Resource Package on Counselling in Adult Education

COMPETENCIES OF THE

CAREER COUNSELLORS

Handbook

This handbook was realised in the framework of the Socrates Programme –

Grundtvig I within the project „The Development of Psychopedagogical and

Professional Counselling Services” - CP-1-2002-1-RO-GRUNDTVIG-G1

COMPETENCIES OF THE

CAREER COUNSELLORS

Handbook

Timisoara 2004

Coordinator:

Romanian Institute for Adult Education, Timisoara, Romania

Partners:

Germany: German Institute for Adult Education, Bonn

Romania: Regional Centre for Adult Education, Arad

Institute of Educational Sciences, Bucharest

Culture House, Timisoara

Spain: Barcelona University - Special Centre for Research in

Theories and Practices for Overcoming Inequalities,

Barcelona

Sweden: Swedish TelePedagogic Knowledge Centre, Nyköping

Authors:

Germany

Brigitte Bosche - DIE, Bonn

Markus Bretschneider - DIE, Bonn

Romania

Gabriela Buţă - Culture House Timisoara,

Speranţa Cîrlea - IES, Bucharest

Amelia Marian - RIAE, Timisoara

Dana Balas - RCAE, Arad

Simona Sava - RIAE, Timisoara - project coordinator

Spain

Jesús Gómez Alonso - CREA, Barcelona

Elena Duque Sanchez - CREA, Barcelona

Itxaso Tellado Ruiz De Gauna - CREA, Barcelona

Sergio Gonzalez Marfil - CREA, Barcelona

Adriana Aubert Simon - CREA, Barcelona

Javier Díez Palomar - CREA, Barcelona

Silvia Carretero Titos - CREA, Barcelona

Sweden

Kennet Lindquist - STPCK, Nyköping

Scientific consultant:

Mihai Jigău PhD - IES; coordinator of Euroguidance Romania

1

SUMMARY

Handbook

1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 4 2. THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO A COMPETENCY

FRAMEWORK FOR ADULT CAREER COUNSELLORS ............... 10 3. THE MOST RELEVANT CAREER COUNSELLORS

COMPETENCIES .................................................................................... 21 3.1. Professional Behaviour .......................................................... 21

3.1.1. Adhere to the Code of Ethics and the Ethical Decision-

Making Model .............................................................................. 21

3.1.2. Demonstrate Professional Attributes ................................. 25

3.1.3. Demonstrate a Commitment to Professional Development

...................................................................................................... 28

3.1.3.1. Develop Relationships with Other Professionals ......... 28

3.1.3.2. Demonstrate a Commitment to Lifelong Learning ...... 31

3.1.3.3. Keep up to Date with Technology ................................. 33

3.1.4. Use Analytical Skills.......................................................... 35

3.1.4.1. Apply a Solution-Focused Framework ......................... 35

3.1.4.2. Collect, Analyse and Use Information .......................... 37

3.1.5. Manage Work ..................................................................... 38

3.1.5.1. Use Planning and Time Management Skills ................. 38

3.1.5.2. Follow Case and Project Management Procedures ...... 41

3.1.5.3. Document Client‟s Interactions and Progress ............... 43

3.1.5.4. Evaluate the Service Provided to Clients ...................... 44

3.2. Interpersonal Competencies ................................................... 48

3.2.1. Respect Diversity ............................................................... 51

3.2.1.1. Recognize Diversity ....................................................... 51

3.2.1.2. Respect Diversity ............................................................ 52

3.2.2. Communicate Effectively .................................................. 54

2

3.2.2.1. Work with Climate and Context to Enhance

Communication ............................................................................ 55

3.2.2.2. Use a Framework for Verbal Communication ............. 56

3.2.2.3. Use a Framework for Written Communication ............ 57

3.2.2.4. Use effective Listening Skills ........................................ 58

3.2.2.5. Clarify and Provide Feedback ........................................ 59

3.2.2.6. Establish and Maintain Collaborative Work

Relationship .................................................................................. 61

3.2.3. Develop Productive Interaction With Participants ........... 62

3.2.3.1. Foster Participants Self-Reliance and Self-Management

....................................................................................................... 62

3.2.3.2. Deal With Reluctant Participants................................... 64

3.3. Facilitated Individual and Group Learning .................................. 66

3.3.1. Possess Knowledge about how to Facilitate Learning...... 67

3.3.1.1. Describe Commonly-Accepted Principles of Learning69

3.3.1.2. Define Techniques Commonly Used to Facilitate

Learning ........................................................................................ 73

3.3.2. Facilitate Learning ............................................................. 79

3.3.2.1. Prepare for Program Delivery ........................................ 79

3.3.2.2. Determination Clients‟ Existing Competencies ........... 82

3.3.2.3 Deliver Programs ............................................................. 83

3.3.2.4 Evaluate Programs ........................................................... 85

3.4. Career Counselling ................................................................ 88

3.4.1. Possess Knowledge in Career Counselling ....................... 89

3.4.1.1. Explain Major Theories and Models Pertaining to

Counselling ................................................................................... 89

3.4.1.2. Explain Major Theories and Models Pertaining to

Career Development .................................................................... 95

3.4.1.3. Explain Major Models Pertaining to Change and

Transition .................................................................................... 103

3.4.1.4. Describe Barriers to Career Development .................. 105

3.4.1.5. Describe Computerized Career Planning Systems and

Information Resources ............................................................... 109

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3.4.1.6. Describe Types of Educational/Training Opportunities

and Resources ............................................................................. 114

3.4.1.7. Work with Labour Market Information ...................... 117

3.4.2. Demonstrate Methods and Practices in the Interaction with

the Clients ................................................................................... 119

3.4.2.1. Develop a Method of Practice that Builds on

Established or Recognized Ideas ............................................... 125

3.4.2.2. Establish and Maintain a Collaborative Relationship

with Clients ................................................................................. 127

3.4.2.3. Explore Issues ............................................................... 128

3.4.2.4. Develop and Implement a Process for Achieving Clients

Goals That is Consistent with Own Method of Practice ......... 130

3.4.2.5. Monitor Progress .......................................................... 133

3.5 Information and Resource Management .................................... 137

3.5.1 Develop and Maintain an Information and Resource

Database ..................................................................................... 139

3.5.1.1. Describe the Role of Information and Resource

Management in Career Development ....................................... 139

3.5.1.2. Describe Classification Systems .................................. 142

3.5.1.3. Determine the Information Needs of Clients and

Community ................................................................................. 146

3.5.1.4. Establish and Maintain an information and Resource

Database ...................................................................................... 148

3.5.2. Provide Clients with Access to Information ................... 150 ANNEXES ............................................................................................... 172

National Experiences Concerning the Career Counsellor‟s

Competency Profile .................................................................... 173

Annexe 1: Case of Germany ...................................................... 173

Annexe 2: Case of Romania ...................................................... 179

Annexe 3: Case of Spain ............................................................ 185

Annexe 4: Case of Sweden ......... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Self-assessment Questionnaire ................................................... 192

Checklist for Success .................................................................. 201

4

1. INTRODUCTION

The Handbook hereby represents the outcome of an international

partnership involving professionals from Germany, Romania, Spain and

Sweden. In order to understand the context for developing this manual, we

will offer a general overview on the Grundtvig 1 Project “The Development

of Psycho-pedagogical and Professional Counselling Services” which is to

be seen as the framework for all efforts undertaken by partners to elaborate

this Handbook as a European product in the field of adult counselling.

The rationale of the project “The Development of Psycho-pedagogical and

Professional Counselling Services” is pointed out by the needs mentioned

in the 5th key message of “The Memorandum on Lifelong Learning”.

According to this message, it is necessary to assure the conditions for

everyone to have easy access to quality information and advice

regarding educational opportunities across Europe and during the

entire lifetime.

For many people, in the past, passing from education to the labour market

was an event happening once in a lifetime. Today everyone needs

information and advice regarding “what they have to do from now on”, at

least a few times within their lifetime and, maybe, in unexpected moments.

This is an integrated part of the planning and development of a lifetime

project. In order to consider options and to make decisions it is necessary to

have relevant and precise information and a professional advice that should

help people to clarify their options. Beside the part of "distributing

information" it is also necessary to guide the person that makes a decision

that is most suitable for his or her life. Until now those people who had to

face difficulties in their professional life had also to suffer in a lot of

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situations because of the lack of psycho-pedagogical and professional

counsellors who should inform, guide and counsel them regarding how to

cope with learning barriers and what profession might be appropriate for

them. One of the premises of getting an easier access to the labour market

and of improving the employability is a good counselling service regarding

the job possibilities.

Based on this reality, the project aim was to improve the quality of adult

counselling services by adapting them to the adult needs and to the

modern society requirements.

During the first project meeting (Timisoara, November 2002), a general

project strategy has been developed in order to ensure the best way of

achieving the goals of the project.

The situation that the practitioners in Adult Education field claim the

necessity of improving the quality of their services is very similar in all the

countries involved as partners in the project, as it resulted from the Country

Reports elaborated in the first phase of the project. The main gaps identified

through this Need Analysis resulted after comparing and synthesising the

National Reports (Germany, Romania, Spain, Sweden), were as follows:

The necessity for continuous training. The counsellors need to be

aware of and exercise new working methods, including the use of

ICT in adult counselling.

Informational needs. Counsellors from all countries explicitly had

formulated needs for a structured theoretical framework in the field

of adult counselling.

Competencies development. It is important for counsellors to have

more information about competencies in the field of adult

counselling (what kind of competencies a practitioner must have,

how to assess and develop them), in order to perform services at

qualitative standards.

The projects activities and outputs respond promptly to these gaps by

offering the counsellors two resources, both focused on the issue of

Competencies in the Adult Career Counselling:

a Handbook - as a theoretical framework compatible at European

level and,

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Training materials as practical tools to be used together with the

Handbook by trainers and practitioners in the field of adult

counselling.

The pedagogical approaches used in the elaboration of the Training materials

and of the Handbook are based on the principles of linking theory with

practice, by providing examples of good practice and making realistic

illustrations of the theoretical aspects. These tools are also designed in an

interactive way and are practice oriented, the idea behind them being to

elaborate useful tools that will help and enable the practitioners to find

suitable solutions for many situations.

The categories of persons who will directly use the outputs will be the

counsellors’ trainers and the educational and vocational counsellors.

Beneficiaries of the project will be also all the counsellors working in

educational institutions for adults who want to enhance their activities

and competencies in counselling.

The nature of the target group that the project ultimately aims to reach

covers: unemployed people over 40 years old, young adults (between 16-

25 years old) with risk of social marginalisation. Due to the improving of

the psycho-pedagogical competencies on counselling, by benefiting from

the outputs of the project, all the adults can benefit from more qualitative

services offered by better-qualified counsellors.

The group of counsellors working in Adult Education (AE) institutions who

will benefit from the dissemination of the training module and of the

handbook for counselling we expect to be about 400 in Romania, and about

2000 in Germany, about 700 in Spain, 300 in Denmark. The figures are

more or less the same for the other countries that might be interested to

benefit from these products that can be easy and very well adapted and used

everywhere.

During the second project meeting (Bonn, May 2003) the structure of the

Handbook and Training Materials has been modified, in order to respond to

the identified needs from the Country Reports. In this respect, it has been

decided that the Canadian Standards and Guidelines for Career

Development is the most suitable and complex model of competencies to be

adapted to the project target groups needs. Moreover, a common decision has

been made: both materials to be elaborated on the modular principle: every

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theoretical unit of the Handbook to have a correspondent practical unit in the

Training Materials and together to form a specific units for the counsellor‟s

training. Each unit aims at developing one competency, as follows:

Professional Behaviour, Interpersonal Competency, Career Counselling,

Facilitated Individual and Group Learning an Information and Resource

Management.

During the third Project meeting (Barcelona, November 2003) the fist

version of the Handbook and of the Training Materials was elaborated and put

in correspondence. Partners offered feedback, made comments and

suggestions, according to an assessment grid, concerning the further

development of the materials. Quality assurance was the most important

concern of this meeting, establishing the specific elements to be revised.

There was also established the validation strategy for both materials: in

Romania modules to be applied on a group of about 20 counsellors coming

from AE institutions and regional methodological centres for adult education,

during a 5-day training session. The German and Spanish partners are in

charge of validating the materials by asking feedback from experts and critical

friends and the Swedish partner to test the materials online.

The findings of this activity are seen as a SWOT analyse concerning the

elaborated materials. The collected suggestions were used for improving, once

more the contents of the project outputs, in order to a better correspondence

with the practitioners needs.

At the last project meeting (Stockholm, May 2004) the priority of the

working agenda were:

To analyse the final version of the Handbook and Training

materials (format, presentation, publishing, and number of

copies).

To establish the dissemination network for the best visibility of

the project and its outcomes: Handbook and Training Materials.

The Handbook includes the following chapters:

1. Introductions (which comprises an overview about the project and

the outcomes, as a “story” of elaborating the Handbook and the Training

Materials).

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2. Theoretical approaches to a competency framework for adult

career counsellors (a general introduction into the competency theories,

necessity and importance of competency models for practitioners).

3. Adult Career Counselling Competencies (the chapter tries to

bring clarifications concerning five of the most relevant competencies

needed in the field of Adult Career Counselling:

Professional Behaviour.

Interpersonal Competency.

Career Counselling.

Facilitated Individual and Group Learning.

Information and Resource Management.

Annexes including:

The National experiences from the partner countries

concerning the use of career counselling competencies

models

The Self-assessment Questionnaire – helps the counsellors to

evaluate their competencies

The Checklist for Success

The Handbook must be seen therefore as a tool for accepting personal

responsibilities for one's own development and also a guideline for:

understanding adult life as a process of change and development;

understanding the motivation behind and the nature of adult

learning;

understanding cultural, social, and economic influences on adult

learning;

developing bridges between educational, work, and personal lives of

adults;

working to promote personal development and client well-being;

9

understanding the importance and complexity of interpersonal

relationship in learning;

developing basic counselling skills and competencies;

recognizing the open-ended nature of the helping process.

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2. THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO A

COMPETENCY FRAMEWORK FOR ADULT

CAREER COUNSELLORS

In the context of transformations registered at a societal level, the

individuals must face challenges regarding the change of their working

place or career. In order to properly handle these new existential contexts,

where work and career are looked upon as core areas of life, and concepts

such as career development and career choice are important for all

individuals, we need specialised informational resources as well as a large

spectrum of counselling services, which should facilitate the process of

decision or personal choices making.

According to one of the 5th key message from Memorandum (Brussels,

2002) on Lifelong Learning – Rethinking guidance and counselling, a new

approach is needed which envisages the counselling as a continuously

accessible service for all the people, and which overcomes the distinction

between educational, vocational and personal guidance.

As an response to all this new requirements, career counselling provides an

alternative through it‟s broad range of programs and services that help

people explore self and career options, understand and access labour market

information, acquire critical employability skills and facilitate the transition

process from the world of education to the world of work. Thorough the

services provided career counselling enable individuals to lead a satisfying

life in a constantly changing work environment.

11

In this respect, there is a strong emphasis on the nature, quality, and

accessibility of the counselling services and on identifying the special

knowledge and skill requirements for the service providers. On a practical

level, it is imperative that career counsellors follow professional and ethical

guidelines in their specific counselling roles and settings. A special

attention is paid to competency standards, on how to acquire or enhance the

minimum level of knowledge and skills necessary to provide qualitative

counselling services. These competency standards provide relevant criteria

for each practitioner on how to evaluate their specific knowledge and skills

as part of their continuing professional education process.

In order to be able to grasp the importance of using a certain competency

model in career counselling practice first, we have to provide a

comprehensive definition of the term competency, and to point out some of

its important dimensions, which can be found under the frame of different

competency models.

The way of defining competencies in the field of human resources is the

closest one to the undergoing we are aiming at. In this respect, the concept

of competency appears to be “an underlying characteristic of a person

which results in effective and/or superior performance on the job” (Klemp,

1980). Any attempt to define competencies ought to direct to certain

knowledge, skills and attitudes specific to the envisaged profession, the

competency being seen as “a cluster of related knowledge, skills and

attitudes that affects a major part of one‟s job (role or responsibility)”.

These competency components strongly correlated with the performance on

the job can be measured with well-accepted standards and can be developed

or improved via training (Parry, 1996).

In order to be able to offer quality counselling services it is not enough just

to define the competencies linked to some particular types of counselling,

but also to provide an integrate model that comprises all its certain

components. Lucia and Lepsinger (1999) stated that a competency model is

necessarily built on a complex and particular mixture of knowledge, skills

and personal characteristics that have to be performed in a certain

counselling context. Although straightforward these competencies might

seem easy to identify, develop or assess, the reality of building a

competency model is far more complicated than that.

In a competency model, the person‟s characteristics are the most complex

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components, especially because it can be represented by an aptitude, an

innate characteristics to acquire some special skills or core personality

traits. Some of these traits like: self-confidence, self-sufficiency, emotional

stability is essential in performing specific functions and developing certain

competencies.

The certain skills required by a competency can be extremely diverse,

varying from highly proficiencies to complex and less tangible capabilities.

The skills implied by a certain competency could be easier or harder to

measure and put in an inventory. Also, according to the level of difficulty

of the implied knowledge, competencies can be easy to measure or

complex to asses.

Elaborated during years of research and good practice, the model of

competencies proposed by Lucia and Lepsinger (1999) includes both innate

and acquired abilities, and can be presented as a pyramid.

Competency Pyramid (apud Lucia & Lepsinger, 1999)

The proposed competency model can be interpreted from bottom to top. At

the foundation of a specific competency there have to be core personality

traits, innate talents and aptitudes. These can be incorporated in a large

variety of skills and knowledge acquired through learning and experience.

Behavior

Knowledge

Skills

Aptitudes

Personal

characteristics

13

At the top, the specific sets of behaviours represent the manifestations of all

the innate and acquired abilities. The idea of expressing the abilities in

behavioural terms has a great importance and seems to be a common

denominator for many competency models.

In order to assure the validity and applicability of a competency model,

besides identifying the necessary set of competencies, it is essential to

provide examples when a particular competency is demonstrated. Also,

although the innate characteristics have a strong impact on building a

competency model, it is important to express the competencies in

behavioural terms, because behaviours can be taught and modified and

asses.

Regarding the methodology used in elaborating competency models, since

the first model proposed by McClealland (1973), the methods have evolved

managing to identify with accuracy the behaviours required to successfully

perform a given role, in our case the counsellor‟s one.

Some of the most popular methods of building a competency model are:

The Job Competence Assessment Method Dubois (1993).

Generic Model Overlay Method.

Flexible Job Competency Model Method.

Accelerated Competency Systems Method (1997).

The quality of the counselling services offered by a practitioner is highly

related to an ongoing process of self-improvement, which refers to

competencies, functions and basic or specific counselling skills. In a

training program for councillors it is very important to follow a

competency-based model, especially built on a functional approach – the

functions that graduates of the program might perform in practice. Below a

certain area of specialization (e.g.: school, career, personal counselling)

there are always some core competencies that apply to all.

In this context, a question is raised: What skills, knowledge and

characteristics are required to do counselling? All the doubtful aspects

concerning the set of competencies necessary for the counsellors may

become clear using a competency framework.

A competency framework “describes the particular combination of the

14

skills, knowledge and characteristics, personal behaviours needed to

effectively perform a certain role” (Lucia, 1999).

A comprehensive competency framework can work as a useful instrument

in designing a training programme or conducting day by day practice;

ensuring that all the career counsellors will have a similar set of abilities

and characteristics by providing a list of behaviours and skills that must be

developed to maintain satisfactory levels of performance. A competency

framework is a mean to address the counsellors‟ needs but not only of

them, shows the role expected to be preformed by the counsellors, or what

counsellors should focus on in their own performance.

The benefits of competencies framework could be approached from a lot of

points of view, such as (Lucia, 1999):

a) Selection:

provides a complete picture on the counselling

requirements;

helps distinguish between competencies that are trainable

and those that are more difficult to develop;

b) Training and development:

enables people to focus on the skills, knowledge and

characteristics that have the most impact on their work;

ensures the adequate training and development

opportunities for the counsellors;

makes the most effective use of training and development

time and money;

provides a framework for ongoing coaching and feedback;

c) Appraisal:

provides a shared understanding of what will be monitoring

and measured;

focuses and facilitates the performance appraisal

discussion;

15

provides focus for gaining information about a person‟s

behaviour on the job;

d) Succession planning:

clarifies the skills, knowledge and characteristics required

for the job or role in question;

provides a method to assess a counsellor‟s readiness for the

role;

focuses training and development plans to address missing

competencies.

Nowadays, it is essential to build a competency framework on the common

points of models that have been developed to date. Such a competency

framework must be based on what counsellors need to do in order to

provide quality services to clients, rather than the training they should

receive. It accounts for the activities that professionals perform, and

therefore is easily understood by both practitioners and clients. This

approach has some aspects, such as:

It recognizes that people acquire proficiency from many sources

and ultimately, it is more important to address what people can

do, rather than how they learned to do it.

It is closely linked to specific competencies for career

counselling.

It could serve as a template for developing training programs to

help practitioners acquire counselling competencies.

In the specialized literature, there are presented several initiatives for

developing a comprehensive competency framework in career counselling

field. Some approaches are built upon the roles performed by career

development practitioners, others on the special type of training that career

practitioners require, focusing on certain areas of practice, functions or

tasks performed, outlining the skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes needed.

For example, the National Career Development Association (NCDA), a

division of the American Counselling Association (ACA), established

professional competency statements that provide guidance for the minimum

16

competencies necessary to perform effectively career counselling. Skills

and knowledge are represented by designated competency areas, which

have been developed by professional career counsellors and counsellor

educators. The Career Counselling Competency Statements (1997) can

serve as a guide for career counselling training programs or as a checklist

for persons that want to acquire or to enhance their skills in career

counselling. According to this model, in order to work as a professional

engaged in career counselling, the individual must demonstrate minimum

level of competencies in eleven designated areas, such as: career

development theory; individual and group counselling skills; individual /

group assessment; information / resources; program promotion,

management and implementation; coaching, consultation and performance

improvements; diverse populations; supervision; ethical / legal issues;

research / evaluation; technology.

Some aspects determine the nature of the competency framework in career

counselling, with a strong application to practitioner preparation and

professional training, such as:

Building the framework on the common points of existing

competencies models.

Focusing on competencies needed to provide direct services to

clients.

Concentrating on what service providers need to do in order to

offer quality services to clients.

In 2001, The Canadian Guidelines and Standards developed a important

taxonomy for Career Practitioners, intending to spell out the competencies

that service providers need in order to deliver comprehensive career

services to clients across the lifespan. By working in partnership with

associations and practitioner groups, the standards / guidelines have been

built from within the profession by the people who deliver career

development services and programs. Taken as a whole, the standards and

guidelines map out the knowledge, skills and attitudes that practitioners

need in order to deliver quality career counselling services to clients.

The purpose of developing such competency framework was to provide the

structure for developing guidelines and standards that ultimately will

outline the skills, knowledge, and personal attributes required for

17

responding to client needs in contemporary society. The framework

provides comprehensive, easily understood definitions of the envisaged

competencies, so that practitioners and clients easily understand them.

The framework was designed by following several core principles, such as:

The framework must be open to discussion, feedback and

inquiries from as many people and organizations as possible.

The framework must be flexible and respond to a wide number of

professionals with varying degrees of formal education and a

broad range of experience. Emphasis was placed on respecting

differences of training and experience in the profession.

The goal was to solve the seeming paradox of creating an

inclusive framework that would be valued and meaningful to

professionals, their clients and employers.

Also, it was decided that the model would focus on the areas of service

provided to clients and on the functions performed and tasks undertaken in

offering that service. A functional approach that focuses on direct services

to clients, would ultimately identify the skills, knowledge, and personal

attributes unique to career development professionals, and could in the end

serve as a template for developing training programs to help practitioners

acquire those competencies.

All the people involving in the process of development considered that an

efficient competency framework must be built, following these principles:

building on consensus;

focusing on services provided direct to clients;

recognizing existing best practices;

integrating the diversity of roles and skill sets existing in the

field.

The final version of the model includes three types of competencies and

uses a code of ethics as a foundation:

Core competencies consist of the skills, knowledge, and attitudes

that all career development professionals require. In this context a

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special attention is paid to attitudes that direct the acquisition and

proper usage of a well-defined set of knowledge and skills. These

attitudes refer to the openness to researching change in the nature

of work, lifelong learning, self-directness, service orientation, and

growth toward independence and interdependence. The core skills

are usually represented by educational and occupational analysis

(e.g.: finding resources, critical events in career development and

educational practices, policy interpretation and application). All

these are closely linked to some core knowledge that is generally

represented by resources / materials / tools.

Areas of specialization are additional skills, knowledge, and

attitudes that may be required depending on the type of work

setting and the client groups that are being served.

Common skills and knowledge consist of competencies that are

used in more than one area of specialization, but not in all. Initial

field-testing of the standards document revealed that some

competencies were relevant to more than one area of

specialization. Rather than list these competencies as part of each

Area of Specialization, they are grouped together and called

Common Skills and Knowledge.

Following this structure the Canadian competency framework can offer

suggestions for professional development, be a guide in developing training

programs, or a framework for licensing process. The core envisaged

functions of this framework are the following:

Means for recognizing the duties performed by professionals and

organizations specializing in career counselling:

means for recognizing the professional capabilities of

professionals and organizations specializing in career

development;

guide to develop curriculum for training career counsellor;

means for raising the level of competency in the

profession;

Means for creating enough common points in various initiatives

19

to allow a large degree of occupational mobility for career

professionals.

The competency framework answers to future demands, provides a

foundation for designing career counsellors training and for quality

assurance to the public, recognizes and validates the broad practitioner‟s

skill sets and creates a common language in career counselling field.

This competency framework could be used in many ways:

a guide for practitioners to self-assess their knowledge and skills;

a means for identifying gaps in training or service delivery;

a template for curriculum development;

a model for performance appraisal;

a method for planning professional development.

Also, the Canadian competency framework that will be used as a guideline

for this handbook challenges the future research in the field to provide an

answer to the following questions:

How useful is this distinction between core and specialized

competencies in the process of building competency standards?

What is the experts‟ perception regarding the importance of some

specialized counselling competencies?

Which of the current career counselling competencies are

components of the general practice of counselling, and which

competencies are particular to a specific practice?

References

Lucia, A. D. (1999). The Art and Science of Competency Models.

Pinpointing Critical Success Factors in Organizations. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass / Pfeiffer.

20

Jigau, M. (coord.) (2003). Consilierea carierei adultilor. Editura Afir,

Bucuresti.

Klemp, J. O. (1980). The Assessment of Occupational Competence.

Washington DC.

Parry, S. R. (1996). The Quest for Competencies. Training, July.

Sava, S.; Marian, A. (coord.) (2003). Counselling in Adult Education.

Editura Universitatii de Vest, Timişoara.

**** National Career Development Association. (Revised version, 1997).

Career Counselling Competencies

(http://www.ncda.org/pdf/counsellingcompetencies.pdf)

**** Canadian Standards and Guidelines for Career Development. (2001).

Prepared by ATEC for the National Steering Committee for Career

Development Guidelines and Standards, found at http://www.career-

dev-guidelines.org

http://www.career-dev-guidelines.org/






21

3. THE MOST RELEVANT CAREER

COUNSELLORS COMPETENCIES

3.1. Professional Behaviour

Presentation

The purpose of this chapter is to underline the competencies a counsellor

must have in order to demonstrate professional behaviour.

Part 3.1.1. Explains what an Ethical Code is and presents different

approaches of Ethical Decision Making Models as well as arguments

for developing the competency to follow the code of ethics and apply

the ethical decision-making model.

Part 3.1.2. Describes different characteristics needed to demonstrate

professional attributes.

Part 3.1.3. Is focusing on lifelong learning and the activities that

practitioners must undertake in order to prove commitment to

professional development.

Part 3.1.4. Demonstrate the necessity of applying a solution-focused

framework in the career counselling process; there are also presented

the characteristics of information management.

Part 3.1.5. Deals with aspects of work management.

3.1.1. Adhere to the Code of Ethics and the Ethical Decision-Making

Model

22

This competency is important for career counsellors in order to help them

protect the client and the public, to provide a practical guide for

professional behaviour for those who provide direct service, to inform the

public about the competencies career development practitioners should

have and to assist the career development practitioner in making thoughtful

decisions when resolving ethical dilemmas.

According to Canadian Standards and Guidelines for Career Development

(2001), in order to demonstrate this competency career development

practitioners will strive to follow the Code of Ethics, the Ethical Decision-

Making Model, the Quality Standards and Guidelines for Career

Development as they are stipulated in their own countries / organisations or

Professional Associations practitioners belong to.

Dictionary definitions usually tell that ethics is the science of morals, or the

study of “good” and “evil”, “right” and “wrong”. Ethics can also be seen as

theories or set of rules to be followed. But more important, ethics provide

an answer to the question: “What ought one to do?”, so that the practical

aspect of ethics is underlined. Adult career counsellors must know how to

act in professional difficult situations and, moreover, they must know what

kind of competencies they must have in order to deal with such situations

properly.

What is an Ethical Code?

The Ethical Code sets down those principles that should be followed by all

members, in the course of their professional duties. Accordingly for the

purposes of the code, a member who contravenes the code may be “guilty”

of professional misconduct or of acting in an unprofessional manner.

Usually, throughout an Ethical Code masculine pronouns are intended to

refer to members of either sex.

Different approaches of Ethical Decision Making Models

Kitchener`s article “Intuition, critical evaluation, and ethical principles:

23

The foundation for ethical decisions in counselling psychology”, published

in 1984 in The Counselling Psychologist might be considered the first

formal review of the literature on ethical decision-making models. In her

article Kitchener argued that counselling professionals should “develop a

deeper understanding of the basis for ethical decision making”.

In the literature there are also evoked several authors who tried to ground

ethical decision-making on some theory or philosophy.

Hare (1991 - “The Philosophical Basis of Psychiatric Ethics,”

article which in its original 1981 form was used by Kitchener as a

guiding work) described two levels of moral reasoning to address

ethical dilemmas - the “intuitive” and “critical” levels and two

types of thinking: absolute thinking (dealing with rights and

duties) and utilitarian thinking (doing the greatest good for the

greatest number; considering the interests of patients).

Based on the Kohlberg‟s theory, Rest (1984) presented a model

based on four processes involved in the moral behaviour. In

Rest`s opinion, these components are “major units of analysis in

tracing out how a particular course of action was produced in the

context of a particular situation”, “the major determinants of

moral behaviour”:

to interpret the situation in terms of how one‟s actions

affect the welfare of others;

to formulate what a moral course of action would be; to

identify the moral ideal in a specific situation;

to select among competing value outcomes of ideals, the

one to act upon; deciding whether or not to try to fulfil

one‟s moral ideal;

to execute and implement what one intends to do.

In their article “Probability, Decision Analysis, and Conscious

Gambling” Gutheil, Bursztajn, Brodsky, and Alexander

(1991) described a probabilistic paradigm which assumes that

decision making must account for some level of uncertainty

(probability). In their opinion, decision analysis is a process based

on acknowledging the decision, listing the pros and cons,

24

structuring the decision (including development of a decision

“tree” to graph decisional paths and subsequent decisional

branches, estimating probabilities and values, calculating

expected value.

Chang (1994) integrated Berne‟s (1972) transactional analysis

therapeutic approach with ethical decision-making processes. She

identified a five-step model of making an ethical decision and

emphasized three core values implicit in transactional analysis

that affect the decision-making process: (a) the principle that

people are born acceptable or “OK,” (b) clients are capable of

under-standing their problems and are actively involved in

healing, and (c) people can take charge of their lives. She

addressed the interplay of transactional analysis values and other

ethical standards or directives.

Based on a theory of feminism, a model for ethical decision-

making was proposed by Hill, Glaser, and Harden (1995). This

model included a review process in which the counsellor

considers the impact of personal values, the universality of the

proposed solution, and the intuitive feel of the proposed solution.

Because personal characteristics affect ethical decisions, the

authors believed that integration of this factor into their model

improves the decision- making process.

Betan (1997) proposed a hermeneutic perspective to ethical

decision-making. Betan stated “hermeneutics represents a shift in

views of the nature of knowledge and the process of how we

come to know” since “knowledge is situated in the context of

human relationships in which the interpreter (as knowledge is

interpretation) participates in narrating meaning” (p. 352). He

advocated that hermeneutics adds to rather than replaces the

principled approaches of Kitchener (1984) and Rest (1984): “The

context of the therapeutic relationship and the clinician‟s

psychological needs and dynamics are fundamental

considerations in the interpretation and application of ethical

principles” (p. 356).

Cottone, Tarvydas, and House (1994) state that the process of

decision-making is socially and relationally influenced, and both

25

number and types of relationships influence how individuals act

and think. In other words, relationships seem to influence ethical

decision making linearly and cumulatively.

Hinkeldey and Spokane (1985) concluded “consistent with Janis

and Mann‟s theory (1977), results showed that decision making

was affected negatively by pressure but that participants relied

little on legal guidelines in making responses to ethical conflict

dilemmas.”

Keith-Spiegel and Koocher (1985) pointed out that ethical

decision-making models do not make ethical decisions, but

describe a process for examining a situation. Decisions made in

crisis situations may involve alternate strategies.

Corey, Corey & Callanan (1998) identified the following steps

for solving an ethical dilemma: 1. Identify the problem; 2.

Identify potential issues involved; 3. Review relevant ethical

guidelines; 4. Obtain consultation; 5. Consider possible and

probable courses of action; 6. Enumerate consequences of various

decisions; 7. Decide on best course of action.

The Transcultural Integrative Ethical Decision Making Model -

Garcia, Cartwright et alii (2003) addresses the need for

including cultural factors in the process of ethical dilemma

resolution. This transcultural model incorporates elements from

the Integrative Model developed by Tarvidas (1998), Social

Consructivist Model (Cottone 2001) and Collaborative Model

(Davis 1997).

(See Training Materials – Professional Behaviour, Activity: Ethical

Dilemma)

3.1.2. Demonstrate Professional Attributes

26

“Professionalism means different things to different people” (Jago, 1994).

A simple examination of the concept of professionalism should tell as that

is not proprietary to one field of knowledge, discipline or skills. “The

purpose of professionalism is to provide consistently the highest level of

services in any field” (The Computer Bulletin, 2001). Most of the

definitions describe professionalism as involving a balanced understanding

of, and respect for the needs of the client, the employer and the profession.

From a medical perspective, the professional competence may be defined

as “the habitual and judicious use of communication, knowledge, technical

skills, emotions, values and reflections in daily practice for benefit of the

individual and the community being served” (Epstein & Hundert, 2002).

The standards for professional competence delineate key technical,

cognitive and emotional aspects of practice, including those that may not be

measurable. Driskill considers ethics being “the pillar of professionalism”

for those working in the life-insurance domain.

The things are very much the same for career counsellors. According to

Van Zandt (1990), professionalism is:

the way in which a person relies in on a personal high standard of

competence in providing personal services;

the means by which a person promotes and maintains the image

of the profession;

a person‟s willingness to pursue professional development

opportunities that will continue to improve skills within the

profession;

the pursuit of quality, an ideals within the profession;

a person‟s sense of pride about the profession.

This competency will help the practitioner to create and maintain a high

level of credibility, to act as a role model, to ensure consistency of service

to all clients, to enable one to work with a variety of people with diverse

needs and backgrounds, to show respect to others, to act responsibly and to

offer quality service to clients.



practitioners will strive to be:

27

accurate (deliver information as dictated by assessment

instruments);

adaptable (adjust to new ways of doing things, react positively to

change);

attentive (listen to others);

collaborative (work with clients and colleagues to produce

solutions);

confident (be willing to take calculated risks);

conscious of their own values, beliefs, strengths, biases and

limitations: make clear distinctions between own values and those

of others to avoid projection;

consistent (maintain congruency between practice and theory,

provide high quality service to all clients);

curious (seek information);

determined (work through difficult situations);

empathetic (respond to the feelings, attitudes, values and concerns

of others);

empowering (act as a facilitator, be non-directive);

genuine (respond sincerely to others);

honest (express their opinions truthfully and appropriately);

innovative (develop imaginative solutions, present new ways of

thinking and/or behaving);

insightful (identify the relationship between key issues, be aware

of their own values);

motivatig (empower and encourage people to believe in their own

abilities and to make change successfully);

non-judgemental;

open minded (do consideration to different perspectives and new

information);

28

optimistic;

outcome-focused;

patient;

positive (present strengths of the situation and people);

proactive;

respectful of the diversity of clients, colleagues and communities;

responsible (follow through with commitments, recognise

professional boundaries);

self-motivated (work with supervision, take independent action,

risk to challenges);

self-reflective (evaluate the own beliefs, philosophies and

actions);

sensitive to cultural, regional and geographical differences,

believe in people’s ability to make change successfully);

supportive (satisfy other needs for information;

trustworthy.

(See Training Materials – Professional Behaviour, Activity: The Pyramid

of Qualities)

3.1.3. Demonstrate a Commitment to Professional Development

3.1.3.1. Develop Relationships with Other Professionals

Success in the adult career counselling process might be obtaind when

counsellor are working in a network. A network represents a functional

unit with aims and tasks which are not stipulated in formal documents.

29

Taking into account different criteria, the networks can be classified as

follows:

A) According to the mean of organisation:

a) informal networks (membership is based on voluntary

participation and personal interest; this type of networks are

flexible structures which do not have manager);

b) formal networks (a legal framework underlines the basic rules for

performing activities; regular meetings between the members;

this type of networks are organised an lead by a manager).

B) According to the interest of the members:

a) networks based on personal interest and personal involvement

(members can be professionals from different institutions, with

different backgrounds; this type of networks are free of

hierarchical organisation);

b) networks based on professional interest (members are working in

the same professional field);

c) networks based on institutional interest (the institutions open the

windows for persons who do not belong to their structure).

C) According with the time they are design to function:

a) permanent networks (this type of networks continue their

existence after the tasks were accomplished);

b) temporary networks (this type of networks are designed to fulfil

certain tasks, after which members do not keep in touch with each

other and the network is not functioning anymore).

D) The level on which they are functioning

a) local networks;

b) regional networks;

c) national networks;

d) global networks.

Working in a network helps career counsellor to broaden experience, to

30

realize and respect the boundaries and limitations of their roles, to keep up

to date in the field and share ideas and techniques that positively impact

clients

To develop relationships with other professionals means also to work co-

operatively with: colleagues, other agency staff, partners, employers,

founders, the community, to enhance the working environment, to plan for

own professional development, to avoid duplication of services.



practitioners will strive to:

create a climate of trust, for example: work to meet both their

own needs and the needs of others; consult with colleagues on a

regular basis, formally or informally; give others opportunities to

participate in decision making;

share knowledge and skills, for example: act as or seek a mentor

or coach; take time to observe, discuss and share the work of

others; exercise skill and care in providing guidance and

constructive feedback;

network locally, provincially, nationally and internationally, for

example:

attend agency open houses and information sessions;

participate in professional conferences, seminars,

workshops and career fairs;

participate in professional associations and community

events;

develop relationships with other community agencies;

share resources and information;

familiarize themselves with cultures and groups in

community;

participate in case conferencing.

(See Training Materials – Professional Behaviour, Activity: My

31

Professional Network)

3.1.3.2. Demonstrate a Commitment to Lifelong Learning

It is clear for everyone that learning does not stop when finishing school or

when a degree is complete. We continue to learn, through work and

experience, by necessity and for personal interest, as long as we live. This

type of learning is often voluntary and guided by a person's needs and

interests.

Lifelong learning (continuous learning, learning across the life span, "free

choice" learning) can be seen as an idea and a practice that is no longer a

choice but a way of living for survival. Much of this perspective evolves

from economic forces where people are continually driven by materialism

and the need to learn new skills and capacities. In addition, lifelong

learning also acts as a mechanism of exclusion and social control.

Lifelong learning has emerged as a significant strand of policy around the

globe, reconfiguring the institutions and purposes of education.

The conclusions of the Lisbon European Council (March, 2000) confirm

that the move towards lifelong learning must accompany a successful

transition to a knowledge-based economy and society. Lifelong learning is

no longer just one aspect of education and training; it must become the

guiding principle for provision and participation across the full continuum

of learning contexts. The coming decade must see the implementation of

this vision. All those living in Europe, without exception, should have

equal opportunities to adjust to the demands of social and economic change

and to participate actively in the shaping of Europe‟s future.

The six key messages described in European Commission document “The

Memorandum on Lifelong Learning” suggest that a comprehensive and

coherent lifelong learning strategy for Europe should aim to:

guarantee universal and continuing access to learning for gaining

and renewing the skills needed for sustained participation in the

knowledge society;

32

visibly raise levels of investment in human resources in order to

place priority on Europe‟s most important asset – its people;

develop effective teaching and learning methods and contexts for

the continuum of lifelong and lifewide learning;

significantly improve the ways in which learning participation

and outcomes are understood and appreciated, particularly non-

formal and informal learning;

ensure that everyone can easily access good quality information

and advice about learning opportunities throughout Europe and

throughout their lives;

provide lifelong learning opportunities as close to learners as

possible, in their own communities and supported through ICT-

based facilities wherever appropriate.

When referring to the process of lifelong learning, adult career counsellor

should also focus about the process of career development (for the client as

wellas for himself). Career Development means the process of managing

learning, training, and work throughout one‟s life span, the process of

integrating work, leisure, training, learning and relationships throughout

one‟s lifespan. This is an umbrella term that includes many activities, some

formal, others informal. Career development can be planned and organized,

or random and haphazard. “Self-development over one‟s lifespan through

the interaction and integration of the roles, settings and events of a person‟s

life” (Gysber; Gysbers, N. (1996). Beyond Career Development-Life

Career Development Revisited. (ERIC / CASS Document). “The total

constellation of psychological, sociological, educational, physical,

economic and change factors that combine to influence the nature and

significance of work in the total life span of any given individual” (Zunker,

1998).

This competency is important for practitioners in the field of career

counselling in order to continue professional development, to focus on own

career path, to act as a role model, to maintain work / life balance, to attend

to self-care, to retain current and relevant knowledge and skills, to improve

the service to clients, to demonstrate alliance with the values of the career

development profession by continuing to develop as individuals and

33

professionals.




pursue personal or professional development, either formally or

informally;

establish a personal and/or professional plan:

assess how practices, behaviours and areas could be

improved by being engaged in self-reflection / assessment

or requesting and accepting colleagues‟ feedback,

include specific career and personal development activities,

for example: read current books and journals, learn from

clients and colleagues in other cultures, use technological

learning resources, access career development web sites,

participate in formal training / in-services, develop personal

and professional portfolios, join professional associations,

participate in professional conferences, learn from

colleagues, act as or seek coaches or mentors, include

specific self-care activities.

carry out their plans by apply learning, evaluate progress,

monitor and update plans on a regular basis (e.g.: quarterly,

annually).

(See Training Materials – Professional Behaviour, Activity: The Career

Road)

3.1.3.3. Keep up to Date with Technology

In the last 20 years new technology has revolutionized the way we live and

work. Mobile phones, desktop and portable computers and the Internet are

now parts of our lives. Communications technologies are also converging,

so that the separate features of computers, telecommunications and

broadcasting overlap increasingly. These developments have given rise to

34

the term information and communications technology (ICT), which

embraces the Internet, e-mail, fax, video conferencing, interactive on-line

services, video on demand and digital television.

ICT is a means of storing, processing and presenting information

electronically through a number of media. Computers and microelectronic

devices are built into a variety of everyday objects. However, the types of

technologies incorporated in the educational context tend to focus around

the delivery of content and information to support formal learning

processes.

ICT has also an increasing part to play in delivering careers education,

information and guidance1.

Databases on occupations, courses and qualifications can be

searched quickly and efficiently either on line or on CD-ROM.

On-line information can be kept up to date more easily than

published sources.

Specific careers software enables users to evaluate their own

skills and preferences and find careers that match them.

Careers software can help develop decision-making skills and

simulate work opportunities.

The Internet and e-mail enable learners to communicate with

others across the world, broadening their horizons and extending

their local resources.

Word processors and desktop publishing packages help learners

to enhance their writing and presentation skills and adapt their

work to different audiences.

Presentation packages provide learners with the opportunity to

create a visual CV highlighting their skills and interests.

Tools such as word processors and multimedia enable teachers

and advisers to create their own materials.

1 For further information, see also the chapter Information and Resource

Management.

35

Software to support administration improves the efficiency of

teachers and advisers.

ICT is therefore a versatile tool to support learners and jobseekers. It cannot

replace the direction and guidance of a personal careers adviser, however,

and the best education and guidance exploits the benefits of all the tools

that are available.

This competency is important for career counsellors in order to increase

access for clients to services and information, to remain current and

relevant in practice and services offered, to help clients use relevant

computer resources and tools, to access and exchange information relevant

to one‟s practice, to recognize the impact that e-commerce and diverse

technologies are having on the world of work.




access and use various computer-based resources and tools (e.g.:

job banks, online job searches, online career planning and

assessment instruments), information about technology (e.g.:

books, articles), Internet and other available services (e.g.:

interactive television);

review and select computer-based resources, tools and Internet

services according with the clients‟ needs and determine how the

systems and services can be used to the clients‟ advantage;

offer input in the development of technology-based tools, when

possible.

(See Training Materials – Professional Behaviour, Activity: In the World

of the Internet)

3.1.4. Use Analytical Skills

3.1.4.1. Apply a Solution-Focused Framework

36

A solution-focused framework helps the counsellor to assist self and

clients in analysing situations, identifying and developing alternatives and

setting up a plan of action. There are many reasons for using such

frameworks when developing a collaborative relationship with the client

(Egan, 1998):

the process is focussing on the client‟s need, not the assumptions

of a theory,

it is a practical tool for both the counsellor and the client. It deals

with individuals and focuses on results.. each case is a case-study

in itself; goals are set and progress toward those goals is plotted,

clients recognise, understand and can use the problem

management process, once it is shared with them. A mutual

understanding of the helping process allows clients and helpers to

become partners.

All solution-focused frameworks ultimately help clients ask and answer for

themselves four fundamental questions (Egan, 1998)2: 1.What are the

problems? (the current scenario); 2. What do I need or want instead of what

I have now? (the preferred scenario); 3. What do I have to do in order to get

what I want? (strategy for accomplishing the goals) and 4. How do I make

it happen? (moving to action, putting the plan into practice).

This competency is important to assist self and clients in analysing

situations, identifying and developing alternatives and setting up a plan of

action, to develop collaborative relationship with client.




Develop a solution-focused orientation which means to frame

problems as opportunities for learning and growth; having an

historical, political, economic, cultural, geographical and

philosophical context; opportunities for personal growth, for self-

2 For further information about Egan`s model, see Chapte Career Counselling, pg

93.

37

improvement and for using self-control; understand that time,

energy and commitment are required to solve problems; believe

that the skills for problem solving can be acquired; use an

approach that is broad, encompassing and client-driven; consider

the differences between individual styles for solving issues or

concerns.

Use a solution-focused framework, for example:

define the issue or concern,

analyse the issue or concern,

set goals,

generate a number of alternative(s),

select the alternative(s) to be applied,

implement the alternative(s),

evaluate the effectiveness of the alternative(s),

repeat the steps in the solution-focused framework as

necessary.

Respect different cultural approaches to developing solutions.

(See Training Materials – Professional Behaviour, Activity: Counselling

Session for Cases that Involve an Ethical Dilemma)

3.1.4.2. Collect, Analyse and Use Information

This competency is important to identify trends and opportunities, to

remain current in the career development field, to be able to maintain and

retrieve information effectively, to assist clients, to develop information

management strategies.




Identify the information needed, considering services provided,

38

clients‟ needs, current events that impact the labour market,

community; and clients and their futures (e.g.: politics, public

policy, economics, demographics).

Identify sources of information in various formats, for example:

professional journals, business publications, community-based

agencies / groups, clients‟ experiences, newspapers, employment

services, their own experiences, consultations with experts (e.g.:

statisticians, economists), the Internet, colleagues, government

databases, chambers of commerce, libraries, National Statistics.

Collect and compile the information which means to ensure credit

is given to sources of information (copyright laws).

Analyse the information which means to evaluate its accuracy,

relevance and quality (e.g.: gender biases, promotion of equal

opportunities), meanwhile using statistical concepts to interpret

data.

Organize the relevant data into a useful format for further work

by drawing conclusions and synthesize the information.

Take appropriate action, for example provide clients with the

findings, make recommendations, adjust programs, critique career

development concepts and practices.

(See Training Materials – Professional Behaviour, Activity: Information

and Resources)

3.1.5. Manage Work

3.1.5.1. Use Planning and Time Management Skills

39

In order to be able to respond promptly to the client‟s needs, the adult

career counsellor must be able to use efficiently the time during the

counselling session and to be able to help the client to plan his own work or

free time. Time management is an ability which can be learned and

continuously developed. It is very important for organising our personal or

professional lives and is one very important factor which can lead to

success and stress releasing.

The following Time grid can help us to plan our daily activities and lead

our attention to the real important issues to be done:

Urgent Not so urgent

Important Crises

Stressful problems

Task / project with soon

deadline

Relations

Discovering new

opportunities

Recreation

Not

important

Phone calls and emails

Meetings

Domestic activities

Phone calls and emails

Recreation activities

There are some rules concerning the efficient time management:

Establish a daily schedule.

Establish deadlines for activities and respect them.

Do the hardest things when you are at your maximum of

intellectual, physical and emotional potential.

Do not delay important activities which you do not like. A task

does not come easier if you delay it.

Delay what is not important.

Pay attention to factors which interrupt your activities and reduce

their frequency.

Do one thing in a time.

Plan your phone calls.

Keep your ideas in the same place (agenda).

40

If you begin something, finish it as soon as possible.

Plan your brakes for the moments you know are not so efficient.

Learn to say NO or to delegate tasks.

Review form time to time your time management plan.

Reward yourself when finishing things in time.

60-40 rule: plan 60% from your time and keep the rest of 40% for

unexpected activities.

This competency is important for an adult career counsellor in order to be

efficient and effective in fulfilling responsibilities to clients, colleagues,

employers and self, to understand own limitations and boundaries.




Establish goals. There are many rules to be kept in mind when

establishing goals. On of them is the SMART principle, which

means that the goals must be:

Simple

Measurable

Achievable

Realistic

Time

Prioritise the goals, considering their importance to the mission /

purpose and values as well as each goal‟s urgency.

Outline the objectives to be achieved for each goal.

Identify the tasks that need to be completed to meet each

objective.

Create timelines by identify critical dates and schedule tasks.

Monitor progress by updating timelines regularly, identifying

incomplete tasks and make adjustments as required or ensuring

41

deadlines are met.

Review goals and objectives regularly which means to remain

flexible and to make adjustments as required.

(See Training Materials – Professional Behaviour, Activity: How Much

Time Do I Need)

3.1.5.2. Follow Case and Project Management Procedures

Beside the necessity of networking, another important ability for an adult

career counsellor is to work in a team. The most important characteristics

of a team are:

there is a common aim for all members,

the appropriate number of participants does not overcome 20,

there are specific roles for members,

the leadership is based on formal authority, objectives of the

group, personal qualities and competency,

cohesiveness - which means that members think and act as a

whole,

there are different types of communication within the team,

A team can be described as a formal group established for

accomplishing concrete tasks, which acts as a cohesive entity

under the leadership of a manager.

Generally speaking, the most important qualities for a team are

attitudes and competencies of the members.

42

Competence

Attitude

High

Low

Positive I II

Negative III IV

If 50% of the team members belong to I, the success of the team is almost

sure.

Members form II can de trained in order to improve their professional

skills.

Members from III might be trained in order to develop their communication

skills and to improve their motivation.

Members from IV must be eliminated from the team.

The team manager should not include in the team members from IV. He

should also be aware that not all members are team players. He should be

able to distribute task according to everyone‟s abilities, in order to raise

their aptitudes for the benefit of the team. It is important also to create and

maintain a good working atmosphere.

This competency is important to allow for program evaluation and

accountability, to work as a team in the clients‟ best interests, to give the

client feedback that is supportive and of interest, to co-ordinate services

that may enhance the employability of the client, where more than one

service provider is involved, to follow the client‟s progress, to assist in

ensuring accountability, to identify how co-ordination and co-operation

may be further enhanced due to program / service inter-relatedness and

inter-dependence at the intra- and inter-agency levels.




Follow organizational procedures adapted to the context of work.

Review case files and project management files involved in cases

as per legislation and policy protocol by making files

43

comprehensible and accessible to other professionals involved in

cases or updating as required.

Assist clients in understanding services provided by agencies.

Consult with other agencies to define case management

responsibilities for each agency.

Consult with staff in their own agencies to clarify case

management responsibilities.

Case conference with peers.

Terminate funding when appropriate and work on alternative

action plans with clients.

(See Training Materials – Professional Behaviour, Activity: Management

and Legislation)

3.1.5.3. Document Client’s Interactions and Progress

This competency is important to monitor client‟s situation and progress, to

have information that can be easily retrieved for decisions or future needs,

to maintain client confidentiality, to highlight the importance of record

keeping in case management documentation, to be aware of implications of

record-keeping.




Identify types of records required, for example client tests, case

notes, client meetings, identification forms, authorizations,

résumés / portfolios.

Complete records and notes / logs as required (e.g.: daily,

monthly, annually).

Ensure the recorded information is accurate, complete and

objective (e.g.: date, calculations, counts):

44

ensure information is protected and secure, when

necessary;

information should be non-judgmental and behaviour-

based.

File copies and backup data.

Keep the records current.

Close the files upon service completion.

Be aware of legal issues associated with record keeping (e.g.:

freedom of information, confidentiality, protection of privacy,

how long records need to be kept) and follow laws or guidelines

relevant to issues.

(See Training Materials – Professional Behaviour, Activity: On the

Computer or Face-to-Face)

3.1.5.4. Evaluate the Service Provided to Clients

Adult career counsellor must be able to evaluate not only the clients`

progress, but also their own services. This can be done (according to Watts,

1998) by process evaluation or outcome evaluation.

Process evaluation

We can distinguish seven forms:

Quantitative process description (The method asks: How much?

How often?)

Quantitative process description (The method asks: What is

happening?).

Provider quality-of-process perception (participants are regarded

as having privileged insight into the quality of process and into

the factors which contribute to or undermine it).

45

Client reaction to process (under many circumstances, the quality

of the process depends as much upon how it is perceived and

interpreted by clients, as upon what practitioners do).

Process assessment based on mastery (conventional methods of

inspections)

Process assessment based on analysis (criteria are predefined in a

way that makes them observable or they are developed in the

course of the process evaluation).

Dynamic process involvement (this equates to some interpretation

of the term “formal evaluation”).

Outcome evaluation

Six form of outcome evaluation can be identified (according to Watts,

1998):

Outcome identification (to identify the manifest or latent “effects”

of the counselling process).

Opinion surveys (to ask clients about the usefulness of the

counselling process and the satisfaction acquired).

Attributed-effect studies (to relay on the perceptions of those

involved in the process of counselling in order to see whether the

objectives were accomplished or not).

Process-outcome observation (to monitor the changes resulted

after the counselling process).

Random-assignment-controlled trial (an experimental group

which participate in the counselling sessions is compared to a

control group which was not exposed to the “treatment”).

Quasi-experiments (a single “unit” - person / group / organisation

- is monitored over a long period, after that the counselling

intervention is made in order to see if change follows directly

after the guidance process).

This competency is important to improve practice and accountability, to

46

improve client satisfaction, to identify new services, to measure client

satisfaction, to provide evidence or to assist in service promotion3.




Promote the use of quality indicators and service standards by

developing evaluation criteria for all stakeholder groups, if

necessary and appropriate.

Review services, considering context, objectives and process.

Conduct ongoing evaluations:

use appropriate evaluation methods, i.e., qualitative,

quantitative or a combination;

use appropriate data collection methods (e.g.:

questionnaire).

Collect the data.

Compile the data.

Analyse the data, for example:

distinguish qualitative and quantitative information;

apply statistical analysis to quantitative data;

promote value and application of qualitative data.

Draw conclusions: reflect on evaluation results and follow up as

necessary (e.g.: revise approach, seek professional development).

(See Training Materials – Professional Behaviour, Activity: Reflecting

Team)

References

3 For further information about the evaluation process, see the Chapter Facilitated

Individual and Group Learning, pg. 85

47

Cottone, R. R.; Claus, R. E. (2000). Ethical Decision Making Models: A

Review of the Models. In: Journal of Counselling and Development,

volume 78.

Cottone, R. R. (2001). A Social Constructivism Model of Ethical decision

Making in Counselling. In: Journal of Counselling and Development,

volume 79.

Driskill, J. R. (1991). Ethics – The Pillar of Professionalism. In: Journal of

the American Society of Clu & ChFC.

Epstein, R. M.; Hundert, E. M. (2002). Defining and Assessing

Professional Competence. In: Journal of Medical Association

(JAMA), volume 287, no.2.

Garcia, J. G. et alii (2003). A Transcultural Integrative Model for Ethical

Decision Making in Counselling. In: Journal of Counselling and

Development, volume 81.

Hodgson, B. J. (2001). Micholas and the Theory of Ethical Theory. In:

Journal of Business Ethics 29.

Lundmark, C. (2002). Lifelong learning. In: Bioscience, Washington.

Michalos, A. C. (2001). Ethics Counsellors as a New Priesthood. In:

Journal of Business Ethics 29.

Taylor, E. W. (2002). Lifelong Learning and The New Educational Order.

In: Adult Education Quarterly, Washington.

Van Zandt, C. E. (1990). Professionalism: a Matter of Personal Initiative.

In: Journal of Counselling and Development, volume 68.

Watts, A. G.; Law, B.; K., John B.; Kidd, J.; Hawthorn, R. (1996, 1998,

2000). Rethinking careers education and guidance. Theory, policy

and practice. London & N. Y., Routlege, Taylor & Francis Group,

Partners in professionalism. In: The Computer Bulletin, Great

Britain.

48

3.2. Interpersonal Competencies

Presentation

The objective of this chapter is to provide instruments for the development

and acquisition of interpersonal competence given in the orientation

process. Interpersonal competence facilitates communication between

counsellor and participant, as well as the development of productive

interactions that come from a base of respect for diversity, given under the

perspective of the equality of differences.

The chapter is divided into three main parts:

3.2.1. Respect diversity: where two competencies are explained, that

are related to knowledge and respect for diversity.

3.2.2. Communicate effectively: where six competencies are

presented, that promote effective communication (level verbal,

written, etc.).

3.2.3. Develop productive interaction with participants: where two

competencies are discussed, that refer to the development of

productive interactions encouraged by the counsellor.

Finally, this chapter begins with a section that introduces a brief definition

of the concepts used in these pages, which can help the reader to better

understand the theoretical ideas behind each competence.

Concepts clarification

Equality of differences

These consist of an egalitarian communication that respects diversity.

There must be respect towards all cultures, people and lifestyles. That

means that we must not place ourselves in a position of superiority or

consider people from other cultures, with different profiles or with different

lifestyles as inferior. All of this allows us to maintain a relationship of

49

mutual respect for all individuals, and will facilitate a more objective

positioning. Therefore, this will help to overcome prejudices formed from a

lack of knowledge. “True equality gives all people the same right to live in

different ways” (Flecha, 2000).

Egalitarian dialogue

Egalitarian dialogue is established when all of the different ideas and

beliefs are respected and valued. This dialogue highlights the fact that all

people can contribute, regardless of the level of studies that they possess.

This must be carried out in a way in which contributions will be considered

through the validity of their arguments and not according to the position of

power of the person. This dialogue must be a permanent factor in order to

overcome differences and to ensure a close rapport.

Assertiveness

Maintaining an assertive attitude involves respecting the rights and needs of

others who wish to express their own necessities and to defend their own

rights. It involves being communicative in a way in which everybody will

understand what is said and explained and, at the same time, being

receptive to the contributions that others give. It is a matter of having a

positive attitude to life and in the face of difficulties, as Freire said, "The

question is how to transform difficulties into possibilities” (1997). Assertive

conduct does not always mean that there are no conflicts between groups,

as result we must promote favourable consequences and reduce

unfavourable consequences.

Communication skills

Socially and culturally excluded people develop their communication skills

and can create new cultural practices that can contribute to overcoming

their exclusion. People have the potential through developing

communication skills, to create cultural practices that have not existed

before. Above all, they have the potential to reach agreements that permit

them to decide what they want to learn and how, beginning from these

50

skills.

Participation

If we consider the learning process as being built jointly by all those people

involved in the process, then there must be participation by all. This

participation is fostered if the conditions for dialogue, as explained

previously, are offered, in which all people are considered from a position

of equality and their contributions are valued and respected according to the

validity of their arguments.

In respect to this, it is important to establish objectives jointly, prioritising

that the program is adapted to the existing or latent needs of the target

group. In this way we will also help participants to have a clear idea of

what and how their process will be. This programme must be flexible, in a

way in which it can be altered according to possible changes or the

appearance of different needs, throughout the development of the

programme. All of this will generate a stimulating environment that will

encourage and predispose participation.

Dialogic and instrumental dimension

Learning and dialogue are not opposed concepts, dialogue serves in order

to reach learning agreements and therefore make them more significant.

The objectives and processes that are established must be products of a

dialogue in which all people involved, participate. Learning through

dialogue includes all of the contents that the participants agree to learn.

When the process is really democratic, the exchange of values and feelings

appear, as well as the technical contents. In a dialogic context, instrumental

learning is achieved more efficiently.

High expectations

It is important to maintain high expectations, starting from the recognition

of equal abilities of all people. By these means it is necessary to consider

both abilities, those acquired in an academic field and those acquired in a

non-academic field. It is important to promote the abilities of all people as

51

well as to highlight successes, to foster self-esteem, to encourage personal

control of individual educative processes, interaction and cooperation. In

turn, this will contribute to the creation of meaning for all participants in a

way which they are aware that they can transform their reality increasing,

therefore, their motivation.

Creation of meaning

Through the creation of meaning, the participants must feel like

protagonists of their own existence and, in this case, of their own training.

In order to achieve the creation of meaning, interaction between people

must be directed by them, and not be something imposed by means of their

class, culture or economic situations. We must count on the participation of

all people and be aware that we cannot impose a prearranged model.

Promoting creation of meaning involves trust and an effort so that any

person can develop their own choices, giving meaning to their lives.

3.2.1. Respect Diversity

3.2.1.1. Recognize Diversity

In order to work with an unbiased attitude, the importance of this

competency falls on the increasing diversity of the participants, respecting

each individual for who they are. Recognising diversity is also important to

provide an inclusive environment and an effective service to participants.

This competence also includes, the understanding of individual subjects

and their culture in general. When we talk about recognising diversity, it is

very important to start from the concept of equality of differences, that

include the right of every person to live in different ways and, at the same

time, having the same opportunities of election and realisation.


52


practitioners will strive to recognise:

Cultural and individual specifications. This means that at the time

of planning career counselling processes, we must consider the

particular specifications of the participating groups and cultures,

for example: educational background, language, social barriers,

age, ethnicity, gender, socio-economic status and culture, physical

ability, mental ability, emotional ability, disabilities, self-image,

religion, motivations, aspirations, sexual preference. This must

not let us act according to deficits, but instead, we must consider

the equality of basic cognitive abilities of all cultural expressions,

even when applied and developed in different contexts, and

always on the basis of equality of differences.

Different socio-cultural and personal realities. It is also important

to highlight all of those aspects that refer to understanding

different people and their realities. This means not only having a

superficial approach, but also getting to know the personal,

historical, social, labour and cultural contexts of the people

concerned. This will also contribute to breaking issues and

prejudices that may have been created towards other cultures,

lifestyles and social contexts.

Different cultural, social and personal contexts can generate different

interpretative criteria. In order to implement egalitarian communication, in

which we respect difference, we must be prepared for possible

misunderstandings that if voiced, can be solved through egalitarian

dialogue, which will facilitate interaction.

(See Training Materials - Interpersonal Competencies, Activity: Gender

Barriers)

3.2.1.2. Respect Diversity

As it is said in the concepts clarification in this chapter, in respecting

53

diversity, the equal right of all to be different must also be contemplated in

order to guarantee the recognition of the individualities or differences of

each person. In the orientation process it is important to respect diversity,

guaranteeing the equality of results for all of the people. For this it is

necessary to offer the resources that each person needs in order for them to

reach the same results, and not just have the same opportunities.




Show a receptive attitude. Only by maintaining a receptive

attitude can we adequately value the contributions of the

participants. It is also important to be able to perceive all

communication, which is not transmitted verbally. In this way, we

get to know the interests and expectations of the participants.

These aspects, when incorporated into our educational practices,

will help us to achieve more effective, attractive and constructive

educational experiences for all.

Get to know the contexts where practises are developed and

methodology employed, keeping in mind the contents that we

want to transmit to the target group. Understanding the contexts

where communication is to be developed will allow us to exploit

to a maximum level the possibilities that are offered to us and,

with this, optimise the process to a maximum level. This is only

possible if an egalitarian relationship exists, which allows us to

capture all nuances, overcoming previous conditioning of the

coordinators and through dedicating time for the trainers to get to

know in depth the social and cultural context of the participants.

In this way, it is equally important to consider the contents that

we want to transmit and according to this, determine the most

adequate methodology. The guidance counsellors must base their

work on current scientific data and not on assumptions. Above

all, they must prioritise the interests of the participants and give

special attention to all which can encourage learning, developing

maximum potentials.

The conditions for communication in language imply a minimum

of communicative elements that are shared among participants.

54

Through linguistic development we are able to explain our own

conceptions of the world. In transforming the context, respect for

differences can be included as one of the dimensions of

egalitarian education.

Respond to the career development needs unique to individuals of

diverse populations. This means recognising and considering the

issues and conditions unique to people from diverse origins that

may present barriers. In this, it is important to determine any

assistance or solutions necessary, based on individual needs such

as adaptive technology or call upon an interpreter for those

persons who do not dominate the local languages. In this point, it

is important to always place emphasis on the equality of results.

Work together with other colleagues, professionals and

participants, as well as with community members in order to:

Facilitate understanding issues (such as career exploration

and education, employment expectations or economic and

social matters), needs and suggestions that the participants

of diverse populations may have;

Foster the eradication of discriminatory practices in

employment, education and training and contribute to the

elimination of prejudices;

Encourage open and honest feedback;

Create references in different cultures and lifestyles that

can foster a good communication, motivation and creation

of meaning.

(See Training Materials - Interpersonal Competencies, Activity:

Immigration and Minorities Cultures)

3.2.2. Communicate Effectively

55

3.2.2.1. Work with Climate and Context to Enhance Communication

This competency is important in identifying and overcoming barriers in

communication. In depth understanding of others help to overcome

prejudices and make us look for alternative interpretations, built jointly

through egalitarian dialogue. This dialogue permits the definition of the

obstacles to be overcome, and which factors must be promoted, as they are

beneficial to the counselling process.




Maintain an egalitarian dialogue towards equality in order to

avoid assimilationist or relativist approaches. It is important to

be aware that decisions cannot be imposed by any subject from

the position of power that it is assumed they hold. Agreements

must be products of a communication process held under a

posture of equality between participants, eliminating the pressure

given, when, the educators present themselves as the only expert.

Establish communication that begins with human rights. In order

to do this we must promote and guarantee participation by all

from a position of equality and without discrimination, as well as

generate an educational process that identifies communication as

a transversal axis for social and cultural practices.

Promote the use of current communicative methods (instruments)

in order to facilitate communication. The number of

communication tools that we have available must be considered.

Also, it is important to take into account that each person receives

messages in different ways. Some people prefer emails, others

verbal and others written messages. A mix of messages planned

strategically can help to ensure that everyone receives the

information. Concretely, these methods are: open spaces where

people can access ICT, with extensive opening hours; use of

email, digital forums; interviews; and gatherings. These methods

must also be used in the counselling in order to facilitate

communication. In this sense, it is important to offer a way of

56

consulting in which the participants can ask any question or make

suggestions at any time, for example via email or forum. In the

professional activity, the counsellor also must be receptive and

advise about the use of these methods. On the other hand, the

counsellor also can use methods such as face to face as in

interviews or group discussions for those that prefer oral language

as a communication tool.

The emerging Information and Communication Technologies

(ICT)4 are currently accessed by a small number of people. This

makes democratisation of their use necessary in order to promote

training processes for a culture of active citizenship, starting from

respect and stimulating different ways of communication, this

means establishing non-excluding systems.

We must support an openness, tolerance and freedom in order to

produce, receive and transmit information and opinions in

different ways. We also must promote the use of ICT by the most

underprivileged sectors of the population. This will guarantee

their inclusion and not leave them in the margins of advances in

society once again.

(See Training Material - Interpersonal Competencies, Activity:

Communication Barriers)

3.2.2.2. Use a Framework for Verbal Communication

In order to guarantee a smooth running of the orientation processes it is

important to identify the necessities and interests of the participants. This

also permits us to save time and confusion in said process.



4 For further information about ICT see the chapter Information and Resource

Management

57


Establish an appropriate dialogue that is significant for all, so

that we do not use subjective postures based on our own cultural,

social and personal situation (vocabulary that is not significant in

different cultures or for different people). This is possible by

adapting the idea of language. This encourages learning without

forgetting that its process has to lead to acquiring the maximum

and most socially useful and valued contents.

Facilitate an open communication. All opinions and suggestions

must be taken into account in relation to the argument that it

encloses. Also, in order to foster the participation of all, it is

advisable to combine the general sessions with sessions in small

groups.

Orientate the participants about the sessions continuously .

Provide an overview of the session at the beginning, clarifying its

goals and objectives, and review or summarise at the end of the

session.

Take into account the language used and the different ways of

communicating that are specific to the cultural context. However,

the counsellors, in the use of a non-expert language, should take

the responsibility of contributing all of their knowledge and

experience.


Appropriate Dialogue)

3.2.2.3. Use a Framework for Written Communication

This competence includes the elements described above, and should be

considered as another means of communication that the counsellor should

place at the disposition of the participants, if they select it as a form of

expression.

58




Provide structured information.

Take into account the participant’s background in the medium

and style of communication.

Use a significant and “non-expert” language.

Ask and provide feedback to ensure that the message is

understood.

Write materials that summarise different contributions, in order

to stimulate the process. Writing a material that summarises all

that has been jointly constructed by the participants can be a very

useful technique that can also be used for quick reference.

(See Training Materials - Interpersonal Competence, Activity:

Presentation Letter)

3.2.2.4. Use effective Listening Skills

In creating a climate of confidence, openness and comfort, and in order to

improve co-operation and teamwork, it is important to foster the use of

effective listening skills. Above all it is primary for the counsellor to be

receptive, and to encourage participants to contribute to joint solutions and

their enrichment with their knowledge and experience.




Foster interactions based on dialogue. The orientation process

must be the result of a process built between the counsellor and

the participants. The agreements reached, beginning from

dialogue, are those that will determine what type of counselling

59

process is wanted and how they hope this process will be carried

out. Through this dialogue, that contributes a variety of

perspectives that qualitatively enrich the whole process, the

counselling process is made egalitarian. However, for this to

happen, it is very important to respect the contributions from all

individuals. This means that the beliefs, thoughts or

interpretations of the counsellors are not imposed from their

professional academic position but instead must contribute with

scientific and technical knowledge. From this point of view,

knowledge and expertise acquired non-academically is as valid as

that acquired through life experience.

Use listening skills. The counsellor, in the professional activity,

must include attention (note verbal and non-verbal behaviours),

paraphrasing (reflect basic messages) and make an effort of

clarification, that means to use self-disclosures when appropriate.

Also, it is advisable focusing discussion (redirect participants),

checking (verify suggestions), understanding and make oneself

understood, questioning (ask open and close questions or use

declarative probes), reframing (help participants to see alternative

perspectives), summarising (pull themes together), helping

participants to find answers and responses.


Consensus)

3.2.2.5. Clarify and Provide Feedback

It is primary to promote feedback between the counsellor and the

participant based on an egalitarian dialogue. There are two simultaneous

objectives: to offer all of the available resources; and also to be seen as

another via of learning in the orientation process.




60

Give support to participants in self-assessing performances. To

make it possible, the counsellor should provide the tools that the

participant needs to carry out the process of self-assessing.

Provide descriptive and specific feedback on how participants are

developing their abilities. Avoid value judgements in this process.

Discuss strengths and areas needing improvement in order to

describe and clarify inconsistencies.

In the work with the clients, the counsellor must be able to communicate in

a positive manner and to receive client‟s opinion in the best way possible.

To give positive feed/back means to:

give the feed-back only if it is required by a person,

start with something positive,

be concrete, clear and specific,

offer the feed-back immediately after an action

refer to something possible to be changed,

present alternatives,

be descriptive and not evaluative.

To receive positive feed/back

try to listen and understand what the other are telling you,

be not defensive,

ask many people for feed-back before coming to a conclusion.

An openness towards possible changes should also be considered, in other

words, be flexible in a way in which it is possible to incorporate all

contributions and carry out all modifications that will improve the process.

(See Training Materials - Interpersonal Competencies, Activity: Feedback

as a Communicative Resource)

61

3.2.2.6. Establish and Maintain Collaborative Work Relationship

This competency is important in developing community and co-operative

relationships that facilitate the gathering and sharing of information. In

order to promote services to participants, employers and other agencies, it

is primary to maximise trust and understanding. In this sense, further

communication can be clear, direct and effective to enable one to work

effectively with others.




Starting from the knowledge and experience that each participant

possesses in order to make the most of the counselling process

but also to transform negative experiences into positive ones,

starting from a joint analysis. Beginning from the knowledge and

experiences that each person possesses, the counsellor must also

have high expectations.

Ensure a close rapport.

Facilitate the exchange of information and encourage

participation in this process.

Carry out cooperative work between all those people involved in

order to diversify perspectives and interpretations, therefore

enriching and optimising the process: we must encourage

cooperative working where all those involved can express

themselves from a position of equality, respect and collaborate in

training tasks. This will facilitate working for all, and will enrich

it through a wider perspective. In this way, the work being

carried out is constructed jointly between those involved. This

collaboration must also be directed towards transforming

interactions. Thanks to the reflections that are jointly developed,

new meanings can emerge, shared between all of the people that

participate in the dialogue.

62

All of what has been described and commented in this section will favour

communication, and will facilitate and promote participation by all:

“Living the word and silence passionately means talking with, so that

students can also talk with. Ultimately, they also have to consider

themselves as subjects and not as repeaters of the teacher’s speech or

opinion (…) Some basic issues have to be learnt, for example: there isn’t a

stupid question, and there isn’t a definitive answer either (….) only an

education of “questions” sharpens, stimulates and reinforces curiosity”.

(Freire, 1997).

(See Training Materials - Interpersonal Competencies, Activity: First

Contact)

3.2.3. Develop Productive Interaction With Participants

3.2.3.1. Foster Participants Self-Reliance and Self-Management

It is primary to foster the participants‟ independence, to improve their self-

confidence, to increase their awareness of opportunities and options and to

broaden their ideas. This competence also has to do with the participants‟

goals achievement.




Maintain high expectations. It is important to maintain high

expectations starting from the recognition of the equal abilities of

all people, considering both the abilities acquired in an academic

field as well as those acquired in a non-academic one. It is also

important to promote the abilities of all so, in order to promote

this, counsellors will highlight successes, foster self-esteem,

encourage personal control of individual educative processes,

63

interaction and cooperation. In turn, this will contribute to the

creation of meaning for all participants in a way in which they are

aware that they can transform their realities and will, therefore,

increase their motivation.

Establish rapport.

Give importance, in the career development process, to the roles,

responsibilities and choices of the participants.

Offer choices, and create jointly other choices with participants.

Enable participants to practice self-appraisals and introspection,

seek information, identify resources, investigate information,

evaluate options, and select the most appropriate options.

Assist participants in establishing and committing to action plans,

which might be reviewed and updated.

Give protagonism to participants. They must define which steps

they want to follow throughout the whole process, what are their

interests and how they feel in facing each step. Therefore, they

are the real protagonists of their own counselling process.

Facilitate joint planning. Realising effective planning will help

all individuals to have a clear idea of what the counselling process

is, and can help them to clear up any doubts or even contribute to

and comment on disagreements. All of this must come from the

joint decision-making and agreement between counsellor and

participant, always starting from the interests and ideas of the

participant.

Foster relations based on trust and solidarity. An educational

practice that aims to be egalitarian and to offer the same

opportunities to all the people that take part must be based on

solidarity and trust. These must be built beginning from

interaction and mutual respect.


Understanding of the Person)

64

3.2.3.2. Deal With Reluctant Participants

This competency is important in engaging participants in the career

planning process. They also must be assisted in learning to manage change

in their lives. In these cases it is primary to know what are the concrete

necessities of the participant, such as giving an adequate answer to these

necessities.




Create spaces where communication can be carried out in

adequate conditions in order for communication to meet the

characteristics that we have mentioned earlier, the space where

this communication will be developed is a determining factor.

However, the atmosphere that the counsellor creates is also a

determining factor. The space must be comfortable and nearby

for the participant. It is important that the counsellor receives

and directs the participant from a position of equality from the

first moment of the initial contact. It is equally important to

explain what our role is in the process, the motive for each step

followed, and the willingness to work, starting from the needs

and expectations of the participant in the counselling process.

Encourage participants to voice their concerns and validate

them.

Inform of possible benefits of the process, letting the

participants know about the options and potential results.

Seek agreement on plans asking for commitment to continue,

and developing a plan if the participant agrees, while advising

others or referring the participant if they do not.

Working with activity groups and individuals. Each person

follows their own counselling process in a personal and non-

transferable way, according to their own needs, interests etc. (it

65

is unlikely that two processes will be exactly the same).

Therefore, it is recommendable to work through individual

activities. However, contributions that are made from group

activities can be very beneficial when finding answers to

specific situations in which others have already had experience.

These group experiences are enriching through being sources

of knowledge and experience as well as a place for analysis.

(See Training Materials - Interpersonal Competencies, Activity: The

Overcoming of Resistances to Counselling)

References

Alsina, R. (1998). Elementos para una comunicación intercultural.

Fundació DIDOB.

AAVV. (2002). Comunidades de aprendizaje en Euskadi. Donostia,

Servicio de Publicaciones del Gobierno Vasco.

Ayuste, A.; Flecha, R.; López, F.; Lleras, J. (1994). Planteamientos de la

pedagogía crítica. Comunicar y transformar. Barcelona, Graó.

Castells, M.; Flecha, R.; Freire, P.; Giroux, H.; Macedo, D.; Willis, P.

(1999). Critical Education in the new Information Age. Lanham:

Rowman & Littlefield.

Elboj, C.; Puigdellívol, I.; Soler, M.; Valls, R. (2002). Comunidades de

aprendizaje. Transformar la educación. Barcelona, Graó.

Flecha, R. (2000). Sharing Words: Theory and Practise of Dialogic

Learning. Lanham, MD, Rowan and Littlefield.

Freire, P. (1997). A la Sombra de este árbol. Barcelona, El Roure.

Romans, M.; Viladot, G. (1998). La educación de personas adultas. Cómo

optimizar la práctica diaria. Barcelona, Paidós.

66

3.3. Facilitated Individual and Group Learning

Presentation

This chapter describes principles of learning, attitudes and techniques that

are relevant in adult career counselling. It is focussing thereby on

facilitating learning by following the structure of the Canadian Map of

competencies.

Under the headline “Possess Knowledge About How to Facilitate

Learning” (3.3.1.) some general remarks on adult learning are given e.g. by

looking at the differences between adult learning and learning in school.

Here we will refer to the concept of lifelong learning by pointing out the

differences between formal, non-formal and informal learning. The

constructivist comprehension of learning plays an important role in this

respect and will be explained. This neurobiologist theory emphasises that

learning is a self-directed process influenced by biographical experiences.

Chapter 3.3.1.1. focus on “Commonly-accepted Principles of Learning” by

building up on the theoretical explanations of the previous chapter.

It is followed by a part about “Techniques Commonly Used to Facilitate

Learning” (3.3.1.2.). This chapter provides techniques that can be applied

in working with groups. Working with groups is different than working

with an individual. Therefore it also gives guidelines for planning

collaborative learning instruction that are common to all group learning

approaches.

Chapter 3.3.2. is giving practical links how to “Facilitate Learning”,

including a part about “Programme Delivery” (3.3.2.1.) and “Determination

of Clients‟ Existing Competencies” (3.3.2.2.). The latter is very important

in order to work with the clients either in a group or as an individual.

Chapter 3.3.2.3. focuses on the “Delivery of Programs” as well as on the

evaluation of it.

The whole chapter presents important aspects to initiate learning processes.

Starting from the concept of constructivism we explained principles and

methods to encourage learning. That knowledge and the link to the existing

67

competences of the learner are the basis for a preparation and

implementation of sustainable learning. The comments are supplemented

by hints for a long-term improvement of courses and learning processes

through evaluation.

This chapter has the character of handbook and can only give an overview

about the topic of facilitating learning. The Training Materials that

correspond with this handbook provide the reader in unit 3 with materials

how to develop the competencies.

3.3.1. Possess Knowledge about how to Facilitate Learning

Learning happens all the time at many levels throughout society. Most of it

takes place in informal settings. Adults may learn new skills in order to

qualify for jobs, to solve personal problems, or simply to enrich their lives.

Up to about the late 60s, adult education was generally understood as post-

school education provided on a recurring basis. In the early 70ies the

UNESCO was the first who introduced the concept of lifelong learning.

With the “European Year of lifelong learning” in 1996 the term developed

to a central category in the discussion about education and learning. It tries

to give answer to the challenges of accelerating change in an individualistic

society. In a world where knowledge is changing with such speed, all adults

will require education at various stages of their lives. Lifelong learning

means literally learning throughout the life span, from early childhood to

old age. The concept of lifelong learning recognizes the formal, non-formal

and informal learning as equally valuable aspects of the overall lifelong

learning process. These three main categories cover all possible learning

situations:

Formal education is the structured system of learning carried out by

educational institutions, including general academic studies as well

as specialised professional training activities. Institutions of formal

education are increasingly opening their doors to adults.

68

Non-formal education is basically perceived as any organised

educational effort outside the formal system, with an identifiable

clientele and specific learning objectives.

Informal learning may be described as the lifelong process whereby

all individuals acquire attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from

daily experience and from educative influences and resources in their

environment.

(http://www.unesco.org/education/uie/confintea/pdf/2d.pdf)

If we look at the distinction it is clear that learning in school is part of the

formal education system. Most adults have attended school and bring in

their experiences into new learning settings. Some of the experiences are

not very pleasant and may emerge in learning situation as an adult. People

who work with adults have to be aware of that fact. First of all learning in

school is compulsory and is legitimated by the state. Unlike school in adult

education the learner can leave without being disciplined if he or she thinks

that the class is not relevant. The formal school system has also a

mechanism of selection that is usually not relevant in adult education

unless one wants to achieve a qualification. Also what is different in adult

education is the form of provision. Whereas in school the teacher has to

follow a certain curricula the adult educator is challenged to design his or

her course in such a way that it meets the needs of the learner. In other

words: The programme is determined by the adult learner. Another aspect

is also important: learning new things outweighs in childhood whereas

adults tend to connect new knowledge to their current knowledge.

These ideas as well as the concept of lifelong learning changed the

perception of learning and the learner. They are very much influenced by

the concept of constructivism. Constructivism is the theory that people

learn by constructing meaning through interpretive interactions with the

social environment. Constructivist perspectives are a growing influence

among educators seeking to help students connect learning with life

experiences. “Constructivism is basically a theory - based on observation

and scientific study - about how people learn. It says that people construct

their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing

things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something

new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe

changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as

http://www.unesco.org/education/uie/confintea/pdf/2d.pdf

69

irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. (...) In

constructivism learning is an active, social process in which students

construct new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge. (…)

Constructivism does not dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value

of expert knowledge. Constructivism modifies that role, so that teachers

help students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of

facts. The constructivist teacher provides tools such as problem-solving and

inquiry-based learning activities with which students formulate and test

their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and pool and convey their

knowledge in a collaborative learning environment. Constructivism

transforms the student from a passive recipient of information to an active

participant in the learning process. Always guided by the teacher, students

construct their knowledge actively rather than just mechanically ingesting

knowledge from the teacher or the textbook.”

(http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/month2/index.html).

The role of the teacher is it to create a context that is fostering learning. The

role has changed from architects of learning processes to facilitator or

counsellors that sensitise the learner for the self-organization of their

learning (Arnold and Schüßler, 1998).

3.3.1.1. Describe Commonly-Accepted Principles of Learning

People who come to a counsellor have reasons for this: they do not know

how to find a job, they want to find out more about their competencies,

they feel a lack of confidence or they need advice in solving a problem. In

all cases they want to change their actual situation or at least they feel a

need to do it (they might not always be prepared for this). Change does not

happen without learning. Counselling is about learning. The role of the

counsellor is to facilitate learning. The word facilitates means to make

something easier or make something possible. To fulfil this role the

counsellor has to possess knowledge about the principles of learning. The

basic principle is already implicated in the term facilitator: learning is not a

process of generating knowledge; learning is a process in which the

70

counsellor is enabling learning processes by providing the framework for

learning. For both individual and group learning the counsellor has to guide

the client or the group towards defined learning goals. To define the goals

he has to know or at least to anticipate the starting points of his client or

participants in the group. In other words: he has to meet the client where

the client is. No definitive list of adult education principles exists in the

literature, but there is a great deal of agreement about what constitutes good

practice in adult education. We will refer to the Canadian competence map.



practitioners will strive to follow some principles of learning:

Clients learn best when they create personal meaning.

Learning is essentially a matter of creating meaning from the real

activities of daily living. By embedding subject matter in the

ongoing experiences of the learners and by creating opportunities

for learners to live subject matter in the context of real-world

challenges, knowledge is acquired and learning transfers from the

classroom to the realm of practice. People learn only if they can

attach new information to their personal experiences,

interpretations, views that are already there in their minds. For

that reason it is important that learning has something to do with

their personal life. Important is also the wording: they create.

Learning is only sustainable if the learner himself creates the

meaning instead of taking over pre-formed wisdoms that have

nothing to do with his life. It is the learner who decides what parts

from the learning offer he “takes on board” and integrates into the

already existing experiences.

Clients need to take responsibility for their own learning.

For the above-mentioned reason it is the learner who takes

responsibility for his own learning. The counsellor is enabling

learning processes by offering the suitable information, task,

question etc. This principle means also a discharge on the side of

the counsellor. His responsibility is to arrange the learning

process at its best according to the conditions of the client or

group. He is not the generator of knowledge.

71

Clients are capable of directing their own learning and some

clients may need help to develop their own self-efficacy.

Behind this principle there is the general trust in the capacities

and competencies of the learner. This kind of trust is very

important as an attitude because if the counsellor believes in the

capacities of the client then it is also easier for the client to

believe in himself, to find out what he really needs. The learning

process is a self-directed learning process; the counsellor is

providing the information. People come to the clients and show

different levels of self-managing and self-directing skills. It is the

counsellor who carefully has to look where the client is at and

then to provide the suitable support. Self-direction is considered

by some to be a characteristic of adulthood but not all adults

possess this attribute in equal measure. In addition, if adults have

been accustomed to teacher-directed learning environments, they

may not display self-directedness in adult learning settings. Adult

learning should be structured to nurture the development of self-

directed, empowered adults (Imel, 1998)

Clients look to the facilitator for leadership, especially at the

beginning of a learning situation when more structure and

support is needed.

Human beings feel a deeply rooted need for structure. This is

especially true for situations like counselling where people have a

certain question or problem. It is the responsibility of the

counsellor to offer such structure and orientation by providing a

clear framework, giving interpretations and feedback, but also to

step back when the learner is able for self-directing the learning

process. It is important that the counsellor has the competency

and sensitivity to see what the client needs.

Clients are their own experts about whom they are, what they

know and what they want to learn.

This principle results out of principles b) and c). Clients are

responsible for their own learning AND are capable to learn.

Being a professional counsellor means to see the clients as

experts of their own lives. The task of the counsellor is to provide

72

guidance to find out with the client what he already knows and

what he wants to learn.

Clients bring prior experiences, strengths and challenges with

them to learning situations.

Another often-cited principle of adult education revolves around

the idea of using the experiences of participants as a learning

resource. Not only do adult learners have experiences that can be

used as a foundation for learning new things but also, in

adulthood, readiness to learn frequently stems from life tasks and

problems. The particular life situations and perspectives that

adults bring to the classroom can provide a rich reservoir for

learning. These experiences, strengths and challenges are already

there with the client. They are the starting point in the counselling

process. Sometimes the client is not aware of that rich treasure.

Especially in situations like unemployment clients tend to have

very low expectations about themselves. It is the task of the

counsellor to uncover the existing experiences and strength.

Clients have a preferred learning style (e.g.: auditory,

kinaesthetic and visual) but other styles can be used depending on

the activity and the situation. The following website provides a

test to find out about the preferred learning style:

http://www.chaminade.org/inspire/learnstl.htm

Research in the field of learning psychology showed that we use

all of our senses when we learn. Most people prefer learning by

experiencing and doing (kinaesthetic elements), especially when

reinforced through touching and movement (tactile elements).

Some people have a preferred learning style. Asselin and Mooney

(1996) note that people remember 90 percent of what they say

and do as opposed to 30 percent of what they see and hear.

Although kinaesthetic learners retain best, they make up only 5

percent of the population whereas visual learners make up 65

percent and auditory learners, 30 percent It is important that the

provided learning suits the needs of the clients. At the same time

it is important not to focus only on one single channel but to use

several ones so that learning is more sustainable. Researchers also

found out that people learn at best when they experience what

http://www.chaminade.org/inspire/learnstl.htm

73

they learn.

Clients acquire both intentional and incidental knowledge and

skills in learning situations: incidental learning can be used to

create valuable teaching opportunities called teachable moments.

Intentional knowledge is acquired with a specific intention. In

opposition to this is the incidental learning that is often taking

place in organized learning. But people acquire most of their

capacities incidentally in their everyday lives. Because of this it is

difficult for them to be aware of those competencies. The

counsellor can use methods to uncover those competencies.

Clients will learn better when content is presented in a way that

helps them connect new information to previous knowledge (see

Theory of constructivism).

People will better learn if the content enables them to make

connections to the personal experiences, interpretations, views

that are already there in their minds. The challenge for the

counsellor is to present the content in a way that this connection

can be made. The precondition for this is a very good knowledge

about the client.

(See Training Materials - Facilitated Individual and Group Learning,

Activity: Principles of Learning)

3.3.1.2. Define Techniques Commonly Used to Facilitate Learning

In the previous chapter the principles of learning were outlined. At various

points it was stressed out that learning has to do with facilitating and with

enabling. To support such a process there are several techniques that will be

explained here. It lays in the sensitivity of the counsellor to choose the right

method for the right moment. Before presenting the methods the chapter

gives a brief list of principles that are common to all group learning

approaches. It is an extract from an article written by Karen Yeok-Hwa

Ngeow published in the Internet:

Principles that are common to any group learning approach:

74

1. a group-learning task is designed based on shared learning goals

and outcomes;

2. small-group learning takes place in groups of between 3-5

students;

3. cooperative behaviour involves trust-building activities, joint

planning, and an understanding of team support conduct;

4. positive interdependence is developed through setting mutual

goals; and

5. individual accountability, role fulfilment, and task commitment

are expected of students.

There are also some practices in-group learning that may vary among

group-learning approaches. These include:

1. grouping procedures (e.g., forming homogeneous or

heterogeneous groups in terms of skills/levels/interests, role

assignment, short or long term group assignment);

2. development of group work skills (e.g., explicit teaching, small

group team-building exercises, or promotion of reflection on

group dynamics);

3. setting up of interdependence structures (e.g., goal achievement

and incentives, resources, division of tasks);

4. evaluation procedures (e.g., individual, peer, or group grading,

peer evaluation or self-reflection);

5. definition of the teacher's role, which is complex and may differ in

various phases of the group learning activity. For example, the

teacher can be supervisory, evaluative, or supportive in

maintaining cooperative norms at different stages of student

learning.

(http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-2/learning.htm).



practitioners will strive to define the techniques commonly used to

facilitate learning:

75

Brainstorming: idea generation within a group without

evaluation. Brainstorming is a method where groups out of 7

people meet to express everything that comes to their minds

concerning a certain problem or question. The time is limited

from 15 to 30 minutes. Quantity dominates quality, logical and

reasonable thinking is not wanted, critique is forbidden. One

person is taking notes of all the produced results (usually just

words that people shout in the group) on a big chart. Only at the

end of the work the products will be discussed. For the success of

this method it is very important that everybody is following the

rules of the game. Especially “killer phrases” (“we already tried

that, it isn‟t working”) are not allowed because they hinder the

free production of ideas. Hierarchical differences between the

group members are sometimes not very productive for the process

because people may feel intimidated. The method can also be

carried out as an individual although the enriching process

through the ideas of others is missing.

Career fair: representatives from various work and educational

environments set up displays to present information about their

companies or institutions. Career fairs are very suitable to get to

know companies and their representatives. They offer a chance to

get to know more about the philosophy and products of the

company. At the same time a career fair is a possibility to make

personal contacts with key persons and to present one‟s own

competencies. It is advisable that the clients bring a short version

of their own CV with them so that they can leave it in case of

interest with the company.

Case study: A case study describes a scenario based on a real

work situation or problem and offers insights into concrete work

situations. For clients it is an opportunity to get to know more

about work situations. Before setting up an own case study it is

advisable to search in literature or in the net for such description.

Coaching: Coaching is a collaborative approach used to enhance

performance and motivate individuals or groups toward goal

achievement. The term coaching comes from the field of sport. In

practice career counselling and career couching are often used

76

synonymic.

Demonstration: In a demonstration a skill is performed while

describing it. The demonstration can be repeated and clients can

ask questions.

Field trip: A field trip is a planned visit to a specific area or site

to study it. To benefit as much out of the trip it has be very well

prepared both on the site of the groups and the company. The

group can inform themselves about the site and prepare questions.

The company has to be prepared by the counsellors and asked to

save time for demonstration and questions.

Game: Games where two or more individuals participate in a fun,

hands-on activities are a welcomed change in-group counselling.

It usually has an energizing effect on the group especially if it is

an outdoor game.

Group discussion: In a group discussion concrete information is

exchanged among group members. Group discussions offer the

opportunity to exchange information about a topic and to gain

valuable insights by the expressed opinions of other‟s. Moderated

group discussions are more structured and therefore more

effective.

Guest speaker: To invite a guest speaker as a knowledgeable

person to speak and to answer questions is a good opportunity for

the group to compare own views about a job, study and

occupation with the reality. The counsellor should choose a guest

speaker that likes his or her job and also likes to share his

experiences with other people. He or she has to be an open person

who has no inhibition to talk in front of a group.

Job shadowing: Job shadowing is when an individual spends time

with a person on the job to observe what the job responsibilities

are and what knowledge, skills and attitudes are required to fulfil

those responsibilities. This method is very suitable to get to know

work reality.

Learning circle: The Learning Circle Australia explains the

following: a group of people is sitting around a table, a meeting

77

room or a friend's lounge room. As one is speaking, someone else

is jotting down notes, several others are waiting to make their

points, another is skimming through the readings looking for a

point, a facilitator is watching the whole group and the rest are

listening quietly. This is a Learning circle in action.

In a Learning circle, groups of around 5 - 15 people meet

regularly to learn about and discuss issues of importance to them.

They learn at their own pace, drawing on their own experiences

and understandings, without a lecturer or an expert 'running the

show'. Sessions last around 2 hours, guided by a facilitator

(discussion leader or chairperson), one of the group nominated to

keep discussion focused and fair. Participants usually do about an

hour's worth of reading or research between sessions to provide

them with the 'raw material' for discussion.

(http://www.learningcircles.org.au/whatis.html)

Lecture: A lecture is a verbal presentation to explain and teach.

As already explained above about learning styles a lecture has to

be appropriate to the audience. The success of the lecture is

depending on the speakers quality to structure the lecture so that

the audience can follow. A visualized lecture enhances the

learning effect because two senses are addressed (auditory,

visual).

Mentoring: Mentoring is learning from a model and is usually

quite an effective learning method. In practice an individual is

matched with a knowledgeable and motivated person who guides

the individual‟s professional and personal development. When

using these methods the mentors have to be very well chosen and

prepared for their task.

Modelling: To explain a situation of appropriate behaviour the

counsellor or a participant of the group can demonstrate it

himself. Often it makes things that are too abstract explicit and

easier to understand.

Multi-media: As said earlier on people learn more easier with a

combination of learning methods that focus on different sensual

channels (e.g.: auditory, kinaesthetic and visual). A combination

78

of media forms can stimulate learning; an overloaded multi-media

presentation can distract learner‟s attention and have a contra

productive effect on learning.

Panel: A panel is a structured presentation that allows a person

with expertise to share knowledge, attitudes, and/or skills on a

given topic with an audience. The topic has to be very well

chosen. It should be appropriate and relevant to the audience.

Project: A project is an exercise for which participants follow a

designated process to come up with individual results (e.g.:

marketing plan, student presentation). As it is explained above

learning is most successful if the learner make his or her own

experience. A project is very useful for that kind of learning

experience.

Reflection: Especially learning in informal or non-formal settings

is usually implicit. Thoughtful consideration of one‟s learning can

be exercised with journal writing. The learner notes regularly

what he has learned himself. With this method the success or

barriers of learning are explicit to the learner.

Retreat: The environment has a big influence on the success of

our learning. Familiar environments such as work or school

environments tend to be associated with loads of memories or

situations that can block the persons for new experiences. A

learning experience that takes place away from the work

environment has the advantage to offer new impressions.

Role-playing: Role-playing is an unrehearsed, informal

dramatization in which clients act out a prescribed scenario. It is

important that the counsellor very well explains the scenario. The

instructions must be very clear and the time has to be limited

before.

Small group activity: In big groups it is more difficult for people

to participate actively. Some people feel intimidated by large

groups. Small group activity is encouraging participation. Groups

can be heterogeneous of homogeneous. Before dividing the group

the counsellor has to think about what he is aiming at.

79

Storytelling: To share past experiences about oneself or others is

a good method to make people talk and participate. The learning

effect is also very good because the stories come out of their own

lives (see Learning Principles). Even better is the method to ask

clients to share success stories to motivate other clients.

Volunteering: If it is difficult to get to know the work life then

volunteering can be a good step into a company. In volunteering

individuals provide services to organizations and in return gain

work experience and contacts that are often the door opener to a

job offer.

Work experience: Similar to volunteering is a work experience.

Here individuals spend time on the job to learn through training

and experience about the responsibilities, knowledge, skills and

attitudes required.


Activity: Techniques to Facilitate Learning)

3.3.2. Facilitate Learning

The previous chapter outlined the basic principles of learning and

techniques that are relevant in facilitating individual and group learning. In

doing so it we made explicit that the starting point for learning offers must

be the reality of the learner.

This part is dedicated to the preparation of a program including drawing up

a plan, deciding about the content, choosing the relevant materials and

finally evaluates the program.

3.3.2.1. Prepare for Program Delivery

80

In order to deliver a program adequately and flexible the counsellor has to

prepare the program.



practitioners will strive to respect the following criteria:

The principles of learning (see Chapter 3.3.1.1) have to be

followed.

The counsellor has to respect diversity (see Chapter 3.2.1.).

A good preparation needs adequate time.

The counsellor is like a guide through the jungle of information.

Facilitation means also structuring the information. For that the

counsellor has to ensure a good knowledge of the content area

through research and consultation.

We learn out from the past. In the planning phase a review of past

experiences in the delivery of programs with similar objectives

and purposes is a good preparation. Counsellors should especially

concentrate on past challenges and options to deal with them.

Steps for planning a program:

1. Identify the needs of the clients: as outlined in the

principles of learning (f) the prior experiences that the

clients bring to the learning situation has to be considered.

From there the objectives will derive.

2. Select the specific content that needs to be presented:

Relevant is the content when the clients can make personal

connections to their own life (see Chapter 3.3.1.1).

3. Identify effective delivery processes. In Chapter 3.3.1.2

several techniques of delivering content are outlined. It is

important to note that the method of delivering suits the

needs of the clients and the objectives of the program.

4. Internal stakeholders and external partners usually support

the program. Develop marketing plans for both in order to

81

get a feedback.

5. Determine desired learning outcomes (e.g.: cognitive,

emotional). Then learning has a concrete aim and can be

measured against that defined outcomes (see Chapter

3.3.2.4).

6. Programs are often sponsored by organizations that have

their own expectations in the program. An evaluation is a

check if the outcomes of the project have met the

expectations. The definition of evaluation is:

Evaluation is the systematic acquisition and assessment of

information to provide useful feedback about some object

(e.g.: the educational process) (see Chapter 3.3.2.4).

7. To make an evaluation feasible it is important to:

Determine and select the evaluation methods (e.g.:

surveys, focus groups). Plan enough time.

Consider the process and content.

Consider the expectations of the clients and

sponsoring organizations. They can probably differ

from each other. That has to be counted in.

Sometimes it is easier to have an extra evaluation for

sponsoring bodies.

Consider clients‟ own personal development goals.

Design evaluation instruments, as required.

Determine who will be involved in the evaluation.

Determine when the instruments will be used.

Determine what will be done with the results.

Select, review and/or develop materials, as necessary.

Determine program logistics (e.g.: budget, location, size of group,

time frame).

At the end of the planning process review carefully if the

82

following points are in tune with each other:

Plan.

Content.

Materials.

Service evaluation method.


Activity: Program Delivery)

3.3.2.2. Determination Clients’ Existing Competencies

The determination of clients‟ existing competencies, abilities and strength

is set at the beginning of a counselling process. It delivers the relevant

information to check clients‟ suitability for the program.



practitioners will strive to explain what competencies matters:

Listening skills are very important (see Chapter 3.2.2.4.) in the

initial counselling session. The focus should lay on clients‟

experiences, strength and abilities that reflect and impact

learning.

Clients often feel barriers and obstacles (e.g.: age, work history,

difficulties finding employment or personal issues). These

obstacles can be hindrances in finding a suitable job or training.

The counsellor has to be aware of that and use interpersonal skills

(as outlined in chapter 3.2) to ask questions to find out about it.

Especially personal issues can be a big obstacle. There has to be

an atmosphere of mutual trust and high regard. The counsellor

should therefore have an attitude of authenticity and genuineness,

unconditional acceptance and sensitive empathy towards the

client.

Very few clients already have an own portfolio where all their

83

competencies and acquired skills are documented. If it is

available the counsellor should review it together with the client

and extract from there a competence profile. The concept of a

portfolio is quite a new idea that derived (e.g.: from the need to

transfer qualifications from one occupation to another). Also it is

focusing on acquired skills through incidental and non-formal

learning. As we know people learn the vast majority in such

frameworks.

If there is no portfolio then the counsellor should use other

techniques to review key areas of competencies. In-group

facilitation the method of story telling is quite useful. The clients

are asked to tell stories of personal experiences in which they

found themselves successful, in which they experienced fun or a

feeling of flow.

As is said in the learning principles it is the client who is

responsible for the process. Sometimes clients have difficulties

accepting this and consequently do not fully commit themselves

to the project. The counsellor has to point out that principle. He

can also confront the client with a challenge to determine the

clients’ commitment.

During the program it is important to have assessment sessions

with the clients in order to review the results and to determine the

relevance to the program.


Activity: Discover Your Hidden Competencies)

3.3.2.3 Deliver Programs

Program delivery is important to maximize clients‟ learning and to meet the

clients‟ needs in a timely manner. For delivering a program in individual or

group learning the counsellor need to follow the principles of learning (see

Chapter 3.3.1.1) and use group facilitation skills.


84



Set the stage for the setting. Before the clients come to the session

all has to be prepared (e.g.: enough chairs for the clients, material

like flip chart paper and marker). As a facilitator he has to give

orientation through the session by presenting the program plan. It

is useful to present the plan on a flip chart and to hang it on the

wall after presenting it. During the session it is always there as a

visible guide for the participants.

Orient the clients to the topic. Learning is more successful if the

learners get an idea why they learn a topic. For that reason it is

important that the facilitator orient the clients to the topic. He

should discuss the purpose of what they are to learn and explain

how and where the learning can be applied and what does this

mean to the client.

Use the program plan as a guide. The program plan is a guide

that allows for flexible changes. If important client needs emerge

it can be changed. The guiding principle for any changes are the

learners needs. Clients bring in their personal experiences and

competencies. As said above especially all that has been learned

incidentally is very valuable. Clients are usually not self-aware of

their learning. The facilitator should try to make available as

much of the incidental learning as possible and to use it in a

positive way for exercises.

Communicate ideas and concepts effectively. Acknowledge

clients‟ comments by giving positive feedback on useful

comments and linking the comments to the content. Use the

comments and the learning experiences for building on arguments

and content. To give guidance summarize what has been said so

that the participants get the overall picture and learn what is

important.

Facilitate interpretations and understanding by using analysis

and feedback skills. Learning process are more effective if the

facilitator gives guidance by offering interpretation (e.g.: by

making generalizations out of clients contributions without

85

devaluing them). Giving feedback is also an important element

for the client to receive a reflection of his argument or given

information. It gives orientation to the learner. Feedback can be

given by reframing the information.

Support clients’ self-directed learning by showing clients how

and where to find information. The facilitator could prepare a

paper with relevant web-addresses or addresses of key

organizations. Too much information often distracts peoples

mind. It is the facilitators task to show how to use information

appropriately.

Implement evaluation methods. As outlined in the previous

chapter evaluation is an important tool to ensure the success of

the program. Prepare enough time and make – if possible - the

evaluation aim transparent to the clients.

Close the session. At the end of the session the facilitator has to

summarize the session by pointing out the major steps and issues

of discussion. With regard to the original program plan he can

point out at what stages changes where made and for what reason.

It makes the whole learning session more transparent to the

clients and gives them orientation. The closing of a session is a

crucial point. Plan in enough time so that the clients leave the

session in a good feeling.


Activity: Evaluation Methods)

3.3.2.4 Evaluate Programs

Evaluation5 is the process of determining significance or worth, usually by

careful appraisal and study. Evaluation may serve two, complementary

functions. In one context, the aim is prospective, or formative - to improve,

to understand strengths in order to amplify them, or to isolate weaknesses

5 For further information about evaluation, see chapter Professional Behaiour, pg.

45

86

to mend. The other context is retrospective, or summative - to assess

concrete achievement, perhaps as part of a process of acknowledgement or

giving awards. All the gathered data of a program evaluation have the aim

to assess, to understand and to ameliorate the code of practice.




Implement the evaluation. Under the aspect of utility,

implementation, fairness and accuracy there can be named at least

six phases of an evaluation.

Decision about the implementation of an evaluation.

Definition of the evaluation problem.

Planning of an evaluation.

Gathering information.

Analysis of information.

Reporting.

The Joint Committee on standards for Educational Evaluation as

well as the German Society for Evaluation lists several standards

for program evaluation which are recommended to be red (see

http://www.wmich.edu/evalctr/jc/ and Deutsche Gesellschaft für

Evaluation, 2002).

Analyse the evaluation responses. On the basis of the evaluation

report the results should be reflected with the aim to build on

identified strength and to eliminate the identified weaknesses.

Result of this step can be to word aims how to

Draw conclusions. There exist no silver bullet to change the

practice of educational work. Moreover it is important to come to

a founded and justified decision how to reach the formulated aim.

Take action. An evaluation is a means to an end. In consideration

of the interest of all the stakeholders, the profit analysis, the

formulation of the aim, the generation and choice of new

procedures the next steps are the following:

87

incorporate the feedback into future learning situations;

follow up with original groups / individuals, if necessary.


Activity: Program Delivery)

References

Arnold, R.; Schüßler, I. (1998). Wandel der Lernkulturen. Ideen und

Bausteine für ein lebendiges Lernen. Darmstadt.

Asselin, S. B.; Mooney, M. (1996). Diverse Learners: Strategies for

Success. Glen Allen, VA, Virginia Vocational Curriculum and

Resource Center, (ED 406 529).

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Evaluation (Hrsg.) (2002). Standards für

Evaluation. Köln.

Kommission der Europäischen Gemeinschaften (2000). Memorandum über

Lebenslanges Lernen. Brüssel.

Imel, Susan (1998). Using Adult Learning Principles in Adult Basic and

Literacy Education, Practice Application Brief no.

(http://ericacve.org/docgen.asp?tbl=pab&ID=88)

Lea, H. D.; Leibowitz, Z. B., eds. (1992). Adult Career Development. 2d

ed. Alexandria, VA, National Career Development Association.

Reischmann, J. (2003). Weiterbildungsevaluation. Lernerfolge messbar

machen. Neuwied, Kriftel.

Siebert, H. (1999). Pädagogischer Konstruktivismus. Eine Bilanz der

Konstruktivismusdiskussion für die Bildungspraxis. Neuwied,

Kriftel.

Treml, A. K. (1998). Lernen. In: Krüger, H.-H.; Helsper, W. (Hrsg.):

Einführung in Grundbegriffe und Grundfragen der

Erziehungswissenschaft. 3. Auflage. Opladen. S.93-102.

http://ericacve.org/docgen.asp?tbl=pab&ID=88

88

3.4. Career Counselling

Presentation

In order to provide qualitative professional services, career practitioners

have to follow an ongoing process of personal and professional

development. By granting direct services to clients in areas, such as: career

building and development, learning and work exploration, self-exploration

and personal management, the career counsellors must posses some core

competencies (Professional behaviour, Interpersonal competence, Career

development knowledge, Needs assessment and referral), common skills

and knowledge (work search strategies, group facilitation) and also some

skills, knowledge, and attitudes in a certain area of specialization – career

counselling.

In this respect, we put a special emphasis on certain competencies required

by career counselling area o specialization. There are two core functions a

number of correlated competencies in addition as it follow:

3.4.1. Possess Knowledge in Career Counselling implies the

following competencies:

3.4.1.1. Explain major theories and models pertaining to

counselling.

3.4.1.2. Explain major theories and models pertaining to career

development.

3.4.1.3. Explain major models pertaining to change and

transition.

3.4.1.4. Describe barriers to career development.

3.4.1.5. Describe computerized career planning systems and

information resources.

3.4.1.6. Describe types of educational/training opportunities

and resources.

3.4.1.7. Work with labour market information.

89

3.4.2. Demonstrate methods and practices in the interaction with the

clients:

3.4.2.1. Develop a method of practice that builds on

established or recognized ideas.

3.4.2.2. Establish and maintain a collaborative relationship

with clients.

3.4.2.3. Explore issues.

3.4.2.4. Develop and implement a process for achieving

clients‟ goals that is consistent with own method of

practice.

3.4.2.5. Monitor progress.

3.4.1. Possess Knowledge in Career Counselling

3.4.1.1. Explain Major Theories and Models Pertaining to Counselling

Specific counselling interventions cover a large scale of activities, starting

from helping people clarify important issues in their lives, integrating

childhood experiences or activating inner resources, exploring feelings,

thoughts and particular meanings, up to offering support during

developmental and transitional periods (Peterson; Nisenholz , 1995). These

interventions are underlined by a great number of theoretical approaches of

the counselling process developed over the years. In order to provide high

quality services, career counsellors must be able to integrate and explain

the major theories and models pertaining to counselling.

To be able to explain major theories and models pertaining to counselling

has a great importance in a career counsellor profile, based on the following

reasons:

90

It allows the development of an eclectic and proper vision upon

the counselling interventions and client assistance models;

Counselling interventions are designed according to certain

theoretical frames;

It allows a proper understanding of some personal biases;

Emphasizes the fact that people have different ways of making

choices, achieving transitions and progressing throughout their

working lives.




Describe theories and models in terms of basic premises,

strengths and limitations.

Explain major theorise and models pertaining to counselling.

From the main theoretical paradigms that ground the specific counselling

interventions evolve a great number of other theoretical orientations

(Nicolson and Ayers, 1998).

Behavioural counselling

Short description. The paradigm uses the principles of classical and operant

conditioning to modify the client‟s behaviour. The behaviour is seen as the

product of a learning process, a process in which people can develop

appropriate or inappropriate behaviours. Generally, personal and

interpersonal problems are seen as resulting from the failure of learning

appropriate behaviours or from learning inappropriate behaviours. The aim

of the counselling interventions is to help persons to adapt effectively to the

environment by increasing desirable behaviours and decreasing undesirable

ones.

Key concepts of this approach are the following: classical and operant

conditioning, reinforcement, extinction and contingencies. Specific to this

approach there is the behavioural assessment that depicts representative

samples of client‟s behaviours and their dynamics in particular settings

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beneath specific circumstances. The process is followed by a functional

analysis of the client‟s personal and interpersonal problems attempting to

discover the relationships between changes in stimulus and changes in

behaviours. These changes are analysed in terms of the conditioning

process using the ABC model (antecedents, behaviour itself, and

consequences).

The behavioural approach states different counsellors‟ roles, such as:

undertaking behavioural analyses and assessments, modeller and reinforce

through behaviour rehearsal and drawing up a behavioural contract.

Techniques and strategies specific to the behavioural counselling approach:

contingency management, positive reinforcement, shaping, contingency

contract, rapid exposure or flooding, systematic desensitisation,

assertiveness and social skills training.

Cognitive-behavioural counselling

Short description.The paradigm offers an integrated perspective of thought

and behaviour, stating that thinking affects people‟s behaviour and that

thinking process can be monitored and changed. The changes produced at a

behavioural level can occur through changes in thinking processes.

Key concepts in cognitive-behavioural counselling: information processing

throughout people develops attitudes and beliefs about themselves and

others, automatic thoughts usually associated with some negative thinking

and irrational beliefs.

The cognitive-behavioural orientation generated a number of further

theoretical developments, such as:

The problem solving approach (advocated by Goldfried and

D‟Zurilla) oriented on how problems are perceived or

appraised as problem, to what they are attributed, the level

of perceived personal control, the time and effort perceived

as necessary for problem solving.

The self-management approach is divided in: the self-

efficacy approach based on the attribution retaining process

(Bandura); the self-instructional training that emphasises

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the process of adopting positive self-statements

(Meichenbaum) and the feedback-loop based on a process

of self-monitoring, self-evaluation and self-reinforcement

(Kanfer).

Rational-emotive behavioural therapy (Ellis) states that

client‟s behaviour is affected by some rational and

irrational beliefs and underlines the tendency of using an

absolutist thinking that impedes personal development. The

model used for analysing client‟s problems is the ABC

model that is build on the following premises: an activating

event can lead to some emotional or behavioural

consequences, mediated by the client‟s beliefs.

Cognitive therapy (Beck) centred on identifying and

assessing specific patterns of thinking or schemata that

underlie client‟s emotional problems and cognitive errors.

The most frequent used cognitive-behavioural orientations are the rational -

emotive behavioural therapy (Ellis) and the cognitive therapy (Beck).

Techniques and strategies specific to cognitive-behavioural counselling:

changing irrational, erroneous or unrealistic thinking, ABC model,

systematic desensitisation, attribution retaining process, process of

adopting positive self-statements, feedback-loop.

Psychodynamic counselling approach

Short description. Originally based on Freud‟s theoretical formulations and

applications, this paradigm proposes an original approach of a person‟s

behaviour, as being driven by unconscious processes. The person‟s current

problems arise from some unsolved conflicts originated in early childhood.

These conflicts prevent people of having fulfilling personal and

interpersonal relationships in the latter life. Generally, the psychodynamic

interventions address persons that have long-term problems spread over

many years, close relationships with another person, dysfunctional or have

developed resistance to communication, are driven by contrary impulses

and demands and have the willingness to co-operate with the counsellor in

a long term relationship.

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Specific to this approach are some key concepts, such as: structural

concepts – id, ego, superego, libido; psychosexual developmental stages;

unconscious, counter-transference; defences; Oedipus complex. The aim of

the counselling intervention is to interpret the transference, resistances and

defences displayed by the clients. The problems will be reduced or solved

by the client‟s attaining insight or by increasing the ego strength.

Techniques and strategies used: transference and counter-transference,

interpretation of resistances and defences, dream analyses or free

association. Generally, the psychodynamic interventions address persons

that have long-term problems spread over many years, close relationships

with another person, dysfunctional or have developed resistance to

communication, are driven by contrary impulses and demands and have the

willingness to co-operate with the counsellor in a long term relationship.

Person-centred counselling approach

Short description. Developed after Rogers‟ original work, the paradigm

grants an increased importance to the subjective experiences of the

individual in relation to the environment. It underlines the fact that

individuals are entirely responsible for the usage on the internal resources

they possess in order to ensure a harmonious personal growth and

development. The guarantee of personal growth and development stated by

the client centred approach depends on certain conditions according to

which the counselling relationship is built.

This approach is built on some key concepts, such as: self-concept (the idea

that people have of themselves), conditions of worth (conditions generated

by others that allow a person to think and feel that he/she is accepted),

organismic self (the true self that is aware of its needs for personal

development), self-actualising person (a person who has an internal locus

of self-evaluation), emotional conflict (generated by an impoverished self-

concept that leads to unhappiness), perceptual distortion, denial and

conditions for personal growth.

Techniques and strategies fundamental for this paradigm are the following:

the congruence or authenticity that ensure an opening to one‟s own feelings

and launch the challenge of being authentic as well as the empathy and

positive unconditional acceptance.

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Eclectic-integrative counselling approach

Short description. Eclectic-integrative counselling approach aims to

integrate valuable issues postulated by other theoretical approaches, such as

the social influence theory (Strong), high-level functioning helpers

(Carkuff), learning theory (Bandura), and to connect the counselling

activity to the new trends in approaching individuals.

The joint model of these theories is the skilled helper model developed by

Egan. The aims of this counselling approach envisage to establish an

appropriate relationship based on warmth and acceptance; to assist the

client in establishing an action plan; activate the inner resources of the

client and emphasize client‟s responsibility and also to assist the client to

transfer the new gained skills and knowledge in new life settings.

The key concepts of the skilled helper model are the following: model of a

person (persons are seen as active interpreters of the world, who initiate

actions and develop decision-making processes), high level functioning

helpers, social influence and learning, goal setting, skills deficit. The

helping model is described as having three different stages, which don‟t

necessary follow a linear succession. The first stage requires looking at the

client existing situation in order to develop an assessment process and to

assist the client in establishing priorities and developing action plans. The

second stage requires helping the client establish goals and objectives and

explore different options by using techniques such as: brain storming,

divergent thinking, balance sheet approach and force filed analysis. The

third stage is centred on helping the client devise strategies, identify

personal resources, challenges, possible barriers or social networks and

support.

Techniques and strategies used in this counselling approach: effective

attending and listening, active listening, empathy, probing.

An example: Egan‟s Three-Stage Model of Counselling

Stages:

1. Clarifying problem (Where am I now?)

This stage requires the analysis of client‟s situation presented in

counselling meeting. Here are used questioning techniques focalized

95

on different aspects: family, social relationship, financial aspect and

work experience. It is assumed that the problematical issue is

clarified and the client‟s perspectives are changed, new

opportunities, alternatives and hope being revealed following the

discussions.

2. Purpose establishment (Where do I want to be?)

This stage assumes examination of the action alternatives that have

been prefigured in the previous stage, regarding advantages, limits,

obstacles and resources for each alternative. It will be pursuit the

detachment of hypothetical consequences of each alternative. One or

two alternatives will be chosen as being the most appropriate for

reaching client‟s short and long-term purposes.

3. Elaborating the action plan (How do I get there?)

For each of the appropriate alternatives the counsellor will offer the

information required (education, training, jobs). The personal

available resources and the client‟s benefit support (external

resources) are to be identified. Together with the client, the

counsellor establishes the action plan consisting in definitely stages,

tasks to be accomplished and terms. The counsellor ensures that

there are no gaps or difficulties in following up the action plan.

The short overview of the major counselling approaches above presented

was designed to provide an opportunity for the readers to begin the own

understanding process on how clients may be approached or assisted. The

presented approaches can work as starting points in the process of

developing your own personal approach. Adopting the existing theory

involves a great amount of study and effort and inquires a creative mind

and an ongoing practical experience.

3.4.1.2. Explain Major Theories and Models Pertaining to Career

Development

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The knowledge of theories and models pertaining to career development

offers a close-knit image of the intervention strategies and techniques,

exerting sure formative influences on the counselling practice. Traditionally

career development theories were built on the merit of independent thought

and judgement, but nowadays approaches refined the discipline and

profession of career counselling into a major force for promulgating and

promoting life-career development.

The importance of this competency in a career counsellor professional

profile is sustained by the following reasons:

The appropriate understanding and integration of theoretical

paradigms enables career counsellors to provide high quality

services and to establish a coherent work frame.

It allows a proper understanding of the way in which individuals

achieve specific issues or make certain decisions.

The personal biases specific to each practitioner can be easier

identified.




Describe theories and models in terms of basic premises,

strengths and limitations.

Explain major theorise and models pertaining to career

counselling.

Before providing a short description of the most relevant paradigms in

career counselling filed, first it will be provided an overview of these

paradigms, organised by a set of basic questions: Who is the “agent”, the

person who has a career? What are the “environments” in which careers

are made? What is the nature of the career “action”? (Killeen, J, 2000).

A core element in career theory is the agent or the person who

acts in a certain way and has different reasons, intentions and behavioural

processes by which intentions are pursued. In some theories the importance

of the agent‟s power is regarded as slight; other assume universal needs and

97

preferences of the agents (focusing the attention on the competition

between individuals, families and other groups).

The most wide spread approach of the agent, is the one in which people are

different one from another as referring to their needs, interests and

capacities. According to this perspective, the psychodynamic theory

emphasises the role of inner motives applied to careers, the role of

personality types or personality expressions as resulted form the early

interactions in the family, all these influencing the career behaviour. Also,

the trait and factor theory (the best known being Holland‟s occupational

personalities theory), which later evolved in the person-in-environment fit

theory, starts from the premise that people differ in their wants and

capacities, and that achieving a higher level of rewards is possible by

finding the suitable kind of work without a need for further changes in

individuals. A complete perspective upon the agent cannot be

reached/gained without either the social or cognitive perspective,

necessarily related to the self-concept theory, starting with Super‟s (1953,

1957) statements on the importance of self-observation and comparison to

others in determining the self-concept, Holland‟s (1985) assertions on the

self-concepts as being essentially occupational and Krumboltz (1994)

contributions by presenting self-concepts as results of self-observation

generalisations.

Another essential element in the career theory is the environment;

frequently reduced to labour markets, related to some occupational

structures or with some broadly conceived social structures. Generally,

traditional theories advance a two dimension option set in analysing

environment: a vertical dimension corresponding on socio-economical

status of occupations and a horizontal dimension related to occupational

activity types. The most wide spread theory dealing with environment in

career development is the structural theory, in which environment is

perceived as a structure or as an organised social formation; in this context

individuals become the medium through which social structure exists and

social pressure occurs. A further development is anticipated by career

ecology theory (Young, 1983), through the new concept of environment,

seen as a system in which human development takes place.

Action is the third core element in career development, and refers

to what the agent does, frequently referring to the decision-making process.

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As a response to some theories (e.g.: general rational theory, economic job

search theory or human capital theory) that undermine the role of the

person‟s subjectivity, seen as a threat to rationalisation, there have been

developed valuable decision stage theories such as Tideman‟s and

O‟Hara‟s (1963) or the decision style theory (Buck and Daniels, 1985).

Another important approach is represented by developmental theories, the

best known being the Super’s developmental theory.

A second group of activities within the career theory related to action is

represented by the work adjustment theories, the representative one being

the Dawis and Lofquist work adjustment theory (1984).

In the career development theory can be identified some core approaches

that will be presented in the following (Jayasinghe, 2001):

Trait-factor career counselling approach

Short description. Trait-factor is the oldest theoretical approach to career

development; its first variant was based on the Parsons‟ matching people to

jobs model. The aim of this counselling approach is to provide objective

information about clients or the world of work and to grant a cognitive

development that allows a better self – understanding, followed by true

reasoning about self and career. Taking in consideration the stable

psychological characteristics of individuals, a special attention is paid to the

goal setting and action planning activities.

The best-known trait-factor theory is Holland’s (1985) theory of

occupational personalities. Setting out from six occupational

environments, Holland introduces six occupational personality types, as

follows: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and

Conventional. Holland showed that these occupational types form a

hexagon in the following sequence: RIASEC, in which the scores obtained

in any dimension, tends to be strongly correlated with the adjacent ones and

weakly correlate with the opposite dimension.

Strong and weak points. The model was criticised and caricaturised as

being “three interviews and a cloud of dust”, mostly because of the

assumption that the characteristics measured are more or less invariable in

time and because of the test and tell device. The recent critics addressed to

99

this model (Krumboltz, 1993) point out that the trait factor theory

oversimplifies the complex process of dealing with different sort of career

problems. In spite of these weak points, the model continues to be widely

spread and used due to its simplicity, economy and ease of use (Jayasinghe,

2001) and allows the development of a great number of self-assessment

computerised instruments.

Developmental career counselling approach

Short description. Developmental approach of career counselling extends

the process of decision-making through the maturation or over the life-time

and is built on some core assumptions (Savickas and Walsh, 1996):

development is a self-constructive process; a person‟s activity has both

structure and function; a person functions as a unified system and new

subsystems of action emerge from old subsystems of action but in a

different form. Among developmental theories the best known is that of

Super (1957), which by adopting a clinical approach introduces the concept

of self as being central to career decision making. Using as starting point

theoretical concepts of human development, Super stated five stages of

development of the vocational self-concept through life span: growth,

exploration, establishment, maintenance and decline. According to these

life stages were prescribed nine major life roles as: child, student, leisureite,

citizen, worker, spouse, homemaker, parent and pensioner, career being a

combination of these roles played by individuals during their lifetime.

Strong and weak points. A major contribution of Super‟s model to career

theories consists in attributing the locus of concern to the individual instead

to the society or economy; the job roles and social ones are conceived as

mutually related. Referring to Super‟s theory in terms of weak points, it is

frequently interpreted as segmented, only parts of the theory being relevant

to clients in a particular time or stage in their lives.

Psychodynamic career counselling approach

Short description. This approach views the work as a means of sublimation

of instinctual drives; career problems as related to wishes and defences.

100

The aim of the counselling intervention is to reduce the neurotic conflict in

career decision making and induce positive personality changes and the

interventions are especially addressed to indecisive and unrealistic clients,

difficult clients, mid-career changers and displaced home-makers (Savickas

and Walsh, 1996).

Strong and weak points. Although, the psychodynamic counselling is not

the mainstream approach in career counselling, being accused to be pseudo-

scientific, by its methods, such as: structured interviews, projective

techniques, autobiographies, it fills the gaps and offers alternatives to the

entirely rational, cognitive career approach. One of the strong points of the

psychodynamic approach is that it offers a proper intervention for the

elements that goes beyond people‟s cognitive awareness and contaminates

the rational process of decision making, elements such as: unconscious

forces, drives, instincts etc.

Client-centred career counselling approach

Short description. The approach is built upon Rogers‟ psychological

original work and it aims to create a safe climate in which the client can

establish adequate vocational goals by exploring and developing personal

and work related identities. The counselling interventions are guided in a

non-directive, non-judgmental manner. A major focus is put on the

interpersonal interactions that can generate the client‟s self-disclosure, the

locus of control being confined by the client all the time. Although this

counselling approach is not based on an intense testing activity, some

testing procedures can be identified, established in accord with the client.

Strong and weak points. Despite the fact that counselling interventions

specific to this approach is non-directive, the counsellors have to possess

adequate knowledge and skills in gathering and presenting relevant career

information. Most of the critics addressed to this approach were mainly

focused on the commitment and competencies held by each practitioner and

the possibility that it may vary in practice.

Social learning career counselling approach

101

Short description. Developed after Krumboltz (1996) work this approach

is a relatively new theoretical orientation partially developed starting from

the concept of self-efficacy formulated by Bandura. It is mainly based on a

cognitive-behavioural model, being especially interpreted as a counsellor

centred orientation. The role of the counsellor is to help clients obtain a set

of decision-making skills, set up appropriate career-exploration learning

experiences and evaluate the consequences at individual level. In this

context the clear formulation of some career related objectives becomes

extremely important, such as verbal and behavioural reinforcements of the

counsellors and usage of some modelling techniques of guiding clients in

information seeking and behavioural explorations that will produce changes

within self-observation generalisations.

Strong and weak points. The social learning approach provides answers to

some relevant issues related to career, such as: the locus of control, career

barriers, job search knowledge and motivation, occupational advancement

or retirement planning. Oriented mainly on altering behaviour, the usage of

psychometrics is not one of its strong points.

Narrative career counselling approach

Short description. Narrative approach developed by Collin and Young

(1992) appeared as a direct response to cognitive directions of

investigation, and tries to direct theorisation according to the issue of ”how

do people construct meaningful careers?”. This approach is a practice-

based theory built in a post-modern society as a response to the changing

framework of understanding social realities and the evolving meaning of

the career. The social space is not in static terms determined by statistics

any more. The emphasis is put on the transitions between sets of role

expectations, and careers are conceived as double-sited: as objective

expressions of the social organisation and as the subjective set of meanings

constructed by individuals in the sense making process of their lives

(Killeen, 2000). In this respect, the narrative approach has a subjective

loom that emphasises the meaning and the meaning-making process,

eliciting the reality of a continuous process of future representation, moving

from relative disorder to order, from explanation to crystallisation in which

the meanings are stabilised. The concept of career becomes subjective and

self-invested being the framework through which people tell stories about

102

themselves, the counsellor sustaining the collaborative interpretation of

these stories though shared meaning, enabling clients to develop more

suitable frames for their experience.

Strong and weak points. Approached in this manner, career counselling can

not be prescribed, but the creative process of joint meaning-making and

narrative pattern finding has important contributions for an eclectic career

counselling model.

Instead of drawing conclusions we must say that above mentioned

theoretical approaches bear the mark of an issuing of adults‟ career, where

terms such as career predictability and stability for the entire life span no

longer have scientific validity. Career theories have refocused on the whole

span of careers by rethinking some aspects of work-adjustment theory,

searching for comprehensive theorisation of adult development and life-

span and reawakening the interpretative perspectives of subjective careers.

The knowledge of such new theoretical orientations, beside having a

special importance for the practitioners; it is essential to be aware of theory,

not merely of a theory, having in this manner the possibility to test against

the alternatives of the theory that fundament the counselling profession.

The theoretical approaches presented in this section can be related to a

dimensional framework for career counselling, adapted by Jayasinghe from

Lunneborg‟s work (1983). Applied to theories it shows a tendency over the

year to move from left to right, this movement not always indicating a

certain theoretical progress. These dimensions are the following

(Jayasinghe, 2001):

specific outcome versus non-specific outcome;

content emphasis versus process emphasis;

point in time decision versus developmental/longitudinal goal;

didactic format versus experiential format;

other-selected participation versus self-selected participation;

increased information goal versus increased internality goal;

passive counselee/counsellor versus active counselee / counsellor;

counselling as treatment versus stimulus;

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present oriented versus future oriented;

cognitive emphasis versus affective emphasis;

ameliorative versus preventive effort.

3.4.1.3. Explain Major Models Pertaining to Change and Transition

Career changes and transitions are frequently determined by the

uncertainties of the economic environment, technological changes and new

attitudes toward work. The world of work can be described through an

accelerating complexity and non-linear evolution. This new demands and

challenges in the nature and availability of work set a new framework on

approaching career development, as the process of managing learning and

work over the lifespan.




Describe how change and transition affect clients moving through

the career process.

Describe major theories and models pertaining to change and

transition

Describe theories and models in term of basic premises, strengths

and limitatios.

Explaining the major models pertaining to change and transition in

adulthood has a great importance for career counsellors in helping them

understand the theoretical approaches on how individuals react to change

and transition, to set proper career counselling interventions and to avoid

personal biases that may appear in the practice.

Searching for an answer to the question why people do change careers?

Sargent and Schlossberg (1988) suggested that adult behaviour is

determined by transitions not by age. Adults are motivated to make

transitions by a continual need to belong, control, master, renew and take

stock.

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One possible explanation for transition may be found in Hughes and

Graham's (1990) work. They identified six life roles (relationships with

self, work, friends, community, partner, and family) that go through cycles

of initiation, adaptation, reassessment and reconciliation. An individual

may be at a different stage in each role simultaneously. The conflict or lack

of congruence between two or more of these role cycles may spur the

process of career change (see Adult Life Roles Instrument).

Either change may occur voluntary or involuntary people may experience a

variety of emotions such as fear, anxiety, or a sense of loss and pass

through different stages, from immobilization, denial, self-doubt, letting go,

to testing options, searching for meaning, integration and renewal.

During the time there were developed several career development models.

The widest spread is the traditional linear career development model which

states the relation: education – employment – retirement. As a response to

nowadays theoretical trends Leach and Chakiris elaborated three types of

careers: linear, free form, and mixed form.

Linear careers follow the traditional pattern of education-work-

retirement.

Free-form careers include work for pay (such as permanent or

temporary part-time jobs, consulting, and entrepreneurial activity)

or unpaid work.

Mixed-form careerists are involved in transitions between linear

and free form patterns (including temporarily or permanently

unemployed or retraining in preparation).

These new approaches of life/career cycles and the transition process

suggest the necessity to adopt new models for assisting adults in career

change. According to Sargent and Schlossberg (1988), adult readiness for

change depends on four factors: self, situation, support, and strategies.

Counsellors can help adults in transition assess (1) self-personal responses

to change; (2) situation-changes in roles, relationships, routines,

assumptions; (3) support-does a range of sources exist? Were they

disrupted by transition?; and (4) strategies-taking action to change the

situation, change its meaning, or change oneself.

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In order to successful manage the transition process people must gain some

core coping skills, such as:

perceiving and responding to transitions;

developing and using internal and external support systems;

reducing emotional and physiological distress;

planning and implementing change.

Above all different career change/transitions models there can be depicted

some relevant components that each model should include:

receiving psychological, marital, and family counselling;

assessing interests, values, and skills (using gender- and culturally

appropriate instruments;

obtaining information about careers;

learning about educational and training opportunities;

identifying and overcoming resource barriers such as financial

need and child care.

The recent researches in the field emphasize the fact that periodic

unemployment will periodically be experience by most of the working

population. In this respect, it is important that people make distinctions

between jobs, work, and careers; place greater value on non-economic

work roles; and recognizes transitions as an inevitable part of life and a

continual challenge for redefining oneself.

3.4.1.4. Describe Barriers to Career Development

Career changes and transitions are performed on the background of some

complex processes of adaptation and adjustment for adults that can be

hindered by certain resistances or barriers specific to this development

period. In order to avoid the emergence of such feelings like discontent or

failure related to a certain profession, career counsellors have to pay special

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attention to these barriers that appear as risk elements that must be properly

explored and assessed.




Identify that barriers have multiple components.

Describe the impact of barriers.

To be able to identify and describe barriers to career development is an

important competency for each career counsellor; it provides a better

understanding of the clients‟ own frame of reference allows a

comprehensive assessment process and facilitates the client‟s efforts to

overcome the career barriers.

In the speciality literature there were identified various attempts to classify

and make an inventory of the barriers involved in career development. One

possibility of approaching these barriers refers both to the external and

internal barriers faced by individuals in their career development. The

internal barriers refer to the entire range of aspects regarding the

individual‟s subjectivity (personality traits, preoccupations and attitudes,

personal value systems, beliefs and stereotypes, etc). The external barriers

that inhibit the individual‟s optimal career choice and vocational

adjustment include occupational discrimination, lack of role models and

support systems, biased career counselling.

Whatever the classification manner of these barriers may be, what is very

important is the perspective of their approach. Counsellors have to be

oriented not just towards identifying and assessing career barriers, but

especially towards observing their way of interconnecting and

underdetermining. The barriers, that bias the individual career

development, possess multiple elements, of which we mention: contextual,

systemic, organisational, affective, cognitive, behavioural and emotional

ones (Heppner, Hendricks, 1995).

During the entire career planning process there can be identified a number

of such barriers that obstruct the career planning activity from the

beginning. In the speciality literature five main categories of such barriers

were identified:

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The fear of failure is frequently associated with the resistances to

change felt by individuals and is determined by certain selective

perceptions, anchoring in traditions, uncertainty regarding one‟s

own value etc.

Fear of the unknown that can be compensated by the individual

by increasing the relevant information regarding the planned

changed, as well as by actively exploring the options available.

The postponement or delay characterised by the tendency to over

plan activities. It can be controlled by a proper activity

management, by establishing some realist deadlines, achieving a

plan for activities and their implementation and finding some

sources of personal or institutional support in order to finalise the

foreseen activities.

The lack of support and encouragement is felt when the family or

close persons do not offer their support or are not involving in the

changing activity planned by the individual. The support

necessary for the career development activities is not resume only

to the support offered by counsellors or other qualified persons. It

is important for the individual to build support networks where

family members or friends should be included.

Allergy / phobia towards planning can be determined by some

personality traits or it can rather be seen as an important element

of the resistance to change and of the anchoring of the individual

in the approach one-and-for-a-life time career.

An appropriate management of these barriers that get in the way of a proper

development of the individual‟s career must take into account the

information on occupation dynamics, new methods of interacting with

adults, general information about casebook record particular to certain

professions.

We have to specify, however, that whatever the configuration of these

barriers may be, their manifestation frequency or specificity, there has a

well-determined psychological background, on which these barriers are

structured and where they can properly manifest themselves. In the

following, we‟ll try to describe some of these psychological factors:

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Discontent can ground on the non-acknowledgement of the social

status, lack of accomplishments regarding the profession, the

absence of some personal and professional development

perspectives. Instability can be seen as a structural trait of the

individual‟s personality and it can manifest itself through the

tendency of continuing perfection, the felt and/or expressed

intention of leaving one‟s working place, the emphasis of the

shortcomings or of the negative aspects related to the profession,

building some opinion streams opposed to the general policy of

the organisation.

Emotional issues can come up regarding the private or

professional dimension of the individual‟s existence and they are

felt on the level of the self.

The unfavourable self-image, acquired during the developmental

stages of the individual strongly influences the appearance of

these barriers. It is necessary to develop a positive self-image, by

the realistic and substantial confirmations and re-confirmations of

every person‟s capacities and resources. A special impact on this

self-image re-conversion process is exerted by the individual‟s

competencies, the relations of reporting to authority, the

innovation capacity etc.

The impact of barriers at the individual level can be examined at different

levels of intervention, such as:

diversity, when the client may be dealing with: cultural issues,

language or literacy issues, discrimination, disabilities, gender

issues);

development issues (family dysfunctions, mental health problems,

addictions, insufficient training);

organizational challenges (restrictive policies, workplace

accommodation issues);

perception of self and others (self-efficacy, realistic self-

knowledge);

psychological reactions to change (trouble adjusting to

unemployment, injury or illness);

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ineffective decision-making styles (difficulty comparing

alternatives, only one way of thinking, impulsive decision

making);

low motivation (procrastination, underlying issues).

The way in which these psychological factors mingle at the individual‟s

psychological structures influences the general satisfaction of one‟s life, the

self-respect and the general emotional well-being. This influence

determines a more or less emphasised permissiveness in the development

and materialization of these career development barriers.

3.4.1.5. Describe Computerized Career Planning Systems and

Information Resources

To offer of highly competitive career counselling services, adapted to the

nowadays needs of individuals, is not possible without taking into account

the great challenge launched by the new informational technologies.

Computer-assisted career guidance systems (CACGSs) have received more

and more attention in recent years and may be described as an

implementation of accumulated knowledge about career information and

guidance that facilitates a better career decision making, serving thousands

of users daily.

These technologies can supplement and extend human potential and they

have recorded two different periods of evolution: the demonstration and

limited implement evolution (1965-1980) market by a static nature of the

process, and the diffusion and extensive implementation starting with 1981.

It is vital that career counsellors strive to develop the competency to

describe computerised career planning systems and information resources

in order to be aware of numerous resources available and to use these

resources effectively when dealing with clients.


(2001), in order to demonstrate this competency adult career counsellor

will strive to:

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Identify common computerized career planning systems and

information resources.

Describe computerized career planning systems and information

resources.

Describe with clients computerized career planning systems and information resources.

In the speciality literature there are presented few comprehensive learning

systems characterised by an increased learning potential, through which

individuals can acquire skills, concepts and information relevant for the

present or future career decisions. The best known of these maxi computer

systems are the following: for the UK the example is PROSPECT (HE), for

the US examples are DISCOVER and SIGI. There are also some middle

sized computerised systems such as Canadian CHOICES systems or the

UK CAREER BUIDER system (Watts, 2000). Also there are some mini

computerised systems more specific focused on some essential issues on

the career decision-making process.

Self-assessment profiles based on occupational interest

questionnaires produce profiles in terms of occupational families.

Informational retrieval systems comprising databases on

education and training opportunities, main examples referring to

ECCTIS, MICRODOORS and TAP.

Business games and other work simulations, limited to a small

number of occupations, enable users to explore particular

occupational areas in an experiential way.

Matching systems are the most popular applications in the career

counselling field; they match the profile of the individuals against

profiles of opportunities and produce lists with most closely

matching opportunities. Examples are CASCAID, JIIG-CAL and

GRADSCOPE.

Decision aids are database programs that help users work out

their own perceptions of the relative desirability.

Job-seeking instructional programs are related to acquiring skills

involved in hiring interviews and making job applications.

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Dedicated word-processors comprise programs that allow the

user to prepare a CV or completing application forms.

Career counselling and career decision making can be discussed from

different theoretical approaches; from adopting the viewpoint of

information-processing and decision theory there can be described some

questions and dilemmas that can be found on the level of CACGSs. These

problems are related to four categories, as follows (Gati, 1994):

The occupational database containing information about

occupational alternatives, including the characteristic aspects for

the different occupations raises questions about the information

accuracy (the CACGS can be unintentionally biased and the

information is not perfectly reliable and valid) and occupational

variance (summarises the relevant occupational information).

The decision-making process viewed in the context of using

CACGS, supplied by relevant, organised information, proving a

systematic framework for using these informational resources,

raises questions related to some issues, such as: elicitation of

aspirations and the need to compromise, in-depth exploration

correlated with the number of potential alternatives, the validity

dominance, ranking procedures or dealing with client‟s

uncertainty.

Conduction of an effective computerised dialogue is referring to

the challenge of how to design an effective CACGS without

creating the illusion that the computer is in fact a counsellor. The

questions and dilemmas related to the computerised dialogue are

focused on the following issues: providing relevant information,

the degree of simplicity or sophistication of the CACGS, flexible

versus constrained dialogue and the problem of designing the

dialogue interface.

The organisational context of the CACGS refers to the

possibilities of conceiving a relation with these systems; they can

function as tools supplementing the various others used by these

programmes, as an alternative by replacing other elements from

the program or as an agent of change that can alter the initial

design of the program in a significant manner (Watts, 2000). The

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relevant issue discussed in this context is the quality control of the

client-computer dialogue and its outcome.

These problems brought to attention can be identified also in a slightly

different form in the face-to-face career counselling; the attempt to

overcome them may lead to significant improvement of CACGSs and to

career counselling theory and practice as well.

Beside the different computerised systems that can ensure assistance in

offering career counselling and orienting services, it is important that we

refer to the way in which individuals respond to the introduction of these

new resources in the counselling practice. Two major alternatives of

integrating the utility of these computerised systems related to the other

career and guidance interventions are presented: there are some kinds of

users that prefer to use the computer instead of another source of help and

there are some kinds of support for which computers are better providers.

Related to the process of integrating computers into counselling and

guidance practice, there are described four models of integration. These

models are the following:

Stand alone model, computer systems being used in isolation

from other counselling or guidance interventions.

Supported model, there are some short meetings with the user

immediately before or after using the system.

Incorporated model, computerised systems being used within

another guidance or career interventions.

Progressive model used in a developmental perspective, in which

the computerised system is preceded and/or followed by other

guidance interventions (Watts, 2000).

Within career intervention models, the incorporated model seems to be

particularly used due to its value in respecting the individual nature of

career decision-making process. The stand-alone models of computer

system usage should include in their design within the computer program, a

description of the conditions under self-help computer applications might

not be appropriate and also a description of the conditions in which the

service is beneficial for the user.

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In order to be fully aware of the numerous resources available on career

counselling and to use effectively these resources, it is important to take

into consideration the on-line career planning and career-information

systems. The career-planning sites offer services in self-assessment,

occupational information, career exploration, and career decision-making;

career-information sites provide information on employment trends,

educational opportunities, employers, and job hunting. In order to properly

integrate these on-line career services into an existing career counselling

system, counsellors must take a look at the career counselling sites

available on the web (e.g.: Careers By Design at http://careers-by-

design.com/) and systematically follow the subsequent prescribed steps

(Kirk, 2000):

Determine the career service needs of your clients.

Assess your clients' level of computer and Internet literacy.

Thoroughly survey the services available over the Web.

Bookmark high quality career services sites and match the career

service needs and computer literacy of your clients.

Organise the career service links according to your preferred

career planning/job search model.

Place the career service links into Web pages in the form of

career planning and job-hunting activities.

Publish your Web pages on a CD-ROM or on a Web server.

Assign specific activities to clients.

Discuss the results of the activities on-line or in person.

Provide assistance and psychological support to clients as needed.

Collect feedback from clients on the appropriateness and

effectiveness of the various activities.

Revise activities and services as needed.

After incorporating the on-line career services into the existing career

counselling system counsellors must help the clients prepare for the usage

of on-line services by doing some of the following actions:

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Assuring that clients have the prerequisite computer and Internet

skills.

Summarising the advantages and disadvantages of on-line career

planning, decision-making and job hunting.

Advising clients on what personal information they should

disclose on line.

Explaining to clients that information found on the Web has

varying degrees of accuracy.

Telling clients that they should not restrict their job search to on-

line job hunting.

Asking clients to monitor the time they spend on line.

Informing clients that job hunting on line is not a quick fix for

their job-hunting woes.

Informing clients that the effectiveness of on-line job-hunting

activities has not yet been thoroughly researched and documented

(Kirk, 2000).

3.4.1.6. Describe Types of Educational/Training Opportunities and

Resources

Many people find themselves in the career stream without having access to

any type of comprehensive career exploration. They haven't taken the time

nor had the opportunity to understand them and to explore their world as

well as the changing labour market. In this respect, there are designed some

coherent career counselling programs for adults with clear stated goals,

intervention and assessment strategies.




Describe educational and training opportunities.

Describe resources for employment.

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Evaluate educational and training opportunities and resources

for employment.

Encourage the client to liaise with the appropriate contacts

independently, when possible.

This competency has a well-defined importance in a career counsellor

profile, allowing to develop individualized career plans and also to make

clients aware of multiple sets of options.

In describing educational and training opportunities, career counsellors may

find relevant information about (Canadian Standards and Guidelines for

Career Development, (2001):

degree programs,

apprenticeships,

certificate programs,

distance education,

private training providers,

armed forces,

diploma programs,

on-the-job training,

available financial aid,

or describing available resources for employment, such as:

advertised job opportunities,

placement offices,

community services,

networking,

job search,

subsidy programs,

employers and on-the-job training/volunteer work.

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There are some core conditions that have to be followed in designing a

career counselling program for adults, such as:

to have as starting point a comprehensive screening of

adults needs;

to be conceived as a process dealing with economical,

psychological and social issues;

to be oriented on personal growth of the counselee;

to involve a multidisciplinary team;

to respect each person individuality.

In the specialty literature there are listed several types of such career

counselling programs for adults. In the following we‟ll provide a guideline

for such a program, elaborated by Klein, 2000 (cited by Musca, 2003)

emphasizing the core sequences that have to be followed:

self-knowledge:

shaping the abilities that maintain a positive self-concept,

shaping the abilities that maintain a efficient behaviour,

understanding the stages of development and transition,

exploring educational and occupational opportunities:

shaping the abilities to be a good social actor,

shaping the abilities to be an active participant in the labour

market,

improving the abilities for searching, understanding and

using career related information,

improving the abilities for searching, maintaining and

changing jobs,

understanding the way in which social needs and function

influence the nature and occupational structures,

career planning:

improving decision making abilities,

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understanding the implications of work upon individuals

and familial life,

understanding the constant change in occupations,

shaping the abilities to make career transitions.

Besides developing and implementing career development plans it is vital

to facilitate an in-depth and systematic analysis of career achievements.

The following theoretical structure may be useful to use (Amundson,

1998):

1. Goals - what the person was trying to accomplish.

2. Emotions: - the accompanying feelings through all aspects of the

achievement process.

3. Personal Agency - beliefs about one's ability to influence people

and situations.

4. Skills - learned abilities to do things well.

5. Context - personal and situational variables that support or impede

goal attainment.

6. Biological Capacity - physical capabilities to carry out particular

tasks.

Describing various types of educational/training opportunities and

resources has a great deal of importance in a career planning process. As a

final output it is envisaged the independence of clients in dealing with such

information and to link them with the appropriate contacts independently.

3.4.1.7. Work with Labour Market Information

People must be empowered with basic knowledge and skills they need to

make the best possible choices, with or without assistance, throughout their

careers. For this purpose they have to manage in a proper manner the

labour market information. Career counsellors must also, strive to gain this

competency in order to be able to ensure clients‟ career plans are personally

appropriate and to facilitate appropriate career decisions.

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There is a strong linkage between labour market trends, patterns and

dynamics and career counselling and guidance services. The linkage

consists in factual information about labour market statistics and more

important, in providing information about learning opportunities. Also,

labour market information is referring to so called “destination data”,

emphasizing the pathways and success rates of learning outcomes or the

role of transferable skills for employment. This kind of “destination”

information gives great credibility to counsellor; usually they are derived

from local surveys-work and provides useful information in making

positive choices and counter misconceptions like there are no jobs or

training programs that lead to permanent employment (Jayasinghe, 2001).

The nowadays challenge is to improve the use of labour market information

by putting together provision that meets individuals and employee needs.




Identifying the sources of labour market information.

Analyse and interpret labour market information.

Describe the steps involved in using labour market information

with clients.

When dealing with labour market some concept clarifications are needed.

Labour market information gathers data about workers, jobs, industries and

employers including information about employment, demographic and

economic data. The information is available to the public through Career

Information Delivery Systems, printed materials, computer-based systems,

Occupational Informational Systems, current periodicals, newspapers or

books.

Simply informing yourself about labour market trends is not as much as

necessary; a process of thoughtful self-analysis is required before people

feel ownership in and commitment to their career decisions. In this respect,

people must be able to test insights gained through self-analysis against all

relevant career options in their communities and beyond, not just the

limited pool of stereotypical options typically considered (see Training

Materials on Career Counselling: Work with labour market information).

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The career resiliency lies in one's ability to take ownership of their careers,

to get as much control as it is possible on this issue. A core action in this

direction is to assure a basics career maintenance (Saunders, 1999), which

includes:

Knowing yourself: properly assessing personal marketable skills,

areas of interests, and personal values. In order to reach to this

information a set of questions may be used: Do you understand

the needs of your organization or your industry? Where are the

best areas in terms of growth, fun, and excitement along with

ample opportunities for a flexible, supportive work-life?

Managing your reputation: assuring that enough people know of

your work, your expertise, and your ambitions. Among these

reference groups there may be included persons from many

different arenas - your department, other divisions, and

professional associations.

Creating options: Are you assuming risk by taking on new

assignments, learning new systems, and meeting new people? Are

you expanding your portfolio of professional skills?

Using in career decision-making process relevant information about careers

and labour market doesn‟t necessary imply the usage of the traditional

informational resources. The latest generation of interactive computer

systems provide access to comprehensive labour market and career

information databases to make truly informed choices.

3.4.2. Demonstrate Methods and Practices in the Interaction with the

Clients

Every measure of counselling shows a variety of characteristics, between

which there is a functional interdependence:

Imply the relation between the counsellor and the counselee, the

main actors of the counselling process.

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Spreading various information.

Support a management (projection-organization-coordination).

Resort to the methods and procedures adequate and adapted to the

counselling process.

It is subjected to a continuous and final supervising and

evaluation.

The waited outputs are foreshadowing through objectives.

The process of career counselling represents a various and sophisticated

assembly of activities rationally organized, which implies a specific way of

development that is strategies, methods and adequate techniques.

This chapter presents the next five competencies:

Developing a method of practice that builds on established or

recognized ideas.

Establishing and maintain a collaborative relationship with

clients.

Exploring issues.

Developing and implementing a process for achieving clients‟

goals that is consistent with own method of practice.

Monitor progress.

Conceptual classification

Strategies/Methods/Techniques for adult counselling6

In reality, these concepts show their meanings through a systematic

approach of all the components imply in the process of counselling,

6 For further information about techinques used in the adult career counselling

process, see the chapter Facilitated Individual and Group Learning, pg. 73

121

through the analyses among the objectives – contents – strategies –

methods – proceedings - techniques of counselling.

In the organisation of the counselling activities a set of questions comes

into sight.

Which we address to?

What is expected from us?

Technicq

ues

Strategie

s

Methods

Content

Objectiv

es

122

What are we able to offer?

Which are the objectives of the counselling?

How can they be achieved?

When will they be reached?

What means can be used to this aim?

What kinds of changes can be achieved for the professional

development?

How can we find if the process of counselling reaches the outputs

foreshadowed in the objectives?

All the answers to these questions makes up a theoretic-practical type of the

counselling process in which the strategies, the methods and the

proceedings play a major role guiding to the solving of the difficult

situations.

So, in the modern thinking, the strategies of career counselling represent a

systematic way of projection, achievement, evaluation and adjusting of the

whole process, in accordance with the objectives of the professional

development. In other words, these strategies aimed at:

To divide and to organise the process of counselling.

To project efficient methods for the professional development.

To integrate the available means in the counselling activity.

Starting from these points a variety of strategies were drawn up, strategies

which stimulate the imagination, the new ideas, succeeding to neutralize

the obstacles that can appear in the counselling process. The existence of

these strategies is founded on the fact that the adult develops his career

when he is set in situations that shows the flexibility of his mind, analogy,

the transference of the methods and of the solutions.

The elements that steps in promoting a strategy are:

Social organizing.

Organizational culture.

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Motivation.

The need for originality.

Imagination.

The level of freedom.

The transference of abilities.

How we chose the right strategy?

The analyses of the application of professional formation and

improvement.

Establishment of the forming and improvement elements.

Determination of the followed objectives.

Knowledge of the individual and group abilities.

Psychosocial context.

Culture and civilisation Individual application for professional

forming and improvement

Jobs

Character

Aspirations

The strategies used in the counselling of the adults‟ career describes an

integrative and dynamic concept, taking into consideration the functional

and the structural aspect they are considered a model or an organized

assembly of the methods and the proceedings of the practical achievement

of the common action: counsellor- client.

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The effort of modernizing the strategies in the counselling it is obvious

both on the aspect of improvement new methods and proceedings and on

the view upon these. On an extended meaning, the method is a rational

practice, a general conclusion confirmed by the actual and research

experience, which is directed to the change and the improvement of the

human nature.

On a restricted meaning, the methods of counselling show a certain way of

work, manner of acting practically, systematically, scheduled, under the

continuous supervising of the counsellor. Accepting this, the method

appears as a guiding of the client‟s activity through a simulative

intercession the counsellor, accompanied by a systematic control of the

outputs partially recorded, of the evaluation and their adjusting for the

adaptation of the counselling process to the individual and group needs. In

this context, the active methods of counselling assure the possibility of

supervising the activity and of anticipating the random elements, its

efficiency being controlled in this way.

The method includes 4 key indicators, which defines its trajectory:

Difficult situation- the starting point.

The client- the subject upon which the action aims.

The objectives.

The final results- touch point.

The method is a conception, a way of arranging the action, implying a

complex of counselling proceedings, which is achieved through a variety of

techniques. The proceeding is seen as a way of action starting from

concrete conditions, having the sense of sequence directly applied, easily

controlled and corrigible. In other words the difference between the

counselling method on one hand and the proceeding on the other hand,

consists in the fact that the method represents a larger entity, while the

proceeding is both an integrative way of the method or a supportive

element and a concrete way of revaluation the method. The relation

method-proceeding is dynamic which determines the easily passing of a

term into the other.

The techniques of career counselling are an assembly of actions carried on

depending on the means we have (information source, audio-visual means).

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The displayed techniques for each proceeding are various: own

interrogation, induction, deduction, the direct and indirect observation,

therapeutic letters, and analyses.

The displayed actions from the point of view of the counselling methods

become proceedings of these and the sequences that step in the action are

what we call techniques, all these contributing to the efficiency of the


The description of the competencies

The professional standards in the career counselling means clear guide

marks, of qualitative nature, which describes the minimal levels of

performance, presenting a map of general and specific competencies

needed for the display of the counselling activity.

3.4.2.1. Develop a Method of Practice that Builds on Established or

Recognized Ideas

This type of competency is very important and absolutely necessary for

developing a personal model of adult career counselling, based on

reorganization of all known models and theories and on combining theory

with practice. Through this competency it will be created a flexible method

in counselling, from the functional and structural point of view. There will

be developed new strategies and efficient techniques for assisting the

clients.




Synthesize theories and models to establish a personally-held

model or theory (this may be a single model ,a combination of

models or a personally-evolved model).

Describe the personally-held model or theory:

126

explain the influence the model has on his/her method of

practice;

identify his/her own biases.

Integrate the interdependence of life planning, work and society

into his/her method of practice, considering the:

contextual factors affecting client decision making, labour

market trends, technology, globalisation, privatisation;

holistic experience pertaining to life planning.

Establish a professional development plan to keep up to date with

issues, trends, technology and new applications in career

counselling approaches.

A very usual model of counselling is the constructive one, proposed by

Peavy, who thinks/affirms that the inner self is not a stable construction,

but it is a very complex one, variable/changing and integrated. His main

concept is: “the living space means the private theory of each person, a net

of meanings and influence models. On its base, the counsellor and the

client obtain a new understanding of the person and of the problem. It helps

identifying the obstacles/barriers in obtaining the objectives. It also offers

the possibility for the counsellor and client to develop a “social thinking”,

to know oneself in relations with other person, events, experiences. (e.g.:

Finding your path through the obstacles).

The specific activities of the constructive model are:

Telling the personal experiences.

Conceiving a plan for obtaining the (set/proposed) objectives.

Composition of the so-called “health letters” for stimulating the

internal dialogue.

Use of the assumption-judgement like “as if …” for opening new

Perspectives and clarifying the alternatives.

Creation of personal projects for stimulating the personal

development.

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Projects:-the professional family tree:

the cultural family tree,

the personal life tree.

3.4.2.2. Establish and Maintain a Collaborative Relationship with

Clients

The importance of this competency derives from the need of an efficient

collaboration in the adult‟s counselling process, based on good information

and on developing a partnership between client-counsellor-

society/community.

This implies the establishment and maintenance of a relation of active

cooperation, which will allow the implication of the clients in the





Demonstrate:

professional attributes,

communication skills,

skills required to establish and maintain collaborative work

relationships.

Ensure interactions are client-focused:

clarify clients expectations, needs and goals,

identify and respond to clients personal characteristics

related to career development.

Provide clients with information:

explain his/her method of practice,

describe all service options available,

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give constructive feedback about clients progress.

Respond to the barriers that may appear in counselling

relationships.

Help clients independence in taking action or initiating new

processes.

The ability of establishing a relationship is very necessary for being an

efficient counsellor. Through collaboration between counsellor and client,

there will be established a channel/transfer of information in both ways

(from counsellor to client and vice versa). They will influence each other

attributes, behaviours and understandings.

Before beginning the counselling session the counsellor will establish an

“initial contract” with the client. This means that the counsellor will

inform the client about the services to be offered, competence boundary

and possible outcomes of counselling apply. Also, the counsellor will

explain the “together” strategy of finding solutions that emphasises the

effort of client to be at least as consistent as the effort of the counsellor in

the situation resolution. The client will be informed that the counselling

session is not about advising, the final decision is all his responsibility, but

he will be assisted in the process of taking decisions. The client will be

informed about the unfolding (several sessions) of the counselling process

and about professional ethics (confidentiality and respect).

The communication allows the counsellors to create and maintain inter-

personal relations in many ways with the client. (See the Training

Materials- Career Counselling, Acrivity: The maze).

For passing over the obstacles in communication and for making better this

process, there are many strategies some of them being: active listening or

giving and receiving positive feed-back.

3.4.2.3. Explore Issues

This competency is necessary because the counsellors must identify the

psychosocial potential of their clients, for the establishment of an adequate

129

counselling process for the personal and professional development of the

client. These can be described in relationship with the communication

competencies with the partnership between counsellor and client, with the

assistance for obtaining the objectives, having in view the establishment of

priorities.




Apply knowledge and skills of assessment.

Help clients to identify and understand relevant aspects of their

situations, for example:

personal characteristics related to careers,

purpose, passion and dreams,

work maintenance issues,

social contextual conditions affecting careers,

barriers,

values,

familial, sub-cultural and cultural structures and functions

as they relate to careers,

career decision-making processes,

attitudes toward work and workers,

biases towards work and workers, such as:

gender

age

sexual orientation

religious affiliation

race

cultural stereotypes.

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Challenge and encourage clients to explore options:

discuss potential courses of action,

prioritise issues.

In the scientific literature it is set as an exploring the priorities of clients the

following method: examination of the living space of the client because:

It is a strategies for internal organization of the person.

Gives the opportunity of concrete cooperation between counsellor

and client.

Contributes to the clarification of the problem.

Illustrates the influence sources and mechanisms.

Identifies the obstacles, the strong points, the weak points, inner

resources, personal values.

Leads to identifying the different “voices” of the person.

Allows the formulation of some critical appreciations.

For an objective construction of the map, in this method it is used the “open

questions” technique (e.g.: The treasure of ideas).

This technique includes:

A problem-situation.

Secondary questions.

Supplementary data.

Other questions.

Using the metaphor for making the communication easier.

3.4.2.4. Develop and Implement a Process for Achieving Clients Goals

That is Consistent with Own Method of Practice

131

The importance of this competency consists in the fact that aimed at the

active implication of the clients in the spreading out of the counselling

process, using the appropriate strategies, the available resources and the

opportunities on the work market.




Determine initial goals jointly with clients using appropriate

strategies, for example:

reframing,

challenging beliefs,

affirmations,

brainstorming,

realty checks,

stories,

clients dream jobs,

guided imagery.

Determine with clients a process for reaching goals, using

appropriate strategies, for example:

identify the steps involved,

identify support systems,

identify short-and/or long-term goals,

select a model of decision making,

establish manageable time frames.

Determine the indicators of success with clients using

appropriate strategies, for example:

self-monitoring forms,

subjective impressions,

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goal achievement,

self-reports,

check lists,

standardized tests.

Tailor process to clients:

consider the clients ages and developmental stages,

determine appropriate interventions and levels of structure

required,

use computerized career planning systems and information

resources with clients, as appropriate,

use educational opportunities and resources with clients, as

appropriate,

use labour market information with clients, as appropriate.

Implementing and developing the process of counselling adults implies

setting up a plan for matching the planned activities with the resources. For

developing and implementing in an efficient way the process of assisting

the clients, each counsellor must:

Understand the clients‟ needs.

Set up real objectives.

Think positive.

Appreciate.

Help his /hers clients growing.

Be concrete, specific, accurate and open to information and to

communicate efficiently.

These types of development and implementation process competencies are

related to (e.g.: The masks game):

Past results: studies, knowledge, real experiences.

Capacity: originality, communication skills, critical thinking.

133

Responsibility: initiative, self-trust, the will to succeed,

perseverance.

Implication: active, sociable, cooperative, adaptability.

Recognizing: encouraging the involvement and received

appreciations.

3.4.2.5. Monitor Progress

The monitor progress competences are very important for the counselling

process, because they lead to the identification of the success indicators and

the personal strategies for passing over the problems. So, the monitor

grows the counselling success possibility through continue rethinking of

the personal strategies and instruments, involving the training of the critical

thinking in analysing the success indicators.




Monitor the indicators of success.

Adjust the process and goals, as necessary.

Keep records of the outcomes.

Monitor is defined as a process of having in view the performance, and

developing /setting up measures or actions which assure obtaining the

desired results and the counselling (e.g.: Two in boat).

The monitor process has 4 stages:

Establishment of the standards and objectives (success

indicators).

Measuring the real performance.

Comparison of the results and objectives with the standards.

Initiating taking the necessary punitive measures.

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The benchmarking concept (point of reference: success indicators) involves

the identification of the most efficient methods and instruments that focus

on the question: “what can we improve?”

The process re-engineering, takes place through the use of some monitor

instruments:

The plan for the intermediate points.

The activities graphic.

Reports (internal monitoring-auto report; external monitoring-

routes for reporting/supervising.

After the client has clarified the action possibilities and he had established

an action plan, the counsellor will summarise the developed process

starting from the initial issue and reminding the stages covered by the final

point. The beneficiary will be informed about the finality of the counselling

process and will be asked to give a feed-back about the success or failure of

the action plan in order to monitories and follow-up the counselling

efficiency.

References

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Theory and Practice. Palo Alto, CA: David-Black Publishing.

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Areas of Specialization. Career Counselling. Prepared by ATEC for

the National Steering Committee for Career Development Guidelines

and Standards, found at http://www.career-dev-guidelines.org

**** Surfing for a job. Techniques: Making Education & Career

Connections. (1998), Vol. 73, Issue 7.

3.5 Information and Resource Management

Presentation

The purpose of this chapter is to present the competencies for information

and resource management aria of specialisation that a career counsellor

must have in the 21st century information society.

The chapter is divided in two major parts (representing the two functions of

this aria of specialisation):

Part 3.5.1. Develop and maintain an information and resources base,

includes four sub-chapter representing the competencies related to

this function, namely:

3.5.1.1. Describe the role of information and resource

management in career development

3.5.1.2. Describe classification systems

3.5.1.3. Determine the information needs of clients and

community

3.5.1.4. Establish and maintain an information and resource

base

Part 3.5.2. Provide clients with access to information


138

In the 21st century information society, the explosion of the information and

communication technology (ICT), the increasingly rapid growth of

knowledge and worldwide access to it open up vast opportunities for

personal development and for social and economic progress.

Nowadays the individual‟s chance of success and role in information

society are determined by the ability to find/identify, select, evaluate and

use information for solving different problems or for making key decisions

about life, jobs or career paths. In order to develop such abilities, the

individuals should be helped/assisted by competent professionals, who also

must develop or improve essential competencies for information and

resource management.

The main aspects related to information and resource management are:

developing, organizing, maintaining and disseminating information and

resources (referring to education, training, work etc.).

Nowadays, the practitioners in the field of career counselling must have

high-level capacities for information and resource management, because

they assist people to find their way through the information labyrinth,

helping them to search out what is meaningful and useful for their own

needs. The career counsellors must know how to access and use all the

available information and resources, because they help individuals to

acquire information about educational and career opportunities within a

changing society, and to make and carry out appropriate life choices and

plans and to achieve satisfactory adjustments in life. The counsellor‟s role

consists in guiding, orienting and professionally sorting the information,

using a variety of technological means of storing, recovering, manipulating

and combining the different sets of variables that can offer immediate

answers to a large category of clients.

The keys to effective information and resource management are: the

currency of the information and resources; the degree to which information

and resources meet the needs of individuals and communities; the support

services available which coach/assist individuals and communities to find,

use and manage information in ways which support their needs and goals.

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3.5.1 Develop and Maintain an Information and Resource Database

Developing and maintaining an information and resource database is the

first aspect having four related competencies, namely:

describe the role of information and resource management in

career development;

describe classification systems;

determine the information needs of clients and community;

establish and maintain an information and resource base.

Further on, we will try to present and explain all these competencies.

3.5.1.1. Describe the Role of Information and Resource Management in

Career Development

Describe the role of information and resource management in career

development is a competency that allows counsellors to address clients‟

information needs, to improve convenience for clients, and to support

colleagues in the career development community.




To build and maintain a resource base that clients can access to

obtain up-to-date information.

To help clients, staff and community practitioners to find the most

relevant resources.

To help clients to develop skills in using the resources.

To determine when to eliminate dated resources.

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The access to the right information in the right format, in the right place, at

the right time, depends on the career counsellor that becomes an

information manager. He has the task to collect, organize, maintain and

disseminate information pertinent to education, training, occupations and

employment opportunities, and coach clients in its effective use. The

information manager's job focuses on the way in which information can be

managed to satisfy the needs of its users.

In career counselling, the information could include (Boer, 2001):

Self-information: individual‟s interests, skills, values, needs and

social or cultural context;

Occupational information: information on occupation, on the

nature of work and worker, on occupational strategies (job-

hunting techniques, career management/advancement strategies).

Career information represents synthesized data consisting of words,

graphs, pictures and numbers related to education and work. Career

information also consists of personal/social, educational and occupational

information emphasizing individual characteristics, attributes, skills,

knowledge, interests, values and aptitudes (Association of Computer-based

Systems for Career Information, 2002). The career counselling

professionals generally use career information to discover and explore

occupational opportunities, related educational programs of study and

training, the institutions that offer the programs and other related

information.

Nowadays there is a great quantity of information available in the field of

career counselling, but a lot of that information is of limited value to

individuals and practitioners. Quality information cannot often be easily

distinguished from information that is deficient, outdated and/or

incomplete. That is why it is essential to identify the characteristics of the

high quality career information, being viewed as an essential requirement

for effective problem solving and decision making.

In this respect, the National Career Development Association (NCDA)

(1991) published Guidelines for the Preparation and Evaluation of Career

and Occupational Information Literature, written specifically to help

counsellors and other career professionals determine the quality of career

information. The NCDA‟s Guidelines include general guidelines (dating

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and revisions, credits, accuracy of information, format, vocabulary, use of

information, bias and stereotyping, graphics) and content guidelines (duties

and nature of the work, work setting and conditions, preparation required,

special requirements or considerations, methods of entry, earnings and

other benefits, usual advancement possibilities, employment outlook,

opportunities for experience and exploration, related occupations, sources

of additional information).

The Association of Computer-based Systems for Career Information

(ACSCI) recently published new standards in Handbook of Standards for

Computer-based Systems of Career Information (2002) that include core

information standards and specific content standards for occupational,

industry, education and training, financial aid and job search information.

According to ACSCI, the core information standards are:

Accurate. Accurate career information is verifiable, not deceptive,

clear and concise, and also it should be free from spelling and

grammatical errors.

Current. Current career information is applicable to the present

time; but because some types of information are more perishable

than others, it is necessary to review information annually and

update at an interval appropriate to ensure currency.

Developmentally Appropriate and Relevant. Career information

and services should identify the intended audience(s) and address

its needs, interests and experience.

Specific. Specificity in career information provides concreteness,

realism and richness, which enable clarification, planning and

decision-making, and it should include concrete details and should

be realistic.

Understandable. People using information must be able to

comprehend it before they can use it. Communications should be

unambiguous, provided in a meaningful form and informative to

the intended audience. Career information should use language

appropriate for the people (for example, complexity, vocabulary

and reading level) and it should avoid the use of jargon and

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technical terms that will not be understood by the individuals

unless the term is essential and defined.

Unbiased. In our complex multicultural society, career

information should be non-discriminatory and unbiased. The

content should be free from stereotypes relating to age, disability,

ethnicity, gender, immigration status, nationality, occupation,

physical characteristics, poverty level, race, religion, sexual

orientation and social class.

In career counselling information is obtained by using different resources,

available in print, audiovisual and electronic formats. The resources are

multiplying and more information is available, especially on the Internet,

for practitioners, the public and community7.

Nowadays there are available a large variety of resources, such as

computer-based career information delivery systems, print and media

materials, simulated activities, education and training resources, Internet

access, videos, books, audio tapes, CD-ROM-based self-exploration and

career-finding packages, batteries of psychological tests, careers fairs and

exhibitions etc.

All these facilities imply for counsellors the challenge of knowing how to

access and use such resources, but also they must know how to find,

organize, manage and deliver quality career information and resources8.

(See Training Materials – Information and Resource Management,

Activity: The Role of the Quality in Information and Resource

Management)

3.5.1.2. Describe Classification Systems

Describing classification systems is a very important competency that

allows effectively organizing and accessing information.

7 For further information, see also chapter Keep up to Date with Technology

8 For further information, see also chapter Collect, Analyse and Use Information

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practitioners will strive to describe classification systems, which include

but are not limited to:

Alphabet system - an alphabetical arrangement of subject

headings.

Colours system - all materials in the same subject area are

identified by the same colour, using coloured dots or tape.

Dating system - organized by a time period (e.g., month, year).

Industry system, most suitable for clients looking for information

about similar occupations in different industries. It needs a cross-

reference index to accommodate occupations found in many

industries.

National Occupational Classification (NOC) system, which is: a

numerical system developed by Human Resources Development

Canada (HRDC), commonly used in career resource centres to

organize occupational information, organized into three

hierarchical levels: major groups, minor groups and unit groups.

Number system: materials are organized using three or more

digits; the digit on the far left usually indicates a category, e.g.,

400 = Career Options.

Subject system - subject headings are developed based on the

community‟s needs, for example: job search techniques,

occupations, employment opportunities, working overseas,

academic subject.

A combination of two or more of the above, e.g., colour, subject

headings and NOC.

The classification systems may contain references about: education and

training institutions or courses; occupations, employers or job vacancies;

relevant labour-market information on supply and demand; voluntary-work

opportunities; information on how to become self-employed etc.

The occupational classification system provides a framework for

describing different occupations and for understanding career paths and the

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factors affecting occupational change. It represents a useful instrument that

helps people plan their careers, because they can find out the nature of jobs

and the training required to perform them, and about job mobility and

wages. The occupational classifications system is useful for counsellors to

help clients gain the information they need about occupations in order to

make informed career decisions.

In career counselling the comprehensive systems become more and more

important, because it offers relevant information about educational and

training opportunities, labour market etc., responding to large categories of

beneficiaries and ensuring support for users.

The Handbook of Standards for Computer-based Systems of Career

Information (2002) includes also the ACSCI‟s standards for

comprehensive career delivery system, such as:

Accessibility. The comprehensive career delivery system should

be demonstrably effective with and accessible to people of

varying ability, experience and backgrounds. Also, it should use

equipment and technology that is reliable, widely available, cost

effective, and appropriate for a wide variety of users, being

sufficiently intuitive and attractive to enable and motivate a

variety of users to explore options, make decisions and create

career and educational plans.

Privacy and Confidentiality. The comprehensive career delivery

systems should conform to a high standard of privacy and

confidentiality, a standard that faithfully embraces the principle of

informed consent whenever sensitive or personal data are

involved. No data should be collected on any individual or shared

in any way without the individual‟s informed consent. If any

processing in the system is based on personally identifiable client

data, the system should explain to the user how the data are being

used and what personal data, if any, reside in the system.

Services and Support. Services and support include marketing,

training, technical assistance and customer support. System

documentation should include details of major components,

principal uses, theoretical underpinnings and relevant research or

empirical validation of the system. The comprehensive career

145

delivery system should include instructions or on-line help for

users to make appropriate use of various components and

information modules, the system documentation being provided

in print or on-line that explains how to use the system and how to

get additional help.

Localization of Key Information. Comprehensive career delivery

systems provide mechanisms that localize key information

(labour market information, education and training information)

or present information in a localized context. Localized may be

included as part of a product or may be a feature that permits

product users to add localized information.

Feedback and Evaluation. Feedback includes all the methods

available to end users and practitioners for communicating about

the information and the effectiveness of the system in meeting

their needs. Evaluation is the analysis of performance to

determine discrepancies between intended results and actual

results. Both feedback and evaluation are ongoing processes of

review and revision, serving for improving career development

outcomes.

Accountability. For comprehensive career delivery systems,

accountability involves disclosure of the system purposes,

funding sources, ownership, organizational structure, key

constituencies, and intended audiences. In addition, accountability

includes an expectation of measuring the degree to which the

system accomplishes its intended purposes and an expectation of

research and development efforts that seek to continuously

improve the system over time.

It is imperative for the effectiveness of career counselling to develop high-

quality systems that include accurate, objective, comprehensive and up-to-

date information, in order to be useful for the career counsellors and for

clients too (see also Chapter 3.4.1.5. Describe Computerized Career

Planning Systems and Information Resources).


Activity: Using the Classification Systems in Career Counselling)

146

3.5.1.3. Determine the Information Needs of Clients and Community

This competency is important to help ensure that the information needs of

clients and community are met and career development practitioners keep

up to date with changing needs.




Use a questionnaire to collect client and community career

information needs - questionnaire could include: a statement

about the purpose of the questionnaire; instructions about how to

mark responses demographic questions, e.g., age, sex, education

level; questions to identify career-related information needs (e.g.,

“Would you like to be able to assess your skills and options?”),

clients‟ medium and service preferences (e.g., “Would you prefer

to gather information by reading print materials, viewing

audiovisual materials, using computers or by participating in

workshops?” ), clients‟ access barriers (e.g., language where

clients have found career-related information in the past etc.).

Track information requests - document the type of information

and the number of times information is requested, refer to the

tracked information in future planning.

Conduct focus groups with, for example: clients, employers,

community leaders, colleagues.

Design additional means to gather information, when necessary,

e.g., suggestion box.

Career development practitioners could use any combination of the

methods or instruments described in addition to others not mentioned. The

counsellor must help clients gain an understanding of their individual skills,

abilities, interests, achievements and needs. It is important that the

counsellor provide the clients with the opportunity to receive an objective

147

evaluation of their current strengths and areas for improvement as they

relate to specific career fields.

To identify what are the clients‟ needs and their problems, the counsellor

uses different methods, techniques, such us (Sava, Marian, (coord.), 2003):

methods for getting information about the client and his present

situation: guided interview, questionnaires, performance/

psychological tests, conversation, anamnesis list etc.;

methods for exploring the personal world: for (self)evaluation

(e.g. personal maps, exercises, role-playing, small working

groups, different types of questionnaires and battery of tests,

observations, etc.), for improving the communication skills (role-

playing, simulation, exercises), for clarifying the values and

making decisions (problem solving, exercises, discussions,

debates etc.);

methods for setting up the objectives: case studies, discussions /

tests for exploring the interests, values, skills - e.g. Kuder

Preference Record, Strong Vocational Interest Bank, Self-

Directed Search - Holland, Career Transitions Inventory -, check-

lists etc.

In career counselling the clients have a large variety of needs, namely:

assistance for identifying the needs and for clarifying the

implication of the identified needs;

assistance for understanding the self, the world of work etc;

assistance for identifying the necessary services for satisfying the

needs (source of information, modalities for finding information,

utilising the information);

help in dealing with change (help in exploring their transition, in

understanding their resources and in coping with the process of

change);

information about career development;

information about learning and training opportunities;

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assistance in looking for a suitable job or to access the labour

market;

advice for free time in a useful way (e.g. for retired persons, for

unemployed);

advices for personal initiatives;

assistance for solving the problems, taking the decision in

different transition life moments (education, training,

socio/professional integration, family).

Career information and services are available to people when and where

needed and that are relevant to their needs. According to the 5th key

message from Memorandum on Lifelong Learning - Rethinking guidance

and counselling, is essential that counselling services must shift from a

supply-side to a demand-side, placing users‟ needs and demands at the

centre of concern. That is why the key for an efficient information

management is focussing on the clients‟ needs, not on the available

resources.


Activity: Identifying the Clients’ Needs)

3.5.1.4. Establish and Maintain an information and Resource Database

This competency is important to help ensure clients have access to the

broadest range of relevant resources and information possible.




Consider information and resource needs of the community.

Identify information available by reviewing, for example:

professional journals and newsletters, catalogues from distributors

of career development-related resources, government departments

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and agency publications, professional association publications,

popular periodicals, bibliographies, telephone yellow pages,

Internet sources, information from experienced colleagues.

Collect information to meet identified needs, for example,

information about: occupations, education and training, job

openings, the labour market, including local, regional, national

and international markets, financial assistance, job search,

employers, instruments for self-assessment, action planning and

career guidance.

Organize the information: use a classification system (or a

combination of systems) that is logical easy to use, flexible

enough to allow the collection to expand.

Maintain the information: update information and resources on an

ongoing basis.

The information and resources database is a collection with a specific

structure, the information being organised in a logical order, facilitating the

easy access for updating the data, in order to analyse, sort or extract the

information according to specific criteria.

An important task is the provision of a detailed and comprehensive (on-

line) information base for individuals and counsellors on career

opportunities and future employment prospects in different occupations and

geographical areas, earnings potential, costs of living, job characteristics,

associated education and training needs and success rates of those entering

different courses and career routes.

So there is a strong need for comprehensive and well-organised information

base containing many data, ensuring the equality of the access to it for all

the individuals with different needs. That is why counsellor must be able to

realise the development of comprehensive and widely accessible databases

on educational and career choices and the establishment of contact points

for further assistance.

To conclude, the career counsellor as an information and resource manager

must:

Collect, organize, disseminate and provide up-to-date career,

educational and personal/social information;

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Use ICT to provide educational and occupational information

(data-bases, computer-based educational and career guidance

programs and the Internet);

Assist clients to access and use educational and occupational

information in a meaningful way;

Help clients to develop essential skills for today society, such as: searching,

identifying, understanding and using career information and resources.


Activity: Making an Information and Resource Database)

3.5.2. Provide Clients with Access to Information

This competency is important to the career counselling process as it is a

way of addressing client and community needs in a timely manner.




Anticipate emerging needs of clients and the community.

Assess individual client’s needs.

Prioritize client needs.

Address clients‟ needs, e.g. by directing clients to appropriate resources,

answer their questions, adopt a broad perspective on the questions and

inquiries made in order to expand the clients‟ range of option, provide

instruction, when appropriate, to ensure clients are able to locate and use

available resources, to do research using available information resource

apply the provided career information to their own career decision making

and/or career development action plans.

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This chapter will introduce strategies and practical approaches to ensuring

the counsellors can efficiently provide clients with access to information

that will assist them in their career choice and development efforts. As such

these competencies will ensure that information management is efficiently

and professionally practices in their efforts of compiling and making

available career-related information resources to their clients. Many

individuals and organizations are working with compiling information

resources for career counselling purposes, and in particular relating to the

support of youth and adult learners in their struggles to make effective

career decisions and regarding potential future career options through

combined guidance from counsellors and provided career-related

information resources. Efficiency in information resource provision is

therefore ensured between other through collaborative actions between

career counsellors as well as extensive usage of Internet resources and

network-based information handling. The provided information resources

should for the clients result in provision of:

support efforts to build successful futures;

assist exploration of options that fit with interests, passion, and

preferences;

ensure awareness of options available and requisite preparation;

highlight future potential job market needs and shortages;

ensure a continuous supply of quality job skills to our economy.

Rationale for the implied information provision concerns

The key to career counselling actions in respect it information resource

provision is to ensure that the career seeking and career development

efforts are successful, that resources are being used efficiently and that the

information resources contribute with the greatest potential impact. Past

experience has revealed some challenges in making such career counselling

information resource repositories having the intended effects, and in

particular if the tasks are being pursued in an ad hoc or isolated manner.

An improved potentiality for achieving the above mentioned ambitions of

providing effective career information may be more likely be successful,

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and may consume less resources as well as be producing more

comprehensive service constellations, if adopting a more systematic

approach to the information resource support service in combination with

the usage of collaborative approaches for the information resource

compilation as well as by adopting a pooled availability of the career

development support resources, combined with a shared usage of available

information resources. Inter-connecting resource repositories and make

these in a easy-of-us format for all involved actors as well as focus on

ensuring utilization efficiency for the intended users seems to be a wise

approach to combat such challenges and approach information resource

compilation and information mediation tasks. This part of the handbook

will therefore outline both a systematic approach to information resource

management as well as an approach to virtual community based

information resources sharing.

Clarification of the information resource provision competencies

Applying an information resource provision approach corresponding to the

services orientation referred to in the above competence profile implies

both capabilities for information resource development and information

resource provision. An outline of a set of approaches and practices for

resource development and resource provision will therefore be presented

next.

Resource development

Provision of information resources can be considered from two

perspectives, from the provision perspective and from the utilization

perspective. From a provision perspective the main focus is on securing the

availability of the information resources, either by production of the

information resource materials or be compilation of information resources

from own or other resources. In practice there is probably a combination of

the two, and for this purpose it may be an advantage to take a more

comprehensive orientation to resource development. This is proposed to be

made by adopting a modified version of the Canadian resource

development model referred to as the „Career resource life cycle‟ and its

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associated check list for management of career development support

through information resource provision.

The „career resource life cycle‟ can be described as a set of key stages in a

resource development activity. The successful outcomes from each of these

stages are determined by a set of „key success factors‟ that can influence

outcomes and impact of a information resource compilation and mediation

initiative. The original version of the life cycle model, derived from the

Canadian publication “CAREER RESOURCES: Planning For Success - A

guide to assist developers achieve success with their career resources”,

introduces the titles of 12 key success factors and are illustrated with the

diagram below.

If you need further explanations of the summarized stages and key success

factors you are advised to visit the CCC's web site at

http://www.careerccc.org/resourcesuccess to access documents such as the

Jurisdictional “Processes and Protocols Matrices” to assist you with many

of the suggested actions in this section. In the description that follows we

have adjusted the model and the key success criteria to better fit to the

context of career development support for adult learning while still

maintaining the spirit of the original document when describing the five

stages and the twelve key success criteria for information resource

development.

A summary of the 12 stages and their key success factors are provided

below.

Stage I – The Concept and Design Stage

Key Success Factor #1. Focus on User Needs

Align resources with learners‟ interests and instructors‟ needs. Focus on the

needs of your target audience and look for strategies to simultaneously

achieve objectives – yours and users in the target audience.

Suggested Actions:

Clearly identify target audience.

http://www.careerccc.org/resourcesuccess

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Research, understand, and focus on the needs of the target

audience.

Develop criteria for selecting and engaging key stakeholders as

advisors.

Use advisors to enhance your understanding of user needs.

Confer directly with sample users to verify perceived needs.

Decide on format, features, and creative treatment consistent with

user needs.

Key Success Factor #2. Contextual Fit

Contextual fit is essential for resources targeted for adults. Learning

outcomes/expectations of a resource should align with those in the context

of adult learners. Highlight the alignments and make “the fit” obvious for to

the users. Note that contexts vary across adult learner groups and countries,

so “the fit” will vary.

Suggested Actions:

Review adult learner context description documents – check web sites

and adult learning reports.

Determine if changes in trends and characteristics of adult learners

changing or underway.

Identify target career development outcomes that are relevant to your

context and that address user needs.

Focus activities on supporting instruction and information that are

related to target outcomes selected.

Develop a “contextual matrix” showing correlation between resource

provision and contextual characteristics.

Identify measurable objectives for assessing success in addressing

identified information resource provision.

Clearly demonstrate to involved counsellors and users the benefits of

utilizing these information resources.

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Key Success Factor #3. Identify Targets

Focus on key target audiences – a shotgun approach may end up addressing

no one‟s needs sufficiently. Focus on specific subject areas or specific adult

learner groups. Focus on specific and desired counselling outcomes.

Suggested Actions:

Select specific target audiences – otherwise needs become too

diverse to address effectively and sufficiently.

If there are many relevant outcomes, pick specific user groups or

programme participants that align with target audiences selected

for your information resource development focus.

Identify targets where impact can be maximized.

Understand the “competition” you face in engaging the target

audience.

Stage II – The Development Stage

Key Success Factor #4. People, Relationships, and Partners

Direct contact with the audience is vital. “Connect” with people from the

start, meet with stakeholders, build relationships, improve your awareness

of sensitivities and protocols, and help establish trust and build a

reputation. In the end, people, relationships, and “connecting” make the

difference.

Suggested Actions:

Identify target group members specifically. Go to them and

consult them on their needs directly.

Develop partnerships that can help you reach your target

audience(s).

Meet with advisors and stakeholders and listen to, and

incorporate, their input.

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Identify features to include and ensure adaptability among

differentiated user groups.

Pilot available materials as much as possible with facilitators and

end-users.

Get involved “out in the field” – e.g., engage professionals as

guest contributors, conduct workshops, and participate in

conferences/professional development activities.

Develop “feedback relationships” to monitor adherence to needs

and targets.

Create promotional and sample material that “speaks” to and

highlight user needs.

Key Success Factor #5. Quality versus Quantity

Emphasize quality over quantity. Be as focused and “simple” as possible.

Aim for incremental progress and impact over time based upon your past

success.

Suggested Actions:

Don‟t try to do too much.

Do less but do it very well – and with high impact.

Don‟t “bury” the good stuff. Sometimes the best material doesn‟t

get used because it is buried in piles of material that is too dense

and ambitious.

Get input from advisors and users to help you “pick the best.”

Use pilot activities to find what really works and focus on that

material.

Recognize that different people and different groups have

different criteria by which they assess quality. Seek out multiple

perspectives on “what‟s good.”

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Key Success Factor #6A. Sensitivities – Geographic, Culture, and

Economic Context

Recognize and be sensitive to the unique circumstances of users in different

communities and user groups.

Suggested Actions:

Clearly understand differences among users in your target

group(s).

Ensure members of the target audience can “see themselves” in

the compiled resource materials.

Address the varying needs of users in terms of cultural variations

and economic circumstances.

Avoid gender bias and take extra effort to ensure all users are

empowered to explore and consider all career opportunities.

Utilize the services of, and advisors from, equity groups to help

address varying needs and circumstances.

Engage the services of representatives/advisors in each

geographic region and each adult learner context.

Stage III - The Delivery Stage

Key Success Factor #6B. Sensitivities – Jurisdictional Processes and

Protocols

Recognize, understand, and be guided by the processes and protocols for

distributing resources in each provincial/territorial jurisdiction.

Suggested Actions:

Refer to the example of the “Matrices” developed by the CCC

that outline the processes and protocols in each Canadian

jurisdiction. (see examples in

www.careerccc.org/resourcesuccess)

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Monitor changes in processes and protocols over time and adjust

as necessary; know the people responsible as well as the

procedures.

Plan the delivery of resources according to jurisdictional

processes and protocols.

Provide clear instructions for users regarding how to access the

resource.

Develop a system by which to respond effectively to requests for

information.

Develop a system by which to respond effectively to

requests/orders for the resource.

Deliver the resource in a timely manner and according to

protocols.

Be prepared to provide follow-up support should assistance be

needed.

Key Success Factor #6C. Sensitivities – Other Channels

Understand and comply with the processes and protocols for distributing

resources through other channels, e.g., adult education agencies, interest

groups and other associations, community-based organizations, and

employment equity groups. (see examples in

www.careerccc.org/resourcesuccess)

Suggested Actions:

Identify community-based and adult education agencies working

in areas relevant to the resource.

Obtain input on user needs from these organizations.

Involve representatives from these groups as advisors.

Promote the resource directly to these organizations.

Clearly demonstrate how the resources can help.

Recognize these groups often lack funds and time.

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Key Success Factor #7. Credibility and Reputation

The reputation and credibility of the developers and the resource will be

very important. Users will look to see who has been involved in

development including advisors and sponsors. Note that the most

frequently cited method for discovering resources is by “word of mouth” –

emphasizing the importance of reputation.

Suggested Actions:

Establish a track record and achieve “buy-in” from the outset by

engaging stakeholders, counsellors, adult educators, and users in

all stages.

Pilot test with leading actors who can speak to the value and

quality of the resource.

Ensure the involvement of those who will be respected by users.

Make it easy for others to share information about your resource –

e.g., “business-like cards” with relevant info to pass on to others.

Share “ownership” with other stakeholders who will also be

anxious for the resource to succeed.

Stage IV – The Implementation Stage

Key Success Factor #8. Time

Time is a scarce commodity for adult educators and others involved in

instruction and guidance of adult learners. The more time required to

acquire, review, identify, “fit,” and implement, the less likely a resource

will be used.

Suggested Actions:

Make your message quick, clear, and effective.

Make a positive first impression – many do “judge a book by its

cover.”

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Clearly indicate how the resource complements their activities.

Establish a prompt and efficient delivery and service strategy.

Provide clear implementation instructions.

A curriculum matrix can help highlight curriculum fit.

Provide “summaries,” “overviews,” and “highlights.”

Key Success Factor #9. Technology

Although adult education institutions may be connected, many classrooms

are not, which can make Internet-based resources assuming online access

rather than downloading difficult for teachers to use. Many trainers and

guidance providing actors do not have ready, as-needed, access to the

Internet.

Suggested Actions:

Include “technology components” as appropriate and as you can –

both for learners and instructors. Make accommodation for the

reality that many will be anxious to take advantage of them.

Technology components of resources should

supplement/complement resource activities – not be the sole core

focus – if the goal is to have a widespread use.

Provide implementation strategies and suggestions that

acknowledge users with differ in levels of access to technology.

Provide effective and sufficient support information and

assistance to users.

Provide in-service training via workshops, seminars, and

conference presentations.

Provide online support tools and links as possible.

Research changes in technology tools employed by user groups.

Recognize that printed documents, presentation materials and

video are still very popular.

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Key Success Factor #10. Engaging Learners

Reaching and engaging an audience is a challenge. It is important to get

their interest, relate material to their lives and interests, make them think,

and respect their learning abilities. Without their engagement, learning and

career guidance will usually be reduced, short-lived, and/or non-existent.

Suggested Actions:

Don‟t “tell,” “direct,” or “lead” as much as “inform,” “respond”

and “inspire.”

Address the question, “What‟s in it for me?” – end-users must see

the benefits and link them with their interests.

Capture interest and attention quickly – adult learners are quick to

judge resources.

Encourage self-discovery and “personalization” of the

experiences from using the resources made available.

Incorporate participatory and engagement exercises including

debate, role-play, simulation, gaming, exploration

and discovery activities, construction and creation activities, etc

in the resource material usage.

Refer to, and consider, the key factors affecting “engagement” of

adult learners.

Key Success Factor #11. Implementation Support

Experience indicates one of the factors most significantly affecting the use

of a resource is support through the learning events that adult learners

participates in and the in-service support facilitated by the learning service

providers. The more that the users can “see” what the resource can do, the

better they will understand and recognize the potential – and the more

likely they will use it.

Suggested Actions:

Organize and conduct workshops, online training, conference

presentations, etc.

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Support and learning services should avoid to set one resource

apart from the many.

Seek out potentiality of implementing or participating in

“development day” opportunities.

Identify and liase with “subject area” associations.

Provide informational and “tech” support as needed – and ensure

it is effective.

Implement “train-the-trainer” sessions to secure better integration

between learning and career support actions.

Stage V – The Evaluation and Assessment Stage

Key Success Factor #12. Evaluation, Assessment, and Accountability

To assess and sustain the success of the available information resources, it

will be important to determine:

a. who is using the resource and why;

b. the extent to which they are using the resource;

c. the perceived value and impact of the resource on end-users;

d. the strengths and weaknesses of the resource;

e. the need for updates, revisions, or adaptations; and

f. the extent to which users foresee using the resource in the future.

Suggested Actions:

Ensure user feedback through incentives/contests.

Conduct pilot tests for the resources made available.

Set measurable objectives and devise means to measure.

Observe, monitor, and measure; do not rely on “anecdotal”

evidence or surveys.

Contact end-users to gain feedback.

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Plan for and recognize that impact assessment usually takes more

time and resources than is anticipated.

Put strategies in place to monitor contextual changes that may

affect success and utilization of your efforts.

Develop strategies to ensure the “ever-greening” of the resource

so that it stays current and relevant.

Note also that the Career Resource Life Cycle is an ongoing process. A

resource provision service will move through the five stages and be

regenerated by revisions or new editions based on feedback and evaluation.

Resource Provision

Resource provision for career counselling purposes can take place in

different modalities, from person-to-person dialogues, through print media

and other presentation materials such as video and multimedia presentation,

as well as through online services. As the usage of online information

service provision and in particular shared and interactive online services are

the modality with the potentially highest potentiality for wide-spread

impact while at the same may be the least familiar modality among career

counselling professionals, this information resource provision modality will

be focused on in this part of the handbook. Illustrations of different

approaches to information resource provision through online media are

extensively derived from the VCP service environment and exemplified

from the part of the information resource services within the GVC that

relates to career development.

Resource service provision formats

Online information resources can be provided in different formats and with

different service provision purposes. To simplify the wide range provision

alternatives available we could cluster those into information resources

mediated to the users in an distributive and mediated modality and

information resources that enables interactivity and information exchange

among the involved users of the information provision services. The former

has a predominant orientation of providing resources „for‟ others while the

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latter has a predominant orientation of enabling resource facilitation

„between‟ the users of the resource providing service environment. Both are

crucial components of an information resource provision service, as also

pointed out in the earlier mentioned success criteria for efficient resource

development.

Section A. Distributive services within a ‘user community’

The distributive resource provision services can include mediation of

information resources in the form of document, publications and reference

material that can be downloaded by users, be accessed via links to external

locations, provided as publications and presentation material as well as

mediated via special interest catalogues, lists, or inquiry-driven requests,

dialogues and expert-supported advisory services.

The information resource services provided via the VCP service

environment established for the DPPC project could be used as an

illustration of such composition of distributive services for a specific user

group.

A.1. - Basic information resource distribution services

Basic information resource distribution services can either be provided via

static web pages with centrally updated information resource references, or

as distributed compilation of information resources where users from

different locations can contribute, upgrade and maintain the repository of

information resources, provide linkage of such resources from different

web locations and possible even enable content providers to include

relevance indicators and/or for users to define interest/relevance filters for

such resource lists.

Web links and resource catalogues

One example of a basic information resource distribution service is web

link catalogues. These can either be presented as a static and/or non-user

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modifiable lists of links provided in some pre-defined order, or as a

repository/library of links contributed and maintained in some distributed

manner, with some notification and updating processes, with classification

schemes and filtering facilities, and/or with commenting features. An

example of the latter web link service category is the VCP-based web link

services introduced below.

Virtual document and file libraries

Another example of basic information resource distribution services is the

provision of online file libraries. This can either be provided as simple

download services where individual documents or files are downloaded

from references made to those on web pages of different formats, or as

more advanced user-allocated virtual file libraries where uploading, access

to and downloading can be made on basis of provider-defined criteria of

individual user or group access conditions, acceptance of copyright

conditions or restricted usage and/or commenting options as well as

tracking of timing and level of document usage. An example of such more

rich and user-cantered file handling service is the VCP-based file handling

service.

A.2. - Specialized distributive information resource services

Online career development support services may also make active usage of

specialized information resource handling services. These may take

different shape and are often tailored made for specific target groups and

have specific resource provision ambitions in mind. Two examples of such

specialized services are illustrated here, both from the DPPC-related and

VCP-based GVC environment.

Knowledge Pool services

The knowledge pool services have the ambition to provide a service

handling mechanism that both provided a virtual library of information

resources as well as an interactive environment within which users can

reflect on the provided information resources, exchange knowledge and

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experiences on the usage of these as well as ask questions and provide

supplementary information, comments and reflections. An illustration of a

knowledge pool available within the GVC environment is provided below.

Exchange of Knowledge and Experience (EKE) services

An EKE application has the purpose to providing a mechanism for self-

assessment combined with a cross-connection between users of the self-

assessment service that have resource provision capabilities in a specific

element of the self-.assessed subject-matter area with those that have

through the self-assessment identified needs for resource support within the

same subject matter elements. The EKE services is therefore more

applicable in information resource support contexts with a relatively well-

defined subject-matter area and with a user group with relatively distributed

and uneven competence profiles. An example of an EKE application

available within the GVC service environment is illustrated below:

Section B - Interactive services within a ‘user community’

The interactive resource provision services can include both interactions

between users of counselling services and available resource persons such

as subject matter specialists, promoters, advisors, counselling specialists,

and it can also include capabilities enabling end-users to interact with each

other. The former could be said to be resource-centred interactions while

the latter enables user-centred interactions.

B.1. - Resource-centred interactive services

The resource centred information services are predominantly having the

ambition to provide support from some resource persons to users of the

provided resources, either in form of an identification of the resource from

the basis of an interest or problem area identified by the user, or through

some for of inquiry process.

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Specialist search

One example of a user-initiated resource contact is the specialist search

available e.g. in the VCP-based service environment, where users are

defining an interest area from a specialist categorization and the online

service environment presents a list of specialists that is available in the

selected specialise area.

From the presented list users can call up more detailed information of the

listed specialists as well as take book meetings with, take contact with or

send inquiries to one or more of these specialists. An example of such

specialist service is illustrated below.

Advisory service

Another example of a resource-centred service is the VCP-based advisory

services where users can describe a problem or concern and relate such

specifications to a subject matter category. The online service identifies

experts in the addressed area and inquiry about their availability for

consultation, after which the available resource persons can contribute to

the concerns expressed by the user within formats and conditions agreed

upon among the involved parties. An example of such online consultation

and advisory service is illustrated below. The example is taken from the

GVC service environment.

B.2. - User-centred interactive services

The user-centred services are more focusing on providing facilities for

interactions „between‟ users, rather than „towards‟ the users. This can take

the form of other information and experience exchange through dialogues,

on person-to-person or group basis, or in the form of users being the

content contributors. Both modality options have an assumption that end-

users can also act as value-generators for others and that learner can

support learning for others, pave the way for other learners as well as be a

valued resource for encouragement, reinforcement and support to other

learners. Two examples from user-centred interactive services will be

introduced here from the VCP-based GVC service environment.

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Interactions with other members

The first example of user-centred interaction services will highlight the

richness of service modalities that can today be provided through the usage

of virtual community services rather than through traditional static web

page-based services. In an interactive community environment, such as the

GVC service environment, it is possible to provide user/member contact

information, tools for interpersonal and group interaction as well as more

advanced collaborative and interaction tools, enabling e.g. text, voice and

shared whiteboard communication. Through such more advanced tool users

can make presentations share illustrations and collaboratively produce

material and support each other as a „remote helping hand‟. The

illustrations provide below provides examples of such user interaction

services (refer e.g. to the menu option below).

The interactive user services can also include features that highlights what

other users are presently online, have previously been visiting a particular

service, have made contributions in a certain location or could be invited or

are presently using some of the interactive services like chat rooms or the

advisory services. An example of such interactivity promotion service from

the GVC service environment is illustrated below.

Content contributions by users

Another user-centred interaction modality is to enable end-users to also be

content contributors for the information resource services established for

them. Such service modalities build on a learning community and

information sharing process that requires some kind of community-

handling service environment such ac VCP, and is more difficult to provide

through conventional web site services. The user contribution services are

usually enabled through some form of member-authorization process,

derived either on the basis of membership levels and/or user category/group

memberships, and enabling an individual user to only contribute with

resources in certain formats and for certain clusters of users, predefined by

the coordinators of the service environment being used for the interactive

services.

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The illustration provided below gives an example of the range of service

provision modalities provided to users of the VCP-based GVC

environment. The extent to which these information resource provision

modalities are available is determined by the membership level within the

GVC community, and where it is possible to provide these information

resources are determined by the individual user‟s membership in

communities and groups.

For more information on the information resource service modalities,

please refer to descriptions of the VCP services, user manuals and

documentation from GVC/DPPC on their usage of the VCP-based

community services, and well as on the service-generating engines that are

available within VCP-based service environments. You can also reach

more info on VCP from the EUproject initiative (www.EUproject.net).

Acknowledgement

The second part of this sub-chapter of the handbook was developed on

basis of the publication “Career Resources: Planning for Success”, ISBN:

1-895813-75-1 and with Copyright© 2002 published by the Canada Career

Consortium. The text extracted from this guide has been modified and

adopted to the context of career counselling for adult learners. However in

order to supplement the summary presentations provided in this handbook

chapter you are also recommended to visit

http://www.careerccc.org/resourcesuccess to download this and other

supporting documents. For further information on the Canadian initiative,

please contact the Canadian National Advisory Committee, and its project

manager Stephen Kennedy. The second part of this sub-chapter of the

handbook was developed on basis of the information resource handling

services provided as part of the Virtual Community Platform (VCP) and in

particular utilized within VCP-based community of professional services

such as the Grundtvig Virtual Community (GVC) also utilized as the

collaborative environment for the DPPC project. The description of the

information resource services, the supporting service engines as well as the

formats in which the applications are provided to end-users are extracted

from the VCP and the GVC service environment.

http://www.euproject.net/


170

References

Boer, P.M. (2001). Career counselling over the Internet: an emerging

model for trusting and responding to online clients. Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, Mahwah, New Jersey.

Jigau, M. (coord.) 2003. Consilierea carierei adultilor. Editura Afir,

Bucuresti.

Jigau, M. (coord.) 2003. Tehnologiile informatice si de comunicare in

consilierea carierei. Editura Afir, Bucuresti.

Sava, S.; Marian, A. (coord.) 2003. Counseling in Adult Education. Editura

Universitatii de Vest, Timisoara.

**** National Career Development Association. (1991). Guidelines for the

Preparation and Evaluation of Career and Occupational Information

Literature (http://www.ncda.org).

**** Association of Computer-based Systems for Career Information.

(2002). Handbook of Standards for Computer-based Systems of

Career Information (http://www.acsci.org).

**** O‟Rilley, E. (2001). Making Career Sense of Labour Market

Information. 2nd

edition, found at http://www.makingcareersense.org/


Areas of Specialization. Information and Resource Management.

Prepared by ATEC for the National Steering Committee for Career

Development Guidelines and Standards, found at http://www.career-

dev-guidelines.org

“CAREER RESOURCES: Planning For Success - A guide to assist

developers achieve success with their career resources”.

http://www.careerccc.org/resourcesuccess : CCC's web site at with access

to documents such as the Jurisdictional “Processes and Protocols

Matrices”.

http://www.ncda.org/

http://www.acsci.org/

http://www.makingcareersense.org/









171

www.careerccc.org/resourcesuccess : Examples and Matrices” developed

by the CCC outlining the processes and protocols in each Canadian

jurisdiction.

http://grundtvig.EUproject.net : Grundtvig Virtual Community, online help

pages.

http://www.EUproject.com : EUproject online service environment, info-

pages.

http://Grundtvig.EUproject.net/DPPC : DPPC site and online information

resources.


http://grundtvig.euproject.net/

http://www.euproject.com/

http://grundtvig.euproject.net/DPPC

172

ANNEXES

173

National Experiences Concerning the Career Counsellor’s

Competency Profile

Annexe 1: Case of Germany

Since the Federal Employment Service (Bundesanstalt für Arbeit) has lost

in 1998 its monopoly to provide career guidance and placement

developments of new services in career counselling have been speeding up.

The main focus was and still is the integration in the first (private) labour

market. With the loss of the monopoly other labour market reforms under

the chairmanship of Dr Peter Hartz from Volkswagen have been initiated

and are still in the phase of development. In result of those “Hartz-reforms”

the Federal Employment Service has changed its model from an active

labour market policy to an activating policy to mark that the clients have to

take more responsibilities for their integration in the labour market. In

addition to this the discussion about lifelong learning has also had an

influence on changing labour market policies and terms like “profiling” or

“portfolio” are more and more common. All these developments have

changed the meaning of the term “career”. Nowadays it is not only used in

the sense of employment “it includes everything that a person over his

lifespan does vocationally and non vocationally” (Thöne-Geyer, 2003). In

the US-American context “a career is a life expression of how a person

wants to-be-in-the-world” (Hudson, 1999). Therefore the term career is

more and more tied to the aspect of self-realisation. Such a comprehensive

perception of the term career is more and more relevant in Germany on the

level of educational policy and research. This is also true for field of

practice. The foundation of the “German Association for Career

Counselling” is a consequence of the developments since 1998. It is a

network for career counsellors that work in the private market. It is also

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trying to set up standards for career counselling in order to increase the

quality in career counselling and to make the market more transparent. A

competency framework such as the Canadian is not available in Germany.

So far the field for career counselling is very heterogeneous but full of

dynamic. Despite of this we have tried to collect and structure the

competencies that are relevant for career counselling. The structure is based

on projects and experiences in the field of counselling that were carried out

by our institute DIE. It is also based on the principles of adult learning.

With regard to the field of practice it is difficult to tell to what extent those

competencies are used. This is still a field for research. The text is

following the grid proposed by our project partner ISE, Bucharest.

Basic competencies

Basic competencies can be split up in four main fields:

1. professional-methodological competence,

2. communicative competence,

3. social competence,

4. personal competence that we summarize under the heading

“attitudes”.

1. Professional-Methodological Competence

theoretical foundation of one‟s own perception, interpretation

patterns, methods and ways of doing,

use of counselling techniques:

creation of an appropriate counselling atmosphere,

comprehensive clearing of the instruction,

clarify the need for counselling,

formulation of aims and agreements and sticking to them,

definition of success criteria,

structuring of the counselling agreement,

175

setting priorities,

to account for and stand up for one‟s own behaviour with theory

it and to delimit from expectations that are contrary to

professional standards,

to acknowledge and consider client‟s preconditions (qualification,

interest, motivation, social experiences, personal expectations),

to acknowledge context conditions of a counselee,

diagnostic competence: to read body language of problematic

thinking and patterns of conflict,

to determine and make explicit clients‟ personal resources and

competencies and to reinforce positive behaviour,

didactical competencies: monitoring of self-learning processes,

to assess the learning competencies of clients (cognitive

preconditions, planning competencies, motivation),

to give support with the help of new technologies in finding new

vocational occupations or fields.

2. Communicative Competencies

building up contact to the client:

using techniques of conversation,

active listening,

non-directive conversation,

neutral repeating of contents,

paraphrase,

formulating offers,

constructive reframing of negations,

brainstorming to find solutions,

positive formulating of competencies,

176

ability of facilitating group processes.

3. Social Competencies

ability to build up a relationship of trust,

capacity for understanding,

empathy and openness for the client and the process,

to boost the force of finding solutions in the client,

fostering the active involvement and self-responsibility of the

client for his own life,

initiating processes of group dynamic.

Knowledge

about phases of a counselling process,

about roles in counselling, for example:

non-directive process counsellor,

counsellor for finding solutions,

counsellor as a coach,

about life circumstances and problems of specific target groups,

about typical cognitive and behavioural patterns of specific target

groups,

about strategies finding a solution,

about structures and links within the formal educational system,

about learning processes,

about the recognition of informal learning,

about techniques for searching information.

Specialisation

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Vocational orientation for post-school options: In cooperation between

schools and the federal employment service on local level there are various

offers for pupils to find out about post-school options:

service‟s career information centre (BIZ) at the local employment

service,

career counselling interviews at the local employment service,

parents evenings where counsellors give information,

career fairs organised by the chamber of commerce in cooperation

with the local employment service.

Assisting in applying for a job: Those services are carried out by local

employment services and by private institutions. People can get support in

writing their CV and designing their personal map and can train how to do

a job interview.

Support for carrying out a job: Here the employee seeks advice for

improving his standing in the job (e.g.: time management, dealing with

conflicts in the job, improving the organisation of the work).

Counselling for job change: With regard to insecure job situations and

changing working biographies due to economic changes this counselling

field getting more and more important. Here the counsellor has the task to

support people over 50 years of age to change a job and finding alternative

vocational ways. Besides formal qualifications non-formal and informal

learning processes are important in order to develop and explore

competencies that are focused on the biography of the client.

Since 1998 this was the task of the Federal Employment Service.

Attitudes of the counsellor:

authenticity and genuineness,

unconditional acceptance,

openness towards the clients perceptions and meanings,

sensitive empathy towards the client,

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positive thinking and courage,

to see the learner or client as the responsible person for his or her

own development,

to see success or failure not as one‟s own success or failure as a

counsellor,

frustration-tolerance.

Skills

field knowledge,

systematic knowledge how to structure and carry out counselling.

References

German Association for Career Counselling / Deutsche Gesellschaft für

Karriereberatung (DGFK): http://www.dgfk.org

Hudson, F. (1999): Career Couching. In: Career Planning and Adult

Development Journal, Vol. 15, No.2, p.69-80.

Thöne-Geyer, B. (2003): Karriereberatung: Ein Trend aus den USA. In:

Der pädagogische Blick – Zeitschrift für Wissenschaft und Praxis in

pädagogischen Berufen. Vol. 11, No. 2, p. 116-119.

www.arbeitsamt.de (Federal Employment Service / Bundesanstalt für

Arbeit)

http://www.dgfk.org/

http://www.arbeitsamt.de/

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Annexe 2: Case of Romania

According to the Romanian Occupation Classification (COR 241208),

adult career counselling as profession belongs to the section 2412 – Experts

on human resources and human resources professional training. The

mentioned professionals deliver the following services: administrative

services, recruiting, training, job analysis, and professional guidance. They

offer information and career counselling in order to help the clients to reach

a decision concerning their own career. These decisions might be about

choosing a professional path, following a (re)qualification course or

changing the work place / the job.

Career counsellors help the clients to better know themselves and to find

more about their own interests and abilities. They offer information about

the labour market dynamics, empower the clients to “match” the own

strengths with the job description requirements, elaborate together with the

clients a realistic action plan and assist the clients in enforcing the

commonly established actions.

Basic competencies (according to Council for Occupational Standards

and Licences - COSA)

The basic competencies a career counsellor for adults should have belong

to the following domains of competencies:

1. Work management

1.1. Planning the own activity. There are no indicators for this

competency.

2. Relation with the clients

2.1. Interpersonal communication

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This competency refers to the communication relationship with the client.

The counsellor should use the most appropriate way to address the message

and collect the information. In order to fulfil these goals, the counsellor

should be able:

To transmit information.

To initiate discussions.

To facilitate communication.

The communication relationship should be built trough verbal means

(discussions, interview) using paper support (letter, report) and taking into

consideration the non-verbal and para-verbal facilitators (mimics,

intonation).

Knowledge required: knowledge about labour market and placement

organizations, about communication theories and conflict resolution.

2.2.Professional Counselling

This competency refers to identifying, analysing, and generating

alternatives for a formulated problem, together with guiding the client to

overcome the obstacles towards a realistic solution. In order to fulfil these

goals, the counsellor should be able:

To identify the client‟s needs.

To choose appropriate methods for meeting the identified needs.

To analyse the alternatives for the client‟s need.

Knowledge required: methodology for identifying the client‟s need,

counselling methods, labour market dynamics, organizational psychology,

statistics, pedagogy and psycho-diagnosis.

3. Information provision

3.1. Collecting and organizing the data

This competency refers to managing the information needed to plan the

further counselling activities. In order to fulfil these goals, the counsellor

should be able:

181

To identify the information sources.

To collect, select and analyse data.

To archiving the information.

To process the information according to the needs and the

understanding level of the client.

Knowledge required: information management, legislation concerning

education and labour market, requirements for entering a job, rights of the

unemployed.

3.2.Using ICT

To facilitate the counselling and guidance process, the counsellor should be

able:

To introduce relevant and updated information in the data bases.

To analyse and organise the information in the data bases in

accordance with the clients‟ expressed needs.

To elaborate guidelines for searching the information and

facilitating the use of the ICT.

Knowledge required: text editing, use of the computer, Internet browsing.

4. Evaluation

4.1.Evaluation clients’ interests and aptitudes

With reference to the activity of evaluation the strengths and weaknesses of

the client, in order to improve their self-knowledge and prepare the client

for the appropriate job, the counsellor should be able:

To choose the appropriate tools for evaluation the client‟s

interests and aptitudes.

To apply the assessment tools.

To elaborate the psycho-aptitude profile of the client.

To evaluate the results after applying supplementary tests and

questionnaires.

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Knowledge required: psychology of work, applied psychology, job

requirements, occupational standards.

5. Organizing, training delivery

5.1.Organizing the information sessions

The counsellor should be able:

To identify the clients‟ need for information.

To establish the condition for the information group session.

To organize the information group sessions.

To evaluate the information group session results.

Knowledge required: personal marketing, labour market statistics and

trends, group dynamic.

5.2.Organizing the sessions for personal development


To establish the topics to be discussed.

To deliver training.

To evaluate the results of the sessions using specific tools.

Knowledge required: general psychology, pedagogy.

6. Research

6.1.Elaborating psycho-sociological studies

This item refers to elaborating studies on themes of interest concerning the

labour market


To identify the theme for the study.

To elaborate the hypothesis of the study.

To select and apply appropriate methods.

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To carry on and finalize the research.

Knowledge required: general sociology, research methodology.

6.2.Elaborating the socio-professiogram


To agree on the occupation.

To identify the requisites for performing the job.

To elaborate the socio-professiogram.

Knowledge required: psychology of work, occupational statistics.

7. Professional development

Life-long learning in the professional area.

8. Decision making

The ability to adopt and implement decisions in the professional area.

9. Information management

Elaborating the necessary documents and reports.

10. General competencies related to the work place

Team working and networking.

Knowledge

Career counsellors must have knowledge in the following fields: European

policies in the field of human resources, national policies towards social-

economical development, counselling theories, life-long learning with

adults, educational system (public and private institutions, intital and

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continuous trening, formal, informal and nonfromal education), labour

market.

Specialisation

Career counsellor should have an academic background in one of the

following fields: psychology, pedagogy, sociology, psychopedagogy, social

care or educational sciences. Specialisations are not compulsory, but it is

recommended for a counsellor to have further studies in the following

fields of study: educational counselling, career development, information

management, group-work techniques with clients, , working with the

community, psychotherapy.

Attitudes

Attitudes are described in the Ethical Code. They refer especially to ethical

and moral attitudes in the relationship with the client. Therefore, a career

counsellor should be sincere, empathetic, flexible, transparent and non-

judgmental. He should also respect the professional deontology, the rule of

confidentiality and follow the ethical code.

Skills

A good counsellor should be continuous preoccupied to improve the skills

in the following areas: communication, ICT, group work, organising data,

problem-solving, mentoring, information management, project

management and foreign language.

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Annexe 3: Case of Spain

Basic Competencies

The competencies for a careers counsellor will be listed in the following

tasks and functions:

Functions:

Search for information and resources.

Advice on Careers.

Information and Assessment for Self employment.

Mediation and Labour Insertion.

Social integration.

Public dissemination of issues related to employment.

Communication and relations with other entities and

organisations related to Employment.

Tasks:

Research, write up and transmission of information about

employment and training.

To get to know training and employment resources in the local

area or corresponding geographic area for employment.

To carry out investigative polls for databases of unemployed

and/or businesses.

Teach modules or workshops about skills and techniques in order

to promote job searching.

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Attend to people that are looking for work, contributing to

improving their employment opportunities.

Offer unemployed persons useful tools for job searching.

Receive and manage job offers, pre-select suitable candidates,

send applications to businesses in question and carry out follow-

up throughout the process.

Analyse jointly with the candidate the most suitable personal and

interpersonal relations for job searching.

Analyse jointly with the candidate their skills, knowledge and

abilities in a realistic way.

Analyse which attitudes are the most suitable and can most

benefit the person looking for work.

Plan jointly the timescale for the process, how much time to be

invested in training, practice and work, chosen according to the

skills and circumstances of each person.

Plan professional itineraries jointly with the participant.

Collaborate in individual decision-making processes considering

the labour market and adapting information to the person being

given careers counselling. Similarly, keeping in mind personal

characteristics and attributes.

Inform and collaborate with the person in carrying out their own

planning.

Promote as priorities those people belonging to disadvantaged

groups within the labour market.

Promote and develop community resources that generate

possibilities of work insertion

Wipe out negative attitudes towards disadvantaged groups that

may appear in relatives, friends, employers and society in general.

Write up professional articles for public dissemination of issues

related to employment.

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Participate in organising events to exchange experiences between

entities related to employment.

Carry out basic administrative work, including record keeping

and recording data.

Knowledge

It is vital that the careers counsellor has full academic training and has up

to date information on all related fields in order to transmit all the necessary

information to the participants. This information must be made available

for the person receiving counselling. This ensures joint decision-making

throughout the counselling process starting from the needs and interests of

the individual in question.

The careers counsellor must have studied all information relevant to the

labour market, but above all those issues related to work insertion. In order

for this, they have to understand fully what is required for each job,

necessary training, competencies, level of difficulty, etc. Equally, it is

important to know how to access the most current job offers and tendencies

for future offers of work contracts.

All these forms of knowledge are necessary for joint planning with the

participant during their counselling process in the short and long term.

In order to obtain the necessary knowledge at an academic level, the careers

counsellor must have a University qualification related to social sciences

and specifically in degrees that work on the business world and the labour

market. Given that at a national level there is not a qualification that

specifies careers counselling, the closest degree programmes to follow this

profession are: Administration and Management of Businesses, Political

Sciences, Law, Economic Sciences, Pedagogy, Psychology, Sociology,

Social Education, Public Management and Administration, Work Relations,

Social Work.

Specialisation

There exist two large areas or sectors where services for careers counselling

are offered: the public sector or the private or business sector. Within the

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public sector different fields can be differentiated in which the careers

counsellor can work.

On the one hand, they can be contracted from municipal organisms,

(through local town councils), which ensures working locally, as the work

is carried out as close as possible to the participant and their environment.

It is an environment that allows a closer understanding of the needs of the

individuals. For example, working in collaboration with those careers

counsellors working in schools.

On the other hand, if the careers counselling work is carried out at an

Autonomous Community level, it is understood as a matter of regional

management. Generally, regional Employment Services and Agencies carry

out this work for Work Placements.

Another of the areas for working is national. Careers counselling has

stopped being a matter for INEM, (Instituto Nacional de Empleo) [National

Institute for Employment] and its functions are limited to tasks related to

mediation.

Finally, within the public sector there also exists the European field. The

careers counsellor works in the network Red Eures, responsible for

mediation at a European community level.

There are a number of Associations, Foundations and other organisations

that have collaboration agreements with public entities and that are directed

at different groups or social sectors. They are dedicated to offering

counselling and/or training to different social groups. Some examples of

this are the immigrant associations, associations of women, the syndicates.

The business or private sector is made up on the one hand of what is known

as consultants in Human Resources, Consultants in training and other

businesses specialised in Work Relations, making up part of

multidisciplinary teams, which offer: personalised assessment for

executives (executive counselling), personalised assessment for the

development and planning of professional careers (job counselling) and

counselling and support for reinsertion of executives in work

(outplacement).

On the other hand, there exist departments of Human Resources or

Personnel in each company which are dedicated to counselling and training

189

of the workers.

Because there does not exist an official title for careers counsellor there do

not exist specialisations that are dedicated to determined sectors either.

However, the professional classification depends on whether the person

works in the public or the private sector.

In the public sector, exists a ruling in reference to carrying out professional

careers counselling for employment and self-employment (O.P.E.A.). The

ruling leaves institutions and entities free to classify the people that they

contract. On the other hand, la Ley de Medidas para la Reforma de la

Función Pública [the Law of measures for reforms of public functions] (30,

1984) states that careers counselling professionals have to be classified into

distinct groups depending on whether they have University or different

further education qualifications.

In articles, public employment offers, employment services, etc. different

named professionals that develop careers counselling tasks and/or work

insertion can be found: Employment technician, Labour Insertion

Technician, Employment Counselling Technician, Socio-labour Advisor,

Work Advisor, Professional Advisor, Job Placement Officer, Careers

Information Officer, Work Insertion Officer.

On the other hand, there are forms of knowledge that the careers counsellor

would have to have that make up complementary training. They are related

to subjects such as for example economics, sociology, education,

psychology, employment law etc.

Having information technology skills is also vital in order to have access to

a wider range of information and to mediate between the supply and

demand of work. In order for this, it is necessary to know how to use the

Internet and more specifically search engines, databases, email etc.

These complementary forms of knowledge can be acquired in an academic

way, or through work experience as a careers counsellor or in jobs related

to employment, training, local development, work insertion etc, both in the

public and the private sector.

Attitudes

190

At CREA and starting from the principles of dialogic learning we believe

that attitudes are important and must be considered throughout the

counselling process. Attitudes are the deciding factor as to whether

participants feel like they are protagonists in their own careers counselling

process or not.

We consider that the main objective is for the participant to be able to

define their own objectives starting from their own arguments. It is

therefore important that the careers counsellor maintains a receptive

attitude that promotes active involvement, and shows the participants that

the process starts from their own needs and contributions.

A cooperative, open and understanding attitude by all those involved also

promotes the counselling process as it makes it more egalitarian.

It is important that the careers counsellor does not impose their position of

power to express their arguments. Instead, that they show an egalitarian

attitude and respect for all contributions, regardless of the culture or the

lifestyle with which they identify the participant. This fact will promote the

elimination of prejudices that negatively influence the careers counselling

process.

All the previously described attitudes cannot be put into practice unless the

careers counsellor starts from having expectations of a maximum level. In

every step of the counselling process, for all processes that they initiate.

Skills

This concept is closely related to attitudes, given that in total they make up

the attributes that a careers counsellor must consider and put into practice

so that the careers counselling process can have optimum results.

Most notably the following:

To know how to listen.

Empathy.

Not to be influenced by social prejudices.

Team work.

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To know how to select and process information.

Organisation of contents.

192

Self-assessment Questionnaire

THE MOST RELEVANT CAREER COUNSELLORS COMPETENCIES

Initial Assessment

Final Assessment

Maxim - Minim Maxim - Minim

5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1

I. PROFESSIONAL BEHAVIOUR

1. Adhere to the Code of Ethics and the Ethical Decision-Making

Model

2. Demonstrate Professional Attributes

193

3. Demonstrate a Commitment to Professional Development by:

Develop Relationships with Other Professionals

Demonstrate a Commitment to Lifelong Learning

Keep Up to Date with Technology

4. Use Analytical Skills by:

Apply a Solution-Focused Framework

Collect, Analyse and Use Information

5. Manage work by:

Use Planning and Time Management Skills

Follow Case and Project Management Procedures

Document Client‟s Interactions and Progress

Evaluate the Service Provided to Clients

II. INTERPERSONAL COMPETENCIES

6. Respect Diversity by:

Recognize Diversity

Respect Diversity

194

7. Communicate Effectively by:

Work with Climate and Context to Enhance Communication

Use a Framework for Verbal Communication

Use a Framework for Written Communication

Use Effective Listening Skills

Clarify and Provide Feedback

Establish and Maintain Collaborative Work Relationship

8. Develop Productive Interaction with Participants by:

Foster Participants Self-reliance and Self-management

Deal with Reluctant Participants

III. FACILITATED INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP LEARNING

9. Possess Knowledge about how to Facilitate Learning by:

Describe Commonly-accepted Principles of Learning

Define Techniques Commonly Used to Facilitate Learning

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10. Facilitate Learning by:

Prepare for Program Delivery

Determination of Clients‟ Existing Competencies

Deliver Programs

Evaluate Programs

IV. CAREER COUNSELLING

11. Possess Knowledge in Career Counselling by:

Explain Major Theories and Models Pertaining to

Counselling

Explain Major Theories and Models Pertaining to Career

Development

Explain Major Models Pertaining to Change and Transition

Describe Barriers to Career Development

Describe Computerized Career Planning Systems and Information

Resources

Describe Types of Educational/Training Opportunities and

Resources

196

Work with Labour Market Information

12. Demonstrate Methods and Practices in the Interaction with the

Clients by:

Develop a Method of Practice that Builds on Established or

Recognized Ideas

Establish and Maintain a Collaborative Relationship with

Clients

Explore Issues

Develop and Implement a Process for Achieving Clients

Goals that is Consistent with Own Method of Practice

Monitor Progress

V. INFORMATION AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

13. Develop and Maintain an Information and Resource Database

by:

Describe the Role of Information and Resource Management

in Career Development

Describe Classification Systems

Determine the Information Needs of Clients and the

Community

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Establish and Maintain an Information and Resource

Database

14. Provide Clients with Access to Information

TOTAL points

GUIDE for filling in the self-assessment questionnaire

This questionnaire respects the structure of the adult career counsellor‟s competencies described in

this Handbook and in the Training Materials.

Respondents have the opportunity for initial9 and final

10 self-assessment.

For every competency (1-14) accord points on a scale11

from 1 to 5, according to the degree you

posses the competency.

Calculate the sum for initial and final self-assessment. Compare the TOTAL points. Do the right

actions according to the results.

9 Initial self-assessment: before reading the Handbook and applying the Exercises form the Training Materials.

10 Final self-assessment: after reading the Handbook and applying the exercises from the Training Materials.

11 5 – maxim, meaning YES, I have this competency

1 – minim, meaning NO, I do not have this competency

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Checklist for Success

When embarking on a new information resource development initiative it

may be useful to have an action plan or check list that guides the actions

taken. Based on the previously outlined five stages and twelve success

indicators we suggest below a set of items for an action plan in a check list

format.

Check list for Information Resource Development

First, check the actions that are relevant to your resource development

context.

Second, add dates and check off each item as these have been completed.

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I. CONCEPT AND DESIGN STAGE

To Do Start - Finish Finished

Determine “project management” strategy [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Identify potential user groups

and establish targets [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Contact and consult user groups [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Identify users‟ priority needs [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Identify and engage key stakeholders [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Access and review the context and

establish targets [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Plan for delivery of the resource [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Establish measurable objectives [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Identify and assess “competition” [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Determine desired outcomes [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

II. DEVELOPMENT STAGE


Establish advisory groups, project team [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Complete initial consultations with

stakeholders to validate goals, objectives,

design / format, context interpretation

and target audience [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

203

Ensure that the service provision enable

adaptation to different user groups [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Organize and implement initial review

process [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Organize pilot sites, specify desired

feedback [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Develop and plan “field activities” [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Review for bias, contextual fit, and

teacher / learner appeal [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Develop clear promotional material and

link to user needs [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Check for “quality” over “quantity”

and “realistic expectations” [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

III. DELIVERY STAGE


Review Process and Protocols Matrices [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Design delivery strategy according

to processes and protocols [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Plan to identify, reach and engage

potential user groups [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Liaise with groups connected with

potential user groups [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Circulate promotional material to inform

users and generate demand and interest [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

204

Set up effective delivery and support

systems [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Facilitate “sharing of info” on the resource [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

IV. IMPLEMENTATION STAGE


Complete “first impression” strategy [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Prepare “Summaries,” “Overviews,”

“Highlights” [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Clearly and effectively state

“Fit and Rationale for Use” [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Secure match with the contextual matrix [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Ensure “technology component”

appropriate for widespread use [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Check and verify keys to engagement [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Set up workshops to support use [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Set up web site support / guidance [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Ensure key contact information accessible [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Make guest contributions possible [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Ensure systems in place to respond to

ongoing demand for user support [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Plan for train-the-trainer program [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

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V. EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT STAGE


Define and clarify success criteria [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Set measurable objectives [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Set up survey / feedback systems

re: gathering data on success indicators [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Set up ongoing user feedback systems [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Set up plan to respond to feedback

and evaluation [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Set up “ever greening” plan to maintain

up-to-datedness of available information

resources [ ] __/__/__ - __/__/__ [ ]

Resource Package on Counselling in Adult Education

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Transcript of Resource Package on Counselling in Adult Education