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Role Satisfaction Mediates the Relation between Role Ambiguity andSocial Loafing among Elite Women Handball PlayersRune Høigaarda; Susanne Fuglestada; Derek M. Petersb; Bert De Cuyperc; Maarten De Backerc; FilipBoenc

a University of Agder, b University of Worcester and University of Agder, c Katholieke UniversiteitLeuven,

Online publication date: 15 November 2010

To cite this Article Høigaard, Rune , Fuglestad, Susanne , Peters, Derek M. , Cuyper, Bert De , Backer, Maarten De andBoen, Filip(2010) 'Role Satisfaction Mediates the Relation between Role Ambiguity and Social Loafing among EliteWomen Handball Players', Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22: 4, 408 — 419To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/10413200.2010.495326URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2010.495326

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JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 22: 408–419, 2010Copyright C© Association for Applied Sport PsychologyISSN: 1041-3200 print / 1533-1571 onlineDOI: 10.1080/10413200.2010.495326

Role Satisfaction Mediates the Relation between Role Ambiguityand Social Loafing among Elite Women Handball Players

RUNE HØIGAARD AND SUSANNE FUGLESTAD

University of Agder

DEREK M. PETERS

University of Worcester and University of Agder

BERT DE CUYPER, MAARTEN DE BACKER, AND FILIP BOEN

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

The aims of the study were to develop a questionnaire on self-reported social loafing (SRSLQ),and then to examine its relations with role ambiguity and role satisfaction in a sample of 110women handball players competing at the elite level in Norway. Structural equation modelinganalyses indicated that the SRSLQ was a psychometrically sound measure. In line with theexpectations, role satisfaction fully mediated the positive relation between role ambiguity andself-reported social loafing: The more players experienced role ambiguity, the less satisfiedthey were with their role in the team, and the more social loafing they reported.

Social loafing has been defined as the reduction in motivation and effort when individualswork collectively, compared with when they work individually (Latane, 1986). There is consid-erable evidence (e.g., Ingham, Levinger, Graves, & Peckham, 1974; Karau & Williams, 1993,1995) to support a negative association between social loafing and team performance (i.e.,the more individuals loaf when working in a team, the worse the performance of their team).Traditionally research has identified the following conditions under which social loafing is lesslikely to occur: (a) when team members believe that their own individual performance can beidentified, and therefore evaluated, by themselves or others (Harkins, 1987; Williams, Harkins,& Latane, 1981; Williams, Nida, Baca, & Latane, 1989); (b) when team members believe thattheir individual effort is indispensable for a successful team outcome (Harkins & Petty, 1982;Kerr, 1983; Kerr & Bruun, 1983); and (c) when team members perceive the task as importantand meaningful (Brickner, Harkins, & Ostrom, 1986; Harkins & Petty, 1982; Zaccaro, 1984).

More recent studies have investigated the role of other group dynamic variables in teamsport settings, such as team cohesion, collective efficacy, and task motivational climate in

Received 12 November 2009; accepted 18 May 2010.Address correspondence to Dr. Rune Høigaard, Department of Public Health, Sport, and Nutrition,

Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Agder, Service Box 422, No-4604, Kristiansand,Norway. E-mail: [email protected]

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ROLE AMBIGUITY, ROLE SATISFACTION AND SOCIAL LOAFING 409

relation to the propensity of athletes to loaf (Høigaard & Ommundsen, 2007; Høigaard &Peters, 2009; Høigaard, Tofteland, & Ommundsen, 2006; Karau & Williams, 1993, 1995).More specifically, it has been found that the more athletes feel that they belong to a cohesiveteam, experience collective efficacy, and a positive task motivational climate, the less likelythey are to loaf. It should be noted, however, that only a limited number of studies on socialloafing have included elite-level performers. Although social loafing is expected to be lessprevalent at the elite level, the impact of social loafing at this level can be considered to bemore serious because of the greater stakes. Even fewer studies have targeted elite femaleathletes.

In addition, early social loafing research has predominantly investigated social loafing incoactive tasks/sports and tasks/sports (e.g., relay swimming), where individual input couldbe measured relatively precisely (Anshel, 1995; Hardy & Crace, 1991; Hardy & Latane,1988; Høigaard & Ommundsen, 2005; Swain, 1996; Williams, et al., 1989). However, morerecent research has moved towards interactive team sports (e.g., Høigaard & Ommundsen,2007), where individual input is much harder to measure accurately (e.g., soccer). Because ofthis methodological problem in interactive sports, researchers have been required to rely onathletes’ perception of social loafing apparent in other team members (Mulvey & Klein, 1998)as a proxy for the level of actual social loafing within a team. The rationale for this is that eventhough the perception of social loafing may not always reflect actual social loafing in otherteam members, having the perception that teammates are not giving 100% can result in anindividual reducing his or her own input (Høigaard, 2008). To enable athletes to quantify theirperception of social loafing in their teammates, the Perceived Social Loafing Questionnairewas developed, and has been shown to be psychometrically valid and reliable in a number ofpublished studies (Høigaard, 2010; Høigaard & Ommundsen, 2007; Høigaard & Peters, 2009;Høigaard, Safvenbom, & Tønnessen, 2006). The phenomenon of self-reported social loafing(i.e., the quantification of one’s own propensity to contribute less to the group than one should),has received much less attention.

Besides social loafing, two other factors have been identified as fundamental to teamperformance: role ambiguity and role satisfaction. Role ambiguity is a lack of clear informationregarding the expectations associated with one’s position (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, &Rosental, 1964). Research has shown that role ambiguity has a negative effect on the group’sperformance (Beauchamp, Bray, Eys, & Carron, 2002), on player’s satisfaction (Eys, Carron,Bray, & Beauchamp, 2003), on task cohesion and task self-efficacy (Eys & Carron, 2001),and on player’s desire to be part of the team (Eys, Carron, Bray, & Beauchamp, 2005). Rolesatisfaction refers to the degree to which an athlete is satisfied with his/her formal task-relatedrole (Beauchamp, Bray, Eys, & Carron, 2005). Riemer and Chelladurai (1998) proposed thatthere is a natural link between a player’s satisfaction and performance as the more players aresatisfied with their role, the better they perform. Eys, Schinke, and Jeffery (2007) also statedthat a lack of satisfaction with a particular role may hamper the role performance and thusaffect the team performance.

Whereas a relatively large number of studies have investigated separately the phenomena ofsocial loafing, role ambiguity, and role satisfaction within sports teams (e.g., Beauchamp et al.,2002; Beauchamp et al., 2005; Eys, Carron, Beauchamp, & Bray, 2005; Høigaard, 2006; Karau& Williams, 1993), no empirical research has explored the possible association in sports teamsbetween individuals’ perceived role ambiguity, role satisfaction, and their own propensity toloaf.

Several reasons have been proposed why role ambiguity and role satisfaction could berelated to an athlete’s own propensity to loaf (Høigaard 2008; Jackson & Schuler, 1985).First, role ambiguity entails uncertainty about what one should be doing and this in itself may


410 R. HØIGAARD ET AL.

contribute to reduced personal input. Second, role ambiguity may create a sense that one’s ownresources are not being optimally utilized, thereby reducing the value of the group and groupcohesion, both of which have been shown to facilitate social loafing (Carron, Hausenblas,& Eys, 2005; Høigaard, Safvenbom, & Tønnessen, 2006; Høigaard, Tofteland, et al., 2006).Third, to be able to carry out the role well, it is important that the player is satisfied with thetasks and the responsibilities that go with the role he or she is required to perform. Thereare, however, a number of factors that can prevent players from being satisfied with theirrole within teams. It may be, for example, that the player does not feel that his/her skills andexpertise are being optimally used, that they are not getting feedback and recognition for howthey have carried out their role, or that they do not feel that the role is of decisive significancefor the group’s overall performance (Carron, et al., 2005; Høigaard, 2008). Regardless of thespecific reason for a low role satisfaction it is highly plausible that it will increase the athlete’swillingness to engage in social loafing.

In conclusion, given that Eys et al. (2003) have already identified that lower perceived roleambiguity is directly associated with higher athlete satisfaction, and given that a theoreticalrationale has been proposed for a positive association between both role ambiguity and socialloafing as well as for a negative relation between role satisfaction and social loafing, it seemspertinent to investigate the nature of the associations. As a consequence, the aims of thisstudy were twofold: First, to develop the self-reported social loafing questionnaire (SRSLQ)and establish its face and construct validity. Second, to examine the relationships betweenperceived role ambiguity, perceived role satisfaction, and self-reported social loafing amongfemale elite-level athletes in an interactive team sport (i.e., elite female handball in Norway).

Although no studies to date directly link role ambiguity and satisfaction to social loafing,Jackson and Schuler (1985) suggest an indirect effect of role ambiguity on commitment in theirmeta-analysis of research on role ambiguity in organizational teams. More specifically, theseauthors propose that commitment is directly determined by satisfaction, which in turn has adirect relationship with ambiguity. The analogy between team commitment and social loafinghas been pointed out repeatedly. For example, Ouwerkerk, Ellemers, and de Gilder (1999)refer to the empirical results from different studies to support the hypothesis that people’swillingness to exert effort on behalf of their group is positively related to the extent to whichthey feel affectively committed to the group. Based on the abovementioned reasoning, it waspredicted that role satisfaction would mediate the relation between perceived role ambiguityand self-reported social loafing. Role ambiguity may lead to negative thoughts about howto perform effectively and to uncertainty about the expected contribution to the team. Thiscognitive effect of ambiguity may lead to loafing, but only as far as it reduces role satisfaction.It was therefore hypothesized that the higher the perceived role ambiguity of the elite femalehandball players, the lower their role satisfaction and hence the higher their self-reportedpropensity to loaf within their team.

METHOD

Sample

One hundred and ten female senior handball players from 10 different teams in the Nor-wegian elite series took part in the study. The players varied in age from 17.1 to 36.3 years(M = 22.8 years, SD = 4.0 years). The number of years of playing at elite level varied from4 months to 20 years (M = 3.9 years, SD = 3.6 years), and 16% of the players had been inthe national A team in the past 3 years. The number of players per team who took part variedfrom 8 to 15, with an average of 11 players per team.



Procedure

The coaches of all 12 female teams in Posten-league (elite series) 08/09 were contactedby telephone to ask them if they were willing to take part in the study. Of the 12 coacheswho were asked, 10 agreed to participate. The explanation for the decision of the two coachesnot to participate was their own and the athletes’ workload. The questionnaires were sentto the coach or one player in each club, who were responsible for collecting the data. Aletter with information about the procedure was enclosed. It was emphasized that the surveywould be anonymous and all information would be treated confidentially. The players werealso encouraged to answer the questions as honestly as possible so that the relevant, correctinformation could be obtained. In order for the data collection to be as standardized as possibleand to maintain anonymity, the players were asked to put their completed questionnaires in aseparate envelope, which was enclosed with the questionnaire, and to seal the envelope beforereturning it to their coach. The questionnaires were then returned to the author in the stamped,addressed envelope provided. Data collection took place from the beginning of November tothe beginning of December 2008.

Self-Reported Social Loafing Questionnaire (SRSLQ): Development and ValidationFirst, four statements were determined through face validation and agreement between

the authors, to enable the individual athlete to report their perception of their own level ofcontribution/effort to their team. The format of the questionnaire was based upon the PerceivedSocial Loafing Questionnaire, developed by Høigaard (2006; 2010). The four items of SRSLQwere: “I try as hard as I can,” “I do not do my share,” “I contribute less than I should,”and “Given my abilities, I do the best I can”, each preceded by the stem “In my team. . .”.Participants answered these items on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (stronglyagree) with two items reverse-coded so that a higher composite score indicates a higherlevel of perceived self social loafing. Structural equation modeling (Kline, 1998) was used toanalyze the internal validity of the SRSLQ. Construct validation was then investigated throughcomparison the SRSLQ with the following instruments, each of which have been proved tobe valid and reliable instruments and measuring a construct having a theoretically meaningfulrelation with the self-reported reduced effort by an individual team member.

The task subscale (TASK) of the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ; Roberts,Treasure, & Balague, 1998) should theoretically have a negative relationship with the level ofsocial loafing exhibited by an individual (Roberts, 2001; Swain, 1996). The TASK subscaleconsists of six items (e.g. “I feel successful in handball when I work really hard” and “I feelsuccessful in handball when I do my very best”) with responses on a scale ranging from1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). This TASK subscale has shown good validityand reliability in previous research (Ommundsen & Roberts, 1996; Roberts et al., 1998).Cronbach’s alpha for the TASK subscale in the current study was .85, indicating a goodinternal reliability in this sample.

The personal dedication subscale (PD) of the Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire (ASQ;Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998) should theoretically have a negative relationship with the levelof social loafing exhibited by an individual. The PD subscale consists of four items (e.g. “Iam satisfied with the degree to which I do my best for the team,” “I am satisfied with mydedication during practices”) with responses on a scale ranging from 1 (not at all satisfied) to7 (extremely satisfied) and has shown to be psychometrically sound (Bray, Beauchamp, Eys,& Carron, 2005; Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998). Cronbach’s alpha for the PD subscale in thecurrent study was .82, indicating a good internal reliability.

The Perceived Social Loafing Questionnaire (PSLQ) (Høigaard, 2010; Høigaard &Ommundsen, 2007; Høigaard, Safvenbom et al., 2006) asks for athletes’ perceptions of social



loafing behaviors in “members of the team” implicitly including the individual answering thestatements and thus in part an indication of the perception of their own propensity to loaf.Therefore the PSLQ -score should relate positively to self-reported social loafing, but withoutsharing a large degree of variance. The PSLQ contains five statements. A sample item is “Theplayers in my team try to hide behind the others so that they do not have to exert themselves(offer) as much as they are capable of doing.” Participants answer these items on a scale rang-ing from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A higher score indicates higher perceivedsocial loafing. In previous studies the PSLQ has proved to be both valid and reliable (Høigaard& Ommundsen, 2007; Høigaard, Safvenbom et al., 2006). Cronbach’s alpha for the PSLQ inthe current study was .68, which can be regarded as acceptable.

Role Ambiguity (RA) and Role Satisfaction (RS) InstrumentsRole ambiguity was assessed using an adapted version of the Multidimensional Role Ambi-

guity Scale (RAS) (Beauchamp et al., 2002). The original RAS consists of two 20-item scales(one for offensive and one for defensive role ambiguity) that measure role ambiguity within4 different categories, with 5 items per category. The first category is scope of responsibility,which measures ambiguity linked to missing or unclear information regarding the extent ofthe duties in one’s area of responsibilities. An example of an item is “I understand my area ofresponsibility in the game.” The second category is role behavior, which measures ambiguityrelated to missing or unclear information about the skills and behaviors that are required inthe role. An example of such an item is “I understand the actions and moves that are needed tocarry out my role.” The third category is role evaluation, which measures role ambiguity re-lated to lack of clarity about how role performance should be evaluated. An example of an itemis “I understand how my role will be assessed.” The final category is role consequences, whichmeasures role ambiguity related to missing or unclear information about the consequences ofnot fulfilling the responsibilities of the role. An example of such an item is “I understand theconsequences of not succeeding in my role.”

While the RAS scale of Beauchamp et al. (2002) measures role ambiguity explicitly inrelation to offensive and defensive roles, in the current study, the RAS was modified toremove differentiation between offensive and defensive roles and instead sought to measurerole ambiguity per se. Handball as a sport is becoming faster and players at a high level mustalways have an overview of the way the game is being played. When playing in defense, playersneed to think about attack and vice versa. Players need to be thinking about the next movethe whole time. Hence it was concluded that the defensive and offensive role tasks withinelite handball overlap far too much with each other for players to be able to answer the sameset of 20 questionnaire items in clearly differentiated offensive and defensive game contexts.Participants therefore answered the 20 items on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to9 (strongly agree). A higher score on the modified RAS (mRAS) used in the study thereforeindicates low ambiguity (high clarity) and a lower score indicates greater ambiguity (lowclarity). Each subscale of the mRAS exhibited an acceptable degree of internal validity andreliability in this sample. Cronbach’s alphas were .78 for scope of responsibility, .80 for rolebehavior, .76 for role evaluation, and .83 for role consequences, which all indicate a goodinternal reliability.

Role satisfaction in the players was assessed using the questionnaire items used byBeauchamp et al., (2005) and will be referred to subsequently in this paper as the RoleSatisfaction Scale (RSS). The RSS contained four items. An example is “I am satisfied withthe role I have been given.” Each item is answered on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)to 9 (strongly agree) with a higher score indicating higher satisfaction with their role. In aprevious study, while not undergoing a rigorous process of questionnaire construction, the RSS



scale used in the current paper demonstrated satisfactory validity and reliability (Beauchampet al., 2005). Cronbach’s alpha for the items used to represent RSS in the current study was.94, suggesting an excellent internal reliability.

RESULTS

Construct Validation of the SRSLQ

The internal validation of the single factor structure of the questionnaire was tested usingconfirmatory factor analysis. Results based on the Analysis of Movement Structures (AMOS)maximum likelihood confirmatory path analysis indicated a good fit of the hypothesized singlefactor model (chi-square = 2.00, df = 1, p = .16; goodness of fit index [GFI] = .99; adjustedgoodness of fit index [AGFI] = .91; comparative fit index [CFI] = .99; root mean square errorof approximation [RMSEA] = .095). The standardized regression path coefficients from theitems to self-reported loafing ranged from .33 to .94 (p ≤ .001). Cronbach’s alpha was foundto be 0.74, indicating a good internal reliability.

Table 1 supports the existence of the predicted negative relations between the SRSLQ andthe TASK and the PD scales, and the hypothesized positive relation between the SRSLQ andthe PSLQ scale. The absence of a significant relation between the PSLQ and the TASK and thePSLQ and the PD scale also supports the prediction that the SRSLQ, although encompassingsome shared elements of the PSLQ, really measures something different.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations

Means, standard deviations and inter-scale correlations are shown in Table 2. This tablemakes clear that the elite female handball players showed relatively low levels (indicated byhigh mean values) of perceived role ambiguity in each of the four dimensions, a relativelyhigh level of perceived role satisfaction and a low degree of self-reported social loafing. Table2 also identifies significant positive correlations between the four dimensions of perceivedrole ambiguity and perceived role satisfaction and a significant negative relationship betweenperceived role satisfaction and self-reported self social loafing.

Overview of the SEM Analyses

Structural equation modeling (Kline, 1998) was used to analyze the data. The maximumlikelihood estimation method was preferred because it is appropriate for non-recursive pathmodels. The Pearson chi-square (χ2) statistic is provided to check the overall model fit. A non-significant χ2 value indicates a good fit to the data. However, Kline (1998) advises cautionwhen interpreting the chi-square statistics as it is sensitive to sample size. Furthermore, it

Table 1Descriptive Statistics of Variables and Correlations

Scales M SD 2 3 4

1. SRSLQ 1.48 .55 −.23∗ −.46∗∗ .32∗∗2. TASK 4.49 .59 .34∗∗ −.073. PD 5.43 .87 −.154. PSLQ 1.74 .61

∗p < .05. ∗∗p < .01.



Table 2Descriptive Statistics for and Bivariate Correlations Between Perceived Role Ambiguity,

Role Satisfaction and Self Social Loafing

Subscales N M SD 2 3 4 5 6

1. Scope of responsibility 110 7.18 1.23 .76∗∗ .54∗∗ .66∗∗ .57∗∗ −.112. Role behaviour 110 7.19 1.27 .39∗∗ .59∗∗ .46∗∗ .023. Role consequences 110 7.13 1.49 .57∗∗ .32∗∗ .014. Role evaluation 110 6.40 1.53 .45∗∗ −.015. Role satisfaction 109 7.31 1.81 −.26∗∗6. Self-reported social loafing 109 1.48 .55

Note. ∗p < .05. ∗∗p < .01.

has no upper bound; thus, its values are not interpretable in a standardized way. As a resultmodel adequacy was also evaluated using additional goodness-of-fit indices. These were thegoodness of fit index (GFI), the adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI), the comparative fitindex (CFI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). According to Kline(1998), a good fitting model is indicated when the GFI, AGFI, and CFI are close to or ideallyabove .90. The RMSEA values are ideally below .06 (Hu & Bentler, 1999).

Confirmatory Path Analysis

Results based on the AMOS maximum likelihood confirmatory path analysis indicated agood fit of the hypothesized fully mediated model (see Figure 1; chi-square = 5.13, df =4, p = .28; GFI = .99; AGFI = .92; CFI = 1.00; RMSEA = .051). However, the resultsrevealed only support for the standardized regression path from role ambiguity scope ofresponsibility to role satisfaction. The standardized regression path coefficients from the otherrole ambiguity subscales to perceived role satisfaction were not significant. Furthermore,it was found that the four subscales of role ambiguity were significantly interrelated (seeTable 2).

The mediational effect of role satisfaction on the relationship between role ambiguity scopeof responsibility and self-reported loafing in the hypothesized model was tested following theSEM approach advanced by Holmbeck (1997). First, the model was tested estimating the directpaths from the four role ambiguity subscales to the self-reported social loafing. After deletingthe non-significant paths from role ambiguity evaluation and consequence to self-reportedsocial loafing, the model provided a good fit to the data (chi-square = .76, df = 2, p = .68;GFI = 1.00; AGFI = .98; CFI = 1.00; RMSEA = .00). As such, the mediational conditionthat a significant relationship should exist between the predictor and outcome variable wassupported for the path from role ambiguity scope of responsibility to self-reported socialloafing (β = −.30; p < .05).

The next step in testing mediation was to confirm the fit of the constrained model (Holmbeck,1997). As reported earlier, this model (see Figure 1) satisfied the mediational conditions ofsignificant associations between the predictor and mediator and between the mediator and theoutcome variable (Baron & Kenny, 1986). The final step was to examine an unconstrainedmodel by adding a direct path from role ambiguity scope of responsibility to self-reportedsocial loafing while controlling for role satisfaction. Similar to the constrained model, the fitof the unconstrained model was good (chi-square = 4.86, df = 3, p = .18; GFI = .99; AGFI =.90; CFI = .99; RMSEA = .076). However, it should be noted that in the unconstrained



Scope of responsibility

Role behavior

Role consequence

Role evaluation

.47*

-.26*.34 .07

Role satisfaction Self-reported social loafing

.03

.13

-.01

Figure 1. Structural model with regression path coefficients and proportions of explained vari-ance ∗p < .01.

model, the path from role ambiguity scope of responsibility to self-reported social loafingwas non-significant. This implies that role satisfaction fully mediates the relation between roleambiguity scope of responsibility and self-reported loafing.

DISCUSSION

The aims of this study were twofold: First, to develop a measure for self-reported socialloafing, and second to investigate the relations between role ambiguity, role satisfaction andself-reported social loafing among female elite handball players. More specifically, it waspredicted that role satisfaction would mediate the relationship between athletes’ perceived roleambiguity and their willingness to engage in social loafing.

Self-reported social loafing was measured using the newly developed Self-Reported SocialLoafing Questionnaire (SRSLQ), adapted from the Perceived Social Loafing Questionnaire(PSLQ: Høigaard, 2010; Høigaard & Ommundsen, 2007; Høigaard, Safvenbom et al., 2006).The results provided preliminary evidence that SRSLQ is a psychometrically sound instrumentto measure self-reported social loafing. The four items loaded strongly on one and the samefactor, and showed a good internal consistency. Moreover, the observed correlations with thePSLQ and other relevant scales suggest that the SRSLQ and PSLQ measure different, thoughrelated concepts.

In line with expectations, role satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between roleambiguity and self-reported social loafing, in particular between the “scope of responsibility”subscale of role ambiguity and self-reported social loafing. More specifically, the more femalehandball players felt that the scope of responsibility of their role was clearly defined, themore satisfied they were with their role, and the less tendency for social loafing they reported.The mediation observed in the present study confirms the suggestion by Jackson and Schuler(1985) that satisfaction is a direct antecedent of commitment, which in turn has been foundto predict willingness to exert effort for the group (Ouwerkerk et al., 1999), and therefore ofsocial loafing as purported. The findings also support previous research by Beauchamp et al.(2005), who found that clarity about the scope of responsibility was positively associated withrole satisfaction. In addition, Beauchamp et al. (2002) reported that when athletes were unclearabout their scope of responsibilities, they were less able to act appropriately insofar as theirrole performance was impaired.

It should be noted that the mean scores for self-reported loafing were relatively low. Severalreasons can be offered to explain the relative absence of loafing in this sample of elite female



handball players. First, these elite players can be characterized as experts in their sport and ashighly motivated. Moreover, it can also be presumed that they perceive handball as interestingand meaningful, given the high level of training and input they have to invest and the “sacrifices”they have to make to take part in sport at this level. Hardy and Crace (1991) suggested thatexpertise is a factor that reduces the incidence of social loafing. Conversely, a number ofstudies have also shown that when the task to be completed is regarded as boring, not veryinteresting or not very motivating, the incidence of social loafing increases (Hardy & Latane,1988; Karau & Williams, 1993).

Another significant factor may be that the players in the study are in one of the world’sbest handball leagues where both public interest and media attention are high. Matches andindividual players’ performances are continuously identified and evaluated by coaches, publicand the media. Identifying and evaluating individual contributions when one works in acollective context has also been shown to reduce social loafing (Hardy & Latane, 1988;Høigaard & Ommundsen, 2005; Williams, et al., 1989).

Finally, the study has been carried out with female participants. Previous research hasshown that social loafing occurs to a greater extent among men than among women (Karau& Williams, 1995; Kugihara, 1999). According to Kugihara (1999), this can be explained bythe fact that women take more responsibility for the team and are more willing to offer andcontribute, even if they do not get the feedback or credit which they may individually deserve.

It should also be noted that a relatively high degree of role satisfaction was reported amongthe players. The fact that the players are generally satisfied with their roles may be anotherconsequence of the fact that these players are competing at the elite level. They have realizedtheir sporting ambitions and if they were unhappy with the role they have been given in ateam, they are likely either to work towards gaining another role or changing teams to get therole they want, or, in extreme cases, deciding not to play handball at elite series level. It canalso be suggested that the coaches have high levels of expertise in handball and considerableexperience, and hence the skills to motivate the players but also to adapt the roles to thequalities and skills that the players possess.

From an applied perspective, the results of the current study are useful both for coaches andfor athletes of interactive sport teams performing at elite levels. The results show that socialloafing can occur even at this level, albeit at a limited extent. To achieve their best results, at alevel where margins are very small, it is important for coaches and players to at least reduce andpotentially eliminate social loafing. Knowledge of the different causes and consequences ofsocial loafing thus become important. The results of this study show that part of self-reportedsocial loafing can be eliminated by minimizing role ambiguity and role dissatisfaction. Tomaximize role satisfaction, several factors are important: players’ expertise should be used,and coaches should “see” the individual players and give personal feedback and recognitionfor the way the players carry out their roles. Coaches also need to highlight the importanceof the different roles within the team and the fact that each role is significant for the team asa whole (Høigaard, 2008; Rail, 1987). In order for the player to carry out his/her role in thebest possible way the coach also needs to provide functional role descriptions, describing thetasks within the role and how they are to be carried out and evaluated. Poor or insufficientcommunication from the coach has been shown to be an important cause of role ambiguity(Eys et al., 2005), so coaches also need to be able to communicate the above to players andthe team in an effective way.

It is acknowledged that the present study has a number of limitations. First, the assessmentof social loafing in interactive team sports remains a difficult issue. The development of aself-reported social loafing instrument seems to hold promise for future research although it



is still unclear to what extent actual loafing and the real performance loss is measured byself-reported social loafing.

Second, no explicit distinction was made between competitive matches and training inrelation to how the players experience role ambiguity, role satisfaction, and social loafing. Itis possible that the experience of the three phenomena can vary in relation to training andcompetitive situations. Because elite players are described as competition-oriented (Anshel,1995), it is reasonable to suggest that social loafing occurs for the most part in training and notin matches. Furthermore, the majority of players want to contribute to the team in the form oftime spent on the court. Hence, it is reasonable to contend that role satisfaction may be stronglylinked to playing time. A study which distinguishes between competitive situations/matchesand training and controls for playing opportunities, may possibly provide a more detailedpicture.

A third limitation refers to the relatively limited variability in self-reported loafing androle satisfaction among the elite athletes used in this study, which may have resulted in anunderestimation of the relations between the three variables. Nevertheless, despite this limitedvariability, a mediation effect was observed. It can therefore be suggested that in a moreheterogeneous sample of athletes in sports teams, the predicted relations could have beenstronger, and a higher proportion of explained variance in self-reported social loafing couldhave been explained.

Further research is of course necessary to support the findings of this study. These studiesmight consider different personality variables such as self-efficacy, ego/task orientation, andperfectionism, which will probably give a better understanding of the relationships betweenrole ambiguity, role satisfaction, and social loafing. It would be interesting to relate bothdemographic, “person” variables (e.g., experience in the elite series, age, playing position andwhether one is in the starting line-up), and group variables (e.g., cohesion, collective efficacy,motivational climate and norms within the team) to how players react to role ambiguity, andhow this affects their role satisfaction and social loafing.

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