspeech,andwordorder.

Bullough,Geoffrey.NarrativeandDramaticSourcesofShakespeare,8vols.(1957-75).AcollectionofmanyofthebooksShakespearedrewon,withjudiciouscomments.

Campbell,OscarJames,andEdwardG.Quinn,eds.TheReader’sEncyclopediaofShakespeare(1966).Old,butstillthemostusefulsinglereferenceworkonShakespeare.

Cercignani,Fausto.Shakespeare’sWorks andElizabethanPronunciation (1981). Considered the bestworkonthetopic,butremainscontroversial.

Dent, R. W. Shakespeare’s Proverbial Language: An Index (1981). An index of proverbs, with anintroductionconcerningaformShakespearefrequentlydrewon.

Greg,W.W.TheShakespeareFirstFolio(1955).Adetailedyetreadablehistoryofthefirstcollection(1623)ofShakespeare’splays.

Harner,James.TheWorldShakespeareBibliography.SeeheadnotetoSuggestedReferences.

Hosley,Richard.Shakespeare’sHolinshed(1968).ValuablepresentationofoneofShakespeare’smajorsources.

Kökeritz,Helge.Shakespeare’sNames (1959).Aguide topronouncingsome1,800namesappearing inShakespeare.

———.Shakespeare’sPronunciation(1953).Containsmuchinformationaboutpunsandrhymes,butseeCercignani(above).

Muir, Kenneth. The Sources of Shakespeare’s Plays (1978). An account of Shakespeare’s use of hisreading.Itcoversalltheplays,inchronologicalorder.

MiriamJoseph,Sister.Shakespeare’sUseoftheArtsofLanguage(1947).AstudyofShakespeare’suseofrhetoricaldevices,reprintedinpartasRhetoricinShakespeare’sTime(1962).

The Norton Facsimile: The First Folio of Shakespeare’s Plays (1968). A handsome and accuratefacsimileofthefirstcollection(1623)ofShakespeare’splays,withavaluableintroductionbyCharltonHinman.

Onions,C.T.AShakespeareGlossary,rev.andenlargedbyR.D.Eagleson(1986).Definitionsofwords(orsensesofwords)nowobsolete.

Partridge, Eric. Shakespeare’s Bawdy, rev. ed. (1955). Relatively brief dictionary of bawdy words;useful,butseeWilliams,below.

ShakespeareQuarterly.SeeheadnotetoSuggestedReferences.

ShakespeareSurvey.SeeheadnotetoSuggestedReferences.

Spevack,Marvin.TheHarvardConcordancetoShakespeare(1973).AnindextoShakespeare’swords.

Vickers,Brian.AppropriatingShakespeare:ContemporaryCriticalQuarrels(1993).Asurvey—chieflyhostile—ofrecentschoolsofcriticism.

Wells,Stanley,ed.Shakespeare:ABibliographicalGuide(newedition,1990).Nineteenchapters(somedevotedtosingleplays,othersdevotedtogroupsofrelatedplays)onrecentscholarshiponthelifeandalloftheworks.

Williams, Gordon. A Dictionary of Sexual Language and Imagery in Shakespearean and StuartLiterature,3vols.(1994).Extendeddiscussionsofwordsandpassages;muchfullerthanPartridge,citedabove.

6.Shakespeare’sPlays:GeneralStudies

Bamber,Linda.ComicWomen,TragicMen:AStudyofGenderandGenreinShakespeare(1982).

Barnet,Sylvan.AShortGuidetoShakespeare(1974).

Callaghan, Dympna, Lorraine Helms, and Jyotsna Singh. The Weyward Sisters: Shakespeare and

FeministPolitics(1994).

Clemen,WolfgangH.TheDevelopmentofShakespeare’sImagery(1951).

Cook,AnnJennalie.MakingaMatch:CourtshipinShakespeareandHisSociety(1991).

Dollimore, Jonathan, andAlan Sinfield.Political Shakespeare: NewEssays in CulturalMaterialism(1985).

Dusinberre,Juliet.ShakespeareandtheNatureofWomen(1975).

Granville-Barker, Harley. Prefaces to Shakespeare, 2 vols. (1946-47; volume 1 contains essays onHamlet,King Lear,Merchant of Venice, Antony and Cleopatra, andCymbeline; volume 2 containsessaysonOthello,Coriolanus,JuliusCaesar,RomeoandJuliet,Love’sLabor’sLost).

———.MorePrefaces toShakespeare (1974;essaysonTwelfthNight,AMidsummerNight’sDream,TheWinter’sTale,Macbeth).

Harbage,Alfred.WilliamShakespeare:AReader’sGuide(1963).

Howard,JeanE.Shakespeare’sArtofOrchestration:StageTechniqueandAudienceResponse(1984).

Jones,Emrys.ScenicForminShakespeare(1971).

Lenz,CarolynRuthSwift,GayleGreene, andCarolThomasNeely, eds.TheWoman’sPart:FeministCriticismofShakespeare(1980).

Novy,Marianne.Love’sArgument:GenderRelationsinShakespeare(1984).

Rose,Mark.ShakespeareanDesign(1972).

Scragg,Leah.DiscoveringShakespeare’sMeaning(1994).

———.Shakespeare’s“MouldyTales”:RecurrentPlotMotifsinShakespeareanDrama(1992).

Traub,Valerie.DesireandAnxiety:CirculationsofSexualityinShakespeareanDrama(1992).

Traversi,D.A.AnApproachtoShakespeare,2vols.(3rdrev.ed,1968-69).

Vickers,Brian.TheArtistryofShakespeare’sProse(1968).

Wells,Stanley.Shakespeare:ADramaticLife(1994).

Wright,GeorgeT.Shakespeare’sMetricalArt(1988).

7.TheComedies

Barber, C. L. Shakespeare’s Festive Comedy (1959; discusses Love’s Labor’s Lost, A MidsummerNight’sDream,TheMerchantofVenice,AsYouLikeIt,TwelfthNight).

Barton,Anne.TheNamesofComedy(1990).

Berry,Ralph.Shakespeare’sComedy:ExplorationsinForm(1972).

Bradbury,Malcolm,andDavidPalmer,eds.ShakespeareanComedy(1972).

Bryant,J.A.,Jr.ShakespeareandtheUsesofComedy(1986).

Carroll,William.TheMetamorphosesofShakespeareanComedy(1985).

Champion,LarryS.TheEvolutionofShakespeare’sComedy(1970).

Evans,Bertrand.Shakespeare’sComedies(1960).

Frye,Northrop.ShakespeareanComedyandRomance(1965).

Leggatt,Alexander.Shakespeare’sComedyofLove(1974).

Miola,RobertS.ShakespeareandClassicalComedy:TheInfluenceofPlautusandTerence(1994).

Nevo,Ruth.ComicTransformationsinShakespeare(1980).

Ornstein,Robert.Shakespeare’sComedies:FromRomanFarcetoRomanticMystery(1986).

Richman,David.Laughter,Pain,andWonder:Shakespeare’sComediesandtheAudienceintheTheater(1990).

Salingar,Leo.ShakespeareandtheTraditionsofComedy(1974).

Slights,CamilleWells.Shakespeare’sComicCommonwealths(1993).

Waller,Gary,ed.Shakespeare’sComedies(1991).

Westlund, Joseph. Shakespeare’s Reparative Comedies: A Psychoanalytic View of the Middle Plays(1984).

Williamson,Marilyn.ThePatriarchyofShakespeare’sComedies(1986).

8.TheRomances(Pericles,Cymbeline,TheWinter’sTale,TheTempest,TheTwoNobleKinsmen)

Adams,RobertM.Shakespeare:TheFourRomances(1989).

Felperin,Howard.ShakespeareanRomance(1972).

Frye, Northrop. A Natural Perspective: The Development of Shakespearean Comedy and Romance(1965).

Mowat,Barbara.TheDramaturgyofShakespeare’sRomances(1976).

Warren,Roger.StagingShakespeare’sLatePlays(1990).

Young,David.TheHeart’sForest:AStudyofShakespeare’sPastoralPlays(1972).

9.TheTragedies

Bradley,A.C.ShakespeareanTragedy(1904).

Brooke,Nicholas.Shakespeare’sEarlyTragedies(1968).

Champion,Larry.Shakespeare’sTragicPerspective(1976).

Drakakis,John,ed.ShakespeareanTragedy(1992).

Evans,Bertrand.Shakespeare’sTragicPractice(1979).

Everett,Barbara.YoungHamlet:EssaysonShakespeare’sTragedies(1989).

Foakes,R.A.HamletversusLear:CulturalPoliticsandShakespeare’sArt(1993).

Frye,Northrop.FoolsofTime:StudiesinShakespeareanTragedy(1967).

Harbage,Alfred,ed.Shakespeare:TheTragedies(1964).

Mack,Maynard.Everybody’sShakespeare:ReflectionsChieflyontheTragedies(1993).

McAlindon,T.Shakespeare’sTragicCosmos(1991).

Miola,RobertS.ShakespeareandClassicalTragedy:TheInfluenceofSeneca(1992).

———.Shakespeare’sRome(1983).

Nevo,Ruth.TragicForminShakespeare(1972).

Rackin,Phyllis.Shakespeare’sTragedies(1978).

Rose,Mark,ed.Shakespeare’sEarlyTragedies:ACollectionofCriticalEssays(1995).

Rosen,William.ShakespeareandtheCraftofTragedy(1960).

Snyder,Susan.TheComicMatrixofShakespeare’sTragedies(1979).

Wofford,Susanne.Shakespeare’sLateTragedies:ACollectionofCriticalEssays(1996).

Young,David.TheActiontotheWord:StructureandStyleinShakespeareanTragedy(1990).

———.Shakespeare’sMiddleTragedies:ACollectionofCriticalEssays(1993).

10.TheHistories

Blanpied,JohnW.TimeandtheArtistinShakespeare’sEnglishHistories(1983).

Campbell,LilyB.Shakespeare’s“Histories”:MirrorsofElizabethanPolicy(1947).

Champion,LarryS.PerspectiveinShakespeare’sEnglishHistories(1980).

Hodgdon,Barbara.TheEndCrownsAll:ClosureandContradictioninShakespeare’sHistory(1991).

Holderness,Graham.ShakespeareRecycled:TheMakingofHistoricalDrama(1992).

———,ed.Shakespeare’sHistoryPlays:“RichardII”to“HenryV”(1992).

Leggatt,Alexander.Shakespeare’sPoliticalDrama:TheHistoryPlaysandtheRomanPlays(1988).

Ornstein,Robert.AKingdomforaStage:TheAchievementofShakespeare’sHistoryPlays(1972).

Rackin,Phyllis.StagesofHistory:Shakespeare’sEnglishChronicles(1990).

Saccio,Peter.Shakespeare’sEnglishKings:History,Chronicle,andDrama(1977).

Tillyard, E. M. W. Shakespeare’s History Plays (1944). Velz, John W., ed. Shakespeare’s EnglishHistories:AQuestforFormandGenre(1996).

11.RomeoandJuliet

InadditiontothetitleslistedaboveinSection9,TheTragedies,seethefollowing:

Andrews, JohnF., ed.RomeoandJuliet:CriticalEssays (1993; contains essays byMarkVanDoren,DerekTraversi,M.M.Mahood,J.L.Calderwood,MarjorieGarber,CoppeliaKahn,BarbaraHodgdon,andothers.)

Bevington,David.ActionIsEloquence:Shakespeare’sLanguageofGesture(1984;seeesp.pages111-13).

Charlton,H.B.ShakespearianTragedy(1948).

Clemen,Wolfgang.Shakespeare’sSoliloquies.Trans.CharityScottStokes(1987).

Fergusson,Francis.TropeandAllegory:ThemesCommontoDanteandShakespeare(1977).

Halio,JayL.,ed.Shakespeare’s“RomeoandJuliet”:Texts,Contexts,andInterpretation(1995).

Hoppe,HarryR.TheBadQuartoof“RomeoandJuliet”:ABibliographicalandTextualStudy(1948).

Knight,G.Wilson.PrinciplesofShakespeareanProductionwithEspecialReference to theTragedies(1936).

Levenson,JillL.RomeoandJuliet(1987;stagehistory).

Moore,OlinH.TheLegendofRomeoandJuliet(1950).

Myers,HenryAlonzo.Tragedy:AViewofLife(1956;therelevantchaptercomparingRomeoandJulietwithAMidsummerNight’sDreamisreprintedintheSigneteditionofAMidsummerNight’sDream2.

Porter,JosephA.Shakespeare’sMercutio:HisHistoryandDrama(1988).

Rabkin,Norman.ShakespeareandtheCommonUnderstanding(1967).

Traci, Philip J. “Suggestions About the Bawdry inRomeo and Juliet.” South Atlantic Quarterly 71(1974):341-59.

1

Thedegreesign(°) indicatesafootnote,whichiskeyedto the textby linenumber.Textreferencesareprintedinboldfacetype;theannotationfollowsinromantype.

Prologue1dignityrank3mutinyviolence6star-crossedfatedtodisaster12twohours’trafficofourstagei.e.,thebusinessofourplay

2

See H. B. Charlton, Senecan Tradition in Renaissance Tragedy, first published in 1921 as anintroductiontoThePoeticalWorksofSirWilliamAlexander(ManchesterUniversityPressandScottishTextsSociety)andreissuedseparatelybytheManchesterUniversityPressin1946.

3

Fordifferencesbetweenthemanypre-Shakespearianversions,seeH.B.Charlton,RomeoandJulietasanExperimentalTragedy (BritishAcademyShakespeareLecture,1939)and“FranceasChaperoneofRomeoandJuliet”inStudiesinFrenchpresentedtoM.K.Pope,ManchesterUniversityPress(1939).

4

Broke,RomeusandJuliet(Hazlitt’sShakespeare’sLibrary,Vol.I,1875),p.142.

5

Ibid.,p.151.

6

Ibid.,p.147.Seealsopp.97,115.

7

Intheearlierversionsthemaskisnotaprecautionforsafety.Shakespeare,takingitpartlyassuch,hastorealizehowutterlyineffectiveitis.Romeoissoonknown:

This,byhisvoice,shouldbeaMontague!Fetchmemyrapier,boy.WhatdarestheslaveComehither,cover’dwithananticface,Tofleerandscornatoursolemnity?(1.5.56-59)

8

AeneidXII.147.

9

OdesI.xxxv.

10

RestoringtheQ2readingof“I”for“ay”inll.45,48,and49.

11

Mostlamentableday,mostwoefulday,Thatever,ever,Ididyetbehold!Oday,Oday!Oday!Ohatefulday!Neverwasseensoblackadayasthis.Owoefulday,Owoefulday!(50-54)

12

The play is famous for its long arias, of which there are two kinds. The speeches of the lovers areexpressions of their isolation and desire; separated from each other, they speak at length. TheNurse,Mercutio,andCapulet,however,aregivengreatburstsofspeechincompany;andthereactionofthosearound them is important.Their set-piecesaremetwithoutcry;but theyarecarriedawayandwillnotstop.Eachisaforceinnaturebreakingintotheexpectedorpermissibleflowofthings;eachimitatestheimpulsiveactionoftheplay,“ofnothingfirstcreate”;eachaddstotheprevailingsenseofimpatienceandirrepressibleenergy.

13

EndeavorsofArt,p.137;Italianateintriguetragedyisdiscussedonpp.128-142.Doranincludesunderthis heading the revenge tragediesTitus Andronicus andHamlet; but these touch only peripherally onsexuallove,andasshenotes,theyalso“crossthelinesoftheotherbigclass,thetragedyofpower”(p.131).On theother side,LeoSalingardistinguishes the fourcomedies basedonnovelle—Merchant ofVenice,Much Ado, All’sWell, andMeasure forMeasure—as verging on the tragic in somberness ofmoodandseriousnessof issue, thoughnot instructure;seeShakespeareandtheTraditionsofComedy(Cambridge,1974),pp.301-305.

14

ArthurBrooke’sTragicalHistoryofRomeusandJuliet(1562)recountsastorythatappearsalsointhenovella collections of Bandello and Painter; another such collection, Giraldi Cinthio’sHecatommithi(1565),providedthesourceforOthello.

15

Various critics have commented on the comic thrust of the early acts of Romeo, with interpretationsranging fromH.A.Mason’s somewhat lame and impotent conclusion, “Shakespeare decided that in ageneral way the play needed asmuch comedy as he could get in” (Shakespeare’s Tragedies of Love[London, 1970], p. 29), toHarry Levin’swell-argued contention that the play invokes the artifices ofromanticcomedyinorder to transcendthem(“FormandFormality inRomeoandJuliet,”ShakespeareQuarterly11 [1960]:3-11).Levin’sessay is illuminatingon theplay’s style;hedoesnot speculateonwhat the transcendence-of-artifice theme (admittedlyalreadyusedbyShakespeare in a comedy,Love’sLabour’s Lost) has to do with tragic structure. Franklin Dickey deals at some length withRomeo as“comical tragedy” in Not Wisely But Too Well, pp. 63-88. But Dickey’s treatment of comedy isnonorganic,dwellingonsuchfeaturesasthewittyheroine,themotifoflovers’absurdity,thedebateonlove’snature,theelaboratepatterningoflanguage,andthecommediadell’artetype-characters.Hedoesnot dealwithwhyShakespearewouldwant to present a tragic story thiswayor how the large comicelement shapes the play as a whole. To explain the presence of that element, Dickey invokes theconventionalassociationoflovewithcomedy.J.M.Nosworthythinksthecomicadmixtureamistakeandblames it on Shakespeare’s immaturity, as well as on the influence of Porter’sTwo AngryWomen ofAbington.“TheTwoAngryFamiliesofVerona,”ShakespeareQuarterly3(1952):219-226.

16

Charlton,“RomeoandJuliet”asanExperimentalTragedy,BritishAcademyShakespeareLecture,1939(London,1940),pp.8-12.

17

Anatomy,p.169.Althoughtheyoungergenerationparticipateinthefeud,theyhavenotcreatedit;itisahabitbequeathedtothembytheirelders.

18

ExperimentalTragedy,pp.36-40.

19

MaynardMack, “Engagement andDetachment inShakespeare’sPlays,” inEssaysonShakespeareandElizabethanDramainHonorofHardinCraig,ed.RichardHosley(Columbia,Mo.,1962),pp.287-291.

20

1.4.113; 2.2.82-84. Later Mercutio hails the lovers’ go-between, the Nurse, with “A sail, a sail!”(2.4.108).

21

3.4.23-28;3.5.202-203;4.1.6-8,77-85,107-108,4.5.35-39.

22

3.5.241.InthepotionsceneJuliet’sresolveweakensforamoment,butalmostimmediatelysherejectstheidea of companionship. Themomentarywavering only emphasizes her aloneness: “I’ll call them backagain to comfortme. /Nurse!—What should she do here? /Mydismal scene I needsmust act alone”(4.3.17-19).

23

Orinthecomicpartofahistory,inthecaseofFalstaff’spretendeddeathonthebattlefieldatShrewsbury.

24

Thesameeffect,ifnotintention,isapparentinthereporteddeathofImogeninCymbeline.

25

“OntheKnockingattheGateinMacbeth,”inShakespeareCriticism:ASelection,ed.D.NicholSmith(Oxford,1916),p.378.

26

PrefacestoShakespeare(London,1963),iv,62-63.

27

Shakespeare and thePopularDramaticTradition (London andNewYork, 1944), p. 111.CharlesB.Lower agrees and argues as well for the more doubtful proposition that the audience needs to bereassured that Juliet is really still alive. Lower convincingly defends the authenticity of a Q1 stagedirection,“All at once cry out and wring their hand[s],” which, by requiring the laments of LadyCapulet, theNurse, Paris, andCapulet (4.5.43-64) to be spoken simultaneously like an opera quartet,wouldincreasethescene’sburlesquequality.“RomeoandJuliet,4.5:AStageDirectionandPurposefulComedy,”ShakespeareStudies8(1975):177-194.

28

Granville-Barkerwrote in 1930 thatmodern producers usually lowered the curtain after the climacticpotionsceneandraised itnextonRomeo inMantua,skipping themourningand themusiciansentirely.Prefaces,IV,63-64.Themostnotableproductionofmorerecentyears,byFrancoZeffirelli,omittedthemusicians.J.RussellBrown,Shakespeare’sPlaysinPerformance(London,1966),p.177.