ISSN 1313 - 8820Volume 7, Number 2

June 2015

2015

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Genetics and Breeding

Atanas Atanasov (Bulgaria)Nikolay Tsenov (Bulgaria)Max Rothschild (USA)Ihsan Soysal (Turkey)Horia Grosu (Romania)Bojin Bojinov (Bulgaria)Stoicho Metodiev (Bulgaria)

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Nikolai Todorov (Bulgaria)Peter Surai (UK)Zervas Georgios (Greece)Ivan Varlyakov (Bulgaria)

Production Systems

Dimitar Pavlov (Bulgaria)Bogdan Szostak (Poland)Dimitar Panaiotov (Bulgaria)Banko Banev (Bulgaria)Georgy Zhelyazkov (Bulgaria)

Agriculture and Environment

Georgi Petkov (Bulgaria)Ramesh Kanwar (USA)Martin Banov (Bulgaria)

Product Quality and Safety

Marin Kabakchiev (Bulgaria)Stefan Denev (Bulgaria)Vasil Atanasov (Bulgaria)

English Editor

Yanka Ivanova (Bulgaria)

2015

ISSN 1313 - 8820 Volume 7, Number 2June 2015

Review

Effect of physical form and protein source of starter feed on growth and development of dairy calves

E. Yavuz, G. Ganchev, N. Todorov*

Department of Morphology, Physiology and Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Trakia University, 6000 Stara Zagora, Bulgaria

Abstract. The objective of this paper was to review the literature on effects of different methods of processing of grain fraction of the starter feeds for young dairy calves, as well as providing another part of starter which is a source of protein, minerals and vitamins in different physical forms. The second aim was to discus the impact of the main protein sources for starter feeds on performance of preweaning and posteweaning dairy calves. The main criteria for assessment of physical form effect and sources of protein in the starter feeds were intake of dry feeds, daily live weight gain and frame size growth of calves, morphological and functional development of forestomachs, digestibility of feeds and health status of young calves. Data show big variations and lack of consistency of experimental results. Good results were achieved when calves were fed whole, ground, dry-rolled, pelleted and steam-flaked grains. It seemed that fineness of grinding and quantities of fine fraction were important for starter intake. Steam-flaking and grinding improved digestibility to the same extent, but whole grain stimulated chewing and improved rumen environment for bacteria growth. Soybean meal was the most palatable and ensured best performance of calves. Evidently, it is possible to replace soybean meal with rape seed, canola type meal, dry distillers grain with solubles (DDGS) and other protein sources which contain more fiber and are less digestible. However, it is difficult to appraise how much and at what conditions is it possible to replace completely or a maximum possible portion of soybean meal. Additional studies are needed to clarify interactions between physical form of starters, rumen fermentation environments and age of calves. Information for composition of diets is needed allowing inclusion of maximum amounts of canola meal, DDGS and sunflower meal, which are produced locally and are cheaper than soybean meal, without decreasing live weight gain and development of dairy calves.

Keywords: calf, starter feed, protein source king, dry rolling, grinding, fine particles, pelleting, whole grain

Abbreviations: ADG – average daily gain, BW – body weight, CP – crude protein, DDGS – dry distillers grain with solubles, DM – dray matter, DMI – dry matter intake, LWG – live weight gain, VFA – volatile fatty acids

, fla

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 7, No 2, pp , 2015149 - 158

Introduction Drackley, 1998; Miller-Cushon et al., 2014), because calves prefer soybean meal over sunflower meal, dry distillers grain with solubles (DDGS) or canola meal (Montoro et al., 2010; Miller-Cushon et al., Growth, health and performance of calves depend on many 2014; Miller-Cushon et al., 2014a). However, sunflower meal, environmental, management and feeding factors. This short review DDGS, and canola meal are available in the Balkan area and are is dealing only with the effect of physical forms and protein sources significantly cheaper compared to imported soybean meal. of starter feed for calves of dairy breeds, pre-weaning and during the Therefore it is important to know whether it is possible to replace first month after weaning. The paper does not discuss the effects of soybean meal with local protein sources. quantity and quality of liquid feeds as natural milk, non marketable

The objective of this paper was to review published literature milk and different milk replacers, as well as other nutritional factors of concerning needs to apply expensive grain processing for young calf development as supplements to improve palatability, taste etc. calves and the possibility to replace partly or completely soybean Intake of dry feeds (starters) is connected with morphological and meal with available local protein sources without compromising the functional development of rumen and to a lesser extent, to the whole health and development of dairy calves before weaning and digestive tract of calves. Intake of starters from young calves immediately after weaning.depends first of all on the quantity of consumed milk or milk replacer,

but also on composition, palatability and physical form of starter Effect of dry feeds on rumen development in calvesfeeds (Fokkink et al., 2010; Pezhveh et al., 2014). Solid feed,

especially concentrate or high carbohydrate diets, stimulates rumen Liquid feeds, such as milk or milk replacer, are the main diet for microbial proliferation and volatile fatty acid production, which

newborn calves Because the milk surrounds the rumen through the initiate rumen development (Baldwin et al., 2004; Kehoe et al., esophageal groove, it does not stimulate the development and 2007). As the rumen develops, calves are able to consume more metabolic activity of the rumen (Heinrichs and Lesmeister, 2005). starter and forages and can be weaned early. The effect of physical Though with the age the calf may have an increase in rumen size, the forms of starter is important because it is closely connected with the rumen function will still be underdeveloped when only milk or milk price of starters.replacer are fed.The protein sources in starter feeds are also important for the

Solid feeds promote microbial proliferation within the rumen, growth and development of calves. Soybean meal (SBM) is one of yielding volatile fatty acids (VFA), which enhance rumen the most commonly used protein sources in calf starters (Davis and

.

149

* e-mail: ntodorov@tradel.net

150

development. Physical properties of the calf starter are considered Raeth-Knight et al., 2009, Khan et al., 2011). Calves fed liquid feed to influential in promoting such histological shifts and maturity of the 10% of BW consume nearly twice as much starter as calves fed rumen papillae. This cascade is sustained by a capacious higher amounts in the weeks before weaning (Jasper and Weary, absorption and modification of VFA across the rumen to fuel the 2002; Cowles et al., 2006; Raeth-Knight et al., 2009). By the fourth intermediary metabolism (Baldwin et al., 2004). Solid feeds have week of life, calves should consume more nutrients from calf starter also been reported to promote papillary development. Solid feeds than from milk or milk replacer, which increases the importance of can consist of concentrates and/or forages. Though both feeding a nutritious, highly palatable starter (O'Brien et al., 2004).concentrates and forages have been linked to rumen stimulation, it is Ingredients with high content of carbohydrates are the main clear that concentrates have the greatest effect on rumen source of energy. Corn, wheat, barley, oat and sorghum are development. commonly used as carbohydrates sources in animal feeds

Heinrichs and Lesmeister (2005) established that feeding (Huntington, 1997). The physical form of starch and the cellular concentrates can cause an increase in papillae length and improve integrity of starch-containing units, affect the nutrient digestibility the thickness of the rumen wall. The improved development of both and grain availability to the microbes. Wheat, barley, oats are more the papillae and rumen wall will cause an increase in surface area, rapidly fermented than corn and sorghum (Huntington, 1997) improving the absorption of nutrients. Feeding concentrates will because the distribution of starch granules within the kernel varies create the proper environment for rumen microbes development. with cereal type (Kotarski et al., 1992; Swan et al., 2006). The ratio of This will allow the microbes to produce butyrate which in turn will amylase:amylopectin also varies in cereal grains and is negatively cause even greater rumen development. Although much attention is correlated with starch digestion (Svihus et al.,2005). The most paid on feeding concentrates to young ruminants, the importance of commonly used grain in calf starters is corn because of the nearer to forages for rumen development should be remembered. Coverdale ideal rate of breakdown in the rumen and its high digestibility (Davis et al. (2004), Hill et al. (2009) reported that early weaned calves fed and Drackley, 1998). Maiga et al. (1994) found that corn gave the forages consumed more feed and had improved weight gains. The best live weight gains. In a study (Lesmeister and Heinrichs, 2004), increase in feed intake has been shown to lead to an increase in VFA roast-rolled corn was reported as the type of processed corn that concentrations (Coverdale et al., 2004). Both particle size and bulk showed the best ability for conversion of ingested nutrient into content will stimulate rumen contractions, which accelerates growth and that prepared the calves rumen for weaning. passage of feedstuffs from the rumen into the intestines (Heinrichs Apart of cereal grains, other ingredients are also used as and Lesmeister, 2005). carbohydrates source, for example cane or sugar beet molasses.

Ration particle size influences ruminal environment, VFA Calf starters commonly contain approximately 5 to 12% liquid production, and papillae structure and function. Chopped or ground molasses to increase palatability, minimize particle separation, and to fine particle size diets decrease rumen pH and cellulolytic bacteria decrease dust (Morales et al., 1989). However, a high concentration populations (Beharka et al., 1998). Moreover ruminal papillae of of molasses (12 vs. 6 %) has been shown to decrease DMI, may animals receiving small forage particles have increased possibly induce palatability problems, reduce average daily gainkeratinization. This decrease in active tissue leads to decreased ADG) and increase the incidence of scouring in calves (Lesmeister VFA absorption (Greenwood et al., 1997b). This could induce post- and Heirrrichs, 2005). ingestive negative effects reducing consumption in the long run. The starter should have a relatively high content of readily Providing chopped diets or forage increases chewing activity, and fermentable carbohydrates but adequate digestible fiber content to consequently increases ruminal pH, and helps to maintain the support the fermentation necessary for proper ruminal tissue growth integrity and healthiness of the rumen wall (Krause et al., 2002; (Greenwood et al., 1997b). The fiber source also influences solid Yansari et al., 2004). feed intake. Diets rich in fiber (Porter et al., 2007; Zanton and

Heinrichs, 2009) and high DMI (Zanton and Heinrichs, 2008) Importance of starter feed intake decrease diet digestibility. Porter et al. (2007) established that dry

matter (DM) digestibility in animals fed high-fiber diets (27% NDF) A gradual transition from liquid to solid feed is important for was lower than calves fed low-fiber diets (20% NDF). Castells et al.

minimizing weight loss and distress at weaning (Weary et al., 2009). (2012) reported that providing chopped oat hay, chopped barley There are a number of factors that affect starter dry matter intake straw, or triticale silage ad libitum with concentrate starter improves (DMI). Quigley (1996) proposed a DMI predicting equation that solid feed consumption and ADG compared calves that have not included calf age, body weight (BW), live weight gain (LWG), milk received forage. However, these benefits were not observed when DMI and calf gender. Nonetheless, many other factors such as hay alfalfa hay was chopped.availability, incidence and severity of diarrheas, method of milk To improve energy intake, calf starter may be supplemented feeding, and environmental temperature may also be used to predict with fat sources. Supplemental fat ingredients in order to increase DMI (Quigley, 1996). The most important factors influencing the the energy content are mostly free fats, like hydrolyzed animal fat early intake of the starter are palatability and texture. However, (Luchini et al., 1993). However, the inclusion of 7.3% fat in the starter nutritional value and digestibility are also important (Davis and decreased starter intake after weaning, and did not improve ADG Drackley, 1998). (Kuehn et al., 1994). Stewart and Schingoethc (1984) fed calves

Calves start consuming small amounts of solid feed at about 14 starters with 6.3% and Luchini et al. (1993) 5 8% fat , however, the days of age (Williams and Frost, 1992; Khan et al., 2008). Yavuz et animals did not benefit from the supplemental fat compared with al. (2015) find a big individual variation in beginning to eat dry feed. calves fed 2.2 or 1.7% fat starter, respectively. In general, starters At low milk intake calves start to consume some dry starter at 6 days above 5% fat generally result in depression of DMI, which negates of age. Intake of solid feed increases quickly when milk rations are the potential of increased energy density to improve energy intake reduced (Khan et al., 2007a,b) or calves are weaned (Jasper and (Davis and Drackley, 1998). O'Brien et al. (2004) reported a greater Weary, 2002). The relationship between milk and solid feed intake average daily gain, higher feed intakes from week 3 through the end has been demonstrated in many researches (Terré et al., 2007; of the trial (at least 42 days of age), earlier weaning age and greater

(

,

.

151

average weekly weights for calves fed a 18% protein, 5% fat starter 2009; Terré et al., 2015). Feeding texturized starter consisting of than calves fed starter with 18% protein and 3% fat. whole grains and pelleted protein concentrate ensured good LWG

and rumen papillae development of calves (Fokkink et al., 2010). The effect of physical form of starter feed Surprisingly, in some trials with feedlot cattle, starch digestibility and

net energy value were greater for whole than for rolled grains Many methods of processing grains are applied with different (Owens et al., 1997). This may be attributed to longer ruminal

changes of grain structure, fermentation into rumen and digestibility retention time for whole than rolled corn. Better daily gain of calves of feeds (Table 1). Dry rolling and grinding decreased size of fed whole maize grain compared to processed grain was repotted particles and produced fine particles. Other methods affect rumen also by Lesmeister (2003).fermentation and digestibility by changing the structure of grain Steam-flaking maize is the most effective method for improving starch granule. Calves generally do not like fine ground (meal) digestibility and utilization of starch, but this processing method is feeds, and palatability and intake are usually lower than other types the most expensive. Several authors have mentioned 6 to 10% of feeds A long time ago Lassiter et al. (1955) found that calves improvement in utilization of starch in trials with growing cattle. In consume more pelleted starter, compared to meal starter feed. small calves, during the milk feeding period, especially when they Recently textured calf starters with corn flakes and pelleted were receiving only concentrate, the level of feeding and passage supplements became popular, due to their increased volume and rate were usually lower and chewing time was longer than in elder palatability compared to meal and pelleted starters (Franklin et al., cattle, so it is expected that rumen fermentation and digestion of 2003; Ghassemi Nejad et al., 2012). Some researchers also used whole grain will be equal to ground and flaked maize. However this successfully whole corn grains plus pelleted protein concentrate hypothesis has to be confirmed in experiments.(Chester-Jones et al., 1991; Owens et al., 1997; Bateman II et al.,

.

Table 1. Impact of various processing techniques on changes of maize and its fermentation into rumen and digestion in small intestine (summarizing of literature by Owens, 2005)

* The number of + shows the degree of processing effect

ProcessingDisrupts pericarp or exposesendosperm

Reducesparticlesize

Disruptsendospermmatrix

Disruptsstarchgranules

Increasesfermentationrate

Increasesintestinaldigestion

Dry rolling

Grinding

Steam flaking

Extrusion

Pelleting

Ensiling

Micronization

Popping

Protease treatment

+++*

+++

+++

+++

+++

-

+

++

-

+

+++

++

-

-

+

+

-

-

-

-

+

++

+

++

?

+

?

-

-

+

+

?

-

?

+++

?

++

++

+++

++

+

++

?

?

++

+

+

++

++

++

+

++

+++

?

Results from experiments about intake and performance of economical ingredients in starter feed for calves. Terré et al. (2015) calves receiving starters in different physical forms are inconsistent. found that calves receiving whole corn have better rumen In general, multiparticle or texturized starters increase starter intake parameters, as calves having straw in their ration. Therefore, there is when compared with a pelleted starter (Warner et al., 1991). Franklin some evidence that it is not need to process the grain for calves. et al. (2003) concluded that a texturized starter would result in better Other authors found better results with pelleted starters (Khan et al., performance than a pelleted or a ground starter (with no differences 2007) or with ground starter (Beharka et al., 1998) than when calves between these two). Porter et al. (2007) reported greater intakes of were fed whole grain. Morrill et al. (1981) established that the calves consuming multiparticle or texturized starters than those extrusion of a calf starter was not advantageous compared with a consuming pelleted starters. However, similar performance and pelleted starter. Moreover, lower DM intakes have been observed in starter intake were reported in the literature when calves were fed unground compared with ground diets that may reflect the increased textured, coarse or ground starters, and ground or pelleted starters time spent ruminating and the decreased rumen content flow rate in (Franklin et al., 2003). Almost equal intake of pelleted and ground the unground diets (Beharka et al., 1998).starter and ADG was reported by Ghorbani et al. (2007). In calves, solid feed, especially concentrate or high

Some authors reported a higher intake and LWG when ground carbohydrate diets, stimulates rumen microbial proliferation and starters were replaced with pelleted (Ghassemi Nejad et al., 2012) or VFA production and subsequently initiates rumen development. textured (steam-flaked) starter (Owens at al., 1997; Ghassemi Therefore, alterations in solid feed intake and its digestibility through Nejad et al., 2012). There are publications showing better gain of a certain mechanical processing method may influence the rate and calves receiving starter with whole grain, compared to ground starter extent of rumen development. Owens et al. (1997) reported that (Chester-Jones and Ziegler, 1991; Owens et al., 1997), and starter grain processing methods and degree of processing influenced DMI with dry rolled grain (Chester-Jones et al., 1991). Jarrah et al. (2013) and digestibility. The highest intake was found in diets containing do not find differences between whole, ground and steam-flaked dry-rolled grains, followed by whole, steam-rolled, and steam-flaked barley, and suggest using whole or coarse ground grain as grains, with finely ground grains resulting in the lowest feed intake.

152

Crocker et al. (1998) reported that starch digestibility was the highest in neonatal calves. Post-weaning and overall starter and total DMI in steam-flaked grains, followed by finely ground, and then dry-rolled were significantly higher in calves fed starter with WC than SFC. grains, and was the lowest in whole grains; however, this is not Post-weaning average daily gain was significantly greater in calves always the case (Reis and Combs, 2000). Published data for fed starter with DRC than SFC. Calves consuming starter containing digestibility in different parts of the digestive tract summarized by RC had similar body weight, feed efficiency, and rumen Owens (2005), for trials with growing cattle receiving lesser than development but increased frame size growth and ruminal butyrate 20% forage in diet, are presented in Table 2. Although that data do production compared to the other corn processing treatments.not include small calves they showed clearly differences connected In a series of trials Bateman et al. (2009) evaluates the physical with methods of processing grains, mostly maize. Data show form of starters containing different types of processed corn on calf improvements in rumen fermentation and digestibility in the small performance. They compared a pelleted versus textured starter (trial intestine after processing maize, especially ensiling high moisture 1), textured starter versus feeding half meal starter with half textured grain and steam flaking. starter (trial 2), textured starters containing whole, steam-flaked, or

Lesmeister and Heinrichs (2004) found that rumen dry rolled corn (trial 3), textured starters containing steam-flaked development, blood VFA concentrations, and ruminal propionate versus dry rolled corn (trial 4) and textured starters containing whole production were improved by incorporation of steam-flaked corn into or dry rolled corn (trial 5). Physical form of starter feed did not affect the calf starter, but the intake, feed efficiency, and growth were any measurements in trials 1, 3, 4, and 5. In trial 2, calves fed starters negatively affected. The effect of calf starter processing on growth manufactured with large amounts of fines had by 11% lower feed and rumen development during the pre-weaning period was studied intake and 6% slower ADG than calves fed a textured starter. When by Castro-Flores et al. (2012).They found that feeding ground, starters contained similar ingredient and nutrient contents, the ground+forage, pelleted, and extruded calf starter did not influence manufacturing processes did not affect calf performance unless the body weight and hip height. Calves on the extruded treatment diet contained a significant amount of fines, which reduced intake showed the lowest papillae height when compared to animals on the and ADG.ground or ground+forage treatment. Chaves et al. (2014) found that Higher starter intake, body weight and daily gain, and a more feeding extruded starter was potentially beneficial for weight gain functional rumen regarding serum and rumen metabolites in calves and morphofunctional rumen development. Extruded starter consuming ground wheat vs dry-rolled wheat, was established by stimulated cell proliferation of the ruminal epithelium, but did not Karkoodi et al. (2014). Skeletal growth measures including body affect the dimensions of the papillary rumen and omasum mitotic length, body barrel, withers height and hip width were not affected by index. treatments.

The effect of wheat processing on rumen conditions and development were investigated in an experiment conducted by Mirghaffari et al. (2013). Calves were fed starter diets containing popped wheat (PW), steam-flaked wheat (SFW), dry-rolled wheat (DRW) or ground wheat (GW). Results indicated that calves that received PW had the highest total VFA, acetate, propionate, butyrate, ammonia nitrogen, rumen wall thickness, papillar width and density. Calves fed DRW and GW experienced the lowest rumen pH throughout the experiment probably because of the high proportion of fine particles in GW. Calves consuming PW apparently had a more functional rumen in comparison with other groups. Offering rolled and whole grains as compared to a finely ground starter improved feed efficiency, growth, and body weight of dairy calves in the study of Coverdale et al. (2004).

The effect of physical form of starter diets on performance, Zhang et al. (2010) reported that calves consuming weaning age, nutrient digestibility and rumen biochemical factors

starter had similar ADG, milk intake, starter intake, total was investigated in a study by Ghassemi Nejad et al. (2012). Dietary DMI, and body frame size, but improved feed efficiency when treatments were mashed (MS), pelleted (PS), and texturized (TS) compared with animals consuming ground corn and extruded corn starter. They concluded that the calves receiving PS and TS diets, starters. ADG was generally decreased during the weaning week for had significantly higher average daily gain than those receiving MS. all treatments, but did not differ significantly among treatments. DMI in calves fed PS and TS was greater than calves fed MS, but Health incidents for calves fed the starter were there was no significant difference in feed efficiency. Weaning age of fewer than in those subjected to the other dietary treatments. calves in MS was longer than with the other two treatments. Crude Hamedi-Maralani et al. (2014) however found that the calves who protein and organic matter digestibility in MS treated calves were received steam flaked barley, ground barley, steam flaked wheat, lower vs the other treatments. Ruminal pH was higher in MS than in steam flaked wheat and ground wheat had respectively 42.2%, the other groups, but ruminal ammonia (g/dl) concentration was not 36.6%, 32% and 31% higher feed intake than the control group different among the treatments. Body measurements such as body (starter diet including ground corn). length, pin width, pin to hip length, size of metacarpus and

The effect of feeding of texturized calf starters containing 33% metatarsus bones, hip height, withers height, stomach size and whole (WC), dry-rolled (DRC), roasted-rolled (RC), or steam-flaked heart girth were not significantly different among the treatments.(SFC) corn on the intake, growth, rumen and blood metabolites, and The effect of diet's physical form on intake and performance rumen development was investigated by Lesmeister and Heinrichs was investigated in a study by Bach et al. (2007). They established (2004). They concluded that the type of processed corn incorporated that the intake seemed to increase when the calves were given multi into calf starter can influence intake, growth, and rumen parameters particle starters (textured feed) compared to pelleted feed. However,

,

steam-flaked corn

steam-flaked corn

Table 2. Site and extent of starch digestion from corn-based diets by feedlot steers fed corn processed by various methods (by Owens, 2005)

Digestibility in:

Total tract, % of intake

Rumen, % of intake

Small intestine, % of flow

In rumen, % of total digestibility

c87.1b68.3b64.6b79.2

a99.1a84.1a92.5a84.7

a99.2a86.5a99.9a87.2

b91.0b63.8b58.8c70.1

Processing method:

Dryrolled

Highmoisture

Steamflaked

Wholegrain

153

the feed efficiency was higher for calves receiving pellets due to physical forms and ADG of young calves. It seems clearly that technological treatment of the feed making the nutrients more ground grains with high content of fine particles in many trials have a available. This resulted in same weight gain in the two groups. negative effect on feed consumption and LWG. It is not however However, the pelleted feed turned out to be economically favorable clear how effectively could be overcome the problem with fines by as it increased the feed efficiency. In another study, Bach et al. adding molasses to the starter feeds. Young calves are chewing very (2010) evaluated the effect of physical form of starter intake and carefully which eliminate the need of grinding grains. At the same performance, however found that final body weight and feed time whole grain, at least partly, has stretch effect of forages.conversion efficiency (ADG/DMI) was not affected by the physical Whole grains especially maize are used very successfully in form of starter. experiments with intake and ADG equal to starters with extensively

Bagheri et al. (2005) reported that weekly and average starter processed grain (steam-flaking, pelleting, popping, extrusion). DM intake, body weight, growth rate, and weaning age were not There is evidence for lower digestibility of whole maize and significantly affected by the processing method of the calf starter especially its starch, compared to stem-flaked or extensively (conventional ground or a commercial pelleted starter). The results processed. On the other side whole grain increased masticating and supported the hypothesis that the easily available ground calf starter salivary flow to the rumen, which increased pH and improved rumen was as effectual as the more costly pelleted form in promoting environment for bacterial activities and synthesis of more microbial adequate starter intake and growth rate needed for the early protein. When whole grain is fed, it is probably possible to decrease weaning of dairy calves. or exclude forage from the diet of very young calves. Additional

Bittar et al. (2009) evaluated the physical form of starter experiments are needed to check interactions and find the balance concentrate (pelleted or coarsely ground) on the performance and between different factors. Age of calves is evidently important for rumen development on dairy calves. They have not identified the mentioned interactions and balances. effect of the physical form on starter concentrate intake, body weight, and daily gain. The physical form of the concentrate also had Protein source of starter feedeffects neither on pH, rumen short chain fatty acids or N-NH rumen 3

Soybean meal (SBM) is one of the most commonly used protein concentration, nor on the morphometric measurements of the sources in calf starters (Davis and Drackley, 1998; Miller-Cushon et forestomach, except for rumen capacity and abomasum weight, al., 2014) and calves fed the soybean meal-based diets performed which were higher for animals fed pelleted starter concentrate.about as well or better than calves fed diets using other sources of protein. Other protein sources like ground or extruded heat-treated soy beans, sunflower meal (SFM), canola meal (CM), corn gluten meal (CGM) and DDGS have also been successfully used for calf starters (Davis and Drackley, 1998; Montoro et al., 2010). Calves prefer soybean meal in comparison with SFM, DDGS or CM(Ghorbani et al., 2007). (Montoro et al., 2010; Miller-Cushon et al., 2014; Miller-Cushon et al., 2014a). However, Miller-Cushon et al. (2014a) reported that when palatable and unpalatable protein sources were mixed, it was possible to improve their palatability. Nonprotein nitrogen sources in starters are not recommended as they depress ADG and feed calves (Forughi et al., 2010).efficiency in young calves (Fiems et al., 1987). Strusińska et al. (2009) examined the effect of whole maize and

The various protein sources affect the rate of protein synthesis oat grains contained in starter concentrates on the performance of by rumen microbes, rumen undegradable feed protein or amino acid calves (during the first 90 days of their life) and selected profile. Furthermore, digestibility of diet could be influenced by the morphometric parameters of the rumen and small intestine. They protein supplements of the diet. Fiems et al. (1985) reported that found that during the first 30 days, higher feed intake and daily gains inclusion of 20% rapeseed meal in calf starters for rearing male in calves fed a diet containing ground cereal components. Over the calves to replace soybean meal decreased ration's organic matter entire experimental period, the supplementation of whole cereal digestibility. Mjoun et al. (2010) reported that distillers grains grains to a diet allowed increasing the average daily gains of calves products were more resistant to ruminal degradation compared with in the experimental group, in comparison with the control group. The soybean products, consequently more protein escaped the rumen addition of whole maize and oat grains to a diet positively affected as rumen undegradable protein in diets containing dried distiller selected morphometric parameters of the rumen and small intestine grains. However, intestinal digestibility of lysine was higher with in calves, which was reflected in a considerable improvement in soybean products (97.3%) than with distillers grains (84.6%). production results during the first 90 days of rearing. The obtained Presflokken and Rise (2003) established that amino acid digestibility results indicate that it is recommended to supplement whole maize varies among feedstuffs.and oat grains to diets for calves, starting from the second month of

Evidently, the degradability of protein into the rumen of calves life.before 4 months of age and especially before weaning was much Pezhveh et al. (2014) researched the effects of partially lower than in aged ruminants (Vazquez-Anon et al., 1993; replacing corn with 2 forms of wheat grain in the ration of young Holtshausen and Cruywagen, 2000). The lack of complete calves. They concluded that starter diets containing whole wheat development of the rumen and its microbial population in pre-and ground corn can improve the performance in young dairy calves weaned calves may explain the lack of conclusive benefits to compared with diets containing ground corn/ground wheat, whole formulating starters with greater share of rumen undegradable corn, or ground corn.protein sources. Swartz et al. (1991), Holtshausen and Cruywagen Reviewed data show significant variation in the results of (2000), and Abdelgadir et al. (1996a) observed no differences in different experiments about intake of starter feeds in different gains of calves fed diets with different rumen undegradable protein

The traditional ground starter appeared as efficacious for early starter intake and growth of pre-weaning dairy calves as the commercial pelleted starter. Calves fed the finely ground or the pelleted form of a similarly formulated starter concentrate had comparable average daily gain, body weight and age at daily intake of 680 g starter Feed pelleting and grain processing reduced weaning age and milk intake in calves but had no effect on feed intake and gain weight until the end of weaning age, when mash starter (M), pelleted starter (P) and heterogenous mixture of moisturized, rolled barley and corn (H) were fed to neonatal Brown Swiss

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concentrations, while Abdelgadir et al. (1996b) and Maiga et al. would be more suitable, because it is the ingested CP amount (1994) established improved performance when rumen (determined in part by the level of DM intake) and not the CP content undegradable protein sources were fed. McCoy et al. (2003) per se, that determines growth.demonstrated trends for slower gains when RUP sources were fed. Several studies have reported on the appropriate protein Warner (1991) reviewed research and reported no advantage to percentages in calf starters for optimal growth of young calves. In using RUP sources in calf starters. These trials showed variable many instances, starter diets containing various percentages of CP, results from adding RUP sources and the major part of trials reported ranging from about 15% to 22%, promoted similar body weight no benefits from the inclusion of RUP sources in calf diets. gains. Sekine et al. (2004), Labussiere et al. (2008), Ozkaya and

Canola is genetically improved rapeseed containing less than Toker (2012) showed that performance and feed intake of calves 2% erucic acid, having low levels of glucosinolates which directly were not affected by CP concentration of the starters. In other cases, effect diet's palatability for livestock. When compared nutritionally to when incremental crude protein in starter diets was tested, live body soybean meal, canola meal is lower in crude protein (32 vs. 44%), weight gains were improved when the protein content was 17% to lower in metabolizable energy (11.3 vs 13.0 MJ/kg), with lower 18% of dry matter, except when starter consumption was restricted digestibility of by-pass protein into small intestine, higher in fat (3.8 (Akayezu et al., 1994). In other studies the authors demonstrated no vs 0.8%) and higher in both calcium and phosphorus. Experiments effect of CP concentration of the starter feeds on feed intake and with canola meal have documented comparable intake and animal performance of calves. Hill et al. (2005) indicated that there were no performance similar to soybean meal (Vincent et al., 1990). differences in the performance of calves feed 18 and 22% CP However, Miller-Cushon et al. (2014) established that calves starters. However, Drackley et al. (2003) reported that calves fed receiving soybean meal had higher daily gain than calves fed starter starters containing 22% CP were more efficient than those fed 18% with canola meal. Similar were results of Franklin et al. (2003). Data CP. Sekine et al. (2004) and Labussiere et al. (2008) showed that the for digestibility are equivocal. Fisher (1980) reported equal performance and feed intake of calves were not affected by CP digestibility of starters with canola meal and soybean meal, while concentration of the starters. They found that starter with 25.5% CP Fiems et al. (1985) found lower digestibility, palatability and LWG of (DM basis) provided modest benefits in starter intake (particularly starter with canola meal, compared with soybean meal. Hence, around weaning) and growth for dairy calves in an enhanced early experimental data for performance of calves and for digestibility of nutrition program compared to a conventional starter (19.6% CP). diets with soybean meal or canola meal as sources of protein in Starter CP content did not affect height, length, or heart girth within starter feed were inconsistent. enhanced milk replacer treatments. In a study, Hill et al. (2007) found

Other products like distillers grains could also be used as a that calf ADG, intake, efficiency, hip width change, or body condition protein source for calves. Chestnut and Carr (2007) reported similar score change did not improve when calves were fed starter with average daily gain when calves were fed textured starter with more than 18% CP fed either as a conventional 20% CP, 20% fat milk soybean meal and starter with 20% dry distillers grain with solubles replacer fed at 454 g/d or a 26% CP, 17% fat milk replacer fed at 680 (DDGS). Rashid et al. (2013) found that inclusion of 25% DDGS in g/d. The low content of CP could induce an excessive accumulation calf starter did not change starter intake and rumen wall and papillae of body fat, while an excessive CP content is expensive and development, compared to control starter. Laarman et al. (2012) inefficient. Furthermore, excessive nitrogen to energy ratios could reported that starch content level had no essential role in feed intake, cause ammonia toxicity and decrease solid feed consumption live weight gain and feed efficiency, and that soybean meal could be (Lobley and Milano, 1997). Therefore, nutrient composition of starter replaced by DDGS and rape seeds (canola) meal. Other studies concentrates must be balanced to avoid inefficient use of protein, have shown that feeding distillers grains as part of a calf starter at an deposition of excess fat, and lower digestibility.inclusion rate of up to 20% of the starter dry matter would result in It is evident that so far there are not enough data about the similar body weight gain and rumen development in dairy calves interactions between the two main sources of protein for pre-(Suarez-Mena et al., 2011). However, Suarez-Mena et al. (2010) weaning calves – milk or milk replacers and starter feeds. Data about reported decreased average daily gain and digestibility of starter possibilities to use different plant protein sources are based more on when DDGS comprised more than 20% of starter ingredient fiber content and digestibility of organic matter, than on the quality of composition. protein (degradability, amino acid content and digestibility,

Lower digestibility and net energy value of canola meal and palatability). It is obvious that it is possible to include canola meal, DDGS compared to soybean meal is a disadvantage, because the DDGS, sunflower meal and other protein sources in calves diet, but energy intake is a first factor determining the growth rate of calves. there are no current data on the level of replacement of soybean The higher crude fiber (acid detergent fiber and neutral detergent meal without decreasing intake of dry feeds and ADG. The fiber) could not be a problem because calves need some fiber in information about the best combination of the main protein sources starter feeds, as a scratch factor to prevent rumen papillae from for calves is also insufficient. It is not clear whether it is possible to forming keratin layers that reduce absorption (Booth, 2003). Corn decrease the quantity of hay or other forage and to increase protein DDGS could be also useful as source of fat in starter feed. Some sources with higher fiber content or whole grains in diet and to what researchers found positive effects of including ingredients improving extent.taste, as milk products in calf starter (Mereu et al., 2013).

The NRC recommendations (2001) for crude protein (CP) content in calf starter are about 18%. Trials by Akayezu et al. (1994), ConclusionsLuchini et al. (1991), and Hill et al. (2007) substantiate that 18% CP diets are adequate. However, Drackley et al. (2003) found that The fast digestive tract morphological and functional calves fed starters containing 22% CP were more efficient than development in young calves makes difficult the study and clear calves fed starters with 18% CP. However the starter and forage identification of the effects of processing grain and other portions of intake is highly variable early in life (Jenny et al., 1991; Kertz and calf starter diet, as well as requirements to the quality of protein Chester-Jones, 2004), which makes difficult to specify what CP level

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sources in diet (degradability, amino acid content and digestibility, Chaves AS, Costa S, Queiroz de Melo L and Pereira MN, 2014. palatability etc.). The contradictory data on the impact of physical Performance of Calves Submitted to Protocols Using Extruded or form and protein sources in calves' starter feeds demand additional Ground Starter. Brazilian Archives of Biology Technology, 57, 695-studies to obtain more information on the interactions between the 700. physical form of starters, rumen fermentation environment and age Chester-Jones H, Zegler DM and Maiske JC, 1991. Feeding of calves. For the Balkan area and many other regions a clear whole or rolled corn with pelleted supplement to Holstein steers from answer to the question about the best possible extent of replacing weaning to 190 kilograms. Journal of Dairy Science, 74, 1765-1771. the expensive soybean meal in the rations with sunflower meal, Chester-Jones H and Ziegler DM, 1994. Feeding whole or rolled canola meal, dry distillers grain with solubles or combination of them corn with pelleted supplement to Holstein steers from weaning to is very important. It is speculated that during the milk feeding period, 190 Kilograms. Journal of Dairy Science, 74, 1765-1771.especially when calves do not receive forage, whole grain is Chestnut AB and Carr DL, 2007. The performance of calves fed probably digested as efficiently as the extensively processed maize. starter feeds containing distillers grains. Journal of Dairy Science,

90, Suppl. 1, 111. Coverdale JA, Tyler HD, Quigley JD and Brumm JA, 2004. Effect of various levels of forage and form of diet on rumen development

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YavuzE, Todorov N, GanchevG and NedelkovK, 2015. The effect Zhang YO, He DCh and Meng QX, 2010. Effect of a mixture of of feeding different milk programs on dairy calf growth, health and steam-flaked corn and soybeans on health, growth, and selected development. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 21 (in blood metabolism of Holstein calves. Journal of Dairy Science, 93, press). 2271-2279.

Review

Genetics and Breeding

Nutrition and Physiology

Effect of physical form and protein source of starter feed on growth and development of dairy calves E. Yavuz, G. Ganchev, N. Todorov

Characterization of Plasmopara viticola isolates from Bulgaria with microsatellite markersK. Kosev, I. Simeonov, G. Djakova, T. Hvarleva

Total phenol content, antioxidant activity of hip extracts and genetic diversity in a small population of R. canina L. cv. Plovdiv 1 obtained by seed propagationM. Rusanova, K. Rusanov, S. Stanev, N. Kovacheva, I. Atanassov

Correlation between qualitative-technological traits and grain yield in two-row barley varieties N. Markova Ruzdik, D.Valcheva, D.Vulchev, Lj. Mihajlov, I. Karov, V. Ilieva

Application of path coefficient analysis in assessing the relationship between growth-related traits in indigenous Nigerian sheep (Ovis aries) of Niger State, NigeriaS. Egena, D. Tsado, P Kolo, A. Banjo, M. Adisa-Shehu-Adisa

Effect of height of stem on the productivity of winter common wheatN. Tsenov, T. Gubatov, E. Tsenova

Influence of the direction of crossing on activities of heterosis regarding the height of plants and number of leaves in Burley tobacco hybridsTs. Radoukova, Y. Dyulgerski, L. Dospatliev

Common winter wheat lines with complex resistance to rusts and powdery mildew combined with high biochemical indexV. Ivanova, S. Doneva, Z. Petrova

Study of emmer (Triticum dicoccum (Schrank) Shuebl.) accessions for traits related to spike productivity and grain quality in connection to durum wheat improvementK. Taneva, V. Bozhanova, B. Hadzhiivanova

Phenotypic stability of yield on varieties and lines of durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.)R. Dragov, D. Dechev

Classification and regression tree analysis in modeling the milk yield and conformation traits for Holstein cows in BulgariaA. Yordanova, S. Gocheva-Ilieva, H. Kulina, L.Yordanova, I. Marinov

Potential N-supplying ability of soil depending on the size of soil units under different soil tillage systems M. Nankova, P. Yankov

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Production Systems

Agriculture and Environment

Product Quality and Safety

Tolerance and own tolerance of wheat under conditions of permanent and long-term rotationN. Nankov, G. Milev, A. Ivanova, I. Iliev, M. Nankova

Influence of fertilization and sowing density on grain production of Sorghum bicolor L., in the climatic conditions of Central Moldavia, RomaniaS. Pochişcanu, T. Robu, A. Gherasim, M. Zaharia

Effect of locomotor activity of Russian sturgeons (Acipenser Gueldenstaedtii Brandt) on water heat flows in a recirculation system K. Peychev, Y. Staykov, S. Stoyanova

The effect of stocking density on some hydrochemical parameters and growth traits in European perch (Perca fluviatilis L.), cultivated in a recirculation systemG. Zhelyazkov

Agroecological assessment of wastewater from Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant by physico-chemical parameters G. Kostadinova, D. Dermendzhieva, G. Petkov, I. Taneva

Exploring the yield potential and spike characteristics of Tritordeum (×Tritordeum Ascherson et Graebner) accessions under the conditions of South DobrodzaH. Stoyanov

Effect of amitraz on varroosis in bees (Apis mellifera L.)K. Gurgulova, I. Zhelyazkova, S. Takova, K. Malinova

New data about Crocus olivieri J. Gay on the territory of Sinite Kamani Natural Park, BulgariaN. Grozeva, M. Todorova, M. Gerdzhikova, G. Panayotova, N. Getova, D. Dohchev, K. Tsutsov

Near Infrared Spectroscopy and aquaphotomics for monitoring changes during yellow cheese ripeningS. Atanassova

Investigation on the technological traits of Bulgarian and imported merino wool batchesD. Pamukova

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Instruction for authors

Preparation of papersPapers shall be submitted at the editorial office typed on standard typing pages (A4, 30 lines per page, 62 characters per line). The editors recommend up to 15 pages for full research paper ( including abstract references, tables, figures and other appendices)The manuscript should be structured as follows: Title, Names of authors and affiliation address, Abstract, List of keywords, Introduction, Material and methods,Results, Discussion, Conclusion, Acknowledgements (if any), References, Tables, Figures.The title needs to be as concise and informative about the nature of research. It should be written with small letter /bold, 14/ without any abbreviations. Names and affiliation of authorsThe names of the authors should be presented from the initials of first names followed by the family names. The complete address and name of the institution should be stated next. The affiliation of authors are designated by different signs. For the author who is going to be corresponding by the editorial board and readers, an E-mail address and telephone number should be presented as footnote on the first page. Corresponding author is indicated with *.Abstract should be not more than 350 words. It should be clearly stated what new findings have been made in the course of research. Abbreviations and references to authors are inadmissible in the summary. It should be understandable without having read the paper and should be in one paragraph. Keywords: Up to maximum of 5 keywords should be selected not repeating the title but giving the essence of study. The introduction must answer the following questions: What is known and what is new on the studied issue? What necessitated the research problem, described in the paper? What is your hypothesis and goal ?Material and methods: The objects of research, organization of experiments, chemical analyses, statistical and other methods and conditions applied for the experiments should be described in detail. A criterion of sufficient information is to be possible for others to repeat the experi-ment in order to verify results.Results are presented in understandable

tables and figures, accompanied by the statistical parameters needed for the evaluation. Data from tables and figures should not be repeated in the text.Tables should be as simple and as few as possible. Each table should have its own explanatory title and to be typed on a separate page. They should be outside the main body of the text and an indication should be given where it should be inserted.Figures should be sharp with good contrast and rendition. Graphic materials should be preferred. Photographs to be appropriate for printing. Illustrations are supplied in colour as an exception after special agreement with the editorial board and possible payment of extra costs. The figures are to be each in a single file and their location should be given within the text. Discussion: The objective of this section is to indicate the scientific significance of the study. By comparing the results and conclusions of other scientists the contribution of the study for expanding or modifying existing knowledge is pointed out clearly and convincingly to the reader.Conclusion: The most important conse- quences for the science and practice resulting from the conducted research should be summarized in a few sentences. The conclusions shouldn't be numbered and no new paragraphs be used. Contributions are the core of conclusions. References:In the text, references should be cited as follows: single author: Sandberg (2002); two authors: Andersson and Georges (2004); more than two authors: Andersson et al.(2003). When several references are cited simultaneously, they should be ranked by chronological order e.g.: (Sandberg, 2002; Andersson et al., 2003; Andersson and Georges, 2004).References are arranged alphabetically by the name of the first author. If an author is cited more than once, first his individual publications are given ranked by year, then come publications with one co-author, two co-authors, etc. The names of authors, article and journal titles in the Cyrillic or alphabet different from Latin, should be transliterated into Latin and article titles should be translated into English. The original language of articles and books translated into English is indicated in parenthesis after the bibliographic reference (Bulgarian = Bg, Russian = Ru, Serbian = Sr, if in the Cyrillic, Mongolian =

Мо, Greek = Gr, Georgian = Geor., Japanese = Jа, Chinese = Ch, Arabic = Аr, etc.)The following order in the reference list is recommended:Journal articles: Author(s) surname and initials, year. Title. Full title of the journal, volume, pages. Example:Simm G, Lewis RM, Grundy B and Dingwall WS, 2002. Responses to selection for lean growth in sheep. Animal Science, 74, 39-50Books: Author(s) surname and initials, year. Title. Edition, name of publisher, place of publication. Example: Oldenbroek JK, 1999. Genebanks and the conservation of farm animal genetic resources, Second edition. DLO Institute for Animal Science and Heal th, Netherlands.Book chapter or conference proceedings: Author(s) surname and initials, year. Title. In: Title of the book or of the proceedings followed by the editor(s), volume, pages. Name of publisher, place of publication. Example: Mauff G, Pulverer G, Operkuch W, Hummel K and Hidden C, 1995. C3-variants and diverse phenotypes of unconverted and converted C3. In: Provides of the Biological Fluids (ed. H. Peters), vol. 22, 143-165, Pergamon Press. Oxford, UK.Todorov N and Mitev J, 1995. Effect of level of feeding during dry period, and body condition score on reproductive perfor-

thmance in dairy cows,IX International Conference on Production Diseases in Farm Animals, September 11–14, Berlin, Germany.Thesis:Hristova D, 2013. Investigation on genetic diversity in local sheep breeds using DNA markers. Thesis for PhD, Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria, (Bg).

The Editorial Board of the Journal is not responsible for incorrect quotes of reference sources and the relevant violations of copyrights.

Animal welfareStudies performed on experimental animals should be carried out according to internationally recognized guidelines for animal welfare. That should be clearly described in the respective section “Material and methods”.

Volume 7, Number 2June 2015

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