Residents' Satisfaction with Residential Property Management ...

Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 2 December 2017

1

Residents’ Satisfaction with Residential

Property Management Services in Abuja,

Nigeria

Shien S. Kuma Department of Estate Management and Valuation, School of Environmental Technolgy,

Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract This study evaluates the satisfaction of residents with residential property management

services in Kubwa, a residential neighbourhood in Abuja, Nigeria. To achieve this, the study

measures the levels of satisfaction of residents with their dwelling units (buildings) and

management service delivery. It also analysed the relationship between residential

satisfaction and residents’ willingness to remain in their current dwellings over a period of

time. Data was collected mainly through a structured questionnaire survey distributed to 330

residents with a response rate of 68%. The analysis was made with the use of descriptive

statistics, residential satisfaction index and linear regression technique. Findings revealed

that residents are moderately satisfied with their overall residential dwellings which include

buildings and management service components (63.2%). However, between the two

residential components, they were highly satisfied with their buildings (76.2%) but expressed rather very low satisfaction with the quality of management services provided. It

was also found that the residents’ overall level of satisfaction did not influence significantly

their decision to continue to stay in their residential dwellings (R2=.123). The study

recommends adoption of satisfaction evaluation as part of property management routine

feedback; will enable the property managers to improve the quality of service delivery.

Keywords: Dwelling unit, Property Management Services, Residents, Satisfaction;

Introduction A residential property is a product with

physical, social and economic values which

exert influence on a user’s wellbeing and

utility optimisation. As a home, a typical

residential dwelling unit is expected to

satisfy an occupant’s physical,

physiological and psychological needs or requirements. However, for these expected

satisfaction to be met appropriately, Ibem,

Opoko, Adeboye and Amole (2013)

emphasised that requisite expertise

knowledge of professionals as well as

established government regulations and

standards becomes pertinent.

Satisfaction with a residential dwelling as

explained by McCary and Day (1977), is

the degree or level of contentment

experienced by an occupant with regards to

their current residential environment. The

level of contentment experienced and

expressed by the occupants/users relates

significantly to the overall performance of

such residential dwelling. According to

Abolade, Omirin and Dugeri (2013), a

product’s performance is the most

important factor for satisfaction. This

means that the higher the performance of a

product, the more satisfaction consumers tend to derive from its consumption. Hence

for occupants to attain a level of

satisfaction with the use of a residential

property, its quality in term of performance

must be at its optimum and tended towards

meeting their requirements.

mailto:[email protected]

Shien S. Kuma Residents’ Satisfaction with Residential Property Management Services in Abuja, Nigeria

2

Multi-tenanted residential dwellings/

environment sometimes provides for the

use of common spaces, facilities and

services which in a large number of cases,

is inevitable. Where this is the case, two

basic requirements become evident; first is the requirement for expertise residential

service delivery to enhance the

comfortability and satisfaction of

occupants (Olanrele & Thontteh, 2014).

The second being the requirement for

financial resources to continue to deliver

such management services (Priemus, 1999;

Tawal et al., 2011). For the latter, however,

the sources for such type of finance usually

come through the determination and

collection of service charge which is paid

by tenants aside from their prescribed rents. Therefore, to ensure efficiency in property

management by experts, efforts towards

assessing users’ levels of satisfaction at a

certain point in time is pertinent. This

assessment according to Thontteh and

Olanrele (n.d) will provide an

understanding of customers’ expectation

that will help in the identification of gaps

in the quality of service delivery. Thus, in

filling these gaps, it will also contribute

significantly towards the efficient and effective manner in which property

management services are provided for the

benefit of both the occupants (user) and the

landlord (Jeffres & Dobos, 1995; Liias,

1998).

The concept of utility under the theory of

consumer behaviour explains utility simply

as the ability of a good or service to yield

satisfaction to the consumer. It also refers

to the amount of satisfaction derived from

the consumption or use of a commodity at a particular time which forms the major

determinant of consumers demand for such

goods/services and their willingness to

continue to pay for same (Menger, 2007).

However, the practice of residential

property management in Nigeria often

presents quite the opposite of this utility

concept. For instance, Thontteh and

Olanrele (n.d) observed that property

managers are most time engrossed in the

income being generated from buildings much to the disadvantage of its satisfaction

to the tenants. Ironically, tenants

sometimes do not react effectively to the

dissatisfactory manner these services are

delivered even when they specifically paid

for such. Although, Abolade et al. (2013)

noted that, sometimes tenants are more satisfied with the buildings meeting their

personal needs or requirements than the

services provided. In this wise, they will

continue to pay for the occupation of such

properties that do not provide them with

the optimum utility.

Stemming from the above, the study aims

at evaluating the levels of tenants’

satisfaction with their residential buildings

and management services. Also to assess

the relationship between satisfaction levels of residential dwelling units and residential

management services as well as attempts to

ascertain if tenants willingness to stay in

their residential dwellings can be

influenced significantly by their level of

residential satisfaction.

Literature Review

Residential Satisfaction Evaluation:

Conceptual Issues Satisfaction generally can be referred to as that state of mind that explains an

individual’s fulfilment of a need or desire.

It is the intrinsic relationship shared

between man and his object of value

expressed through sentimental or rational

responses or both. Thus in explaining

tenant’s evaluation of a dwelling unit

especially residential, the foremost

consideration here is how they respond to

their residential environment. Ajzen and

Fishbein (1981) provided a trilogy conceptual model in explaining people’s

general responses to their residential

environment. These are; Affective

responses (which deals with occupant’s

feelings or emotional state of mind),

Cognitive responses, referring to an

occupant’s moral conviction or belief/logic,

and Behavioural which deals with physical,

attitude/character.

Among the early studies that made use of this trilogy conceptual model were those of


3

Francescato, Weidemann, Anderson and

Chenoweth (1974), and Marans and Rogers

(cited in Weidemann & Anderson, 1985).

They adopted two of the three elements in

the model which were the affective and

cognitive responses while evaluating residential satisfaction. Francescato et al.

(1974) idealised satisfaction of a residential

unit as a function of different variables

which are categorised into affect; residents’

characteristics such as age, sex, income,

previous housing experience etc and

cognitive; the physical residential

environment, management and other

occupants. The outcome from their study

following this model indicates that

information from previous occupants,

socio-economic characteristics and relationship with others (attitude) within

the residential area will significantly

influence the emotional state of mind of an

individual hence a positive or negative

response.

The third element in the trilogy conceptual

model is ‘Behaviour’. This explains the

fact that person’s behaviour is influenced

by satisfaction, perception as well as an

assessment of the objective residential environment attributes and the objective

attributes of the environment itself

(Weidemann & Anderson, 1985). Newman

and Duncan (1979) also consider

residential satisfaction as a predictor of

behaviour, inferring that the more satisfied

an individual or persons are with their

residential unit, the positive their attitude

towards such residential environment and

vice versa. Thus this attitude (behaviour) as

resulting from residential dissatisfaction

according to Jiboye (2012), could lead to an adjustment in form of relocation or

intention to relocate. However, Fishbein

and Ajzen (1975) contended that behaviour

intentions are seen as mediating between

one’s affective responses and actual

behaviour and as such, an occupant/tenant

may have negative feelings towards their

home probably due to dissatisfaction with

certain attributes, they may not have the

intention to leave or move out. Intention or

willingness to move is also supported by the socio-economic status of residents and

not just their level of satisfaction (Hui &

Yu, 2009). Sometimes the length of stay,

social bonds and other residents attitude

influence decision to stay despite low

satisfaction with dwelling unit (Galster &

Hesser, 1981).

Therefore, to understand the well-being of

occupants within their residential

environment, a measure of their affective

and cognitive responses to either of their

dwelling units or management components

becomes imperative (Adriaanse, 2007).

Amole (2009) and Mohit et al. (2010) also

opined that for an effective residential

satisfaction evaluation, the analysis should

be made of the affective response variables

which are basically subjective. These includes the physiological and

psychological state of an occupant that

deals with perception, emotions and

aspirations. Also, the cognitive response

variables which are the objective

environment variables and includes the

physical characteristics of the residential

environment as well as facilities and

services (Theodori, 2001). Quite a

substantial number of studies on residential

satisfaction in Nigeria has operationalised a combination of two or three elements of the

trilogy concept. They either adopt the

measure of the entire residential

components (Waziri et al., 2013; Jiboye,

2013; Ibem et al., 2013), or a selected

components often relating to residential

service delivery (Olanrele & Thontteh,

2014). The choice of evaluation of

dwelling components and management

service were adopted by Ilesanmi (2010)

and Tawil et al. (2011).

Users’ Satisfaction with Residential

Building and Management Services Buildings are one of the key elements or

components required in the overall

residential satisfaction evaluation. Like any

other economic product, residential

buildings are designed and constructed to

meet the expectations and aspirations of the

developer, investor and occupants in

various ways (Parker & Matthews, 2001).

It has been shown in some studies that the


4

affective response to building satisfaction

is a major predictor of behaviour (Priemus,

1986; Ibem & Amole, 2012). Thus, in the

assessment or measurement of users’

satisfaction with a particular dwelling unit,

a breakdown of the residential building unit into subunits such as the living area (sitting

room), bedrooms sizes, kitchen spaces,

windows, finishes, toilets/bathrooms

becomes necessary. This will provide a

statistical evidence on those components

that contributes significantly to the overall

satisfaction of the dwelling units (see

Ukoha & Beamish, 1997; Salleh, 2008).

Further, Karstein (2006) and Adriannse

(2007) asserted that satisfaction levels of

the dwelling unit at a particular point in

time can be explained by the characteristics of the households which includes

composition, age, sex and income. A

household’s size may not increase in terms

of numbers but as the family grows, some

members of the family may require more

space for privacy and so on. Hence,

number of rooms and their sizes become

essential to the overall satisfaction of the

dwelling unit. Ibem et al. (2013) relate the

personal characteristics of users versus

those of the physical characteristics of the dwellings in their study. Their findings

revealed 3 most important dimension in the

variables construct that contribute

significantly to the overall residential

satisfaction. These were location, aesthetic

appearance of buildings and sizes of its

components.

Another component aside from building

that contributes to the overall residential

satisfaction is the management service

delivery. Very few literature focusing specifically on the assessment of occupants

satisfaction with quality residential

management service delivery exist in

Nigeria. Olanrele and Thontteh (2014) is

one of the few and comprehensive studies

in this regard. Others adopt a combination

of dwelling units, environmental subsystem

and management services. (see Ilesanmi,

2010; Clement & Kayode, 2012; Jiboye,

2013). Most of the items of the

management service components evaluated by the aforementioned studies include;

security, water supply, waste disposal,

cleaning of common areas, general repairs

and quality of maintenance work as well as

the lighting of common areas. Findings

from these studies indicate significantly

low satisfaction levels among occupants with residential management service

delivery in public and private estates. The

study of Ukoha and Beamish (1997) in

Abuja revealed that residents expresses

higher satisfaction with their residential

environment attributes but expressed

dissatisfaction with their dwelling units and

management services provided. The study

of Waziri et al. (2013) which uses another

residential neighbourhood in Abuja made a

similar finding, although Jiboye (2013)

found residents to be highly satisfied with their dwelling units and environment

attributes but were dissatisfied with the

delivery of management services. Liu

(1999) in Hong Kong observed a higher

dissatisfaction with the level of

maintenance and cleanliness of common

areas among the measured variables in his

study. Elsewhere in Kuala Lumpur, the

studies of Mohit, Ibrahim and Rashid

(2010) and Tawil et al. (2011) also show

that occupants were dissatisfied with management services provided. Infact

Tawil et al. (2011) also found that

occupants adjudged the amount paid for

services to be quite higher relative to the

actual quality of services provided.

Evidence from literature thus far has shown

a pattern of poor management service

delivery to residents as expressed in their

levels of dissatisfaction compared to levels

of satisfaction mostly with the residential

dwelling units and environment attributes.

Methodology

Data sources and collection A survey of Kubwa, a satellite residential

precinct in Abuja was carried out covering

Phase I Site I (FHA), Phase II Site I and II.

This neighbourhood has a significant

number of residential accommodation

types ranging from single units (self-

contained) one bedroom flats to semi-

detached and detached 4-bedroom

accommodations. It is also home to a wide


5

category of income households

comparatively. Following the record

obtained from Abuja Electricity

Distribution Company (AEDC) office, a

total estimated residential units of 2,373 in

the area was obtained. In determining the appropriate sample size (Ss) that will be

statistically significant for the survey, the

following formula was used:

Ss =

Z = Standardised normal value (confidence

level) of 95% (1.96), P is the estimated rate

(47%) and C is the confidence interval

(5%). Thus a sample size of approximately

330 residential units was arrived at. Hence

a set of 330 questionnaires were distributed

to purposively selected residents in the area

who were leaseholders and also paying for

some management services (service

charge). A total of 236 (72%) were retrieved, however, only 207 (88%) of the

returned questionnaires were properly

filled and valid for analysis. The structured

questionnaire used contained three (3)

sections, the first section required

information on respondents’ socio-

economic characteristics. The second

section measures residents’ satisfaction

levels with the dwelling unit component

and management services, while the third

measured respondents’ willingness to

continue to stay in their residential dwelling units over a given period of time.

A 5-point Likert scale with Very Low

Satisfaction (1), Low Satisfaction (2),

Moderately Satisfied (3), High Satisfaction

(4) and Very High Satisfaction (5) was

adopted and some of the variables used in

the study construct were generated from

earlier literature with modifications to align

with the research concept (see Ukoha &

Beamish, 1997; Ebiaribe & Umeh, 2015).

A total of 20 items were generated comprising 10 subunits each of the

dwelling unit and management services

components respectively. On the

measurement of respondents’ willingness

or intention to stay, a period of 5 years

interval effective from the date of the

survey was used. The options were; (a)

next 5 Years (≤ 5years), (b) 6-10years, (c)

11-15years, and (d) 16years and above and

a scale of 1 to 4 was provided for the

respondents. These are; 1=Not Willing,

2=Uncertain, 3=Willing and 4=Very

Willing.

Reliability analysis of the measured

variables Following the nature of data obtained and scale of measurement used, the reliability

of the measured responses from the items

was tested using the Cronbach’s alpha (α)

technique. This provides a reliable estimate

that simultaneously considers all possible

ways of splitting the test items into the

inter-item correlational matrix (Adriaanse,

2007). The test was conducted on the

dwelling units and management services

components comprising of 10 variables

respectively and was performed using the

formula (1) below:

α =

(1)

Where is the loading value of each

measurement item and = 1–

The outcome shows that the variables in

the dwelling unit construct has an alpha

coefficient of .678 while .776 for the management services component. This is

considered an acceptable level of reliability

which is above the minimum recommended

level of .60 for social sciences researches

(Sekaran, 2003; Park, Heo & Rim, 2008).

The test result suggests that the tenants

were more consistent in evaluating their

satisfaction with management service

delivery than the dwelling units

component.

Determination of Satisfaction Index

(SI) Satisfaction index (SI) for a particular unit

of a residential component say a, is

measured as; SIa =

[∑

(2)

Where SIa is the Satisfaction Index for

Unit a of the Residential Component;


6

indicates the values

representing levels of satisfaction scaled

while represents the actual

score by respondents on the variable,

is the maximum possible score that

variable could have on the scale used,

while N is the number of respondents under

a. Further, Residential Satisfaction Index (RSI) which is the sum total of the

component satisfaction indices (Mohit et

al., 2010), is measured in this study based

on Dwelling (D) and Management Services

(M) components. It was determined using

the following equation;

RSIDM =

[∑(

(3)

Where RSIDM is the residential satisfaction

index of tenants with components D and M,

and are the total weighted

frequencies for D and M components,

= are the total number of

respondents under the D and M

components,

= represents the number of

variables being scaled under the D and M

components,

For a better understanding of the analysis

on satisfaction levels, a scale is required as a benchmark to aid the interpretation of the

outcomes. Bello and Ajayi (2010) provided

a justifiable scale as modified from

Onibokun (1974) which adopted and used

for this study. It provides that the

maximum value the RSI can attain is 100%

while 25% is the minimum value. Thus the

scale is as follows;

1. 0 ≤ 50% = Very

Low level of satisfaction

2. 51 – 59% = region

of Low satisfaction

3. 60 – 69% = region

of satisfaction

4. 70 & above = region

of high level satisfaction.

Finally, a regression analysis was

conducted to determine the relationship

between the level of residential satisfaction

and residents willingness to stay. This is

also meant to ascertain if residents’

satisfaction with their residential

environment has a significant influence on

their decision to continue to stay.

Results and Discussion

Socio-economic data of respondents

The outcome of the survey shows the

predominance of married residents within

the modal age range of 45 – 55 years. They

are mostly under government employment

which accounted for 44.9% and closely

followed by those under the employment of

the organised private sector with 41.5%.

Also, the majority of the respondents earn between N2.5 and N4.0 million annually

(37.7%) and 10.1% earned between N6.0

million and above. Despite their income

levels, a substantial number of the

respondents have a high preference for 2

and 3 bedroom apartments which

constituted 39.1% and 38.2% respectively.

The least being those occupying 4 bedroom

apartments with 14.0%.

Table 2 shows data on respondents’

residential satisfaction with their dwelling units and management services in the study

area.


7

Table 1. Socio-economic status of respondents

Items Category Freq %

Age of Respondents (Years) 25 – 35 21 10.1

36 – 45 56 27.1

46 – 55 67 32.4

56 – 65 45 21.7

66 + years 18 8.7

Marital Status Married 151 72.9

Divorced 17 8.2

Widowed 11 5.3

Single 28 13.5

Occupational Sectors Public Servant 93 44.9

Private employee 86 41.5

Self-employed 28 13.6

Income Levels (N’million) 0.5 - 2.0 71 34.3

(Annual) 2.5 - 4.0 78 37.7

4.5 – 6.0 37 17.9

6.5 & above 21 10.1

Accommodation Type One Bedroom 18 8.7

Two Bedroom 81 39.1

Three Bedroom 79 38.2

Four Bedroom & above 29 14.0

Total 207


8

Table 2: Respondents’ measure of residential satisfaction

Component Component Subunit 1 2 3 4 5

Wfx

Mean

Dwelling Unit (Building)

Interior Wall Finishes 0 14 54 93

46 792

3.826

Floor Finishing 0 9 76 85

37 771

3.725

Ceiling Type 0 5

62

115

25 781

3.773

Room Sizes 0 5

65 89

48 801

3.870

Kitchen Size 0 4 72 93

38 786

3.797

Sitting room size 0 0

58

103

46 816

3.942

External wall finishing 0 4

75 95

33 778

3.758

Window types/sizes 0 13

35

117

42 809

3.908

Landscape/walk ways 0 7

75 89

36 775

3.744

Toilet/Bathrooms 0 6

7

9 83

3

9 776

3.74

9

Management Services

Cleanliness of common areas 34 72 52 36

13 543

2.623

Fire safety equipment 17 60 76 36

18 599

2.894

Water provision 36 85

36 37

13 527

2.546

Security services 40 95 29 33

10 499

2.411

Generating set 30 94

75 8 0 475

2.295

Prompt response to defects 29 98

43 30 7 509

2.459

Waste disposal 34 75

57 30

11 530

2.560

Quality of maintenance work done 35 87

42 33

10 517

2.498

Security Lighting 40 79

4

8 32 8 510

2.46

4

Amount paid in relation to service delivery 16 98

93 0 0 491

2.372

1 = Very Low satisfaction, 2 = Low Satisfaction, 3 =Moderately Satisfied, 4 = High Satisfaction, 5 = Very High Satisfaction Wfx = Total Weighted frequency


9

A measure of the residents’ willingness to

stay in their dwelling units over a given

period of time as shown in Table 3 below

reveals a mean response of 3.609 for those

willing to stay within the next 5 years.

Those who indicated their desire to stay for up to between 6 years and 10 years

followed closely with a mean response of

3.488. However, the responses for 11 – 15

years and 16 years and above diminishes

respectively indicating that some of the

residents may not be keen to continue to

stay in their present dwelling units.

The results from the overall residential

satisfaction with both dwelling units and

management services RSIDM indicates .632

(63.2%) which depicts that residents of the

study area are satisfied. The satisfaction

level as expressed by the residents is found

to be considerably higher with the dwelling

units component than the management

services provided. This is shown by a satisfaction index RSID of .762

representing 76.2% for dwelling unit

component which is also found to

contribute most significantly to the overall

residential satisfaction in the study area.

However, the residents expressed a low

level of satisfaction with the management

services as shown by a satisfaction index

RSIM of .502 which indicates 50.2% thus

contributing least to the overall residential

satisfaction in the study area

Table 3: Respondents’ willingness to stay in their residential dwellings

1 2 3 4 Sum Wfx Mean

Next 5 years 4 9 51 143 207 747 3.609

6 - 10 years 6 8 72 121 207 722 3.488

11 - 15 years 6 38 102 61 207 632 3.053

16 + years 33 94 69 11 207 472 2.280

1 = Not Willing, 2 = Uncertain, 3 = Willing, 4 = Very Willing

Table 4: Residential Satisfaction Index

Component Index Level (%)

RSIDM .632 63.2

RSID .762 76.2

RSIM .502 50.2

RSIDM = Overall Residential Satisfaction Index (Dwelling & Management Components) RSID = Residential Satisfaction Index for Dwelling unit Component, RSIM = Residential Satisfaction Index for Management Component,

Results of the unit by unit analysis of the

satisfaction levels is presented in Tables 5

and 6 below. This shows the satisfaction

index of each subunit of the dwelling and

management services components

respectively and is arranged in a

descending order of significance.

The units analysis results of residential

satisfaction has shown that, the sitting

room (78.84%), window types/sizes

(78.16%), bedroom sizes (77.39%), interior

wall finishes (76.52%) and kitchen sizes

(75.94%) contributes most significantly to

the overall satisfaction level of the

dwelling units. On the items in the

management services provided (see Table

5), the provision of fire services (57.87%), cleanliness of common areas (52.46%),

waste disposal (51.21%) and water

provision (50.92%) are the items tenants

expresses satisfaction levels above 50%.

Table 5: Satisfaction index for subunits of Dwelling component

Dwelling Component Wfx Mean StDev RSI SIa

Sitting room size 816 3.942 .708 .788 78.84


10

Window Type/sizes 809 3.908 .786 .782 78.16

Bedroom sizes 801 3.870 .793 .774 77.39

Interior Wall finishes 792 3.826 .853 .765 76.52

Kitchen size 786 3.797 .755 .759 75.94

Ceiling type 781 3.773 .684 .755 75.46

Exterior Wall finishes 778 3.758 .737 .752 75.17

Toilet/Bathrooms 776 3.749 .791 .750 74.98

Landscape/walk ways 775 3.744 .780 .749 74.88

Floor finishing 771 3.725 .804 .745 74.49

Wfx = Weighted Frequency, RSI = Residential Satisfaction Index, SIa = Satisfaction Level of a subunits

Table 6: Satisfaction index for Management Services

Management Services Wfx Mean StDev RSI SIa

Fire safety equipment 599 2.894 1.065 .579 57.87

Cleanliness of common areas 543 2.623 1.138 .525 52.46

Waste disposal 530 2.560 1.091 .512 51.21

Water provision 527 2.546 1.156 .509 50.92

Quality of maintenance work done 517 2.498 1.097 .500 49.95

Security Lighting 510 2.464 1.087 .493 49.28

Prompt response to defects 509 2.459 1.013 .492 49.18

Security services 499 2.411 1.115 .482 48.21

Amount paid in relation to service delivery 491 2.372 .625 .474 47.44

Generating Set 475 2.295 .760 .459 45.89

However, they expressed significant low

levels of satisfaction with 6 out of the 10

items of management services measured,

indicating satisfaction level below 50%.

They are mostly not satisfied with the quality of maintenance work being carried,

security lighting, promptness of managing

firms response to defects reported, security

services and alternative power provision.

They also consider the amount they are

paying currently as service charge quite

high in relation to the quality of services

being provided. Further, the outcome of the

regression analysis shows the R2 = .123

indicating that only 12.3% of the variation

in residents’ willingness to continue to stay

in their residential dwellings is explained

by their levels of satisfaction (RSIDM).

The P-value of .0001 is less than the α =

.05 indicating that there is a significant difference between residential satisfaction

and willingness to stay. This result also

infers that the model has a good predictive

ability for the level of residents’

willingness to stay hence, a 1% increase in

their satisfaction with their residential

environment, increases their willingness to

stay by 3.2%. The Beta value of .351

indicates that not much influence can be

exerted on residents’ willingness to stay by

their level of residential satisfaction


11

implying that the relationship is weak significantly

Table 7: Regression of Willingnes to Stay Vs Residential Satisfaction

Model Summary R = .351 R2 = .123 Adjusted

R2 = .119 P < .000

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients t-value Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) 7.075 1.005 7.042 .000

RSIDM .169 .032 .351 5.36 .000

a Dependent Variable: Willingness to Stay

.

Thus, the study findings revealed residents’

significant levels of satisfaction with their

residential dwelling units (buildings) which

includes unit spaces, aesthetics and

functional components. It shows an

obvious indication that the buildings are

meeting their needs and expectations. This

finding relates with those of Jiboye (2009)

and Ibem et al. (2013) respectively. Although the studies of Ukoha and

Beamish (1997) and Waziri et al. (2013)

that uses other residential precincts within

Abuja found otherwise. Further, the

residents expressed rather very low

satisfaction with the delivery of residential

management services by the property

managers. They are mostly not satisfied

with the delay in response to complaints

made on repairs, security arrangements and

generator services as well as the quality of maintenance work carried out. These

findings also aligned with those of Liu

(1999), Mohit et al. (2010) and Olanrele

and Thorntteh (2014) that also found

residents to be dissatisfied with

management services in their residential

dwellings.

Finally, the residents’ willingness to

remain in their residential dwellings over a

period of time is not substantially

influenced by their overall residential satisfaction. The results of the regression

analysis show a significantly weak

relationship explaining only 12.3%. This

outcome to a certain extent has confirmed

Hui and Yu (2009) position that intention

to move or stay is not exclusively

dependent on satisfaction but also the

socio-economic status of residents.

Sometimes due to the huge cost involved in

residential property development, people

tend to develop their homes on incremental

basis hence may be willing to remain in the current residential environment until they

have completed theirs.

Conclusion and Recommendation The study has evaluated residents’

satisfaction with their dwelling units and

management service components of their

residential environment. To achieve this,

residential satisfaction indices were

determined to measure their levels of

satisfaction with the dwelling components

as well as determine if the residents’

satisfaction has a significant influence on

their willingness to remain in their

respective dwelling units over a given period of time. The outcome shows that the

quality of residential property management

service delivery is significantly low

whereas, the dwelling units (buildings)

have continued to meet residents’ needs

and expectations hence they expressed high

satisfaction. Although despite their level of

satisfaction, it does not influence

significantly their decision to continue to

stay in their current dwelling environment.


12

Hence, the study recommends here that, as

a way forward for property managers to

improve their professional task, evaluation

of the quality of service delivery should be

part of property management routine and

results (indices developed) could be used as a basis for future assessment or

evaluation.

References Abolade A. O., Omirin M. M. & Dugeri, T.

T. (2013). An Evaluation of User’s

Satisfaction with Property

Management Services in Commercial

Properties in Lagos, Nigeria. ATBU

Journal of Environmental

Technology, 6(1) 66-76.

Adriannse, C. C. M. (2007). Measuring

Residential Satisfaction: a residential

environmental satisfaction scale

(RESS). Journal of Housing and Built

Environment. 2007(22) 287-304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10901-007-

9082-9

Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1981).

Understanding attitudes and

predicting social behaviour.

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:

Prentice-Hall.

Amole, D. (2009). Residential Satisfaction

in Students Housing. Journal of

Environmental Psychology, 29, 76-

85. Anderson, J.R. & Weidemann, S. (1985). A

conceptual framework for residential

satisfaction. In I. Altman & C. W.

Werner (Eds). Home

Environments.(Pp.153-181).New

York: Plenum Press.

Bello, V. A. & Ajayi, C. A. (2010).

Occupants’ Satisfaction and Rent paid

for residential properties close to

waste dump sites in Nigeria. Journal

of Sustainable Development, 3(1), 98-

103. Clement, O. I., & Kayode, O. (2012),

Public housing provision and user

satisfaction in Ondo State, Nigeria.

British Journal of Art and Social

Sciences, 8(1), 103-111.

Ebiaride, E. C. & Umeh, O. L. (2015),

Factors influencing users’ satisfaction

in public and private estates in Lagos,

Nigeria. ATBU Journal of

Environmental Technology, 8(2), 30-

41.

Francescato, G., Weidemann, S. &

Anderson, J. R. (1989). Evaluating

the built Environment from the Users’ Point of View: An Attitudinal Model

of Residential Satisfaction. In W.F.E.

Preiser (Ed). Building Evaluation,

(pp.181-198) New York: Plenum

Press.

Galster, G., & Hesser, G. W. (1981).

Residential satisfaction:

compositional and contextual

correlates. Environment and

Behaviour, 13, 735–758.

Hui, E. C. M. & Yu, K. H. (2009).

Residential mobility and ageing population in Hong Kong, Habitat

International, 33, 10-14.

Ibem, E. O., & Amole, D. (2012),

Residential satisfaction in public core

housing in Abeokuta, Ogun State,

Nigeria. Social Indicators Research.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-

0111-z

Ibem, E. O., Opoko, A. P., Adeboye, A. B.,

& Amole, D. (2013), Performance

evaluation of residential buildings in public housing estates in Ogun State,

Nigeria: Users’ satisfaction

perspective. Frontiers of

Architectural Research (2013) 2, 178

– 190.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2013.

02.001

Ilesanmi, A. O. (2010), Post-occupancy

evaluation and residents’ satisfaction

with public housing in Lagos,

Nigeria. Journal of Building

Appraisal. 6(2), 153-169.http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/jba.201

0.20

Jeffres, L. W., & Dobos, J. (1995).

Separating Peoples' Satisfaction with

Life and Public Perception of the

Quality of Life in the Environment.

Social Indicators Research, 34, 181–

211.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0107919

6

Jiboye, A. D. (2009), Evaluating tenants’ satisfaction with public housing in

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10901-007-9082-9

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10901-007-9082-9

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0111-z

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0111-z

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2013.02.001


http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/jba.2010.20

http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/jba.2010.20

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01079196

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01079196


13

Lagos, Nigeria. Town Planning and

Architecture, 33(4); 239-247

Jiboye, A. D. (2012), Post-occupancy

evaluation of residential satisfaction

in Lagos, Nigeria: Feedback for

residential improvement. Frontiers of Architectural Research (2012) 1, 236

– 243.


08.001

Liias, R. (1998). Housing stock: the

facilities for future development.

Journal of Facilities, 16(11), 285-

294.

Liu, A.M.M. (1999) Residential

satisfaction in housing estates: A

Hong Kong perspective. Automation

in Construction, 8(4): 511 – 524. McCray, J. W., & Day, S. S. (1977),

Housing values, aspirations and

satisfaction as indicators of housing

needs. Home Economics, 5(4), 244-

254.

Menger, C. (2007). Principles of

Economics. Auburn, Alabama:

Ludwig von Mises Institute

Mohammed-Tamil, N., Che-Ani, A. I.,

Zain, M. F. M., Zaharim, A. & Jamil,

M. (2009). Owners’ satisfaction towards service charge collection of

high-rise residential in Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia. Proceedings of the 4th

IASME/WSEAS International

conference on energy and

environment. EE, 2009. Pp. 328-331.

Mohit, M. A., Ibrahim, M. & Rashid, Y. R.

(2010). Assessment of residential

satisfaction in newly designed public

low-cost housing in Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia. Habitat International,

34(1), 18-37, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2

009.04.002

Newman, S. J., & Duncan, G. J. (1979).

Residential problems, dissatisfaction,

and mobility. Journal of the American

Planning Association, 45, 154–166.

Olanrele, O. O. & Thontteh, E. O. (2014).

FM Service Delivery and quality

service measurement in public high-

rise residential buildings in Nigeria.

The use of SERVIQUAL and Satisfaction index. Journal of

Management and Sustainability, 4(3),

145-156. URL:

http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jms.v4n3p1

45 Accessed on July 28th, 2016

Parker, C., & Mathew, B. P. (2001).

Customer satisfaction: contrasting academic and consumers’

interpretations. Marketing

Intelligence and Planning. 19, 38-46.

Park, Y., Heo, P. & Rim, M. (2008).

Measurement of a Customer

Satisfaction Index for Improvement

of Mobile RFID Services in Korea.

ETRI Journal, 30 (5), 634-643.

Priemus, H. (1986). Housing as a social

adaptation process. A conceptual

scheme. Environment and Behaviour,

18, 109–131. Priemus, H. (1999). Social housing

management: concerns about

effectiveness and efficiency in the

Netherlands. Journal of Housing and

Built Environment. 18(3). 269-279.

Salleh, A. G. (2008): Neighbourhood

Factors in Private Low-cost Housing

in Malaysia. Habitat International 32,

485-493.

Sekaran, U. (2003), Research Methods for

Business, 4th Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.

Tawil, N.M., Che-Ani, A.I., Ramly, A.,

Daud, M.N., & Abdullah, N.A.G.

(2011). Service charge issues in

Malaysian high-rise residential

management: An analysis using a

fuzzy conjoint model. International

Journal of the Physical Sciences.

6(3), 441-447. DOI:

http://dx.doi.org/10.5897/IJPS10.293

Theodori, G.I., (2001), Examining the

effects of community satisfaction and attachment on individual well-being.

Rural Sociology. 4(66), 618 – 628.

Thontteh, E.O., & Olanrele, O.O. (n.d).

Customer-Driven Service Quality

Designs and Standards: A catalyst for

Effective Property Management.

Retrieved on 18/11/2016 from

www.unilag.edu.ng/opendoc.php?sno

=27350&doctype=doc&docname

Ukoha, O., & Beamish, J.O. (1997).

Assessment of resident’s satisfaction with public housing in Abuja,



http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2009.04.002

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2009.04.002



http://dx.doi.org/10.5897/IJPS10.293

http://www.unilag.edu.ng/opendoc.php?sno=27350&doctype=doc&docname

http://www.unilag.edu.ng/opendoc.php?sno=27350&doctype=doc&docname


14

Nigeria. Habitat International, 21(4),

445-460.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0197-

3975(97)00017-9

Waziri, A.G., Yusuf, N., & Salleh, A.G.

(2011), Residential satisfaction with private housing estates development

in Abuja. Alan Cipta. 6(2), 3-12.

Weidemann, S., & Anderson, J. R. (1985).

A conceptual framework for

residential satisfaction. In I. Altman

& C. H. Werner (Eds.), Home

Environments. New York: Plenum

Press.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0197-3975(97)00017-9

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0197-3975(97)00017-9


14

Spatial Growth in a Traditional Urban

Settlement of Ile-Ife, Nigeria: A Spatio-

Temporal Approach for Sustainable

Development

*Tunji Akinlotan; *Omotosho B. O. **Odegbenro F.J. and

***Okubena Modupeola R *Department of Urban and Regional Planning, The Oke-Ogun Polytechnic,

Saki Oyo State Nigeria **Center for Human Settlement and Urban Development (CHSUD),

Federal University of Technology, Minna ***Abraham Adesanya Polytechnic, Ijebu-Igbo Ogun State Nigeria

[email protected]

Abstract The desire for development of any human settlement is as important as the safety of its environment for both economic growth and development without which any growth cannot be

said to be sustainable. The paper analyzed the rate and trend of urban development in the last thirty years with a view to predicting the future rate and trend of development in Ile-Ife which

could serve as a veritable planning tool for a sustainable development. Primary and secondary data were used. The primary data was obtained, using GPS receiver to obtain the geographic

coordinates of strategic locations for the purpose of geo-referencing. The secondary dataset includes the use of Landsat imageries of 30m resolution, (1986, 1996 and 2006) and SPOT V

imagery of 5m resolution was used to map the land use land cover of the study area, the major roads, minor roads and major landmarks. The land use-land cover maps were created for different

identified land use classes as well as attribute tables for each spatial entity. GIS analyses in form of spatial and non-spatial queries were carried out to determine the rate, trend and magnitude of

urban development. In addition to this, the future rate and trend was also predicted using Cellular Automation within the GIS, the map output shows the trend of urban development. The results

showed that there is physical expansion of the Ile-Ife with a land consumption rate of 0.024 in the 1980’s, 0.026 in the 1990’s, 0.029 in 2000’s and an increased land absorption coefficient from

0.029 to 0.034 in the last three decades. This is evident in a positive change trend rate for the

major (0.8) and minor (0.4) urban centre while both disturbed forest (-0.8) and intensive agriculture (-0.4) has negative change trend rate. Besides, the trend of urban development to the

year 2020 was predicted with the major and minor urban centre still leading with a positive change trend of 1.7 and 0.9 respectively. The study concluded that with such an increase in land

consumption rate and land absorption in Ile-Ife, there are needs for development control, land readjustment and appropriate regulations in growth development, in order to maintain a balance

between preventing urban sprawl and providing land for sustainable housing development, without jeopardizing the future need.

Keywords: Urban growth pattern, Land-use/cover, GIS and remote sensing, Ile-Ife, Nigeria

Introduction Urbanization has been a universal and

important social and economic

phenomenon taking place all around the

world. This process, with no sign of

slowing down, could be the most powerful and visible anthropogenic force that has

brought about fundamental changes in land

cover and landscape pattern around the

world (Krishna, 2009). As a result, cities

and towns are growing faster than ever,

being a huge center for residence, industry,

trade and investment, communications,

infrastructure and social services among


Akinlotan; Omotosho,Odegbenro & Okubena Spatial Growth in a Traditional Urban Settlement of Ile-Ife, Nigeria: A Spatio-Temporal Approach for Sustainable

Development

15

others. However, this growth also triggers

numerous problems, environmental

pollution and degradation, increased

environmental hazards such as flooding,

population explosion, insufficient

sanitation and water supply, transport problems, poor housing conditions, rising

cost of living and wealth inequality, and

increase in crime, and loss of fertile

agricultural and wetlands are some of the

most prominent negative effects of rapid

urbanization and urban growth (UN-

Habitat 2011). If not managed properly,

these may intimidate sustainable

development of cities in the long run

(Dubovyk et. al. 2011).

Urban growth patterns are characteristics of spatial changes that take place in

metropolitan areas, the spatial

configuration and the dynamics of urban

growth are important topics of analysis in

the contemporary urban studies. Several

methods and techniques have been

developed and applied to quantify and

characterise the urban growth processes

and patterns. Traditionally, visual

interpretations of high resolution aerial

photographs were used to acquire comprehensive information for mapping of

urban areas. This mapping technique is

expensive and time consuming for the

estimation of urban growth. However, with

the gradual advancement and availability of

high temporal and spatial resolution remote

sensing imagery, the possibilities of

monitoring urban problems with a better

accuracy have become more promising.

Hence, accurate mapping of urban

environments and monitoring urban growth

is becoming increasingly important at the global level. Statement of Problem Rapid urban growth is normally accompanied by high population growth,

dramatic land use/cover change and social

transformations. Such rapid demographic

and environmental changes in the past

decades have resulted in environmental

degradation, haphazard physical

development, informal developments on

wetlands, and poor land use planning

practices (Jiboye 2005). Urban area is a

social, economic and natural compound

ecosystem with human activity at the

centre and with the speeding up of the

development of modern industry and

urbanization, as the core of regional system, the population of this area increase

quickly and urban size also grows.

Basically, according to Klosterman (1999),

planning and management of urban spaces

requires a comprehensive knowledge of the

development process and physical

dimension of cities. Most literature on the

analysis of the spatial characteristics of

cities growths highlight the temporal

dynamics, meanwhile Seto (2005) argue

that, most of these studies focus on cities in

the USA. Recently though, few studies have been conducted in Europe and some

Asian countries, however, less is studied in

relatively fast growing cities of Africa

using remote sensing and GIS techniques.

Thus it is worthwhile to expand the

application of GIS and remote sensing to

traditional fast growing African cities. This

study therefore filled this gap with a

detailed and comprehensive attempt,

adopted to evaluate growth rate in the study

area as it changes over time with a view to detecting the land consumption rate and

also make attempt to predict same and the

possible changes that may occur in the

future for its sustainability.

Study Area The study area, Ile-Ife as a developing city

has being experiencing the gradual

transformation that is taking it from been a

regional cultural centre, through a

secondary-urban-centre status, to a city displaying the hallmarks of progressive

urbanization and which, in recent times,

has being rapidly modernizing (Osasona et

al. 2006). Ile-Ife covers the whole of Ife

Central Local Government Area, few parts

of Ife North and most parts of Ife East

Local Government Area of Osun State,

Nigeria. Ile-Ife is located between latitude

70311N and 70341N of the equator and

between longitude 40301E and 40341E of

the prime meridian. The study area is bounded in the North by Atakumosa West


16

Local Government Area, in the North West

by the Ede South Local Government Area,

in the East by Atakumosa West Local

Government Area, in the West by Ife North

Local Government Area and in the South

by Ife North and South Local Government

Areas.

Fig. 1. Ile-Ife in the regional setting

Literature Review Human intervention and natural processes

are responsible for the constant change in

land cover all over the world. Land cover

change is determined by the interaction in

space and time between biophysical and

human influences. Land use and land cover

is dynamic in nature and is an important

factor for the comprehension of the

interaction and relationship of

anthropogenic activities with the

environment. Knowledge of the nature of land use and land cover change and their

configuration across spatio-temporal scales

is consequently indispensable for

sustainable environmental management and

development (Turner, 1994). Accordingly,

Long et.al (2008) stress that urban

landscapes are exemplified by the large

concentration of population, and fast

expansion of urban zones which lead to

alteration in the land use and land cover

configuration that consequently impact the

landscape. Remote sensing technology is

principally appropriate for mapping

environmental phenomena such as land use change and land cover as field-based

mapping is practically difficult. Remote

sensing observations provide continuous

monitoring across varied spatial and

temporal scales (Gibson, 2000). The

spatial, temporal and spectral

characteristics of the remote sensing data

are effectively used in land use and land

cover change mapping, hence helping in

decision making for sustainable land

resource management Berlanga-Robles,

(2002). Remote sensing and Geographic Information Science (GIS) technologies

have been utilised productively to detect

and quantify changes in the landscape and

the consequential environmental impacts.

Long (2008) observed that studies have

utilised remote sensed data to examine

urban land changes in modern times with


Development

17

conclusions showing varying degree of

different patterns of urban expansion and

development in which could be associated

with specific environmental factors. A

review show that Prakasam (2010) studied

the land use and land cover change in Kodaikanal region of Western Ghats in

Tamilnadu State of India and observed

changes during a span of 40 years from

1969 to 2008. Using Landsat satellite data

and performing supervised classification

techniques, he found that 70% of the region

was covered in forests in 1969 but has

decreased to 33% in 2008. The built-up

lands also increased from 3% to 21%

showing that the region is affected by rapid

urbanisation which is leading to adverse

environmental effects for the identified bio-diversity rich region of Kodaikanal.

Meanwhile, Krishna (2009) utilised

Landsat TM imageries to study the land use

change in Bombay (Mumbai), India, which

is the highest populated metropolis of India

and found a remarkable increase in built-up

land by 300% and a reduction in forests by

55%, due to the increasing pressure of

urban expansion to cope up with the

population rise. He carried out a study

using land use maps for 1925 and 1967 and compared them with Landsat imagery in

1994 to quantify a change spanning from

1925 to 1994.

Zubair (2006) utilised remote sensing and

GIS technologies to detect the land use and

land cover changes in Ilorin, Nigeria from

1972 to 2001 through Landsat TM images

of 1972, 1986, and 2001, using Maximum

likelihood algorithm of supervised

classification method to delineate five land

use and land cover classes for the study, namely: farmland, wasteland, forest, built-

up and water-bodies from the imageries.

He concluded that there is likely going to

be denseness brought by compactness in

Ilorin in the very near future.

Many scientists, resource managers, and

planners agree that, the future development

and management of urban areas entail

comprehensive knowledge about the on-

going processes and patterns. As a result,

understanding the urban growth patterns, dynamic processes, and their relationships

and interactions is a key objective in the

contemporary urban studies as quoted by

Long (2008). Remote sensing is helpful

tool to better understand the spatiotemporal

trends of urbanization and monitor the

spatial pattern of urban landscape compared to traditional socioeconomic

indicators such as population growth,

employment shifts. However, Zubair

(2006) opined the availability of multi-

temporal data is important to analyse the

dynamics of land cover change over time

and space.

Methodology The data used for this work were obtained

from both primary and secondary sources.

The primary data were collected through

field observation with the use of GPS

receiver to collect co-ordinates of places and landmarks in the study area which was

integrated into the GIS environment for the

user requirement survey and analysis. The

study period covered thirty (30) years from

1983 – 2013 and the satellite imageries

over the study area were obtained and

analysed. The method of processing and

analysis was a multi-stage approach. The

first stage involved determining the trend

and pattern (land use/land cover) of urban

development in Ile-Ife between 1983 and 2013. The data used were mainly the

Landsat imageries for different time

periods and the road map of Ile-Ife,

creating 3 epochs of ten years interval

(1983-1992, 1993-2002, and 2003-2013).

The second stage entailed the use of

processed data from the first to forecast the

trend of change in the land use for 2020.

Markov Chain and Cellular Automata

Analysis were used for predicting the

change. This was achieved by developing a transition probability matrix of land use

change in between epochs, which showed

the nature of change and also served as the

basis for projecting to a later time period of

2020 .The transition probability may be

accurate on a per category basis, but there

is no knowledge of the spatial distribution

of occurrences within each land use

category. Hence, Cellular Automata (CA)


18

was used to add spatial character to the

model.


Land Use-Land Cover Distribution The static land use-land cover distribution for each study year as derived from the

maps are presented in the table below:

The figures presented above represents the

static area of each land use-land cover

category using Formecu Classification

Scheme for each study year. Intensive

Agricultural Land in the years between

1983 and 1992 occupies the most class

with 70% of the total classes. This may be

due to the fact that the town is known for

its credibility in agricultural activities

where farming (crop cultivation) seems to form the basis for living i.e. Ife can be

described as an agrarian town (Jiboye

2005). The disturbed forest can be said to

be moderate as it was occupying about

25% of the total land area. This is

connected to the fact that the town (Ile-Ife)

was made to be the host community to the

University of Ife which consumed a vast expanse of land for its construction

activities in which a lot of thick forest as at

the eighties were already been cut down to

allow for the construction of its physical

structures. For the built up areas, the major

urban center; Ile-Ife made 3% of the total

land coverage while minor urban center

(which was at then purely of rural

characteristics) was 1% this also could be

attributed to the development that the siting

of the university has brought on the host

town of Ile-Ife. Water body and Rock Out crop are of least coverage of 0.37% and

0.1% respectively.

Table 1. Land Use-Land Cover Distributions (1983-1992, 1993-2002, and 2003-2013)

1983-1992 1993-2002 2003-2013

Area

(Ha.) Area

(%) Area

(Ha.) Area

(%) Area

(Ha.) Area

(%)

Dam & Water Bodies 84.80 0.1 47.6 0.04 44.4 0.04

Disturbed Forest 24,908.50 25 15,712 16 7,275.2 8

Intensive Agric. Land 68,828.80 70 74,483.6 75 72,264.4 71

Major Urban 3,154.80 3 6,001.6 6 13,374.0 14

Minor Urban 1,327.90 1 2,062.8 2 5,332.0 6

Rock Outcrop 368.00 0.37 365.2 0.37 382.8 0.38

Total 98,672.80 100 98,672.80 100 98,672.80 100

Between 1993 and 2002, intensive

agricultural area still maintained its highest

class with 75% while built up area i.e. the

major urban centre claimed a percentage of 6%. Disturbed forest has percentage

coverage of 16%. The minor urban center,

rock crop out has 2%, 0.37% respectively.

While Dam and Water bodies take up the

least percentage of 0.04% of the total class.

In essence, the town experienced a gradual

development in which the size of the thick

forest was cut down for more agricultural

functions most especially cropping. This also made room for urban expansion

especially given the percentage gain of

urban land use of the period.


Development

19

Figure 2. Land Use-Land Cover Map of Ile-Ife between 1983 and 1992


In epoch 2003-2013, Disturbed Forest

covered 8% and Intensive Agriculture

covers 71% compared to that of 1993-2002

which is 16% and 75% respectively. While

Major Urban and Minor Urban is 14% and

6% as compared to the 6% and 2%

respectively between 1993 and 2002, (see

fig. 3). The difference in rate of

development during this period can be

described has more than twice which

caused drastic reduction that was

experienced in the disturbed forest and


20

intensive agriculture while the major and

minor urban centers picked up fast. This

could largely be attributed to the vast

clearance of bushes or forest for

construction activities like the construction

of the Ilesa/Ibadan by pass, which has made the area around the road to be prone

to development because it opened up

Ede/Ibadan Road which host lots of

commercial activities to spring up along

the route. This is evident in activity sites

like filling stations, road safety office,

trailer parks, and food centers, even the

presence of Oduduwa University, Foreign

Links College and OAU Distance Learning

Centre.

Also along Ilesa Road in the town, due to

the influence of OAUTHC, there has been

a lot of private residential buildings. Even

within the OAU community, this vast

development is evident in the construction

of the link road from the OAU Main Campus to OAUTHC alongside the

construction of OAUTHC Phase III. The

pattern of land use and land cover

distribution between 2003 and 2013 is

different from other previous years as

intensive farm land still occupies a major

part of the total land but there exist a

decrease by half in the disturbed forest.

Still, water body maintains the least

position in the classes whilst built-up

occupies 20% of the total class.


Land Consumption Rate and

Absorption Coefficient It should be noted here that the closest

year’s population available for each study

epoch as shown above were used in

generating both the Land Consumption

Rates and the Land Absorption

Coefficients as given above. In essence,

considering Ile-Ife in a regional context,

the difference in the population of the

minor built up areas and major built up

area is large and according to ranking, it can be said that the effect of this is evident

in their spatial representation of these land

uses. Considering the difference in

population figure of Ile-Ife over time and

the structure of development economically,

politically and socially, the growth trend of

the city is evident in its land consumption

rate and absorption coefficient i.e. measure of change in consumption of new urban

land by each unit increase in urban

population and measure of compactness

which indicates a progressive spatial

expansion of a city that is on the

increase.


Development

21

Table 2. Land Consumption Rate and Absorption Coefficient

Year Land Consumption

Rate

Year Land Absorption

Coefficient

1980’s 0.024 1983-1992/1993-2002 0.034

1990’s 0.026 1993-2002/2003-2013 0.029

2000’s 0.029

Table 3. Population figure of Ile-Ife in the 1980’s, 1990’s and 2000’s

Year Population figure Source

1984 185,975 Encyclopedia Americana 1984

1991 289,500 National Population Council 1991

2006 644,373 National Population Council 2006

Land Use-Land Cover Change:

Trend, Rate and Magnitude There seems to be a negative change i.e. a

reduction in disturbed forest and a positive

change in intensive agriculture between

1983-1992 and 1993-2002. This can be

said to be largely due to increase development in the city during these

epochs, there was more influx of people

attributed to better job opportunity in OAU

and OAUTHC but there was a general

hardship imposed by the Nigerian Military

Government in the country which made

people to use subsistence farming to

complement their means of livelihood.

During this period a lot of civil servants

had a farm to sustain their family alongside

their job. Teachers are well known for their

strike action during this period on the

government owing them their wages.

The period between 1993-2002 and 2003-

2013 witnessed a drop in the rate of

intensive agriculture practice.

Table 4. Land Use-Land Cover Change: Trend, Rate and Magnitude

Trend of Change Annual Rate

of Change 1980’s and 1990’s 1990’s and 2000’s

Area

(Ha.) Percent

age

Change

Area

(Ha.) Percent

age

Change

80’s –

90’s

90’s -

2000’s

Dam and Water Bodies

-37.2 -0.06 -3.2 0 44.4 0

Disturbed Forest -9196.0 -9 -8436.8 -8 7,275.2 -0.8

Intensive Agric. Land 5654.8 6 -2219 -4 72,264.4 -0.4

Major Urban 2846.8 3 7372.4 8 13,374.0 0.8

Minor Urban 734.9 1 3269.2 4 5,332.0 0.4

Rock Outcrop -2.8 0 17.6 0.01 382.8 0.001

Transition Probability Matrix The transition probability matrix records the probability that each land cover

category will change to the other category.

This matrix is produced by the

multiplication of each column in the

transition probability matrix be the number

of cells of corresponding land use in the

later image.

For the 5 by 5 matrix table presented below, the rows represent the older land

cover categories and the column represents

the newer categories. Although this matrix


22

can be used as a direct input for

specification of the prior probabilities in

maximum likelihood classification of the

remotely sensed imagery, it was however

used in predicting land use land cover of

2020.

Row categories represent land use-land

cover classes in 2013 whilst column

categories represent 2020 classes. As seen

from the table, disturbed forest has 0.8360

of remaining disturbed forest while it has a

0.8878 of changing to intensive agricultural land in 2020. This therefore shows an

undesirable change (reduction) in forest,

with a probability of change which is much

higher than stability. Intensive agricultural

land during this period will change to

major urban area with a probability of

0.1344; there are tendencies of expansion

of the town at the edge of major urban area cutting down the intensive agricultural

lands. Minor urban area has high

tendencies of becoming a major urban area

with a probability of 0.6871 which signifies

a lot of growth in the surrounding suburban

areas or minor urban areas. Major urban

land also has a probability 0.4021 to

remain as built-up land in 2020 which

signifies stability.

Table 5. Transitional Probability table derived from the land use-land cover map

of 1983 and 2013

Classes Dam Disturbed

Forest

Intensive

agric.

land

Major

Urban

Minor

Urban

Rock

Outcrop

Dam 0.6074 0.0000 0.0000 0.3926 0.0000 0.0000

Disturbed

forest

0.0000 0.8360 0.8878 0.0000 0.0296 0.0000

Intensive

Agricultural

land

0.0001 0.0030 0.0621 0.1344 0.0469 0.0001

Major urban 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.4021 0.0000 0.0000

Minor urban 0.0000 0.0000 0.0038 0.6871 0.3092 0.0000

Rock outcrop 0.0000 0.0000 0.0318 0.1936 0.0000 0.7745

Land Use-Land Cover Projection

For 2020 The Table 6 shows the statistic of land use-

land cover projection for 2020. Comparing

the percentage representations, there exist

similarities in the observed distribution

particularly like it has been expected. For

the Dam reduced with a difference of

0.02%. The intensive agriculture,

experienced a little change of just 1%,

suggesting no growth in the intensive

farming with a lot of development in the

major and minor urban, this is also evident

in the transition probability matrix.

Agriculture maintains the highest position

in the class whilst dam retains its least

position. Major Urban takes up the next

position, followed by Minor Urban and

finally, Disturbed Forest and Rock-out

Crop. There is no likelihood that there will be compactness in Ile-Ife by 2020 but

instead the town continues to expand until

the major and minor urban areas get to

their expansion limit before compactness

sets in, which by then might be due to

crowdedness because of the rate at which

influx of people to the town is increasing

Table 6. Projected land use-land cover for 2020

Land Use Land

Cover Classes

Dam Disturbe

d Forest

Intensive

Agriculture

Major

Urban

Minor

Urban

Rock

Out

Crop

Area in

Hectares

24.4 3,338.0 69,888.4 16,864 8,370.4 187.6


Development

23

Area In

Percentage

0.02 3 70 17 9 0.98

Figure 5. Projected Land use-Land Cover of Ile-Ife by 2020

Conclusion The paper demonstrates the ability of GIS and Remote Sensing in capturing spatial-

temporal data. Attempt was made to

capture as accurate as possible six land use

land cover classes as they change through

time. The six classes were distinctly

produced for each study year but with more

emphasis on major urban land as it is a

combination of anthropogenic activities

that make up this class; and indeed, it is

one that affects the other classes. In

achieving this, Land Consumption Rate and Land Absorption Coefficient were

introduced into the work to determine the

compactness form of development in the

study area. It was observed that change by

2020 will follow the trend in 2003/2013

accompanied by continuous increase in city

expansion following the past and present

trend. The work has revealed the direction

and trend of growth for the city, which will

serve as a viable prospect for the town

planners to ensure adequate development

control measures, and become a major input in the development of a working

master plan for the city. Measures to curb

abrupt encroachments into the green areas

(intensive agriculture and disturbed forest)

should be put in place, in order to maintain

a balance between preventing sprawl and

providing sufficient land for housing

development.

References Berlanga-Robles, C., and Ruiz-Luna,

A.,(2002): Land Use Mapping and

Change Detection in Coastal Zone of

Northwest Mexico using Remote Sensing Techniques: Journal of

Coastal Research, 18(3), p.514 –522:

Available from

http://www.jstor.org/stable/4299098

[Accessed 03/09/2010]

Dubovyk, O., Sliuzas, R., and Flacke, J.

(2011). Spatio-temporal analysis of

ISs development: A case study of

Istanbul, Turkey. ISPRS Journal of

Photogrammetry and Remote sensing,

66 (2), 234-246

Gibson, P., and Power, C., (2000): Introductory Remote Sensing: Digital

Image Processing and Applications,

Routledge, p. 92 – 112

Jiboye A. P. (2005) Globalization and the

Urban Growth Process in Nigeria In:

Fadare et.al editors. Globalization,

Culture and Nigerian Built

Environment. Faculty of

Environmental Design and

Management, OAU, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.

2, 342 – 345.


24

Klosterman, Richard (1999). “The What if?

Collaborative Planning Support

System.” Environment and Planning,

B: Planning and Design. 26(1999):

393-408

Krishna V.B. (2009) Determinants of the Patterns of Settlements in the

Province of Tarlac. U. P. School of

Urban and Regional Planning.

Long, H., Wu, X., Wang, W., and Dong,

G., (2008): Analysis of Urban-Rural

Land Use Change during 1995-2006

and its Policy Dimensional Driving

Forces in Chongqing, China, Sensors

2008(8) Available from

http://www.mdpi.com/1424-

8220/8/2/681/pdf [Accessed

03/09/2010] Longley, P., Donnay, J., Barnsley, M.,

(eds.) 2001; RemoteSensing and

Urban Analysis Taylor and Francis,

London, p.117

Osasona, C. O. and Hyland, A. D. C.

(2006). Colonial Architecture in Ile-

Ife, Nigeria.

Osasona, Lee O. Cordelia O. Ogunshakin

and David A. Jiboye (2009). Ile-Ife:

“A Cultural Phenomenon in the

Throes of Transformation.” The African Inner City, African

Perspectives 2009.

Prakasam, C. (2010): Land use and land

cover change detection through

remote sensing approach: A case

study of Kodaikanal Taluk,

Tamilnadu. International Journal of

Geomatics and Geosciences, 2010,

Vol. 1, No. 2, p 150-158: Available

from

ipublishing.co.in/jggsvol1no12010/EI

JGGS1015.pdf [Accessed

03/09/2010] Seto K. C., Fragkias M. (2005).

Quantifying spatiotemporal patterns

of urban land-use in four cities of

China with time series landscape

metrics. Landscape Ecology

20(7):871-888

Turner, B.L. II and B.L. Meyer,

(1994):"Global Land Use and Land

Cover Change: An Overview." In

Changes in Land Use and Land

Cover: A Global Perspective, eds.

W.B. Meyer and B.L. Turner II, 3-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

UN-Habitat. (2011). World Population

Prospects: The 2008 revision

methodology of the United Nations

population estimates and projections.

New York

Zubair, A., (2006): Change Detection in

Land Use and Land Cover using

Remote Sensing Data and GIS: A

Case Study of Ilorin and its Environs in Kwara State: GIS Development

Journal: Available from

http://www.gisdevelopment.net/thesis

/OpeyemiZubair_ThesisPDF.pdf

[Accessed 03/09/2010]

http://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/8/2/681/pdf

http://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/8/2/681/pdf


25

Mainstreaming Information Communication

Technology (ICT) in Real Estate Practice in

Nigeria: Ms Excel for Valuation and

Investment Advice

Olatunji I.A., Udoekanem, N.B., Ojetunde, I. &Kuma, S.S. Dept of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna.

[email protected]

Abstract Recent study revealed that firms in Minna are not inclined to using MS Excel for Valuation

and investment advice. A purposive case study of recent lease of Obasanjo Shopping Mall

by Niger State Development Company, (NSDC) was undertaken to demonstrate and

illustrate the use of MS Excel for the valuation of freehold and leasehold interests. Marshal’s

equated yield /DCF hybrid valuation model was adopted on MS Excel worksheet platform to

carry out the valuation using data obtained from the NSDC and prospective leaseholders as

well as property market. Two growth factor charts were constructed for varied and regular

review patterns in MS Excel Spreadsheet based on equated yield 13%, with 2% mark-up on

gilts, all risks yield 6.5% and other pertinent valuation data. Intelligent variations and

reviews of rents, made possible in MS Excel, coupled with other valuation parameters were applied to arrive at higher capital values of N148.20Million and N87.1Million respectively

for the NSDC and the prospective Leaseholder as against N102Million and N66.40Million

from regular review pattern. The result formed the basis of an agreement under which the

30-year lease of the commercial property was secured. The conclusion is that MS Excel is a

versatile tool for accurate Valuation and investment advice and it is recommended that

valuers should seek to be trained and retrained to use various versions available.

Keywords: Real Estate Practice, MS Excel, Valuation, Spreadsheet, Equated yield.

Introduction Since Kakulu (2003), little had been added

to emphasize the critical nature and

relevance of Information Communication

Technology, ICT to real estate practice in Nigeria. This fact was re-established and

accentuated by the 1st and 2nd Train-the-

Trainer Workshops organized by NIESV

Learning Centre in collaboration with

ESVARBON in Port Harcourt and Minna

in 2014 and 2015 respectively. Valuation

and Investment Appraisal is an area of

Estate Surveying and Valuation practice

that could be greatly facilitated and

enhanced through the use of ICT.

Academics and Practitioners in real estate

are an integral part of the growing global

users of special computer software

applications and programmes including

Word perfect, Excel, Powerpoint and

others. This trend is obvious, as a visitor to

these offices would effortlessly observe hi-

tech computers conspicuously displayed

from simple ones to sophisticated

hardware. It can be reasonably inferred that estate firms are equipped with ICT

assistive tools for 21st century real estate

practice.

As clients and users of ESV services are

becoming increasingly sophisticated,


Olatunji, Udoekanem, Ojetunde &Kuma, Mainstreaming Information Communication Technology (ICT) in Real Estate Practice in Nigeria: Ms Excel for

Valuation and Investment Advice

26

demanding more complex professional

advices, it is incumbent on ESVs to break

new grounds in service delivery. Accuracy

and timely supply of valuation advice are

common demands by banks and financial

institutions, governments or non-government agencies. (Babawale and

Omirin,2012; Charles-Afolabi and

Olatunji, 2016). Therefore, timelines,

accuracy, reliability and dependability

guaranteed by the use of modern

technologies are good reasons why the

study will be of benefits to both the

providers and users of valuation services

alike.

ICT in property valuation Jenkins (2002) had echoed a rhetoric

question: in what form would the valuation

profession survive in the 21st century? Same question was earlier posed by

Appraisal Institute (2001). These questions

are germane because new software

packages that purport to do valuation and

Appraisals have been, and are being

developed.

These software packages do not

sufficiently address emerging needs and the

complex legal relationships involved in the

valuation of property rights. It is therefore important for Valuers to be trained on how

to realign valuation with the needs of

clients, with dexterity and flexibility as

French (2008) has proposed. Aluko (2010)

asserts quite rightly that valuation should

be so fashioned towards the clients’

specific needs. Several desktop based

applications are available. These include

MS Word for word processing useful for

report writing and other documentations,

MS Powerpoint for presentation. Others are

PDF for protection and preservation of data

integrity and MS-Excel – for quantitative

and statistical analysis.

Surveyors who wish to be competitive in

the global practice will find out that in

particular, MS-Excel package is a software

application without which any practice will

find it difficult if not impossible to survive

in the 21st Century.

Strengths and Weaknesses of ICT

Use ICT has its strengths and weaknesses. The

weaknesses include cyber security

challenges, frustration from data loss, data

theft, identity theft, password loss or

leakage, hacking and Data storage

challenges (Barnat, 1994). The general

global concerns on Cyber Security brought

up some home truths about the dangers

inherent in the use of cyber space. All these

are dangers associated with ICT either in

Offline or Online usages. These

weaknesses notwithstanding, the global relevance and utility of ICT use has not

been diminished in any significant sense as

more and more uses are being made of it.

So, Bender (1994) had asserted that

generally the world must rely on

Technology to solve environmental

problems. One of such possibilities is in

Valuation.

MsEXCEL in Real Estate

Education and Practice First among the prime computer

applications is the MS Excel which offers a means of quantitative analysis as well as

Statistical Analysis in spreadsheet formats.

By these two features, MS Excel becomes

an indispensable working tool for

Valuation and Investment Appraisal in

spreadsheet format as demonstrated by

French (2008, 2013 and 2015). Olatunji

(2010) also applied the worksheet format to

establish that medium-term property rights

have values that can be assessed. There are

many new software packages that perform

some Valuation functions; Present Value of N1 (PV), Amount of N1 (A), Years

Purchase (YP) calculations are some of

these functions; Parry’s Valuation Table

containing millions of calculations is now

available in soft form with Equated Yield,

IRR and other capabilities. It was noted by

Davidson (1982), that the use of valuation

tables, (and by extension valuation

software applications) is not to replace the

work of the Valuer; rather it is to save the

valuer’s time from distraction by intricate mathematical problems.


27

Historical Perspectives in

Valuation Valuation Practice had evolved over the

years since the first formal Valuation

exercise in 1695 precisely 322 years ago as

noted by Scarret(2008), when an Act of

Parliament in the United Kingdom (UK)

stipulated a rental multiplier as basis of

valuation for compensation. On that

occasion, freehold and leasehold property

rights were affected by compulsory

demolition of properties for inland

navigation channels. Since then, valuation

practice had evolved through traditional or conventional approaches to contemporary

approaches.

The criticisms of conventional approaches

(term and reversion, layer-hardcore) are

enumerated by Ogunba (2013), from Baum

and Crossby (1995). Ogunba, (2013), in

summary identified ten criticisms of the

conventional valuation approaches. Only

one of the identified criticisms was

addressed sufficiently by the use of Sinking Fund (SF), Double Sinking Fund, Annual

Equivalent (AE) approaches.

Three main results emanating from the

criticisms are as follows:

Introduction of explicit growth

derivable from 3 formulae to replace

implicit growth.

Introduction of review patterns of

predetermined paths of rent gearing;

and

All risks yield is upstaged by Equated

yield.

In the opinion of Ogunba(2013) the

Discounted Cash Flow DCF-based

contemporary methods conjoined with

Equated Yield (Marshall’s) and other

growth explicit models fully addressed the

ten criticisms and are accordingly

recommended for use in general practice in

Nigeria and other Commonwealth

countries. This paper demonstrates the use of MS Excel in conducting Valuation of

property interests (freehold and leasehold,

two legal estates recognized by law), using

the contemporary Growth Explicit Model.

It will use Marshall’s Equated Yield

Hybrid with Discounted Cash-Flow (DCF)

format as well as Conventional formats

with simple illustration obtained from a

case study in Minna.

The illustration is selected for it contains

substantial unexpired term. (Very short

leases of one to two years which are proved

by Olatunji (2010) to be overwhelmingly

popular in Minna and its environs, amount

to little more than nominal sums and may

not portray sufficiently the features that the

illustration seeks to demonstrate).

The Problem A recent study by Olatunji and Ajayi

(2017) suggests that ESVs are not inclined

to applying the capabilities of these special

computer software applications and

programmes, in particular Microsoft Excel,

to solve technical problems involving

valuation and investment appraisals, in spite of the widely acknowledged fact that

the age of ICT has brought into the

business world, new and better techniques

of performing professional tasks. The need

by NSDC to lease out Obasanjo complex

on mutually agreeable terms provided the

impulse for valuation and investment

appraisal with accuracy, speed and

efficiency.

The aim of this study is to demonstrate the

use of computer application of Microsoft excel for valuation and pre-investment

appraisal. The main objective set up to

address the aim is to demonstrate through a

case study of Obasanjo Shopping Mall, the

use of Excel Computer program and

application for the valuation and

Investment appraisal of Obasanjo Shopping

Mall in Minna. Conclusion and

recommendations will be drawn for

training, retraining and popularizing the

use ICT for valuation and investment appraisal.

Research Design The research was designed to run in two consecutive stages coupled together to



28

illustrate the use of MS Excel for valuation.

The ascertainment stage, split into two

objectives to ascertain the form,

composition, and relevance of ICT

hardwares acquired by ESVs and establish

the frequency and level of use of these expensive equipments, was carried out by

Olatunji (2017) as a prior research work.

This paper constitutes the demonstration

stage which entails the use of transaction

data from the lease of Obasanjo

Commercial Complex in Minna as an

illustration of the application of Microsoft

Excel, to solve a specific ESV practice

problem that is, Valuation and Investment

advice.

Research Methodology The study is based on primary and

secondary data with special emphasis on

the analysis of a specific case study to

illustrate the application of Microsoft Excel

in Valuation. Primary data was obtained

from ESV firms in Minna. Questionnaires

were purposively administered on all estate

firms operating in the study area; 15 firms responded. A special but brief interview-

enquiry was conducted on Niger State

Development Company and the private

estate firm involved in the Valuation of

Obasanjo Shopping Complex to obtain

basic leasing terms and conditions and

valuation details. The bulk of data was

presented in tables; bar charts and graphs

were also used for analysis and

interpretation of field data.

Data Presentation and Analyses Applied valuation requires an intelligent

deployment of valuation theories,

principles and concepts to solve real time problems, Olatunji (n.d.). Real time

business decisions are subject to privacy

and confidentiality, but the identities of the

firms that supplied information could not

be revealed without compromising their

privacies. They are however treated with

serial identities, and this is considered

sufficient for the purpose of analysis of

vital facts and data supplied by them.

The Case Study Over the years of its existence as a State

since 1976, Niger State Government had acquired vast landed properties, in various

locations. In particular, choice locations

were acquired for commercial

developments, among which is Obasanjo

Commercial Complex.

Figure 1. Obasanjo Shopping Complex, Minna

Source: Google-enabled locational map, 2015


29

The site, seen in Fig.1 was originally used,

up till 1996, as Kasuwan Dare but was

transformed to a complex comprising 49

lock-up shops, directly run by Niger State

Urban Development Board from 1998.

However, subsequent authorities took the bold step to set up the Niger State

Development Company,(NSDC) with a

mandate to develop and manage all landed

properties in and outside the State. As part

of NSDC strategic management plan,

Obasanjo Complex was to be leased to a

private firm at a rent to be negotiated

around N5,000,000 p.a. Market evidence

supports the expectation of N7,500,000 p.a.

Thus emerged an Investment Valuation

Appraisal scenario to determine the values

of the interests of both prospective lessee and lessor and offer them advice

accordingly.

The central management strategy was to

free the State Government of the burden of

direct property management, by allowing a

nominated private Estate Firm to handle

that aspect. As a guide the Federal

Government bonds was adopted as reliable

basis of investment comparison. Through a

tripartite, partnership, the role of the Valuer is to advise the parties as to the value of

their respective interests regarding the

proposed scenarios. It was adjudged to be a

valuation problem involving NSDC as

Freeholder, and the Private Estate Firm as

prospective Leaseholder. At stake was a

lease term of 30years in favour of the

Estate Firm under specified lease

agreement.

The Valuation Variables The variables in the valuation process must

be clearly understood and analyzed. In this

case study, the Valuer was in a position to

determine the all-risks yield (k) from

property market experience and Analysis of

Sales (ANOSA). Hence, rather than mere

rental forecasts, it was possible to derive

market-driven rental growth rate, (g). The

leaseholder-investor in this case was

contented with a margin of 2% above the

Federal Government Bonds. It was

reasonable to consider a rental review pattern, attractive to both parties since rent

review is a permanent feature of the

commercial property market. Two options

were put forward : constant review and

variable reviews with a predetermined path

of rent gearing.

The objective of valuation was to

determine the value of incentives granted

to the leaseholder under a long term

leasehold agreement contracted for an unexpired term of 30 years. From Baum

and Crosby (1995), Ajayi(1998),

Ogunba(2013), all following on Marshal

(1986), the implied growth rate, g, is

obtainable from any of the three formulae:

Theoretically, if the valuer is able to obtain

or derive e, k and t, he could deduce the

rate of growth associated with rental

income from any of equations 1 to 3. From

this, the table of implied growths was

constructed as in Table 1. The Microsoft

Excel Worksheet or Kingsoft excel worksheets are very versatile platforms to

perform these calculations.

g = {(e-k)*[((1+e)^t-1)/e]+1}^1/t - 1

……….1

Where the variables are defined as:

e equated yield deduced from gilt+2per cent risk premium,

k

all risks yield capitalization rate obtained from comparables or ANOSA

t rent review pattern/interval

g implied growth

A Growth Factor

OR (1+g)^t Equals YP perp @ k - YPt yrs @ e ………..2



30

YP perp @ k X PVt yrs @ e

OR k =

e-(ASF@e){(1+g)^t-1}

………..3

The Inputting Procedure An excel worksheet is opened showing its

network of rows and columns to be

designated as Sheet 1, for easy reference. In column 1 are the successive years of the

lease term, designated as n, which in this

case runs from 1 to 30 years, presented in

30 rows. To obtain e, data on gilt edged

securities within the economy is needed. In

Nigeria, the FG bonds and CBN Treasury

Bills are often taken as the perfect risk-free

yields, equivalent to a gilt, with a current

rate of about 11.0% for 2018 maturing

bonds, in Column 2. All other investment

platforms in Nigeria can only have higher

rates commensurate with their comparative risk contents. A mark-up of 2% in Column

3 is adopted for the property type in this

case study. The all risks yield, k, is the

market capitalization rate obtained from

recent transaction analysis of sales,

ANOSA. Taking due cognizance of

valuation rules respecting comparables, k

was found to be 6.5% p.a. A rent review

pattern must be inferred, in Column 6, if

not available. Rental evidence in Minna

point to 2 to 3 years and 4- 5 years of

gearing for residential and commercial

properties respectively. Five yearly interval

is adopted here and this is well supported

in practice and by the property market. The

growth rate implied within this set-up is derived from Marshall’s DCF/Equated

Yield hybrid, and it produces a growth

factor; both are presented respectively in

columns 11 and 12.

Table 1 is the shortened growth factor table

constructed on the basis of constant rent

reviews in 5 yearly intervals. This option is

in alignment with the property market,

consistent with practice experiences in

Minna and acceptable to the parties in this

Case study. However it is not by any means the only option. Varying and variable

review patterns are not uncommon

.

TABLE 1: Table Of Implied Growth And Growth Factor With Regular/Constant Review Pattern

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12.

N Gilt Mp E K T e-k (1+e)^t

(((1+e)^t)-

1)/e) 1/t G

Growth

factor,

A

1-5 0.11 0.02 0.13 0.065 5 0.065 1.842435 7.480271 0.2 0.072833 1.072833

6-10 0.11 0.02 0.13 0.065 5 0.065 1.842435 7.480271 0.2 0.072833 1.524729

11-

15 0.11 0.02 0.13 0.065 5 0.065 1.842435 7.480271 0.2 0.072833 2.166972

16-

20 0.11 0.02 0.13 0.065 5 0.065 1.842435 7.480271 0.2 0.072833 3.079738

21-

25 0.12 0.02 0.14 0.065 5 0.075 1.925415 7.610104 0.2 0.083858 5.42522

26-

30 0.125 0.02 0.145 0.065 5 0.08 1.968011 7.675935 0.2 0.089355 9.255545

Source: Author, 2015

To capture this possibilities, a table of

Varying rent review pattern is constructed.

(Table 2). The growth factor is based on

the Amount of N1 table,

A = (1+g)n,

where g is the implied growth rate and n is

the number of years of growth.


31

By mutual agreement an alternative plan of

growth was proposed in a step-wise format:

5-yearly rent review for the first 10 years;

3-yearly rent review for the next 10years

and 2-yearly rent review for the last 10

years. This is amply reflected in column 6

of Table

2.

TABLE 2: Implied Growth And Growth Factor With Varied Review Patterns

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12.

N Gilt

Margi

n E K T e-k (1+e)^t

(((1+e)^t

) -1)/e) 1/t G

Growth

factor

A=(1+g)^

n

1 0.11 0.02 0.13

0.06

5 5

0.06

5

1.84243

5

7.48027

1 0.2

0.07283

3 1.072833

1

2 0.11 0.02 0.13

0.06

5 3

0.06

5

1.44289

7 4.4069

0.33333

3

0.06895

2 2.225874

1

4 0.11 0.02 0.13

0.06

5 3

0.06

5

1.44289

7 4.4069

0.33333

3

0.06895

2 2.543416

1

5 0.11 0.02 0.13

0.06

5 3

0.06

5

1.44289

7 4.4069

0.33333

3

0.06895

2 2.718791

1

8 0.11 0.02 0.13

0.06

5 3

0.06

5

1.44289

7 4.4069

0.33333

3

0.06895

2 3.320863

1

9 0.11 0.02 0.13

0.06

5 3

0.06

5

1.44289

7 4.4069

0.33333

3

0.06895

2 3.549845

2

0 0.12 0.02 0.14

0.06

5 1

0.07

5 1.2996 3.14 0.5

0.07726

5 4.430487

2

1 0.12 0.02 0.14

0.06

5 2

0.07

5 1.2996 3.14 0.5

0.07726

5 4.772809

2

2 0.12 0.02 0.14

0.06

5 2

0.07

5 1.2996 3.14 0.5

0.07726

5 5.14158

2

3 0.12 0.02 0.14

0.06

5 2

0.07

5 1.2996 3.14 0.5

0.07726

5 5.538844

2

4 0.12 0.02 0.14

0.06

5 2

0.07

5 1.2996 3.14 0.5

0.07726

5 5.966804

2

5

0.12

5 0.02

0.14

5

0.06

5 2 0.08

1.31102

5 3.145 0.5

0.08240

5 7.240058

2

6

0.12

5 0.02

0.14

5

0.06

5 2 0.08

1.31102

5 3.145 0.5

0.08240

5 7.836673

2

7

0.12

5 0.02

0.14

5

0.06

5 2 0.08

1.31102

5 3.145 0.5

0.08240

5 8.482452

2

8

0.12

5 0.02

0.14

5

0.06

5 2 0.08

1.31102

5 3.145 0.5

0.08240

5 9.181446

2

9

0.12

5 0.02

0.14

5

0.06

5 2 0.08

1.31102

5 3.145 0.5

0.08240

5 9.938041

3

0

0.12

5 0.02

0.14

5

0.06

5 2 0.08

1.31102

5 3.145 0.5

0.08240

5 10.75698

Source: Author, 2015 **Shortened to reflect varying pattern

Results and Discussions Freehold Interest under Constant

Rent Review Patterns The value of the Freehold interest under a regular 5-yearly review pattern is derived

in Table 3 through 9 columns. For clarity

and ease of reference, the columns are

numbered 1 to 9. The rent is receivable

annually, and the valuation process is performed row by row representing

successive years or periods of lease. The

growth factor is taken from the growth

factor table and applied on the rent

received to derive the projected rent in



32

Column 6. The PV of freehold interest in

column 9 is derived from product of

Columns 6, 7 and 8. Although rents are

payable in advance in Minna, the

appropriate payment plan agreed between

the parties was worked into the

programme.

The resulting capital value of the Freehold

interest is N102.00 million. Notionally, it is

assumed that the Freeholder will sell off his

interest after the holding period of 30

years. This is to prevent inconveniently

lengthy cash flows, consolidated and

designated as period 31+ years.

Table 3: NSDC’s Freehold Interest under Regular Rent Review Patterns

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Years T

n,

def"rd

yrs Rent Growth

Projected

rent YP 5yrs PV for PV of

review Review

Received Factor Rent @ e

defered

yrs Freehold

Pattern Years

N'000

N'000

@ e

1 to 5 5 0 5 1.072833 5.364165 3.974471 1 21.31972

6 to 10 5 5 5 1.524729 7.623645 3.974471 0.54276 16.4456

11 to15 5 10 5 2.166972 10.83486 3.974471 0.294588 12.68581

16 to 20 5 15 5 3.079738 15.39869 3.974471 0.159891 9.78558

21 to 25 5 20 5 5.42522 27.1261 3.974471 0.086782 9.356165

26 to 30 5 25 5 9.255545 46.27773 3.974471 0.047102 8.663438

31+

30 7.5 14.1987 106.4902 8.69231 0.025565 23.66419

n=30

∑ PV 101.9205

n=1

Source: Author's Case Study, 2015

NSDC’s Freehold Interest under

Varied Rent Review Patterns Under a varied rent review pattern, the

calculation of freeholder’s interest is

slightly different. Rows have to be

structured in accordance with different

terms or intervals of rent gearing. The

columns are also extended to allow the

serial review and years of review distinctively

.

Table 4:Freehold Valuation With Varied Rent Review Patterns

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Years

T Rent Growth

Projected Rent

Yp T Years Pv For Pv Of

Review

Received Factor Rent @ E

Def 'Rd

Yrs Freehold


33

Pattern

N Million

N Million

@ E

N Million

1st

10yrs

1 To 5 0 5 1.072833 5.364165 3.517231 1 5.754853

6 To

10 5 5 1.524729 7.623645 3.517231 0.54276 6.309038

2nd 10 Yrs

11to13 10 5 2.225874 11.12937 2.361153 0.294588 7.297714

14to16 13 5 2.718791 13.59395 2.361153 0.204165 7.54574

17to19 16 5 3.320863 16.60432 2.361153 0.141496 7.802196

20 19 5 4.772809 23.86404 0.884956 0.098064 11.16934

3rd 10yrs

21-22 20 5 5.14158 25.7079 1.668102 0.086782 11.47082

23-24 22 5 5.966804 29.83402 1.668102 0.067963 12.09839

25-26 24 5 7.836673 39.18336 1.668102 0.053225 16.34372

27-28 26 5 9.181446 45.90723 1.668102 0.041683 17.56923

29-30 28 5 10.75698 53.78491 1.668102 0.032644 18.88663

30+ 30+ 30 7.5 11.64341 87.32556 15.38462 0.025565 25.99371

N=30

∑ Pv N=1 148.2414


Private Firm’s Leasehold Interest

under Constant Rent Review Pattern The value of the private Estate firm’s

leasehold interest under a regular 5-yearly

review pattern is derived in Table 5

through 10 columns. For clarity and ease of reference, the columns are numbered 1 to

10 reflecting the relative complexity of

computing leasehold interests. The rent is

receivable annually, and the valuation

process is performed row by row

representing successive years or periods of

lease. The growth factor is taken from the

growth factor table and applied on the rent

received to derive the projected rent in

Column 5. The PV of freehold interest in

column 10 is derived from the product of

Columns 7, 8 and 9; the summation is

N66.40Million representing the leasehold

value.

TABLE 5: LEASEHOLD VALUATION WITH CONSTANT RENT REVIEW PATTERN

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Years

t Rent Growth

Projecte

d rent

Fixed

rent

Profit

rent YP 5yrs PV for PV of

review

Receive

d Factor Rent

@ e

defered

yrs

Leasehol

d

pattern

N

Million

N

Million

NMillio

n

N

Million

@ e N Million

1 to 5 0 7.5

1.07283

3

8.04624

7 5

3.04624

7

3.51723

1 1 10.7144

6 to 10 5 7.5

1.52472

9

11.4354

7 5

6.43546

8

3.51723

1 0.54276 12.2854

11

to15 10 7.5

2.16697

2

16.2522

9 5

11.2522

9

3.51723

1

0.29458

8 11.6589

16 to

20 15 7.5

3.07973

8

23.0980

4 5

18.0980

4

3.51723

1

0.15989

1 10.1778

21 to

25 20 7.5 5.42522

40.6891

5 5

35.6891

5

3.51723

1

0.08678

2 10.8935

26 to

30 25 7.5

9.25554

5

69.4165

9 5

64.4165

9

3.51723

1

0.04710

2 10.6718

n=30 Σ

∑ PV 66.4018



34

n=1


Private Firm’s Leasehold Interest

under Varied Rent Review Patterns The resulting capital value of the Private

firm’s Leasehold interest is N87 million if

a structured rent review pattern is agreed as

shown in Table 6. This is made possible

by the possibility of corresponding rent

gearing arrangement that might be in original tenancy agreements with

prospective subtenants.

The growth is more rapid while the tenant

would pay fixed rent as agreed. For the

freeholder, though the rent is constant, the

growth rate ensures that projected rent

would accumulate more rapidly. A

comparison of the two rent gearing options

revealed that stepwise variations of rent revision offer favorable results to both the

State Government and the Property firm:

N148million as against N102million and

N87million as against N66.40million for

the two parties respectively. Thus,

intelligent variations and review of rents,

made possible in MS Excel, would clearly

show improved rental incomes for both

parties to the transaction. Should either

party choose to sell, mortgage or insure its

own interest soon after the deal was

concluded, the valuation provides an informed basis for rapid professional

advice on the values of their respective

interests.

TABLE 6. LEASEHOLD VALUATION WITH VARIED RENT REVIEW PATTERNS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Years

t Rent Growth

Projected

rent Fixed

Profit

rent

YP t

years PV for PV of

review

Received Factor Rent Rent

@ e

def 'rd

yrs Leasehold

Pattern

N'000

N'000 N'000 N'000

@ e

1st

10yrs

1 to 5 1 7.5 1.325 9.935 5 4.935 3.517 1.000 17.359

6 to 10 5 7.5 1.883 14.121 5 9.121 3.517 0.613 19.675

2nd

10

yrs

11to13 10 7.5 2.226 16.694 5 11.694 2.361 0.333 9.191

14to16 13 7.5 2.543 19.076 5 14.076 2.361 0.231 7.667

17to19 16 7.5 3.321 24.906 5 19.906 2.361 0.160 7.515

20 19 7.5 3.550 26.624 5 21.624 0.885 0.111 2.121

3rd

10yrs

21-22 20 7.5 4.773 35.796 5 30.796 1.668 0.098 5.038

23-24 22 7.5 5.539 41.541 5 36.541 1.668 0.077 4.681

25-26 24 7.5 7.240 54.300 5 49.300 1.668 0.060 4.946

27-28 26 7.5 8.482 63.618 5 58.618 1.668 0.047 4.606

29-30 28 7.5 9.938 74.535 5 69.535 1.668 0.037 4.279

n=30

∑ PV 87.0779

n=1


Conclusion MS Excel Worksheet is a platform for

speedy, accurate and efficient valuation

appraisal and advice that would be

otherwise cumbersome and slow, using

Marshal's DCF/Equated Yield hybrid or


35

any other Valuation approach . Numerous

dimensions and complexities expected to

be interpreted through valuation and

appraisal can effectively be facilitated by

MS Excel. The basic requirements are to

convert all arguments into numerical or quantitative language and then, appropriate

functions in excel could be found to

compute the resulting figures.

More specifically, much valuation data and

corresponding information were provided

and displayed for visual and analytical

purposes while growth is constructed more

explicitly and efficiently than in

conventional formats. The discount rate

that represents investors' target rate, termed

equated yield, was distinguished from the growth implicit all risks yield.

The equated yield enabled a cross-

investment comparison between different

forms of property rights for a more direct

investment advice. Special circumstances

or problems of cashflow were structured

into the valuation process on Excel

platform. For instance, 3-year rent review

pattern under 10 years will leave a residual

term of 1 year which was conveniently and distinctly calculated as year 20 in Table 4

and Table 6 for NSDC and the Private firm

respectively.

The main weakness of DCF technique lies

with the infinitely long cashflow

projections, possible for freehold

calculation or leasehold with long

unexpired term. This was easily overcome

by assuming a holding period, (which in

the case study coincides with the lease-term of 30 years) after which the

investment was anticipatorily outrightly

sold. Specific problems affecting cashflow

were factored in and the results seen

instantly, giving room for iterations where

necessary. The application of MS Excel

empowered the ESV to scrutinize a range

of intelligent variations and reviews of

rents that would result in improved rental

incomes for both parties to the transaction.

It could be concluded that the MS Excel is

quite helpful to the Estate Surveyor and

Valuer for Valuation and investment

analysis. It is therefore recommended that

Surveyors should endeavor to be further

trained in the spreadsheet MS Excel applications and other compatible

capabilities.

ReferenceS Ajayi, C.A.(1998). Property Investment

Valuation and Analysis. PTF Low

Price Edition; Ibadan. De Ayo

Publications. Pp127-163

Aluko, B.T. (2010). Unpublished Lecture

Notes on Property Valuation.

Department of Estate Management

and Valuation, Federal University of

Technology, Minna

Appraisal Institute (2001). Appraisal of

Real Estate. 12th Edition. Chicago.

Appraisal Institute, pp29-43, 239-274 Babawale, G. K., and Omirin, M. (2012).

An assessment of the relative impact

of factors influencing inaccuracies in

valuation. International Journal of

Housing Markets and Analysis, 5 ( 2),

1 - 1.

Barnatt, C. (1994). The Computers in

Business Blueprint. Oxford OX41JF;

Blackwell Publishers pp96-97

Baum A and Crosby, N (1995). Property

Investment Appraisal. London, Routledge, pp7, 25-28, 127-191

Bender, S. (1994). The Role of Technology

in Sustainable Development.

Technology and Society, Vol. 13(4)

accessed at

https://www.how.edu.auction/sharon

p14.

Charles-Afolabi, C.Y., Olatunji,

I.A.(2016). Examination of Factors

affecting Accuracy of Valuation for

Secured Lending in Abuja , Nigeria.

Paper accepted for presentation at the School of Environmental Technology

international Conference, 2016, held

at the School of Environmental

Technology complex , on 10th-12th

May, 2016.

Davidson, A.W.(1982). Parry’s Valuation

and Investment Tables. London, The

Estate Gazette.



36

French, N. (2015). Spreadsheets for

Valuations 50 Worked Examples

Using Microsoft Excel 2010. Journal

of Property Investment and Finance

33(2) . Emerald Group Publishing

Limited. pp205, 206. French, N. (2013) The Discounted

Cashflow Model for Properrty

Valuations: quarterly in advance

cashflows. Journal of Property

Investment and Finance, 3(16)

pp610-614.

French, N. (2008). Reversionary Freehold

Valuations by Spreadsheets:

Introducing Flexibility. Journal of

Property Investment and Finance, .

Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

26(3) pp 105-114. Jenkins, D. (2002). Residential Valuation

Theory and Practice. London, Estate

Gazette, pp25-39, 63-70

Kakulu (2003). A Computerized Approach

to Real Estate Practice in Nigeria.

Port Hacourt, IBK Publications. pp

53-92.

Ogunba, A.O. (2013). Principles and

Practice of Property Valuation in

Nigeria. Ibadan. Atlantis Books.

Pp125-134, 160-161 Olatunji, I.A, Ajayi, M.T.A., Udoekanem,

N.B.(2016). Mainstreaming

Information Communication

Technology in Real Estate Practice in

Nigeria: The Acquisition-Use Gap of

MS Excel (In Press)

Olatunji I.A.2014. Residential Choices and

Utility Optimization in Minna and Abuja. Unpublished PhD. Thesis

submitted to the Postgraduate School,

Federal University of Technology,

Minna, Nigeria.

Olatunji, I.A.(2010). Medium-term

Property Rights and Urban Poverty in

Minna. International Journal of

Housing Markets and Analysis. 3(3)

2010. Emerald Group Publishing

Limited, 1753-8270

Olatunji, I.A.(n.d.). Unpublished Lecture

Notes series on Applied Valuation, ETM 521 in the Department of Estate

Management and Valuation, Federal

University of Technology, Minna,

Nigeria.

Reed Business School and the University

College of Estate Management,

Reading(2009). Parry’s Valuation and

Investment Calculator. London,

Estate Gazette

Scarret, D.2008. Property Valuation: The

Five Methods 2nd Edition. London and New York. Routledge pp1, 53, 97


37

Evaluation of Diversification Strategies of

Construction Consultancy Firms

M. Abdulrazaq, R. Maiturare & Y. M. Ibrahim Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Environmental Design,

Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria [email protected]

Abstract Research has shown that in today’s competitive world, firms need to embrace several

strategies in order to survive. The fluctuation in workload (availability of jobs) makes survival of the firms more difficult. For the firms to survive, diversification as a strategy has

been emphasised in literature. Despite the advantages offered by diversification, there are

few studies on the relative benefits associated with diversification strategies of construction

consultancy firms (CCFs). The aim of this research is to compare the diversification

strategies of the CCFs within the construction industry. The data used for this research was

collected with the aid of a semi-structured questionnaire. A total of 250 questionnaires were

distributed to construction consultancy firms within Kaduna, Abuja and Kano, out of which

154 questionnaires were retrieved. The feedback from the questionnaires was analysed using

descriptive statistics. The study concluded that the CCFs diversify into similar activities

such as contracting, construction management, project management, building and supply of

materials. Majority of the CCFs adopt internal business expansion as their mode of diversification. The study recommended that internal expansion of business should be a

major motivation for diversification of consultancy firms. Keywords: Diversification, Strategies, Construction, Consultancy Firms, Survival

Introduction In today’s competitive world, survival of

construction consultancy firms is very

essential for the sustenance of qualitative

outputs. The fluctuation in workload (i.e. the firms cannot forecast future demands

for their services or products) makes

survival of the firms more difficult. For the

firms to survive, they must adopt some

kind of strategies and one of these

strategies is diversification. There is a

need to understand the appropriate

combination of company strength and

analysis of potential markets for a company

to survive and keep up with its competitors

(Yee & Cheah, 2006). Hillebrandt and Canon (1990) defined diversification as

“the process by which firms extend their

business outside those in which they are

currently engaged”. This diversification is

viewed in two perspectives: (i) geographic

diversification and (ii) product

diversification.

Geographic diversification is concerned

with location of firms. Firms tend to move

from one market place to another to render

their services. Sometimes they go

international. Product diversification on the

other hand is concerned with the kind of services firms render or produce. Firms

diversify in their production and service

operation in order to survive. In this regard,

firms may choose to diversify into area that

related to their core business or into areas

that are completely unrelated to their core

business.

Researchers have studied diversification

and its impact on the performance of

construction firms. For example, Ibrahim

and Kaka (2007) studied the impact of diversification on the performance of

construction firms in the United Kingdom

and found that focused firms outperform

both moderately and highly diversified



38

firms based on return on total assets

(ROTA) and profit margin (PM). However,

other studies (e.g. Abdul, 2010) reveal no

significant performance difference between

undiversified and moderately and highly

diversified firms. Furthermore, Oyewobi, Windapo & Cattel (2013) found that, in

South Africa, construction companies

registered with the Construction Industry

Development Board (CIDB) contractor’s

register perform and diversify more in their

services/products than the non-registered

contractors. The result also indicated that

there are no statistically significant

differences in the performance of

diversified and undiversified firms.

Most researchers focused on professional service firms such as business, law,

marketing, management firms’ etc. while

other researchers focused on construction

firms. Very few researchers such as Carol

Roger and Lu (2014) studied construction

consultancy firms (CCFs). They found five

key factors that have influence on the scope

and scale of construction professional

service firms (CPSFs): the importance of

growth as a driver; the influence of the

ownership of the firm on the decision for growth in scope and scale; the optimization

of resources and capabilities; the need to

serve changing clients’ needs; and the

importance of localization. Chung and

Charles (2006) studied the

interrelationships among profitability, firm

size, and generic strategies and found out

the following: (i) The profitability of an

Engineering and Construction (E & C) firm

has no relation to its size, (ii) Profitability

is significantly related to generic strategies

(iii) Generic strategies are significantly related to company size. According to

Abdul (2010), Quantity Surveying (QS)

firms in Nigeria diversify to ensure

steadiness of earning and as a survival

strategy.

While the results of the previous studies are

not all in agreement, they suggest that

diversification offers some advantages to

the firm. Construction and consultancy

firms operate under the same general economic conditions. However, most of the

studies reported did not consider the

diversification relationship amongst

consultancy firms in the construction

industry.

The fluctuation in workload makes it necessary for firms to know the right

business mix (Ibrahim and Kaka, 2007).

Ibrahim and Kaka, 2007 observed that the

way forward is for the firm to diversify into

areas where opportunities exist for

responding to the changing environment.

Despite the advantages offered by

diversification, there does not seem to be

studies on the relative benefit associated

with diversification strategies of

consultancy firms.

Yee and Cheah (2006) observed that what

makes the subject of movement

(diversification) so important now is that in

construction, current workloads do not

guarantee future workloads due to

fluctuating demands. For any existing

business, survival is the main concern.

Businesses try to build their strategies for

survival so as not to collapse. The need for

this study is to provide an opportunity for

learning among the consultancy firms.

The aim of this research is to compare the

reasons for diversification by Consultancy

firms within the Nigerian construction

industry.

Diversification Diversification is defined as the act or

practice of manufacturing a variety of products, investing in a variety of

securities, selling a variety of merchandise

etc. so that failure in or an economic slump

affecting one of them will not be disastrous

(Yee and Cheah, 2006). Diversification is a

risk management technique that mixes a

wide variety of investments within a

portfolio. It’s also means having different

lines of business, product or services (Dhir

& Dhir, 2015). Diversification strives to

smoothen out unsystematic risk events in a

portfolio so that the positive performance of some investment will neutralize the

negative performance of others

(|Hillebrandt and Canon, 1990).

Abdulrazaq, Maiturare & Ibrahim

Evaluation of Diversification Strategies of Construction Consultancy Firms

39

Review of Related Works On

Diversification Omokolade Akinsomi, Pahad, Nape, and

Margolis (2015) argued that,

Diversification of property portfolios into

emerging markets like those found in

Africa has not been explored to any great

depth. Recorded historical performance of

emerging markets has resulted in the gross

generalization that these markets, overall,

are volatile and that they offer

diversification prospects for global investors. With regard to real estate

investment performance, there is little

evidence as to whether these investments in

emerging markets offer significant

diversification prospects for international

investors.

Chung and Cheah (2006) argued that

strategic management theories are slowly

gaining recognition in the construction

industry with incremental efforts to apply concepts such as competitive positioning to

the industry, but empirical findings relating

these theories to the performance of E&C

firms remain lacking. The study adopted

fundamental analysis as the research

method which is commonly used in the

field of finance and economics. The

research was also able to study the recent

growth trends of the construction industry

which the result point at: a synchronized

global trends of the construction industry is

absent, and the industry is still very much cyclical in nature.

Kim and Reinschmidt (2011) reported that

the diversification by the largest US

contractors. The research method used for

this study was quantitative approach. The

findings of the study identified, (i) cross-

correlations between construction market

sector, (ii) overall and detailed

diversification patterns of the largest US

contractors, (iii) significance of contractors’ diversification activities based

on the frequency of market entries, (iv)

different strategies: apparently risk-

oriented, and (v) different firm

performances in the areas of business

stability and growth.

Chung and Cheah (2006) in their other

study of interactions between business and

financial strategies of large engineering and

construction confirmed that a firm which

internationalises would be inclined to

increase the level of asset liquidity in order to cushion any adverse impact arising from

the move.

Choi and Russell (2004) showed that the

performance of construction merger and

acquisitions (M&A) was positive at an

insignificant level, as measured by equity

market returns.

In the UK, Ibrahim and Kaka (2007)

revealed that there are no difference in

performance of undiversified, moderately diversified and highly diversified firms.

Cole and Karl (2016) argued that a

considerable amount of uncertainty exists

regarding how the implementation of the

new law with regards to diversification,

will influence the financial performance of

health insurers. Furthermore, their study

found that using both firm- and

conglomerate-level diversification may

magnify the costs or benefits of

diversification on the financial performance of a conglomerate. This

suggests a positive relation between health

insurer financial performance and the use

of both product line diversification

methods.

Sugheir, Phan, and Hasan (2012) argued

that early articles proposed a positive

relationship, while subsequent research

supported a negative influence on

innovation from product diversification

based on observable reductions in research and development expenditures. Such

findings also suggest a negative influence

on absorptive capacity from increasing

product diversification. The findings

supported the notion that diversification

beyond certain limits is value-destroying.

According to Su and Tsang (2015)

secondary stakeholders, as represented by

various non-profit or non-governmental

organizations, serve as agents mitigating the external constraints embedded within


40

socio-political environments. Firms should

therefore maintain relationships with

different secondary stakeholder scopes

commensurate with their product

diversification levels in order to enhance

financial performance.

Zhang, Su, Sun, Zhang and Shen (2015)

are of the opinion that it is necessary to

investigate the business diversification of

Chinese firms from the perspective of the

specific mechanisms in and institutional

environment of the country in which they

operate. Their result showed the

diversification level of politically

connected firms to be significantly higher

than that of their non–politically connected

counterparts.

Anderson, Benefield and Hurst (2015)

found that risk-adjusted performance

measure is derived in a very

straightforward manner. Therefore, the

study suggested that the positive impact of

diversification on return on assets is due to

significant shielding against property-type

specific risk. Furthermore, it suggested

that the benefit to return on equity from

diversification is due to the availability of a larger investment opportunity set that

allows managers to choose the most highly

performing properties.

Li (2014) showed that Combining labour

mobility/spill-offs, friendship ties,

professional gatherings and competitive

interaction, a horizontal framework of

clusters is developed as an alternative way

to interpret local and external learning

processes.

Qiu (2014) stated that despite the findings

in previous literature, how product

diversification affects firm market value in

a global marketplace with diverse cultural

values remains unknown. The findings

demonstrate that uncertainty avoidance and

power distance significantly affect product

diversification and that product

diversification leads to better market value

of large international firms. The findings

show that uncertainty avoidance has a significant positive impact on the product

diversification of large international firms.

The findings highlight the notion that high

uncertainty avoidance should be a strategic

guideline for global marketers if product

diversification is on the firm’s strategic

agenda.

Baysinger and Hoskisson (1989) stressed

that questions concerning the performance

implications of corporate diversification

strategies and the way they are

implemented, especially with respect to

research and development spending,

remain unsettled in the strategy literature.

The firms providing data for this study

were drawn from the industrial

corporations included in the COMPUSTAT

Services data base. This study provides empirical evidence that choice of

diversification strategy systematically

affects R&D intensity in large multiproduct

firms. Research and development intensity

in dominant-business firms was found to be

significantly higher than in related- and

unrelated- business firms and was also

higher in related-business firms than in

unrelated-business firms. The paper

isolated all manufacturing firms in the data

base reporting research and development expenditures in the 1980-82 period for

whom archival data on other relevant

organizational and financial attributes were

available. This make the findings to be

limited to a class of firms.

Lu, and Jewell (2014) studied the dilemma

of scope and scale for construction

professional service firms. The study

investigated the key factors impacting on

the growth in scope and scale for large CPS

firms. The study argued that existing theories of firms’ growth in scope and scale

mostly focus on the manufacturing sector,

without considering the characteristics of

service firms. Lu et al (2014) further

asserted that there has been little work done

on services, and, in particular, on CPS

firms. The study is therefore exploratory in

nature, where qualitative data from the

interviews were underpinned by secondary

data from CPS firms’ annual reports and

analysts’ findings. The research provided valuable insights into the growth strategies



41

of international CPS firms. A major finding

of the research is the influence of

ownership on CPS firms’ growth strategies

which has not been highlighted in previous

research.

Research Method This study was carried out within Abuja

(the Federal Capital Territory) and two

states (Kaduna and Kano) states located in

the North-west Geo-political Zone of

Nigeria. The target population for this

study is Construction Professional Firms

(CPSF), particularly Quantity Surveying,

Architectural and Engineering Firms (and the target respondents are focused is the

Top Managers). Quantitative approach was

used to gather and analyse data.

According to the NIQS report, 396 firms

are legally recognized in Nigeria. The

Architects Registration Council of Nigeria

(ARCON) gives a list of registered

architectural firms in Nigeria as at 2013 as

849. Vconnect (2016) listed 7543 civil

engineering companies, and 3472

mechanical engineering companies. All the firms are, by law allowed to operate in

the study area

The sample size was computed using the

formula established by (Yamani 1986). The

formula is: n= N/1+N(e²).

Where

n is required sample

N is population size &

e is error in percentage (5%)

The sample size for this study is 320

The data used for this research was collected with the aid of a semi-structured

questionnaire that was divided into two

sections. Section A sought general

information of the respondents while

section B focused on the identified reasons

for diversification which was obtained

from literature. Section B also contained

questions on mode of diversification

adopted and nature of business undertaken

by the respondents. Numerical values of 1-

5 was assigned to respondents’ rating with

1-not important, 2-less important, 3-

important, 4-more important, and 5-very

important. This is done to facilitate the analysis and ranking exercise. 250

questionnaires were distributed within

Kaduna and Abuja, 152 were retrieved.

The data obtained from the questionnaire

survey were of numerical nature. The

numerical data were compiled and entered

into the Statistical Package for Socials

(IBMSPSS version 21) Software.

The analysis of the data involved

descriptive statistical operations available in the SPSS software. The quantitative data

were analysed and results of descriptive

statistics obtained include measures of

central tendency (means) and standard

deviation.

Findings The data obtained for the research is

presented using Tables. The results of the analysis form the basis for discussion

conclusion.

Below is the presentation of data used for

this research.

Table 1 shows the different categories of

respondents. The categories of

respondents are construction consultancy

firms (CCFs). The CCFs are Quantity

Surveying firms with 27.3%, Architectural

firms with 20.8%, Civil Engineering with 19.5%, Electrical Engineering with 16.2%,

Mechanical Engineering with 14.9%, and

others 1.3. This implies a close balance of

representation of the various professions

involved in construction works.


42

Table 1: Types of Firms

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Quantity Surveying 42 27.3 27.3 27.3

Architecture 32 20.8 20.8 48.1

Civil Engineering 30 19.5 19.5 67.5

Electrical Engineering 25 16.2 16.2 83.8

Mechanical Engineering 23 14.9 14.9 98.7

Others 2 1.3 1.3 100.0

Total 154 100.0 100.0

Table 2 shows the period of practice for the

different categories of firms. A total of 43

firms have been in practice for less than 5

years (27.9% of firms under study). A total

of 55 firms have been in practice for less 5-

10 years (35.7%). Twenty-two (22) firms

have been in practice for 10-15 years (14.3%), while 34 (22.1%) firms have been

in practice for over 15 years. This

distribution means that the quality of data

will be reliable as all categories of firms,

by years of experience, are evenly

represented.

Table 3 shows the size of firm and it was

classified based on the number of

employees. The Table shows that 42.2% of

the firms are small with less than 10

employees, 33.8% are medium with 11 to

30 employees and 23.4% are large with

over 30 employees. This implies that majority of the firms

studied are small. This may skew the

findings of the research towards the small

firms.

Table 1: Period of Practice


Less than 5 Years 43 27.9 27.9 27.9

Between 5-10 Years 55 35.7 35.7 63.6

Between 10-15 Years 22 14.3 14.3 77.9

Above 15 Years 34 22.1 22.1 100.0

Total 154 100.0 100.0

Table 2: Size of Firms


Less than 10 65 42.2 42.5 42.5

Between 11-30 52 33.8 34.0 76.5 Greater than 30 36 23.4 23.5 100.0

Total 153 99.4 100.0

Missi

ng

System 1 .6

Total 154 100.0



1

Table 4 gives the states of diversification of

the respondents. 38 (24.7%) respondents said no, which means their firms do not

diversify. While the remaining 116 (75.3%)

said yes, i.e. their firms diversify.

Table 5 above shows the reasons why firms

diversify. The major reason is “To Achieve

Faster Growth for Your Business” with the

highest mean and standard deviation of

3.91 and 1.077 respectively. Next is “To

Ensure Steadiness of Earning “with 3.91 as

mean and 1.127 as standard deviation. The

table shows this information in descending order, which is from the highest to the

lowest respectively. The lowest ranked

reasons for diversifying is ‘to provide

greater sense of job security” with 3.48 as

mean and 1.195 as the mean deviation.

Table 6 shows the frequency of the types of

businesses the consultancy firms diversify

into. Majority of Quantity Surveying firms

diversify into Contracting services and

Project management services with frequencies of 22 and 22 respectively.

Majority of the Architectural firms

diversify into Building services and Construction management services with

frequencies of 15 and 15 respectively.

Civil Engineering firms diversify majorly

into Contracting and Construction

Management services with the respective

means of 15 and 15 respectively. Electrical

Engineering firms mostly diversify into

Project Management services and supply of

construction materials. Majority of

Mechanical Engineering firms diversify

into Contracting services and Supply of construction materials.

Table 3: State of Diversification

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulati

ve Percent

No 38 24.7 24.7 24.7

Yes 116 75.3 75.3 100.0

Tot

al 154 100.0 100.0

Table 4: Reason Why CCFs Diversify

N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

To Achieve Faster Growth for their Business 114 4 1 5 3.91 1.077 To Ensure Steadiness of Earning 116 4 1 5 3.91 1.127 To Increase Market Share and Market Profitability 115 4 1 5 3.81 0.936 As a Survival Strategy 115 4 1 5 3.77 1.06

To Limit the Effect of Unstable Market 114 4 1 5 3.75 1.003

As an Escape Route for Declining and

Low Profitability in Business 113 4 1 5 3.73 1.052 To Improved Depth Capacity and Reduced the Chance of Bankruptcy 116 4 1 5 3.6 1.07

To Increase the Economies of Scale and Growth 114 4 1 5 3.59 1.071 To Reduce Exposure to Business Risk 113 4 1 5 3.58 1.025


44

To Provide Greater Sense of Job Security 115 4 1 5 3.48 1.195 Valid N (list wise)

105

Table 6: Types of Businesses CCFs Diversify into TYPES OF BUSINESSES QS ARC CE EE ME OT

Quantity Surveying Services 0 7 7 9 1 0 Architectural Services 10 0 5 1 1 0 Electrical Engineering Services 2 5 6 0 6 1 Civil Engineering Services 5 7 0 2 3 1

Mechanical Engineering Services 3 4 8 5 0 1

Contracting Services 22 13 12 8 8 0 Construction Management Services 17 15 11 8 5 0 Building Services 12 15 10 3 3 0

Project Management Services 22 10 9 13 4 0 Mining 0 2 1 2 1 1

Quarry 2 3 3 0 0 1 Petrochemical Engineering Services 0 0 0 0 0 1

Aeronautical Engineering Services 0 0 1 0 1 0 Supply of Construction Materials 9 12 8 12 7 0

Others 1 9 5 5 0 0

Table 7 shows that internal business expansion has the highest frequency

followed by merger and acquisition.

Table 8 shows the mean and standard

deviation of each reason why firms

diversify based on types of the businesses.

Below are the presentation of each

category.

Table 7: Mode of Diversification

Case Number

Internal Business Expansion Merger Acquisition

1 1 79 49 21



45

Table 8: Reason Why CCFs firms Diversify

Type of

Business

As a

Survival

Strategy

To Limit the

Effect of

Unstable

Market

To Achieve

Faster

Growth for

Your

Business

To Increase

the Economies

of Scale and

Growth

To Improved

Depth Capacity

and Reduced the

Chance of

Bankruptcy

To Reduce

Exposure to

Business

Risk

To Provide

Greater

Sense of

Job

Security

To Increase

Market Share

and Market

Profitability

As an Escape Route

for Declining and

Low Profitability in

Business

QS Mean

3.55 3.61 3.52 2.91 3.67 3.35 3.33 3.45 3.73

Std. Dev 1.063 1.029 1.121 1.156 0.957 1.092 1.291 0.905 1.232

Arc

Mean 3.96 4.04 4.16 3.96 3.54 3.5 3.88 4 3.65

Std. Dev 0.978 0.871 0.688 0.79 1.029 1.03 0.952 0.748 0.832

CE

Mean 3.8 3.4 3.85 3.37 3.3 3.45 3.45 3.7 3.5

Std. Dev 1.105 1.046 1.348 0.955 1.129 0.999 1.099 1.129 1

EE

Mean 4.1 4.21 4.38 4.29 4 3.89 3.10 4.3 4.1

Std. Dev 1.091 0.976 0.921 0.956 1.14 1.15 1.373 0.923 1.091

ME

Mean 3.57 3.29 4 3.79 3.5 3.77 3.71 3.71 3.79

Std. Dev 1.089 0.825 0.784 0.699 1.225 0.725 0.914 0.726 0.975

OT

Mean 3 4.5 1 3.5 3 3.5 3.00 4 3

Std. Dev 0 0.707

0.707 0 0.707 2.828 1.414 0

Total

Mean 3.77 3.75 3.91 3.59 3.6 3.58 3.48 3.81 3.73

Std. Dev 1.06 1.003 1.077 1.071 1.07 1.025 1.195 0.936 1.052


46

Quantity Surveying firms Quantity surveying firms rate “as an escape

route for declining and low profitability in

business to increase depth capacity” as the most important reason why they diversify

into other businesses with a mean and

standard deviation of 3.73 and 1.232

respectively. “To increase the economics of

scale and growth” is rate as the least reason

with 2.91 and 1.121 as mean and standard

deviation respectively.

Architectural firms The Table shows that Architectural firms

rated “to achieve faster growth of their

businesses” as the most important reason

they diversify into other businesses with

4.16 and .666 as mean and standard

deviation respectively. “To reduce

exposure to business risk” with 3.50 mean

and 1.030 standard deviation was rated as

the least important reason why they

diversify into other businesses.

Electrical Engineering firms Electrical engineering rated “to achieve

faster growth of their businesses” as the

most important reason they diversify into

other businesses with 4.38 .921. “To

provide greater sense of job security” with

3.10 mean and 1.373 standard deviation as


diversify into other businesses.

Mechanical Engineering firms Mechanical engineering firms rated “to

achieve faster growth of their businesses”

as the most important reason they diversify

into other businesses with 4.00 .784 as

mean and standard deviation. And “to limit

the effect of unstable market” with 3.29

mean and .825 standard deviation is rated as the least important reason why they

diversify.

Civil Engineering firms Civil Engineering firms rated “to ensure

steadiness of earning” as the most

important reason why they diversify with a

mean of 4.00 and standard deviation of

1.026. The CE firms rate “to improve depth capacity and reduces the chances of

bankruptcy” as the least important reason

why they diversify with a mean score of

3.30 and standard deviation of 1.129.

Other firms rate “to limit the effect of

unstable market” as the most important

reason why they diversify into other businesses with mean and standard

deviation of 4.50 and .707. It also rate “to

achieve faster growth for their business” as

d least important reason with 1.00 mean.

Discussion of Results The general overview of the above results

show that most of the firms diversify into

other businesses while few do not. The percentages of firms that diversify and

those that do not are 75.3% and 24.7%

respectively. Also the results shows that

most of the firms that diversify adopt

internal business expansion followed by

merger and lastly acquisition. The result

indicate that the majority of the firms are

small in size (with less than 10 employees)

with 42.2%. Next in line is the medium

size (between 11-30 employees) with

33.8%, and lastly the large size firms (with

over 30 employees) with 23.4%.

The result also shows that the most

important reason why firms diversify is “to

achieve faster growth for their business”

with mean & standard deviation of 3.91

and 1.077 respectively. Next is “to ensure

steadiness of earning” with 3.91 and 1.127

as mean and standard deviation. The

reasons are listed in descending order, from

the most important reason to the least

important reason in table 5. A similar result was reported by Abdul (2010), though the

study was only carried out on Quantity

Surveying (Q.S) firms.

The comparative result shows that majority

of the Q.S firms find “as an escape route

for declining & low profitability in

business to increase depth capacity” as the

most important reason why they diversify.

This finding disagree with the finding of

Abdul (2010) which reported that “to

ensure steadiness of earning” as the most important reason why Q.S firms diversify.

The finding also shows that Architectural,

Electrical Engineering (EE) and



47

Mechanical Engineering (ME) rate “to

achieve faster growth of their businesses”

as the most important reason they diversify.

Majority of Civil Engineering (CE) firms

consider “to ensure steadiness of earning”

as the most important reason they diversify. This finding is similar to that of Kim and

Reinschmidt (2011) who reported that

diversified contractors live longer since

they have more establishment in multiple

sectors.

“To increase the economy of scale and

growth” is rated as the least reason why

Q.S firms diversify. While Architectural,

CE, EE, and ME firms shows “to reduce

exposure to business risk”, “to improve

depth capacity and reduced the chance of bankruptcy”, “to provide greater sense of

job security”, and “to limit the effect of

unstable market” respectively are rated as


diversify.

The result also shows areas where CCFs

diversify into. The CCFs mostly diversify

into construction related services such as

project management services, contracting

services, construction management services, supply of construction materials

etc. This was highly expected because the

CCFs have some knowledge on

construction related services. The Q.S

firms mostly diversify into project

management services and contracting

services, this is because they have a basic

knowledge of the above mentioned

services. Although the findings disagreed

with that of (Abdul 2010).

Conclusion This study investigated the reasons

Construction Consultancy Firms diversify

into other businesses. Most of these firms

diversify into construction related services

such as mining, quarry contracting, project

management, construction management,

building services and supply of

building/construction materials.

Architectural, EE, and ME firms share common most important reason why they

diversify as “to achieve faster growth for

their businesses”. The Q.S firms have “as

an escape route for declining and low

profitability in business to increase depth

of capacity” as the main reason for

diversifying. Based on reasons for

diversifying, Architectural, EE, and ME

firms have similarities.

The CCFs diversify into similar activities

such contracting, construction

management, project management,

building and supply of materials activities.

Majority of the CCFs adopt internal

business expansion as their mode of

diversification.

Recommendations The following recommendations can be

drawn from the study:

i. Firms should adopt internal mode

of diversification as strategies for

diversification

ii. Achieving faster growth for

businesses should be the main

focus of firms for diversifying.

iii. Further studies should be carried

out on Consultancy firms’ success

as a result of diversification.

References Abdul, P. O. (2010). An Investigation into

the Diversification Strategies used by

Quantity Surveying Firms in Nigeria.

A B U,, Department of Quantity Surveying, Zaria.

Anderson, R. I., Benefield, J. D., & Hurst,

M. E. (2015). Property-type

diversification and REIT

performance: an analysis of operating

performance and abnormal returns.

Journal of Economics and Finance,

39, 48–74.

Baysinger, B., & Hokisson, R. E. (1989).

Diversification Strategy and R&D

Intensity in Multiproduct Firms.

Academy of Management, 32(2), 310-332.

Carol, J., Roger, F., & Lu, a. W. (2014).

The dilemma of scope and scale for

construction professional service

firms. Construction Management and

Economics, 32(5), 473–486.

Chung, Y. & Charles, Y. J. (2006).

Fundamental analysis of profitability


48

of large engineering and consrtruction

firms. Journal of Management in

Engineering, 22(4), 42–59.

Choi, J., & Russell, J. S. (2004). Economic

Gains Around Mergers and

Acquisitions in the Construction Industry of the United States of

America. Journalof Civil Engineering,

31, 513-525.

Cole, C. R., & Karl, J. B. (2016). The

effect of product diversification

strategies on the performance of

health insurance conglomerates.

Journal of Applied Economics, 48(3),

190-202.

Dhir, S., & Dhir, S. (2015). Diversification:

Literature Review and Issues. Journal

of Strategic Change, 24(10), 569-588. Hilebrandt, P. M., & Cannon, J. (1990).

The Modern Construction Firms.

Macmillan Publishers, USA.

Ibrahim, Y. M., & Kaka, A. P. (2007). The

impact of diversification on the

performance of UK construction

firms. Journal of Finacial

Management of Property and

Construction, 12(2), 73–86.

Kim, H.-J. & Reinschmidt, K. F. (2011).

Diversification of the Largest US Contractors. Journal of Civil

Engineering, 38, 800-810.

LI, P.-F. (2014). Horizontal versus Vertical

Learning: Divergence and

Diversification of Lead Firms in the

Hangji Toothbrush Cluster, China.

Journal of Regional Studies, 48(7),

1227–1241.

Lu, W., Ye, K., , R., & Jewel, C. (2014).

Nexus between Contracting and

Construction Professional Service

Businesses: Empirical Evidence from International Market. Journal of

Construction Engineer- ing and

Management, 9, 1-9.

Oyewobi, L. O., Windapo, A. O & Cattell,

K. S. (2013). Impact of diversification

on South African construction

companies’ corporate performance.

Journal of Finacial Management of

Property and Construction, 18(2),

110–127.

Omokolade, A., Radiyya, P., & Joshua, N.

L. (2015). Geographic Diversification Issues in Real Market Estate in

Africa. Journal of Real Estate

Literature, 23(2), 261-295.

Qiu, T. (2014). Product Diversification and

Market Value of Large International

Firms: A Macroenvironmental

Perspective. Journal of International

Marketing, 22(4), 86-107.

Su, W., & Tsang, E. W. (2015). Product

Diversification and Financial

Performance: The Moderating Role of

Secondary Stakeholders. Academy of Management Journal, 58(4), 1128–

1148.

Sugheir, J., Phan, P. H., & Hasan, I.

(2012). Diversification and

Innovation Revisited: An Absorptive

Capacity View of Technological

Knowledge Creation. Journal of IEEE

Transaction on Engineering

Management, 59(4), 530-539.

VConnect. (2016, May 6). Retrieved from

Opera: file:///C:/Users/User/Desktop/Listf%2

0Civil%20Engineering%20Firm,%20

Company%20&%20Courses%20Abu

ja%20_%20VConnect™.html

Yee, C. Y., & Cheah, C. Y. (2006).

Interactions between Business and

Financial Strategies of Large

Engineering Firms. Journal of

Management in Engineering, 22(3),

148-155.

Zhang, M., Su, J., Sun, Y., Zhang, W., &

Shen, N. (2015). Political Connections and Corporate

Diversification: An Exploration of

Chinese Firms. Journal of Emerging

Markets Finance & Trade, 51, 234–

246.


49

Assessing the Status of E-Procurement

System in Nigerian Construction Industry

Yusuf Joe Gandu, Haruna Musa, Peter Chindo Gangas & Abdu, A. Ali

Department of Quantity Surveying, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract The term E-Procurement refers to the process of using electronic technology to acquire

goods and services. Various countries have adopted the technology at diverse levels in the

procurement of construction projects. Previous studies showed that e-procurement (e-P) has

the ability to improve economic performance if properly implemented in construction

procurement; yet the developing countries lag behind in implementation. Very little is

therefore known of e-P used in the construction sector of Africa. It is still unclear whether

the concept, benefits and level of adoption of e-procurement is known in which this work

sets to fill the gap. The aim of this paper therefore is to assess the status of e-

Procurement system in Nigeria. Key parameters of the assessment are the understanding of

the tool, level of application and barriers impeding the adoption. Data was collected using

structured questionnaire through a purposive sampling of Quantity surveyors in Kaduna and Abuja Nigeria. Descriptive statistical tool was used to analyse the data. Findings

showed that respondents have limited understanding of the components of e-procurement

tools. Only e-tendering is well understood and adopted by the respondents. Respondents

are o n l y aware of the common aspects of t h e b e n e f i t o f e-procurement

implementation to the economy and are not aware of its benefits in terms of improvement

of team work, payment efficiencies, quality management and marketing strategy. The result

also showed that other than poor understanding of various tools of the technology, security

and legal concerns still pose significant impediments to extended adoption of e-

procurement in construction business. The general level of implementation of e-

procurement is found to be low a n d s l o w , therefore t h e associated benefits not

fully exploited. The concerns identified herein, create opportunity for the understanding of the right direction in the efforts by stakeholders to improve the level of adoption and

strategy. More training and education is required in the sector to improve the awareness

level and to motivate a wider implementation of e-Procurement in Nigeria becomes

necessary at this level. The research therefore suggests an aggressive enlightenment

programs to be directed on client organizations, on all professional consultants,

contractors and relevant government agencies on the benefits of adopting e- Procurement

in the construction industry.

Keywords: E-procurement; Construction; technology, Quantity Surveyors, stakeholders

Introduction The web or internet has changed the

traditional functions of computers from

data storage, processing and

data/information retrieval to include

reducing distance barrier in business

transactions (Bello & Iyagba, 2013). E-

procurement (e-P) which uses the web, has been changing the way in which

organizations acquire goods and services

(Hassan, Tretiakov, Whiddett & Adon,

2014). The technology has many tools

that can achieve activities like advertising

tenders, acquiring and returning tenders



50

electronically, electronic ordering,

internet sourcing via third parties, email

communications between buyers and

sellers, email communications related to

contract management, and the integration

of procurement within financial and inventory systems (Bakar, Peszynski,

Azizan, & Sundram, 2016) with

associated value. E-Procurement adoption

refers to the actual use of web-based

technologies, tools or processes to

support the execution of some or all

aspects of construction procurement

activities (Ibem, Aduwo, Tunji-Olayeni,

Ayo-Vaughan & Uwakonye, 2016).

Previous studies show that better value

for money in the construction sector has

been achieved in countries that adopted e-P (Hashim, Said & Idris, 2013; Adzroe

& Ingirige, 2014). Studies have also

demonstrated the potentials of the

technology to improving performance in

firms (Hashim, Said and Idris, 2014).

Invariably, findings have put it that

developing nations are lagging behind in

adopting the technology (Egbu, 2003 cited

in Ateto et al., 2013; Aduwo, Ibem,

Uwakony, Tunji-Olayeni, & Ayo-Vuaghan,

2016). Ibem and Laryea, (2015) found that e-P technology is still at its infancy in

Africa while Hassan et al. (2014) opined

that t h e complex nature of the e-P

practice is contributory. This complex

nature has the construction projects

characteristics playing major role.

Other research works conducted at different

locations attempted to avail other key

barriers impeding e-P adoption in th e

African continent (Ateto, Hosndieki, &

Okibo, 2013, Chilipunde 2013, Adebayo &

Evans, 2016, Aduwo et al., 2016). Yet it is believed that very little is still known of e-

P use in the construction sectors due to

several barriers in developing countries

like Africa (Ibem & Laryea, 2015). This

assertion suggests that more research work

is still required in this field apart from the

necessity to progressively monitor

performance and the level of the impact of

the identified barriers. Arising from the

dismal description of the situation, it

is doubtful if the concept of e-P, its varying tools and technologies or

benefits is well understood in Africa,

which becomes a subject for inquest.

It is pertinent to make clear first the

concept of e-P within the construction

domain. This paper was therefore set to

assess the status of e-Procurement system in the Nigerian construction sector. The

objectives of which are to:

i. articulate the e-P concept within

the construction domain

ii. assess the level of understanding

of varying components, tools and technologies and also the level of

application of these tools and

technologies in the construction

sector

iii. appraise the understanding of the

benefits of e-P to the economy

and to practicing firms and

iv. identify prominent barriers still impeding the rapid adoption of

e-Technology

E-Procurement Concept in

the Construction Sector Procurement is not a unique case for the

construction industry, rather a core activity

in every business processes in all

organizations. E-P fundamentally supports

the way all organizations conduct

traditional procurement activities, and it

automates and simplifies many business

processes and transactions (Aduwo et al.,

2016). However, construction differs

significantly from other industries

(Eadie, Perera, Heaney and Carlisle, 2007), as such, it is important to understand e-

P within construction context. Proper

conceptualization of e-P in construction

perspective will facilitate the right

implementation strategy and derive home

optimum value associated. Proper

conceptualisation allows optimum response

to flow inefficiencies in acquisition

processes.

Some distinct characteristics of

construction, according to Eadie et al. (2007) are that it is a stationary product,

the production line keeps changing

locations, its complexity and the

Gandu, Musa, Chindo Gangas & Abdu

Assessing the Status of E-Procurement System in Nigerian Construction Industry

51

economic value essentially differing from

other industries. Dowsett and Harty,

(2013) identified some characteristics

as highly fragmented design and

production process, differentiated

stakeholders with discerned behaviours or approaches to issues, specific goals, and

diverse influences or needs among others.

Laryea and Ibem (2014) added that

construction procurement process

involves several steps, activities, people

and organizations and yet, takes a long

time, in most cases, to accomplish. The

nature of construction is unique, the

technology to adopt must therefore be

relevant to its nature (Harty, 2005). It cause

the industry to face different kinds of

complex challenges (Eduwo et al., 2016). Thus, suggesting why the construction e-P

is not only unique but complex (Hassan et

al., 2014). E-P in construction has six

basic activities namely: establish the

need, strategise, solicit for offers,

evaluate offers, award contract and then

monitor implementation (Laryea & Ibem,

2014). The scholars then identified the

pattern of technology involved in e- P

relevant to construction in line with the six

activities identified.

Bakar et al. (2016) found differences in

the scope and details in the definitions of

e-P after various definitions by diverse

scholars were reviewed. While a single

definition of e-P hardly reflects

completely the complex array of

activities in construction procurement, it

can be conceptualized as the use of

web-based technology to execute all or

part of the phases of construction projects

business transactions.

The E-P tools/technology The pattern of e-P technology relevant at

varying stages of the construction process

was assessed by Laryea and Ibem (2014).

The technology can be in form of

processes or products which may include

engineering and scientific concepts, new

products, processing systems, production processes, physical equipment or tools

(Laryea & Ibem, 2014). Similarly,

McConnell (2009), Kamaruzamana and

Mohamed (2013) and Bakar et al. (2016)

identified and discussed the varying

relevan t tools or aspects of e-P in

construction to incl ude but not

l imited t o E-Informing/E-notification,

E-Sourcing, E-Tendering: E-Reverse

auctioning, E-Awarding, E-Contract

Management, E-Ordering, E-Markets, E-

MRO (Maintenance, Repair and Operations) and Web based ERP

(Enterprise Resource Planning), E-

Invoicing, E-cataloguing, E-purchasing, E-

negotiation. Table 1 listed and explained

key tools or aspects of e-P.

Table 1: Tools of e-Procurement Tools Definition

1 E-informing/E-

notification

Process of gathering and distributing purchasing information both from and to

internal and external parties

2 E-sourcing Process of identifying potential new suppliers for a specific category of

purchasing requirements

3 E-tendering Concerns the process of sending requests for information and prices to suppliers,

and receiving responses from suppliers using Internet technologies

4 E-reverse

auctioning

Internet technology that enables purchasing companies to buy goods and

services that either have the lowest price, or a combination of the lowest price

and other conditions

5 E-Awarding Involves secure tender opening (being able to only open tenders that have been

submitted by closing date and time), tender evaluation and tender award.

Typically this is facilitated using similar systems to those used for e-notification

and e-tendering.


52

6 E- Contract

Management

Use of information technology for improving the efficiency and effectiveness of

contracting processes of companies. As a result of the e-notification, e-tendering

and e-awarding stages agreement can be established with the suppliers. Unlike

conventional auction where the prices generally increases, e-auction are

commonly referred to as reverse auction as the price quoted by suppliers

generally decreases

7 E-Ordering, The use of Internet to facilitate operational purchasing process, including

ordering (requisitioning), order approval, order receipt and payment process. This

involves an organization raising orders of agreed contracts or catalogue

(following on from the stages above) and the transmission and acceptance of this

by suppliers

8 E-Markets Meeting venues for component suppliers and purchasers, who use exchange

mechanism to electronically support the procurement process. Early e-

procurement solution focused on this aspect of e-procurement (e.g. electronic

data interchange, e-catalogue and e-marketplaces) as this was perceived as the era

where maximum efficiency could be achieved since it has a direct link with e-

ordering.

9 E-MRO

(Electronic

Maintenance

Repair and

Operation) and

Web-based

ERP(Enterprise

Resource

Planning)

E-MRO focuses on the process of creating and approving purchasing requisitions,

placing orders and receiving goods or services ordered using system software

based on Internet technology. The system involves the use of electronic

infrastructure to transfer purchase orders, invoices, payments and other relevant

information for indirect products and services. While,

Web-based ERP system involves the procurement of direct goods/product related

items (goods that are directly used to produce finished products) and any related

transactions such as purchase order, invoices, payments and other necessary

documentation via online

10 E-Invoicing A situation where an organization electronically receives invoices from suppliers

and following electronic matching (e.g. against the purchase and goods received

notes), making electronic payment via a Bank Automated Clearing system

(BAC). This electronic payment of suppliers has been identified by many

organizations as a quick win in relation to e-procurement, given the processes and

activities. E-invoicing is performed alongside E-MRO and ERP.

11 E-cataloguing Refers to the electronic presentation of information regarding the products and

services of an organization.

12 E-purchasing A series of tools used to help procurement professionals and end-users undertake

more efficient processes, and receive more accurate order details. The tools

include purchase-to-pay systems, purchasing cards and invoicing solutions

13 E- negotiation refers to a mechanism that allows for a recursive interaction between a buyer and

supplier, thereby allowing the resolution of a good deal

14 Web-based

Electronic

Data Interchange

(Web-based E

Web-based EDI systems are a cost-effective way to automate the exchange of

structured documents on business arrangements between trading partners as all

transactions are done electronically. The system enables companies to replace

expensive EDI communication with less costly web communication and provides

them real time information about market conditions.

15 Electronic Auction

(e-auction)

E-auction is the process of bidding products over the Internet and the auction is

most often traded in real time. E-auction enables companies to purchase goods or

services from suppliers who offer the lowest price or a combination of the lowest

price and other aspects.

Adapted from: McConnell (2009), Kamaruzamana and Mohamed, (2013), Bakar et al. (2016)

Ateto et al. (2013) noted that as the ICT

society continue to develop, there is the

need to understand e-P practices and

adopt it in the construction sector.

Particularly, t h e study noted that its

application in construction generally lags

behind when compared with other

industries. Considering the apparent shift from traditional to electronic procurement

environment, Bakar et al. (2016) abridged

the understanding of the traditional

procurement and e-procurement. Various

definitions of e-procurement were

appraised, and the tools and benefits

identified. Laryea and Ibem (2014),

through an evidence-based literature

review identified and analysed three

patterns of technological innovations in the use of E-P in construction. The

patterns of technological innovation

Environmental Technology & Science Journal

Vol. 8 No. 2 December 2017

53

were a l s o linked to the nature of

construction procurement process. The

research concluded that the industry is

gradually moving towards fully computer-

based virtual procurement method

characterised by a high degree of integration and collaboration across the

entire construction procurement lifecycle.

However, the innovative use of e-P

technologies in Africa manifested more

at tendering and administration stages than

in the other stages of construction

procurement process (Laryea and Ibem,

2014). The benefits of e-tendering in

construction were outlined b y

Chilipunde (2013). Earlier,

Baladhandayutham and Venkatesh (2012)

developed a list aimed at identifying how the benefits of e-P influence its adoption

in the construction industry. The study

b y Baladhandayutham and Venkatesh

(2012) did not specifically focused on

the value propositions; instead it focused

more on its influence on the decision to

adopt e-P. Then, Hashim et al. (2013)

explored the values with e-P in the

Malaysian construction industry. More

recently, Chebii (2016) made an inquest

into determinants for successful implementation of e-procurement in the

Kenyan public sector. Technology,

government support, and supply chain

responsiveness were found important.

Similar study was carried out in

Mombasa by Mohammed and Milimu

(2016), the objectives of which were to

determine the influence of technology on

progress of e-procurement in the county

government, to assess how organizational

culture affects the implementation of e-

procurement and to establish how environment influences the use of e-

procurement system. The researchers

found a strong correlation between the use

of e-P and cost minimization, efficiency

and organizational culture, and that there is

a strong advocacy in favour of e-

procurement. Chilipunde (2013) studied

the drivers and barriers to e-tendering in

Malawi. Acknowledging that e-tendering is

just an aspect of e-procurement, the

researcher found that there was ignorance in the benefits of e-tendering systems. This

ignorance cannot guarantee motivation for

the quick adoption of the technology

In South Africa, findings reveal that only

four categories of e-Procurement namely:

e-mail, static websites, web.2.0 technologies and portals that have

capabilities of supporting the execution

of functions limited to intra and inter

firm communication and exchange of

project information and data were used.

Only between 11 and 12 percent of the

respondents used these e-Procurement

technologies for communication of

information, exchange of bill of

quantities, CAD drawings and project

specifications (Ibem & Laryea 2015).

In Nigeria, several research works

have also been conducted along the

e-P development. Oladapo (2005)

surveyed the use of information and

communication technology (ICT) in

the Nigerian construction industry. The

study identified and grouped factors that

significantly impact the level of ICT use.

The groups constitute those that are

internal and those external to the

industry. The internal factors significantly correlated with the level of

ICT use in the industry, while none of

the external factors significantly

correlated with the level of ICT use. Five

main constraints to the use of ICT

identified by Oladapo (2005) were

insufficient/irregular power supply, high

cost of ICT software and hardware, low

job order for firms, fear of virus attacks

and high rate of obsolescence of ICT

software and hardware. Usman et al.

(2012) in effort to conceptually synthesize the attitude of quantity

surveyors towards ICT acceptance for

construction cost management in Nigerian

reviewed the causes and impact in the

usage of information and communication

devices. Array of impediments were

identified which were related to economy,

technology, motivation, ethics and

bureaucracy. The researchers

recommended for a more holistic

investigation into impediments by practicing quantity surveyors while



54

putting into consideration all relevant

factors, so that a better solution can

emerge to solve the identified challenges.

Aduwo et al. (2016) became concerned

about slow and low uptake of e-P in

developing countries when compared with the developed, and sought to avail

the barriers against e-P uptake in Nigeria.

Through a set of questionnaires the

researcher surveyed professionals in

consulting firms, contracting and client’s

organisations, and government

establishments. The most adverse effects

to the uptake similarly related to both

economic, technical, political, social and

cultural issues.

Ibem et al. (2016) sought to identify the factors influencing the adoption of e-P in

the Nigerian building industry and

included the external influence of other

industries on the adoption of e-

Procurement technologies and tools in

the research, an aspect deficient in

similar previous research works. Three

factors with the highest influence on

the decision to adopt e- Procurement by

organizations were- the benefits of e-

Procurement in enhancing efficiency in job delivery, eliminating geographic

barriers to participation in construction

procurement activities and effective

communication among project team

members. Also, Oyediran and Akintola

(2011) surveyed the state of arts in e-

tendering through a set of questionnaires

and established different impediments

to the adoption of e-tendering in the

Nigerian construction industry. Findings

also showed only fair level of knowledge

about the process, lack of necessary facilities, minimal level of proficiency in

its use, non-existence of a sound legal

backing and low support from

government. The scholars conceded that

the obstacles are significant and the level

of adoption still low, yet the prospect of

e-tendering in the industry is high.

Furthermore, there is lack of evidence of

the benefits of e-P use in the Nigerian

building industry. The researchers

recommended a concerted effort for

effective uptake of the technology in

Nigeria.

From the literature reviewed, it can be

deduced that more work has focused on

benefits, enablers and impediments to e-P adoption in Nigeria. There is less

attention on w h e t h e r s t a k e h o l d e r

who are expected to adopt the technology

actually understand its concept and

components, possibly accounts for the

reason most researchers find poor state of

implementation. It is possible that poor

understanding impedes the zeal to fully

adopt e-P which should become a point of

focus to improve adoption level. As

innovations in the technology progresses,

it is pertinent for practitioners in Africa to update their knowledge so as to adopt

various innovations more appropriately.

This calls for an inquest on how much

stakeholders understand the concept and

tools for implementing e-P. This research

therefore identified various tools or

technologies of e-P and test the level of

understanding of the Nigerian quantity

surveyors among other objectives.

Research Method Eadie, Perera and Heaney (2010) assert

that the quantity surveying discipline is

the likely proponents of e-P due to the

procurement and cost management

nature of their work. Quantity surveyors

also administer the tender process and

play major role in the entire procurement

activities, thus, stand to benefit much if

the technology is fully adopted. Therefore, to achieve the objectives of

this research, Quantity Surveyors

irrespective of the organization they work

were targeted for the research. A

quantitative research approach was

adopted involving the use of

questionnaires survey as the primary data

collection strategy. Questionnaires have

been used by some previous researchers

to achieve similar research works (Eadie,

Perera & Heaney, 2011, Ibem & Laryea,

2015; Aduwo et al., 2016). The questions for response in the questionnaire were

drafted based on findings from relevant

literature reviewed. The first part of the



55

questionnaire informed the profile of the

respondents like the qualification, years

of experience, and position in the place of

work, while the second part addressed the

research objectives. A stratified sampling

technique was used to identify respondents. A focus group comprising

experienced quantity surveyors was

subject for a purposive sampling. In

order to control and hasten the response

process, the questionnaires were self-

delivered to respondents. Seventy

seven (77) questionnaires were

distributed in Kaduna and Abuja, and a

total of 65 were returned while 59 sorted

and used for analysis.

In order to assess the level of understanding of the e-P tools among

respondents, a list of the e-P components

were identified from literature, the

relevancy of an item having based on the

opinion of most researchers. The

respondents assessed the tools by ticking

a box against each tool, frequencies were

generated and mean values computed.

Further, a list of the benefits of e-P to the

economy was similarly generated. The list

of benefits were classified according to

recommendation from literature. The

same list was used to assess the relevance of the items in the performance of the

professional quantity surveying practice.

The assessment by respondents was done

through the ranking of the items using a

Likert scale of 1-5. The scale of 1 = to

very low benefit, 2 = low benefit, 3=

average benefit, 4 = high benefit and 5

= very high benefit was used. Lastly, a

list of impediments against the adoption

of e-P was collated from literature also.

Respondents assessed the question using

similar Likert Scale. Where the Likert Scale was used in the assessment the

relative index value method of

computation was adopted to compute the

mean values scored by each factor. The

relative index value (RIV) was computed

as follows:

RIV = (n1*w1 + n2*w2 +n3*w3 +n4*w4 +n5*w5)/ (5*N)

RIV = relative index value, n = number of respondents that ticked w, w =

Likert’s Scale from 1-5, N-total number of respondents.

The highest mean value in this case is 1.0,

therefore values that fall between 0.10

and 0.49 were categorised a s low,

0.50-0.69 categorised as moderate and 0.70

and above high.

Report on the Results Profile of respondents Table 2 bel ow presents the profile of

respondents that participated in the

research an d indicates that quantity

surveyors at different management

levels participated.

However, most respondents fall within

the middle managerial levels in their

organisations. Over 93% are either

principal or senior quantity surveyors. To

affirm this, respondents were between 5-

15 years of experience in the quantity

surveying profession. The implication is

that the respondents are within a

relatively young (76.27%) category.

Therefore, having emerged within the

era of the challenge and knowledge of e-

technology, it is expected that they have

acquired the knowledge o f e - P in one

way or another within their educational

carrier. A s s u c h , are expected to

better be ready and zealous to either

adopt or agitate for and influence the adoption of the technology in their places

of primary responsibilities. On the level

of their qualifications, only 3.39 percent

had national diploma (ND). All other

respondents in T a bl e2 were either

qualified at BSc. l e v e l , its equivalent

or above. Respondents therefore,

possess relevant training to understand

and respond adequately to the research

demand.



55

Table 2: Respondent’s profile

Description

Position of respondent in the firm Frequency Percentage

1 Chief QS 1 1.69

2 Principal Qs 11 18.64

3 Senior Qs 44 74.58

4 Resident Qs 2 3.39

5 Others 1 1.69

Total 59 100.00

Qualification of respondents

1 PhD - -

2 M.sc 10 16.95

3 B.sc 26 44.07

4 HND 21 35.59

5 ND 2 3.39

Total 59 100.00

Job experience

1 1-5yrs 14 23.73

2 5-10yrs 35 59.32

3 10-15yrs 10 16.95

4 15-20yrs - -

5 Above 20 yrs. - -

Total 59 100

Involvement of

respondents in e-

Procurement practice Respondents were first asked if they are involved in e-P practice in their

organisations. While 74.58% affirm to

have been involved, up to 25.42% still

responded in the negative, (see Fig.1).

This finding is in contrast to the

finding of Aduwo et al. (2016) where

only 34% of diverse professionals

surveyed in Nigeria responded to have

participated in projects involving the use

of e-P and (52%) majority never got

involved. Ibem and Laryea (2015)

documented similar result in South

Africa w h e r e only about 12% out

of 603 professionals have used e-

Procurement systems and applications to receive or disseminate information on

tender opportunities, and only around 11

percent have engaged in the exchange

and submission of construction project

information and data electronically.



57

Figure 1: Organisations involved in e-procurement practice (Source: Field survey)

The level of awareness of e-P tools Awareness is the first step in the

adoption of any new technology (Aduwo

et al., 2016). Participants were therefore

asked to identify the tools or aspects of e-

P they are familiar with by simply ticking

the box provided against each. The level of

familiarity should suggest the extent of

adoption in projects procurement delivery.

Eight (8) did not participate in this

question, possibly not being familiar

with the aspects in question especially

having earlier showed willingness to participate in the research. Table 3

r e p or t s findings which indicate that

most respondents are only aware of e-

tendering (89.09%). It contrast Oyediran

and Akintola (2011) who found a low level

of knowledge of the e-tendering process

among respondents. It is suggestive that

there is slight progress in the adoption of

the technology in the tendering process.

Table 3: Level of awareness of various tools of E-procurement

E-P aspects Number of respondents

Percentage

Level

E-Informing/E-notification 2

0

36.36 Low

E-Sourcing 1

1

20.00 Low

E-Tendering 49

89.09 Very high

E-Reverse auctioning 4 7.27 Very low

E-Awarding 13

23.64 Low

E-Contract Management 8 14.55 Very low

E-Ordering 10

18.18 Very low

E-Markets 9 16.36 Very low

E-MRO and Web based ERP - - Very low

E-Invoicing 10

18.18 Very low

Total number of respondents 5

1

(Source: Field survey)

74.58%

25.42%

%



58

Respondents only indicate slight degree of

awareness level of E-information/e-

notification, e- sourcing and e-awarding

with 36.36%, 20% and 23.64%

respectively. The awareness levels on the

5 other aspects are below 20%. No respondent however demonstrated any

knowledge of E-MRO and Web-Based

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP). The

possibility is that the 74.58% respondents

in Figure1 do apply the technology

mainly on e-tendering but resort to the

traditional form of procurement process

instead of the e n t i r e e-P process. This

finding supports (Laryea & Ibem, 2014).

Length of time involved in

e-P practice Respondents were asked to indicate how

long they have adopted the aspects of e-P

in their organizations. Table 4 reports the

results of the findings which indicate that

most respondents (about 91%) adopted an

aspect of e-P in their firms only about

five years ago. About 7% adopted it between 5 to 10 years and only about 2%

adopted between 10 to 15 years.

It can be concluded that the adoption of the

technology in the quantity surveying

practice in Nigeria is not long, even

though the result could have been

influenced by the young age bracket of the

respondents. It however confirms the

findings by (Ibem & Laryea, 2015) who

observed that it is particularly evident in

African countries that e-Procurement

adoption in construction related areas

appears to be at its nascent stage.

Benefits of e-P On whether respondents are quite aware of

the benefits of the technology to the

economy as well as to their basic

responsibilities become important at this

level. The level of awareness of the benefit

expects to motivate higher level of

adoption. Therefore, deriving from the previous sections that finds the low level

of awareness and application of e-P in

construction business, it becomes

imperative to find out if respondents

know the benefits of e-P to the national

economy and to their basic professional

practicing responsibilities. Some benefits

of e- Technology to the national

economy were first identified and

grouped into three sections under

strategic, tactical and operational values

for the survey-the grouping which was based on the reviewed of literature.

Using the relative index values the mean

of each item was computed and the result

reported in Table 5 below.

Table 4: Period involved with e-procurement

Years Number Percentage

1-5yrs 40 90.91

5-10yrs 3 6.82

10-15yrs 1 2.27

15-20yrs - -

Above 20yrs - -

Total 44 100.00




59

Table 5: Benefits of e-procurement to the national economy

Variables Level of importance No. of resp

.

Σfx RIV Rank Remarks

1 2 3 4 5 Strategic values

Reduced marketing cost. 1 2 9 22 10 44 170 0.773 1 High

Increased ability to control cash flow. 0 9 14 18 3 44 147 0.668 2 Moderate

Improving organizational and process flexibility

8 6 6 17 7 44 141 0.641 3 Moderate

Improved firm growth and success. 4 11 14 11 4 44 132 0.6 4 Moderate

Reduced and eliminate problems with suppliers.

4 16 12 11 1 44 121 0.55 5 Moderate

Realizing market leadership. 6 20 9 8 1 44 110 0.5 6 Moderate

Pooled mean of strategic value

0.621

Moderate

Tactical values

Lower procurement cost. 0 4 5 17 18 44 181 0.823 1 High

Reduced time required to collect tenders 0 2 7 24 11 44 176 0.800 2 High

Faster payment process. 1 3 7 20 13 44 173 0.786 3 High

Improved teamwork. 3 9 22 10 44 171 0.777 4 High

Increased quality service 1 3 11 19 10 44 166 0.755 5 High

Improved contract administration. 0 4 14 22 4 44 158 0.718 6 High

Improving integration between different business functions

3 6 14 13 8 44 149 0.677 7 Moderate

Improved control and monitoring. 2 10 8 18 6 44 148 0.673 8 Moderate

Reduced time of preparing cost plans. 2 13 8 16 5 44 141 0.641 9 Moderate

Ability to search product/supplier more effective.

7 9 15 6 7 44 129 0.586 10 Moderate

Promoting a proactive culture. 10 7 14 10 3 44 121 0.55 11 Moderate

Information received about supplier more

accurate.

11 6 15 10 2 44 118 0.536 12 Moderate

Pooled mean of tactical values

0.695

Moderate

Operational values

Improved communication 0 2 3 8 32 44 205 0.932 1 High

Reduced paperwork. 0 2 2 9 31 44 201 0.913 2 High

Improved data management 0 2 1 17 24 44 195 0.886 3 High

Reduced bottlenecks. 0 1 6 23 14 44 182 0.827 4 High

Reduced operational costs. 1 3 2 22 16 44 181 0.823 5 High

Improved response time to queries. 0 0 5 29 10 44 181 0.823 6 High

Improved procurement process. 0 1 10 21 12 44 176 0.800 7 High

Order process more efficient. 1 6 11 22 4 44 154 0.700 8 Medium

Increased ability to control and forecasting. 4 1 17 21 1 44 146 0.664 9 Moderate

Reduced lead time on financial planning. 5 10 10 16 3 44 134 0.609 10 Moderate

Improved partnership with suppliers. 7 6 11 19 1 44 133 0.604 11 Moderate

Improved supplier performance. 6 11 10 15 2 44 128 0.582 12 Moderate

Pooled mean of operational values

0

.764

High

The findings in Table 5 (concerning the

level of awareness of the benefits) were

further classified into low, moderate and

high levels of awareness. Out of 30

benefits surveyed, 14 were ranked with high level of awareness (0.70 and above),

the rest 16 factors were ranked with

moderate values ranging from 0.50 to

0.699. It means that respondents agreed

that all the factors are either highly

beneficial or moderately beneficial to

national economy. None of the factors

identified was ranked as having low level of benefit to the national economy.

The highest ranked in each of the three

categories, namely strategic values,



60

tactical values and operational values are

“reduced marketing cost” (0.773), “lower

procurement cost” (0.823) and “improved

communication” (0.932) respectively. As

can be suggested here, cost and

communication factors are key benefits that can influence the adoption of the

technology. Respondents believe that e-P

is most important to the country on

operational value (0.764), followed by

strategic value (0.695) and then tactical

values (0.621). This finding concludes that

quantity surveyors are generally aware

that e-P has high value to the economy of

the nation.

The next part was an inquest into the

key benefits of e-P to the profession. The

same factors previously identified in Table 5 were used in this case. The

factors were ranked and categorised into

low, moderate and high benefits and

reported below in Table 6. Respondents

were asked to rate the extent the listed

factors assist in their service delivery.

Table 6: Benefits of e-procurement to quantity surveying profession in Nigeria

Variables N Mean Std. Dev. Rank Remarks

Improved communication. 44 4.659 0.818 1st High

Reduced paperwork. 44 4.568 0.789 2nd High

Improving data management data. 44 4.432 0.759 3rd High

Reduced bottlenecks. 44 4.136 0.734 4th High

Reduced operational costs. 44 4.114 0.945 5th High

Lower procurement cost. 44 4.114 0.945 5th High

Improved response time to queries. 44 4.114 0.979 6th High

Improved procurement process. 44 4.000 0.778 7th High

Reduced time required to collect tenders 44 4.000 0.778 7th High

Faster payment process. 44 3.932 0.974 8th Moderate

Improved teamwork. 44 3.886 0.841 9th Moderate

Reduced marketing cost. 44 3.864 0.905 10th Moderate

Increased quality service 44 3.773 0.961 11th Moderate

Improved contract administration. 44 3.591 0.787 12th Moderate

Order process more efficient. 44 3.500 0.928 13th Moderate

Improving integration between different business functions

44 3.386 1.146 14th Moderate

Improved control and monitoring. 44 3.364 1.123 15th Moderate

Increased ability to control cash flow. 44 3.341 0.888 16th Moderate

Increased ability to control and forecasting. 44 3.318 0.934 17th Moderate

Reduced time of preparing cost plans. 44 3.205 1.133 18th Moderate

Improving organizational and process flexibility 44 3.205 1.374 19th Moderate

Reduced lead time on financial planning. 44 3.045 1.160 20th Moderate

Improved partnership with suppliers. 44 3.023 1.151 21st Moderate

Improved firm growth and success. 44 3.000 1.121 22nd Moderate

Ability to search product/supplier more effective. 44 2.932 1.283 23rd Low

Improved supplier performance. 44 2.909 1.158 24th Low

Reduced and eliminate problems with suppliers. 44 2.750 1.014 25th Low

Promoting a proactive culture. 44 2.750 1.241 26th Low

Information received about supplier more accurate. 44 2.682 1.216 27th Low

Realizing market leadership. 44 2.500 1.023 28th Low




60

Mean values were used in this case to

analyse and rank the importance of each

beneficial factor. Six factors were found

to be of low importance, 15 factors were

of moderate importance and nine factors

were highly important. With 5.0 as the highest mean score, the highest ranked

are, improved communications (4.659),

reduced paper work (4.568), improved

data management (4.432) and reduced

bottlenecks (4.136). This finding confirms

what Hashim et al. (2013) similarly found,

that the greatest positive value of e-

Procurement is on issues related to

communication and work process. More

than two-thirds of the respondents

surveyed by Hashim et al. (2013)

perceived the implementation of e-Procurement as positively affecting

communication and work process. Also

ranked high in this research are three

factors, n a m e l y -reduced operational

cost, lower procurement cost and

improved response time to queries, each

having m e a n value of 4.114. It can be

deduced that the understanding of the

benefit of e-P in this work is limited

more to office management and traditional

cost and time values which has not improved much since 2013. Quantity

surveyors only moderately understand

that the more complex advantage like

improved team work, payment

efficiencies, quality management etc. can

a l s o be derived. The items “supply

performance management, improved

proactive culture and market leadership

advantage” were ranked low. Therefore,

this understanding which limits e-P to the

traditional services improvement i s p oor

a n d might have also influenced poorly

the zeal to adopting the e- Technology in

a more complex undertaking.

Impediments to the adoption of the

e-technology What other challenges facing the adoption

of e-P was also enquired. The factors

identified from literature were

categorised into cultural, knowledge,

reliability, security, legal and cost related

factors in line with suggestions from

literature. These factors have also been found relevant in influencing e-P in

different ways. The result is reported in

Table 7 below as follows.

Security (0.738) and legal (0.832) related

factors are still the main challenges t o

e - P w h i c h i s in line with findings by

(Laryea and Ibem, 2016). Cultural

(0.599), knowledge (0.577), cost (0.595)

and reliability (0.686) were lower.

However, all the categories scored above average (above 0.50) which suggests that

all of them remain significant impediments

to e-P adoption. Five challenges ranked

first from each category in Table 6 that

highly affect the adoption of e-P are- lack

of legal control (0.832); authenticity of

documents submitted (0.832);

interoperability issue, (0.805); original

hard copies of documents wanted not

electronic copies ( 0.773) and the lack of

IT infrastructure (0.700). Generally, the

challenges in Table 6 are still severe to the adoption of e- Technology in Nigeria

which must be reduced to enhance speedy

adoption.



61

Table 7: Challenges with e-procurement adoption in Nigeria.

Variables Level of

severity

No. Σfx RIV Rank Remark

1 2 3 4 5 Cultural issues.

Government agencies want original copies of documents not electronic copies.

2 5 7 13 17 44 170 0.773 1 High

Internet is impersonal 7 7 13 13 4 44 132 0.600 2 Moderat

e People are slow in responding to emails 4 11 17 10 2 44 127 0.582 3 Moderate Lack of understanding of benefits of e-

procurement by parties. 3 14 19 6 2 44 122 0.555 4 Moderat

e

Reluctance to change 7 23 6 3 5 44 108 0.491 5 Low

Pooled mean value of cultural issues 0.599 Moderate

Knowledge of e-procurement systems.

Lack of skilled personnel 5 9 12 11 7 44 138 0.627 1 Moderat

e Lack of business relationship with suppliers 7 14 9 9 5 44 123 0.559 2 Moderate Lack of understanding on how e-

procurement works 7 14 12 6 5 44 120 0.545 3 Moderat

e Pooled mean value of knowledge of e-procurement systems 0.577 Moderate

Reliability of IT infrastructure

Interoperability issues. 1 5 4 16 18 44 177 0.805 1 High

Lack of IT infrastructure 1 4 13 24 2 44 154 0.700 2 High

Remoteness of IT networks 3 7 20 10 4 44 137 0.623 3 Moderate System failure 3 3 27 9 2 44 136 0.618 4 Moderate Pooled mean value of reliability of IT infrastructure 0.686 Moderate

Security issues

Lack of confidentiality 3 6 14 15 6 44 147 0.668 1 Moderate Security of online transactions 2 8 16 15 3 44 141 0.641 2 Moderate Problems with online scam 3 12 14 12 3 44 132 0.600 3 Moderate Viruses on networks can compromise the

integrity of data transmitted 8 8 12 9 7 44 131 0.595 4 Moderat

e

System Hacking 6 12 16 9 1 44 119 0.541 5 Moderate Pooled mean value of security issues 0.738 High

Legal issues

Lack of legal control systems 1 3 6 12 22 44 183 0.832 1 High

Authenticity of documents submitted 2 6 19 17 44 183 0.832 2 High

Pooled mean value of legal issues 0.83 High

Cost issues

Cost implication of systems 2 10 8 16 8 44 150 0.682 1 Moderat

e Internet is expensive 4 11 10 14 5 44 137 0.623 2 Moderate

There is no business values realised 12 13 10 7 2 44 106 0.482 3 Low

Pooled mean value of cost issues 0.595 Moderate


Discussion The aim of the study was to determine the

status of e-P system in Nigerian. The

research first articulated the concept of e-

P within the construction domain. The

uniqueness and complexity of

construction industry was expressed, and

the construction e-P then conceptualised

and distinguished from the e-P of other

goods and services.



62

The second issue addressed relates to the

level of awareness of the concept and the

adoption of varying tools of the e-P

technology. Understanding a new concept

is the first step to its adoption. The first question was if respondents practice e-P in

their organizations. Majority of

respondents impressively affirmed such.

When asked to identify the e-P tools or

aspects they are aware of, the result shows

that out of 10 aspects surveyed, only e-

Tendering is widely known. Other

aspects like the e-information/e-

notification, e- sourcing and e-awarding

only indicated a low level of awareness

among quantity surveyors in Nigeria which

is in line with the findings of Laryea and Ibem (2014).

On the benefits of the e-P, earlier s tudies

have shown that the decision to adopt e-

Procurement was influenced by the

perceived direct and indirect benefits like

time and cost savings, increased quality,

efficiency and effective communication,

reduction in paperwork and increased

productivity among others (Rankin, Chen

& Christian, 2006; Ibem et al., 2016). Despite that Table 3 indicates respondents

bei n g aware that adopting e-P

technology in its fullest form will benefit

the economy of the nation and their

professional functions, the level of

adoption is still low and slow. This is a

mismatch where the adoption is low and

slow, yet respondents believe that all the

thirty (30) benefits surveyed are of high

benefit to the economy. It can be explained

that the understanding of the benefit is still

within the context of the basic computer application. For example, two key benefits

identified are -t h e lowering of

procurement and marketing cost of

projects and the improved

communications. Regards the benefit to the

firms that adopt the technology, eight out

of the 30 benefits are highly important,

among which are cost, management and

communication related factors. Fifteen

factors were found to be moderately

important while the other 6 were of low

importance. Factors like improved team

work, improved control and monitoring

payment efficiencies, promoting proactive

culture and realising market leadership

which are advancement of the traditional

use of computers were ranked lower. Therefore the understanding of the benefits

of e-P among quantity surveyors still tends

towards the traditional understanding of

computer applications. As such, even with

the knowledge of the benefit to the

economy and to the improved performance

of the firms, the adoption of the technology

is still low and slow. Other factors earlier

identified to dampen the rate of adopting e-

P was also a subjected to investigation.

Twenty-three ( 2 3 ) other inhibiting

factors to the adoption documented in literature were investigated and the key

ones identified include- Governments

agencies needing hard copies of

documents instead of soft copies, lack of

skilled personnel in the handling of the

process, interoperability issue, lack of

confidentiality, lack of legal control

systems and t h e i n i t i a l cost

implication of the systems respectively.

T h e legal and security concerns are still

issues to address also.

Conclusion and Recommendations This study assessed the status of e-P

system among Quantity Surveyors in

Nigeria. The choice of quantity surveying

was informed by the view that their

traditional role will most likely influence

quick adoption of e-P. Therefore the

researchers expected a high level of understanding and adoption in the industry.

While there are some levels of adoption of

the e-technology in the construction

business, its adoption is rather slow and

low. The e-P concept and tools are still not

fully understood among Nigerian Quantity

Surveyors which could have influenced the

slow and low level of adoption.

Respondents are foun d t o be more

familiar with e-tendering leaving out nine

other tools studied. Th us , th e tools n ot

un d er s t ood are not widely applied in the procurement of construction projects.

Respondents are however aware of the



63

benefits of e-P to the performance of their

work and to the national economy in

general, yet no significant improvement in

the adoption since previous studies. Legal

and security challenges are still important

concern to the adoption of e-P. The findings in this study present a

number of implications. For example, if

quantity surveyors who are expected to

pioneer e-P are still lacking in the

understanding of the concept, then other

professions may present worse situation.

While noting that procurement is a

teamwork involving all professionals at a

time, poor adoption by Quantity Surveyors

could imply poor adoption by other

professionals also. Therefore, Nigeria still

has much to do to raise the level of adoption of e-P in the construction sector

of her economy. To improve the level of

adoption of e-P in Nigeria, there is need

to focus efforts on educating and

upda t in g stakeholders i n t h e se ct or

on all the relevant tools and their benefits

in construction procurement. The kind of

training in higher institutions and in the

continued professional development after

graduation should focus on e-P to a greater

extent. There is also the need to appraise the existing laws and security matters on e-

P to allay the fears of stakeholders on

legal and security concerns. The relevance

and adequacy of the legal framework to

address these concerns could be reviewed

and made available to the public. This may

create confidence and trust on the e- P

technology, and will enhance its quick

acceptance and adoption in Nigeria.

This research has contributed to

knowledge by availing the level of understanding of the concept, benefits and

adoption of e-P among Nigerian Quantity

Surveyors. Findings avail point of focus by

stakeholders in the efforts to enhancing its

adoption towards better economic

performance. Further research should

quantify the value of adopting e-P as

against the traditional procurement method

to avail the financial benefit so as to

convince sceptics that e-P is actually

significantly beneficial financially.

References:

Adebayo, V. O. & Evans, R. E. (2016).

Adoption of e-procurement systems in developing countries: a Nigerian

public sector perspective.

International Journal of

Mechatronics, Electrical and

Computer Technology (IJMEC).

6(20), 2820-2828. DOI:

649123/10198.

Aduwo, E. B., Ibem, E. O., Uwakony, O.,

Tunji-Olayeni, P and Ayo-Vuaghan,

E. K. (2016). Barriers to the

uptake of e-procurement in the Nigerian building industry. Journal of

Theoretical and Applied

Information Technology. 89 (1) 133-

147.

Adzroe, E. K & B. Ingirige., 2014. E-

Business used in the Ghanaian

construction industry: the drivers.

Retrieved from

www.cib2014.org/proceedings/files/p

apers/664/pdf.

Adzroe, E. K. & Ingirige, B. (2013).

Exploring e-Business technology to support improvement in the

infrastructure procurement process in

the Ghanaian construction industry.

In: Proceedings of 11th International

Postgraduate Research Conference

8- 10 April 2013 University of

Salford.

Ateto, M. D., Hosndieki, N. S. and Okibo,

W. (2013). The effect of e-P practice

on effective procurement in public

hospitals. A case of Kisii Level 5 hospital. American international

journal of contemporary research,

3(8):103-111.

Bakar, N. A., Peszynski, K., Azizan, N.

& Sundram, V. P. K. (2016).

Abridgment of traditional

procurement and e-procurement:

definitions, tools and benefits.

Journal of Emerging Economies and

Islamic Research, vol4, no. 1 page 1-

18. Available at www.jeeir.com.

Baladhandayuthan, T and Venkatesh, D. S. (2012). Construction industry in

Kuwait: An analysis on e-

http://www.cib2014.org/proceedings/files/papers/664/pdf


http://www.jeeir.com/



64

procurement adoption with respect

to supplier’s perspective.

International Journal of Management

Research and Development (IJMRD),

2(1):1-17.

Bello, W.A & Iyaba., R . O . A . ( 2013). Comparative analysis of

barriers to e-procurement among

quantity surveyors in UK and

Nigeria. Scottish Journal of arts,

social sciences and scientific studies,

14(2):175-187. Available at

http://scottishjournal.co.uk.

Chebii, L. D. (2016). Determinants of

successful implementation of E-

procurement in public institutions in

Kenya. International Journal of

Economics, Commerce and Management United Kingdom 4(4),

Available at http://ijecm.co.uk/

Chilipunde, R. L. (2013). Electronic

tendering in the Malawian

construction industry: the dilemmas

and benefits. Journal of modern

education review. 3(10)791-800.

Available at

http://www.academicstar.us

Dowsett, R. M. & Harty, C. F. (2013).

Evaluating the benefits of BIM for sustainable design: a review in:

Smith, S.D and Ahiaga-Dagbui, D.D

(Eds) Procs 29th Annual ARCOM

Conference, 2- 4 September 2013,

Reading, UK, Association of

Researchers in Construction

Management, 13-23.

Eadie, R., Perera, S., Heaney, G. &

Carlisle, J. (2007). Drivers and barriers to public sector e-

procurement within Northern

Ireland’s construction industry.

Journal of Information Technology in

Construction (ITcon) 12:103.

Available at http://itcon.org/2007/6/

Eadie, R., Perera, S. and Heaney, G.

(2010). Identification of e-

procurement drivers and barriers for

UK construction organisations and

ranking of these from the perspective of the quantity surveyors. Journal of

Information Technology in

construction (ITcon), 15: 23-43.

Eadie, R., Perera, S. & Heaney, G. (2011).

Analysis of the use of E-Procurement in

the public and private sector in the UK

construction industry. Journal of


construction (ITcon), 16: 669-686. Harty, C. ( 2005). Innovation in

construction: a sociology of

technology approach. Building

Research & Information, 33(6):512-

522.

Hashim, N., Said, I. & Idris, N. H.

(2013). Exploring e-procurement

value for construction companies in

Malaysia. Procedia Technology,

9:836-845.

Hashim, N., Said, I. & Idris., N . H .

( 2014). E-procurement implementation in Malaysian

construction i n d u s t r y . Australian

Journal of Basic and Applied

Sciences, 8(6):231-238. Available at

www.ajbasweb.com.

Hassan, H., Tretiakov, A., Wh i ddet t , T.

& Adon, I. (2014). Extent of e-

procurement use in SMEs: A

descriptive study. International

Conference on Accounting Studies

2014, ICAS 2014, 18-19 August 2014, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Procedia - Social and Behavioral

Sciences 164: 264-270.

Ibem, E. O., & Laryea, S. ( 2015). E-

Procurement use in the South

African construction industry.

Journal of Information Technology

in Construction (ITcon), 20: 364-

384. Available at

http://www.itcon.org/2015/23.

Ibem, E. O., Aduwo, E. B., Tunji-

Olayeni, P., Ayo-Vaughan, E. A. & Uwakonye, U. O. (2016). Factors

influencing e-Procurement adoption

in the Nigerian building industry.

Construction Economics and

Building, 16(4):54-67.

Ingirige, B. (2014). E-business used in

Ghanaian construction industry: the

drivers. Available at

www.cib2014.org/proceedings/files/p

apers/664/pdf.

http://scottishjournal.co.uk/

http://scottishjournal.co.uk/

http://ijecm.co.uk/

http://www.academicstar.us/

http://www.academicstar.us/

http://itcon.org/2007/6/

http://www.ajbasweb.com/

http://www.ajbasweb.com/

http://www.itcon.org/2015/23







65

Kamaruzamana, N. H., & Mohamed, Z.

(2013). Application of e-Procurement

Technologies for

Selecting Suppliers of Agro-Based

SMEs in Malaysia. Int. Journal of

Economics and Management 7(1): 45 – 66 (2013).

Laryea, S. & Ibem. E. O. (2014).

Patterns of technological innovation

in the use of e- procurement in

construction. Journal of Information

Technology in Construction (ITcon),

19:104-125, available at


McConnel, D. J., (2009). An analysis of

the factors affecting the uptake of the

application of e- procurement within

the UK public sectors. Published Doctoral Thesis.

Mohamed, K. A. & Milimu, C. (2016).

Factors contributing to adoption of E-

Procurement in County Governments

(A Case Study of County

Government of Mombasa). Imperial

Journal of Interdisciplinary Research

(IJIR), 2(10):1178-1204. Available

at http://www.onlinejournal.

Oladapo, A. A. ( 2005). An investigation into the use of ICT in the Nigerian



Construction (ITcon), 12:261

Oyediran, O. S. & Akintola, A. A. (2011).

A survey of state of the art e-

tendering in Nigeria. Journal of


Construction (ITcon), 16:557-576.

Rankin, J. H., Chen, Y. & Christian, A. J.

(2006). E-Procurement in the

Atlantic Canadian AEC industry. International Journal of Information

Technology in Construction (ITcon),

11:75-87.





66

Infill Development in Nigeria: A Sustainable

Development Strategy?

Abubakar Siddiq Usman1*, Muhammad Ali Chiroma 2,

Adamu Harir Isa 2 & Farouk Umar Yaya 1

1 Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Environment Design, Ahmadu

Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria 2 Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University,

Bauchi, Nigeria

[email protected]

Abstract Sustainability has increasingly become an important aspect of consideration by planners and

urban managers since the publication of Brundtland report of 1987 and the Rio Earth

Summit of 1992. It is considered as one of the greatest challenges facing urban planners in

the 21st century, especially for cities of the developing countries like Nigeria with an

extraordinarily high growth rate; which was projected to be the third globally by 2050.

Recent arguments have been in favour of compact city model as the most effective solution

in achieving sustainable urban development. In an attempt to achieve sustainable

urbanisation and urban development, Nigerian government in the late 1980s adopted the

infill development as a strategy for sustainable urban development. This paper examines the application of infill development strategy as a tool for sustainable urban development in

Nigeria and explores how it can contribute towards sustainable neighbourhood planning and

development. For purpose of this study, Ibrahim Taiwo Housing neighbourhood, Maiduguri

was selected as a case study. Data were collected using mixed methods involving

questionnaire survey, interviews, personal observation, and document search with

descriptive analysis as the main method of analysis. The study indicates that the absence of

public facilities such as green open spaces due to infill, coupled with the changes made to

the original neighbourhood plan lead to disappointing results. This appears to be due to a

number of factors: the lack of adherence to neighbourhood sustainability development

criteria; the increased in number of households, the relative scarcity of public open spaces

such as schools and green areas, the conversion of the only primary school into secondary schools, and the increased in number of vehicle ownership per households. Nevertheless; the

study concludes that for a city to achieve sustainability, its urban neighbourhoods, the

component parts of the city must be sustainable.

Keywords: Sustainability, Urban Neighbourhood, Infill Development, Sustainable

Neighbourhood Criteria, Nigeria.

Introduction According to the United Nations (UN), with prevailing population trend, two-thirds

of the world population would be urban by

2050. This trend in urban population

dynamics is more pronounced in cities of

the developing countries (Heilig, 2012).

Efforts at achieving sustainable urban

development have thus become one of the

key challenges for urban policy makers,

managers, and planner in developing

countries like Nigeria, where population

growth rate is extraordinarily high at 5%; and currently the 7th largest country in the

world and projected to be the 3rd largest

country in the world by 2050 (United


Usman, Chiroma, Isa & Yaya

Infill Development in Nigeria: A Sustainable Development Strategy?

67

Nation, 2015). According to UN (2014)

“Managing urban areas has become one of

the most important development challenges

of the 21st century. Our success or failure

in building sustainable cities will be a

major factor in the success of the post-2015 UN development agenda.” Sustainable

development has, therefore, become an

important aspect of consideration in urban

planning and design in the 21st century

(Porter, & Hunt, 2005).

Although sustainability is mostly

considered at the city level rather than the

neighbourhoods, nevertheless infill

development as a sustainable strategy

mostly takes place at the neighbourhood

level (Choguill, 2008). Therefore, achieving city sustainability requires that

its component parts - the urban

neighbourhoods must be sustainable,

(Luederitz, Lang, & Von Wehrden, 2013).

Interestingly, the last two decades have

witnessed a greater concern toward

neighbourhoods’ sustainability within the

research community (Choguill, 2008;

Luederitz et al., 2013). Numerous

approaches exist that define principles for

guiding sustainable development processes of urban neighbourhoods (Hamedani, &

Huber, 2012).

Several approaches from different

perspectives highlighted aspects that are

considered fundamental for the

development of sustainable urban

neighbourhoods (Luederitz et al., 2013).

These range from social aspects (Ahmed,

2012), to ecological issues (Li, Wang,

Paulussen, & Liu, 2005), the cultural

dimension (Joubert, 2004), and economic circumstances (Jones, 2009). Other

approaches point to economic and social

determinants (Kauko, 2011). Common to

all these approaches is the desire for the

attainment of sustainable urban

neighbourhoods, through the development

and redevelopment (Turcu, 2012) of new

and existing neighbourhoods. However,

recent arguments have been in favour of

compact city model as the most effective

solution in achieving sustainable urban development (Williams, 2004).

Compact city is generally defined as a

relatively high-density; mixed-use that

encourages walking and cycling with

clearly defined boundaries (Williams,

Burton, & Jenks, 2000). It is an urban redevelopment process, whereby existing

buildings, vacant land and open spaces are

developed or redeveloped at higher

densities, otherwise known as urban

‘intensification’, ‘consolidation’ or

‘densification’ (Sultana, 2008). The

compact city concept was developed to

improve the quality of life without expense

to the next generation, (Dantzig, & Saaty,

1973) which is in line with current

principles of sustainability (Lee, Kurisu,

An, & Hanaki, 2015). The major arguments in favour of the compact city model are

that; compact cities are judged to be

environmentally sustainable in terms of

transportation. The argument is that high

population densities and mixed-use allow

people to live in close proximity to work,

commercial and recreational facilities.

Thus, it is expected that it will encourage

walking and cycling thereby reducing the

overall demand for vehicle travel. This will

ensure efficient use of energy that will therefore promote environmental

sustainability (Williams et al., 2000;

Williams, 2004). It is also believed to be

environmentally sustainable in preserving

rural land through the reduction of sprawl

development (Williams, 2004; Sultana,

2008).

In terms of social sustainability; it is argued

that as cities grew to be more compact with

mixed uses, people of varied socio-cultural

background comes together, (Dempsey, Bramley, Power, & Brown, 2011). This it

is argued create diversity, social cohesion,

and cultural development (Williams, 2004;

Sharifi, & Murayama, 2013). It is also

believed to be equitable in terms of

accessibility to social facilities and services

(Bramley, Dempsey, Power, & Brown,

2006; 2007). Economically, the model

supports local employment opportunities

through the provision of services and

businesses. In addition, the compact city model, it was argued is cost effective as it



68

reduces the cost per capita of infrastructure

provisions, such as roads, drainages, water

supply, electricity and street lighting.

Also the United Nation, Department of

Economic and Social Affairs (UN, DESA) in 2014, state inter alia: “Providing public

transportation, as well as housing,

electricity, water and sanitation for a

densely settled urban population, is

typically cheaper and less environmentally

damaging than providing a similar level of

services to a dispersed rural population.”

(UN, DESA, 2014).

Nigeria like many other African countries

is already facing numerous developmental

challenges in meeting the needs of its growing urban population. Since

independence, in spite of the limited

success, the successive Nigerian

governments and its urban community have

invented alternative systems (formal and

informal) in dealing with these challenges.

These include but not limited to, the

development of open space and vacant

land, more intensive use and conversions of

existing development through the sub-

divisions, infill development, and land use change or conversion (Olotuah &

Bobadoye, 2009; Adetokunbo & Emeka,

2015). Infill developments were initially

limited Government Residential Areas

(GRA). These GRAs were designed as low

density with plots sizes of 2000 square

meters (100m x200m), or more with

abundant open space and recreational areas

(Jiboye, 2011). The hitherto serene GRA

housing environment thus become medium

and high density with high concentration of

road traffic leading to a decline in the residents’ quality of life (Ayotamuno,

Gobo, & Owei, 2010). It was not until the

oil boom period of the 1980s that the infill

developments becomes widespread

extending to institutional staff quarters and

government low-cost housing estates of

medium and high density (Ayotamuno et

al., 2010). This is due to the pressure on

the available urban land resources and the

inability of government to provide serviced

layouts to its teeming population at the urban fringes.

In Nigeria, however, the adaptation of the

infill development strategy had been

extensively carried out in all Nigerian

urban centres from independence to the

present date. Consequently, the new town planning agenda become associated with

compact development. Therefore, this

study was instigated by the fact that infill

development is vital planning tool for

achieving sustainable urban development

through compact development.

The objective of this paper is to assess the

infill development programme in

promoting sustainable urban

neighbourhood in Nigeria, against a set of

sustainable neighbourhood’s criteria. The study, therefore, seeks to examine the

impacts of infill development in a planned

residential neighbourhood and its

implications for urban neighbourhood

sustainability.

Research Method For purpose of this study, Ibrahim Taiwo

residential neighbourhood, Maiduguri was selected as a case study. The choice of

Ibrahim Taiwo residential neighbourhood

was based on the following reasons; firstly,

it was a plan urban residential

neighbourhood of medium and high

density; and secondly, it was a planned

infill development. Data were collected

using mixed methods involving

questionnaire survey, interviews, personal

observation, and document analysis. The

data were analysed using descriptive statistical tools as the main method of

analysis. The study included a set of

primary surveys ranging from household

surveys to mapping. For the household

survey, a stratified random sampling was

adopted using housing typologies as the

criteria for selecting samples. Efforts have

been made to ensure that the selected

samples are uniformly distributed

throughout the neighbourhoods. Factors

such as travel patterns, vehicle ownership;

income; density and use; household type and size that are considered relevant to

urban sustainability, were included in the

household survey. Since the study explores



69

one case study with no ‘control’ case study,

therefore evidence from which conclusions

were drawn is limited.

Sustainable Urban Neighbourhood Although the importance of sustainable

urban neighbourhood in contributing to

the overall city sustainability has now

been emphasised, there is no consensus

as to what constitutes an urban

neighbourhood. The lack of consensus at

defining urban neighbourhood is because

of various criterions that are considered fundamental to the concept of urban

neighbourhood. Several definitions that

are considered essential to understanding

the concept of the urban neighbourhood

have been suggested. Yet, in none of

these, is the population size and function

of the neighbourhood specified.

Ironically, the basic concern of

sustainability is to provide urban

neighbourhoods with specific functions

that promote sustainable lifestyles (Choguill, 2008). There are four major

criteria that are fundamental to the

concept of sustainable urban

neighbourhood, viz ‘economic’, ‘social’,

‘environmental’, and ‘technical’

(Choguill, 2008). These criteria are

similar to those used in sustainability

analysis at the city level (Luederitz et al.,

2013).

Neighbourhood Sustainability

Criteria The neighbourhood sustainability criteria

are fundamental to the attainment of the

sustainable urban neighbourhood.

However, these criteria are interrelated

and are not mutually exclusive.

Economic sustainability as a criterion

refers to the actual economic benefit both

in terms of reduction of transport and

infrastructure cost, and employment

opportunity within the neighbourhood.

The ability to walk to a central focal

point is basic to the neighbourhood and

would eliminate many daily vehicle trips.

The neighbourhood population should be

sufficient enough not only to support

neighbourhood shops, for local shopping

but also provide employment for

neighbourhood residents. Similarly, the

environmentally sustainable criterion,

which refers the existence green open

spaces within the neighbourhood, augmented by schools and other

neighbourhood amenities, serve as a

forum where neighbourhood members

both old and young meet, thus

encouraging social interaction.

The next criterion is social sustainability,

which is generally concerned with the

level of social cohesion within the

neighbourhood as a result of personal

interaction among residents (Hirschfield

& Bowers, 1997). Thus encouraging public participation is a matter of

concern to the neighbourhood

sustainability. The central locations of

shops and other supporting services

provide an avenue for community social

interaction. The fourth and final

criterion; technical sustainability, this

refers to the relationship within

neighbourhoods and between

neighbourhoods and the city.

Neighbourhoods with defined boundaries, enhances social interaction,

while minimised through fare improved

security, especially children's’ safety,

which is “an essential prerequisite for a

stable and sustainable neighbourhood”

(Shaftoe, 2000; 2012).

The Study Area Location Maiduguri (Yerwa), the capital of Borno state is located in the north-eastern part of

Nigeria within the Sudan Savannah of the

Sahel region, at latitude 11.85o N and

Longitude 13.05o E, with an altitude of

about 300 meters above sea level. It lies on

a relatively flat undulating plain that slopes

gently toward Lake Chad. Its landform is

characterised by the Bama Ridge (the

shoreline of the ancient Lake Chad), River

Ngadda, and its tributary River Ngaddabul.

Maiduguri apart from being an important

centre of Kanuri culture and Islamic scholarship is also the principal trading hub

for north-eastern Nigeria. This coupled

with its strategic position make it a



70

destination for tourist and business from

neighbouring Republics of Chad, Niger and

Cameroon. These activities serve as

magnets that attract more and more people

to the city (Figure. 1).

Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing Maiduguri

Source: Google Maps, (2015)

Figure 2: Map of Maiduguri showing Ibrahim Taiwo Estate

(Source: Adopted from Max Lock, 1976)

Ibrahim Taiwo Estate (ITE) - Federal Low-

cost residential estate - is one of the

planned neighbourhoods within Maiduguri,

located along Baga Road (Figure 2). It

occupies approximately 60 hectares of land

is bounded by Bolori ward to the east and

south, Pampomari Housing Estate to the

south and west, and Zajiri/Umarari wards

to the north. The ITE consist of 850

housing units of semi-detached houses and apartments blocks with ample open space

for children playgrounds, parking lots, and

gardens. The population of ITE is

estimated at 8,500 persons by 2002 with an

average household size of 10 persons and a

net density and gross building density of

340 and 141 persons per hectare (pph)

respectively. The residential density was

estimated at 34 and 14 dwellings per

hectare (dph) for the net and gross density

respectively.

Results And Discussion Pre-Infill Plan: 1977 - 2002

In planning the neighbourhood, the radial

pattern interlaced with the grid system was

adopted with only one external linkage

with no thoroughfare traffic. The external

access road links the ITE with Baga Road

to the north forming an internal loop of 19

metres wide (with a 1.5-metre pedestrian walkway on both sides) with no direct

access to the individual housing unit. Two

minor access roads of 11 and 9 metres wide

respectively) that serve as access to the

various housing units connect directly from

both sides of the internal loop. These minor

access roads either ends up as a cul-de-sac

or parking lot of apartment blocks. All the

roads within the neighbourhood are

designed with a 1metre drainage channel

on both sides



71

Figure 3: Pre-Infill Plan: 1977 – 2002

Source: Adapted Google earth satellite imagery/ Field Survey 2013, 2002

In terms of land use both the primary

school, playground and a central mosque

were centrally located to serve as a focal

point, while other public uses such as

police station, estate office, church, and

post office were distributed within the

neighbourhood (Figure 3). The only

commercial land use within the ITE neighbourhood is a small shopping

complex located at the intersection of the

external access road and the loop. Although

no study has been conducted on the

sustainability of ITE neighbourhood, the

neighbourhood seems to exhibit certain

sustainable urban neighbourhood attributes

in its planning and design. Thus, the

planning and design of the ITE

neighbourhood prior to the infill can be

said to adhere to sustainable

neighbourhood criteria.

Post-Infill Plan: 2002 - 2013 In other to accommodate the growing

number of urban populace, the Borno

State Government in 2002 adopted the

infill development as a strategy for the redevelopment of the ITE residential

neighbourhood. A total of about 10.3 ha

made up of 208 plots (183 residential and

25 commercial) of various sizes were

introduced as infill plots (Figure 4, table

1). As shown in Table 2, there is an

increase of about 10.3429 (17.5%) and

0.5599 (0.78%) for residential and

commercial uses respectively. The

survey indicates a drastic decrease in

LEGEND

Schools

Mosque

Church

Police Station

Post Office

Estate Dept Office

Shops

Open Space



72

open spaces from 16.5 to 5.5 ha, a

decrease of 66% in real terms and 18% in

the land budget. It is interesting to note

that the only public primary school

within the neighbourhood have been

converted into a secondary school,

leaving the neighbourhood with only a

private primary school.

Figure 4: Post-Infill Plan: 2002 – 2013 Source: Adapted Google earth satellite imagery/ Field Survey 2013 In terms of density (both population and

building) show an appreciable increase

the survey reveals. In 2013 the estimated

population of ITE neighbourhood stands at 12,450 persons – an increase of 3,950

persons. This gives the neighbourhood a

population density of 207pph (post-infill)

from 141pph (pre-infill) and a gross

building density of 14 dph (pre-infill),

21dph (post-infill), and a net building

density of 34dph and 36dph for pre-infill

and post infill respectively as table 2

indicate. The study indicates that the increase in population density is much

higher than that of the building density.

This might not be unconnected with the

household size and number of households

per house as shown in table 3.

LEGEND

Schools

Church

Police Station

Post Office

Estate Dept Office Shops

Mosque

Open Space



74

Table 1: Comparision between Pre and Post-Infill Land Use in ITE Neighbourhood

S/No Land Uses

Pre-Infill Plan

1977 - 2002 Post-Infill Plan

2002 - 2013 Difference (Ha)

Difference (%)

Ha % Ha %

1 Residential 24.6028 40.00 34.9457 57.488 +10.3429 +17.50

2 Commercial 0.0900 0.14 0.5599 0.92 +0.4699 +0.78

3 Public Use

a School 3.5364 5.80 3.1749 5.55 -0.3615 -0.60

Primary School 3.5364 5.80 - -

Secondary Schools - - 3.1749 5.55

b Police Station 0.7913 1.30 0.7913 1.30 0 0

c Post Office 0.2460 0.40 0.2460 0.40 0 0

d Estate Office 0.2940 0.50 0.1200 0.20 -0.1740 -0.30

e Mosque 1.5035 2.50 1.7590 2.90 +0.2555 +0.40

f Church 0.8750 1.40 0.8750 1.40 0 0

Sub total 7.2462 11.9 6.9662 11.75 - 0.2800 - 0.50

4 Open Spaces 16.5594 27.00 5.5065 9.00 -11.0529 -18.00

5 Circulation

a Road Network 10.3839 17.00 11.1260 18.00 +0.4721 +1.00

b Drainage 1.6983 2.80 1.6102 2.60 -0.0881 - 0.20

c Utilities 0.2067 0.34 0.0726 0.11 -0.1341 - 0.23

Sub total 12.2889 20.14 12.8088 20.71 +0.2499 + 0.57

TOTAL 60.7873 100.00 60.7873 100.00 - -

Source: Field Survey, 2013

The study also shows an increase of

about 1% in road network as more access

roads were needed for the infill plots,

thereby obstructing the existing system

of pedestrian walkways (Figure 4, table

1). This, in turn, encourages car use,

especially for short trips, increased

traffic congestion, and thus contributing

to air pollution the planned infill

development can thus be criticized for lack of sustainable neighbourhood

development criteria in its planning and

design. Another access road that links the

neighbourhood with Pampomari to the

south was provided, thus creating

thoroughfare traffic. This not only leads

to a considerably increased in vehicular

traffic but also traffic congestion and

conflicts.

Though the study shows a significant

difference between the pre and post infill

in their land use composition as shown in

Table 1, however the land use mix

entropy for both pre and post infill of

0.37 and 0.48 respectively is less than

half (Table 2). This indicates that the

land use composition is below a desirable

level as the closer to 1 the land use mix

entropy is the better the composition (Soltani & Bosman 2005). The

availability of diverse housing types

makes it possible for households of

different background to live together.

The study shows that 62% of housing

types for post infill are single-family

apartment type houses, made up of one,

two and three-bedroom apartment type

(Table 2). According to Katz (1994):


75

Table 2: Urban Form Features

Variable/Factor Description Pre Infill Post Infill

Urban form features

Mixed Uses Land use mix entropy 0.37 0.48

Population Density Person per area (per/ha) 141 207

Building Density Gross Density 14 21 Net Density 34 36

Residential Net

Density

Person per residential area

(per/ha) 348 360

Housing Type (%)

3 bedroom Semi-detached 18.8 15.5 2 bedroom Semi-detached 27.6 22.6 3 bedroom Apartment - 15.8 2 bedroom Apartment 26.8 24.0 1 bedroom Apartment 26.8 22.1


“Within neighbourhoods, a broad range

of housing types and price levels can

bring people of diverse ages, races, and

incomes into daily interactions,

strengthening the personal and civic

bonds essential to an authentic community.” It is therefore expected that

a wide-ranging housing type will more

likely lead to sustainable urban

neighbourhood by accommodating

household of different socio-economic

background. This is not the case with the

post infill development as the study

indicates.

In term of density, population, building,

and residential density are higher for post

infill than the pre infill era. Though the

study indicates increases in both building and residential density due to infill

development, however, there are no

significant differences between pre and

post infill development. This is attributed

to the conversion of open space to

residential (10.3429 ha) and commercial

(0.4699 ha) uses during infill

development (Table 2).

It has been suggested that public facilities

and services located in central areas with

good mix use and access make public

transport more reliable, encourages multi-

purposes trips, thus leading to a reduction

in both length and frequency of trips

(Burton, 2002). Accordingly, mixed-use

development provides an opportunity for a more diverse, high population and sizable

commercial activity in close proximity to

each other to facilitate viable public transit,

cycling and walking (Appleyard, 19800.

This enhances the viability, vitality and the

perceived community security by attracting

more people onto the street. A good mixed-

use is one that offers a full range of human

activities such as living, learning, working,

recreation, and worship within the same

neighbourhood and vice versa.

The study also shows that car dependency is more with 64% of households owning

two or more vehicles with 72% being

private cars (Table 3). These partly explain

the reliance on private cars for both work

and non-work trip (Table 3). Trip

frequency is put at 6.3 with local trips

within the neighbourhood and short trips of

less than 2km accounting for 31% and 45%

of total trip respectively (Table 3).



76

Table 3: Socio-economic Characteristics and Travel Pattern

Factor Description in (%) Post Infill

Income Level per month

Less than N 50,000 65 Higher than N 50,000 but less than N 250,000 31 Higher than N 250,000 04

Primary Employment

Govt/administration 52 Commerce 24 Agriculture 09 Others 15

Household size

Four or fewer persons 17 Five or six persons 35 Seven or more persons 48

Households per house

One household 10

Two or three households 68 Four or more households 22

Travel pattern Vehicle Ownership (%)

Without a vehicle 07 With one vehicle 29 With two or more 64

Type of Vehicle

Ownership (%)

Private Car 71 Tricycle 05

Motorcycle 08 Bicycle 16

Journey to work (%)

Public transport - Mini Bus 05 Public transport - Tricycle 06 Private car 77 Cycling /walking 12

Non-work trips (%)

Public transport - Mini Bus 06 Public transport – Tricycle 02 Private car 81

Cycling /walking 11

Trip frequency (number of trips per adult per day) 6.3 Local trips within the neighbour (%) 31 Short trips of less than 2km (%) 45 Short trips of more than 2km (%) 24


Findings/Inferences The promotion of compact mixed-use,

through infill strategy within the ITE

neighbourhood, is expected to reduce transport cost thereby promoting economic

sustainability. Although the increase in

commercial activities within the ITE

neighbourhood has to a certain extent

improve the neighbourhood’s economic

sustainability by providing employment,

car dependency for the daily trip rather

than decreased as expected has been on the

increase. Two main reasons can be

attributed; first, the lack of efficient and

effective public transport system; and second the conversion of the only public

primary school into secondary school as

parents are forced to take their children to a

school outside the neighbourhood.

Excessive car usage is regarded as the

major cause of greenhouse emission that causes global warming. In ITE

neighbourhood in addition to increasing

dependence on private car usage as earlier

mentioned, the introduction of additional

access to the south has turned the

neighbourhood into a thoroughfare, thereby

attracting more vehicular traffic into the

neighbourhood. This is not in tune with

sustainability as a reduction in vehicular

usage is a critical requirement for the

attainment of urban neighbourhood


77

sustainability. Secondly, the drastic

reduction in open spaces as the study

reveals is not inconsonant with the idea of

environmental sustainability.

Community interaction, social networks, and participation within these social

networks are keys to attaining social

sustainability at the urban neighbourhood

level in particular and the city level in

general. Shared public space such as

school, children playground, places of

worship, shopping areas, spaces in front of

buildings etc plays a greater role in this

regard. These shared spaces in most part

are not available, and where available is

restricted. For instances, the mosque,

school, and their open spaces (for the playground) are closed after official hours

and virtually impracticable to be utilised

during the official period. Another issue

that is of relevance to social sustainability

is the wall around the building. These

building walls apart from taking over the

spaces in front of buildings, also limit

children's play within the various

compounds. Therefore in terms of social

sustainability criterion, the infill strategy

has failed in promoting sustainability.

The ITE neighbourhood has performed

though with few exception relatively better

in terms of technical sustainability. The

neighbourhood fits relatively well into the

larger city. Secondly, the building of walls

around individual properties, though not in

tune with social sustainability as earlier

indicated, excluded vehicular traffic from

building blocks. The resultant cul-de-sacs

as a consequent of this enhance children's’

safety and therefore an indications towards technical sustainability.

Conclusion The study examines whether compact

development through infill strategy leads to

a sustainable urban neighbourhood in Nigeria. It reveals that, though there were a

number of issues with the adoption of infill

as an urban sustainable development

strategy, the infill, if properly handle will

lead to sustainable urban development. The

paper argues that the policy thrust of the

government lacks any conscious effort at

improving urban sustainability at

neighbourhood level. Rather the infill

development policies were aimed at

accommodating the rapid population

growth.

It posits that, though city sustainability is

incidentally dependent on the sustainability

of its neighbourhoods, for the

neighbourhoods to be sustainable requires

the cooperation of the city. The paper

suggests that for a city to achieve

sustainability, its urban neighbourhoods,

the component parts of the city must be

sustainable.

In conclusion, the paper suggested that future planning and design of urban

neighbourhoods in Nigeria should include

sustainable neighbourhood criteria if

sustainable urban development is to be

achieved. This is believed will lead to a

more pedestrian-friendly and reduced

traffic, thus creating a sustainable urban

neighbourhood with better air quality. It,

therefore, calls for further research into the

incorporation of these criteria into our

planning and design of urban neighbourhoods.

References Adetokunbo, I., & Emeka, M. (2015).

Urbanization, housing, homelessness

and climate change adaptation in

Lagos, Nigeria: Lessons from Asia. Journal of Design and Built

Environment, 15(2), 15-28.

Ahmed, K. G. (2012). Urban social

sustainability: A study of the Emirati

local communities in Al Ain. Journal

of Urbanism: International Research

on Placemaking and Urban

Sustainability, 5(1), 41-66.

Appleyard, D. (1980). Livable streets:

protected neighborhoods?. The

ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 451(1),

106-117.

Ayotamuno, A., Gobo, A. E., & Owei, O.

B. (2010). The impact of land use

conversion on a residential district in

Usman, Chiroma, Isa & Yaya Infill Development in Nigeria: A Sustainable Development Strategy?

78

Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Environment

and Urbanization, 22(1), 259-265.

Barton, H. (1998). Eco-neighbourhoods: A

review of projects. Local

Environment, 3(2), 159 - 177

Bramley, G., Dempsey, N., Power, S., & Brown, C. (2006, April). What is

‘social sustainability’, and how do our

existing urban forms perform in

nurturing it. In Sustainable

Communities and Green Futures’

Conference, Bartlett School of

Planning, University College London,

London.

Bramley, G., Brown, C., Dempsey, N., &

Power, S. (2007, April). ``Social

sustainability and urban form:

measuring and calibrating the relationship''. In Planning Research

Conference, Heriot-Watt University,

Edinburgh, April.

Breheny, M. J. (Ed.). (1992). Sustainable

development and urban form (Vol. 2).

London: Pion.

Burton, E. (2002). Measuring urban

compactness in UK towns and cities.

Environment and Planning B:

Planning and Design, 29(2), 219-250.

Choguill, C. L. (2008). Developing sustainable neighbourhoods. Habitat

International, 32(1), 41-48.

Dantzig, G. B., & Saaty, T. L. (1973).

Compact city: a plan for a liveable

urban environment. WH Freeman.

Dempsey, N., Bramley, G., Power, S., &

Brown, C. (2011). The social

dimension of sustainable

development: Defining urban social

sustainability. Sustainable

development, 19(5), 289-300.

Grant, J. (2006). Planning the good community: new urbanism in theory

and practice (Vol. 9). Taylor &

Francis.

Hamedani, A. Z., & Huber, F. (2012). A

comparative study of DGNB, LEED

and BREEAM certificate systems in

urban sustainability. The Sustainable

City VII: Urban Regeneration and

Sustainability, 1121.

Heilig, G. K. (2012). World urbanization

prospects: the 2011 revision. United Nations, Department of Economic

and Social Affairs (DESA),

Population Division, Population

Estimates and Projections Section,

New York.

Hirschfield, A., & Bowers, K. J. (1997).

The effect of social cohesion on levels of recorded crime in

disadvantaged areas. Urban Studies,

34(8), 1275-1295.

Jabareen, Y. R. (2006). Sustainable urban

forms: Their typologies, models, and

concepts. Journal of planning

education and research, 26(1), 38-52

Jenks, M. (2000). Achieving sustainable

urban form. Taylor & Francis. E &

FN Spon, 11 New Fetter Lane,

London EC4P 4EE.

Jenks, M., Williams, K., & Burton E. (1996). The compact city: A

sustainable urban form? E & FN

Spon, 11 New Fetter Lane, London

EC4P 4EE.

Jones, C., Leishman, C., & MacDonald, C.

(2009). Sustainable urban form and

residential development viability.

Environment and planning A, 41(7),

1667-1690.

Joubert, L. (2004). Creative communities:

the arts, social responsibility and sustainable planning and

development. WIT Transactions on

Ecology and the Environment, 72

Katz, P., Scully, V., & Bressi, T. W.

(1994). The new urbanism: Toward

an architecture of community (Vol.

10). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kauko, T. (2011). An evaluation of the

sustainability of inner city residential

projects. Housing, Theory and

Society, 28(2), 144-165

Lee, J., Kurisu, K., An, K., & Hanaki, K. (2015). Development of the compact

city index and its application to

Japanese cities. Urban Studies, 52(6),

1054-1070.

Li, F., Wang, R., Paulussen, J., & Liu, X.

(2005). Comprehensive concept

planning of urban greening based on

ecological principles: a case study in

Beijing, China. Landscape and urban

planning, 72(4), 325-336.

Luederitz, C., Lang, D. J., & Von Wehrden, H. (2013). A systematic


79

review of guiding principles for

sustainable urban neighborhood

development. Landscape and Urban

Planning, 118, 40-52.

Olotuah, A. O., & Bobadoye, S. A. (2009).

Sustainable housing provision for the urban poor: a review of public sector

intervention in Nigeria. The Built and

Human Environment Review, 2, 51-

63.

Porter, L., & Hunt, D. (2005).

Birmingham's Eastside story: Making

steps towards sustainability?. Local

Environment, 10(5), 525-542.

Roo, G. D. (1997). Jenks, M., Burton, E.

and Williams, K.(eds)," The Compact

City: A Sustainable Urban

Form?"(Book Review). Town Planning Review, 68(2), 279.

Scheurer, J. (2007). Compact city policy:

How Europe rediscovered its history

and met resistance. The Urban

Reinventors, 2.

Scheurer, J., Curtis, C., & Porta, S. (2008).

Spatial Network Analysis of

Multimodal Transport Systems:

Developing a Strategic Planning Tool

to Assess the Congruence of

Movement and Urban Structure: a Case Study of Perth Before and After

the Perth-to-Mandurah Railway.

GAMUT, Australasian Centre for the

Governance and Management of

Urban Transport, University of

Melbourne.

Shaftoe, H. (2012). Convivial urban

spaces: Creating effective public

places. Earthscan

Shaftoe, H. (2000). Community safety and

actual neighbourhoods. Sustainable

Communities: The Potential for Eco-neighbourhoods Ed. H Barton

(Earthscan, London) chapter, 15

Sharifi, A., & Murayama, A. (2013).

Changes in the traditional urban form

and the social sustainability of

contemporary cities: A case study of

Iranian cities. Habitat International,

38, 126-134.

Soltani, A., & Bosman, C. (2005).

Evaluating Sustainable Urban Form:

Comparing Two Neighbourhood

Development Patters in Adelaide

(Doctoral dissertation, Griffith

University). Sultana, S. (2008). Spatial Planning, Urban

Form and Sustainable Transport–

Edited by Katie Williams. Growth

and Change, 39(2), 380-382.

Thomas, L., & Cousins, W. (1996). The

compact city: a successful, desirable

and achievable urban form. The

compact city: A sustainable urban

form, 53-65.

Turcu, C. (2012). Local experiences of

urban sustainability: Researching

Housing Market Renewal interventions in three English

neighbourhoods. Progress in

planning, 78(3), 101-150.

United Nations, Department of Economic

and Social Affairs, Population

Division (2015). World Urbanization

Prospects: 2015 Revision.

United Nations, Department of Economic

and Social Affairs, Population

Division (2014). World Urbanization

Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights (ST/ESA/SER A/352).

Urbanism, S. (2008). Urban Design with

Nature. Doug Farr.

Williams, K. (Ed.). (2017). Spatial

planning, urban form and sustainable

transport. Routledge

Williams, K. (2004). Can urban

intensification contribute to

sustainable cities? An international

perspective. City Matters: Official

Electronic Journal of Urbanicity

Williams, K., Burton, E., & Jenks, M. (2000). Achieving sustainable urban

form: an introduction. Achieving

sustainable urban form, 1-5.

Williams, K., & Lindsay, M. (2007). The

extent and nature of sustainable

building in England: An analysis of

progress. Planning Theory & Practice,

8(1), 31-49.


80

User’s Cultural Specific Spatial Needs in the

Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) Camps in

Abuja, Nigeria

Edem-Nse Yakno Gift Isa Bala Muhammad & Sani Ajanaku Momoh

1Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State.

[email protected]

Abstract Shelter constitutes one of the primary needs of displaced persons who seek refuge because

of natural and human orchestrated crisis in which their initial shelters have been destroyed.

Accordingly, different actors such as NGOs, internationals organizations and Governments

of different nations actively sought to provide shelter for the displaced persons. Due to the

rise in terrorism since 2012 in Nigeria, there has been a dire need of shelter provision for internally displaced persons, with the focus of these institutions being mostly on the decision

for these shelters to either be temporary or permanent. However, little study exists in the

understanding of cultural specific spatial needs of the internally displaced persons. This

research thus qualitatively understudied the perception of internally displaced person about

their shelter in Abuja Nigeria. In carrying out the research, three camps were purposively

selected using interviews and participant observations as instruments for data collection.

The content analysis of the data shows the emergence of unique spatial architectural

character of the culture sensitive residents of the internally displaced person’s (IDP) camps.

Most importantly is that the findings have implications in the planning of refugee camps,

especially the accommodative facilities for these campers which aligns more to the

communal system of living as opposed to individualistic spaces that are generally obtainable

in IDP camps

Keywords: Architecture, Design, IDP Refugee, Perception, Space

Introduction Refuge is sought globally from either

natural disaster as showcased in China, America, Philippines, Indonesia and India

(Kinghorn), 2015 or from terrorism as seen

in countries in the Middle East, Asia and

Africa (Dudley, 2016). These include

Syria, Columbia, Iraq, Sudan, Nigeria and

Pakistan as outlined by the United Nations

High Commission on Refugees (UNHCR,

2015). This has resulted in thousands of

individuals and families fleeing from their

homes, to settle in other locations within

the country or in neighbouring countries.

Each year, UNHCR provides shelter for displaced person around the globe

(Alloush, Taylor, Gupta, Rojas Valdes, &

Gonzalez-Estrada, 2017). The shelter

provided are supposed to be temporary,

however, over time they become almost a

permanent abode for the displaced persons,

even though they are not intended to be so

(Ramadan, 2013). This is because some of

these displaced persons are found to stay in

the temporary camps for long periods so

much so that they are not ready to return to their homes (Sliwa & Wiig, 2016). This is

because, situations that drove the refugees

away from their homes persists for a long

time. It thus suggests that these refugee

camps should be planned to accommodate

the cultural needs of the campers. More

also is that one of the essential needs of

settlements such as the IDP camp is the

integration of culture specific spatial need

of the settlers. It is common knowledge

that culture plays a great influence on the spatial needs and values of the people

(Muhammad, 2017). This therefore means

that, a prototype design template for all


Edem-Nse, Muhammad & Sani User’s Cultural Specific Spatial Needs in the Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) Camps in Abuja, Nigeria

81

IDP camps will be inappropriate due to the

diverse cultural heritage available within a

country. In existence is the United Nations

minimum standards for IDP camps, though

it is also possible to have a regional

community based cultural infusion in the planning of these camps (Oesch, 2017).

Mostly, government agencies are

concerned with what they consider as a

minimum standard for displaced persons

and their spatial needs, not putting into

consideration the actual needs of the end

users of the camps. Few studies exist on the

behavioural spatial mapping, as well as

people’s perception of displaced people’s

camp in Nigeria except few (Nwagbo &

Gerald, 2015; Okanlawon, Anene, & Reeves, 2010). Consequently, this paper

seeks to fill this gap through the study of

internally displaced person’s camps in the

Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, Nigeria.

This is because it became one of the most

favourable place of refuge for the internally

displaced persons, especially those that flee

from the Boko Haram insurgence from the

North-Eastern parts of Nigeria (Adibe,

2012; Agbiboa, 2013). This is perhaps due

to the location of donor agencies which are

mostly situated in the country’s capitals.

Overview of Emergency Settlement

in IDP Camps Emergency settlement, such as IDP camps

is constructed to meet up with the basic

needs of the displaced persons (Liu, Ruan

& Shi, 2011). Due to the increasing number

of internally displaced persons,

governments of nations in collaboration

with the United Nations High Commission

for Refugees in its submissions have made provisions in most parts of the world to

accommodate these displaced persons

(UNHCR, 2015).

Furthermore, UNHCR in 2015 stated that

‘out of the twenty-four countries with the

highest ratio of refugees to the population,

ten are members of the African Union’.

Similarly, the Norvarian Refugee Council

(NRC) in 2015 reported that in the past

decade (2006-2015), over 23.8 million persons have been displaced. The Figure 1

shows at a glance the number of persons

displaced globally from 2006-2015.

Figure 1 Number of Persons Displaced Globally, over the Last Decade Source: Norvarian Refugee Council (2015)

This thus showcases the global

importance of displaced persons’

camp. More also is that it is evident

that it will be difficult to completely

put an end to the unpleasant

circumstances that forces people to

become displaced, which also

necessitates the need for attention to

be paid to shelter, health care and

education (NRC, 2015).


82

This perhaps is amongst the reasons why

UNHCR was mandated by the General

Assembly Resolution 428 of 14 December

1950 to lead and coordinate every

international action for the worldwide

protection of internally displaced persons and refugees and the resolution of

problems relating to these groups of

persons (UNHCR, 2007). The UNHCR

was therefore responsible for camp

coordination and management, including

the design and construction of

accommodations.

The nature of emergency shelter ranges

from the typical temporary tent used as a

transitional shelter to basic permanent ad

hoc structures (Yuksel & Hasirci, 2012). It is, however worthy of note that though

these tent shelters are intended to be

temporary and used for a short period of 1-

3months, they are being used in recent

times for much longer periods spanning

many years.

Users Oriented Spaces in IDP camps

User oriented design is a process which

focuses on usability all through the

development process and through the life

cycles of a design (Moghimi, Jusan,

Izadpanahi & Mahdinejad, 2017). It therefore means that the decisions by the

end-users must be incorporated in design of

shelters to make them workable and

applicable to real life situation of the users

(Kosk, 2016). User orientation simply

implies that a designer puts into

consideration the needs and wants of the

end users in order to design useful and

functional spaces. This therefore means

that the wants of internally displaced

persons must be considered in the design of

a camp for their use.

The significance of user oriented design

ensures that spaces are planned towards the

needs of end-users rather than forcing a

change resident’s behaviour (Moghimi et

al., 2017). Indicated in Figure 2, is the

ideology that user oriented designs require

the understanding of the users through five

metamorphic stages.

Figure 2: User Centered Design Metamorphic Stages Source: https://users.encs.concornis.edu

As shown in Figure 2, it is safe to say that

user oriented design involves

understanding the intended uses of the

product or facility by means of interaction

and then developing on whatever the users identify as their needs and wants.

This therefore implies that the requirements

of the end users (IDP) are to be noted and

refined through various investigations as

well as generative processes and the careful

analysis during the use of the facility

(Mundo-Hernández, Valerdi-Nochebuena,

& Sosa-Oliver, 2015). The participatory design approach to the user centered

method of designing was therefore adopted

for this research. This approach allowed for

the qualitative needs of the respondents to

https://users.encs.concornis.edu/


83

be understood (Blummer & Kenton, 2014;

Mannay & Morgan, 2014).

Research Methodology People’s perception about space requires

the understanding of the people’s life

worlds which entails the deep

understanding of how and what the world

means to them (Merleau-Ponty, 1962). As

such for this study, qualitative means of

inquiry was found suitable and therefore

adopted (Creswell, 2012; Macmillan, 2011;

Mannay & Morgan, 2014). This entails the

use of unstructured interview as well as

behavioural mapping through observation of the participants (residents of the IDP

camp). The interviews were conducted

mostly in Hausa language as well as Pidgin

English (the Nigerian Version of English),

this is to allow for ease of communication

as well as the formation of rapport with the

respondent (Patton, 2005). Furthermore,

data collection process involved a series of

visits to the camps and cumulatively, the

data collection process took 3 months

(between May and July 2016).

The Study Community The Federal capital territory as outlined in

Table 1 has 21 recognized IDP camps. The

researchers, therefore, purposefully

selected 3 camps with the population of the

camps guiding the selection. In this regard,

the most populated camp, an averagely

populated camp and a lesser populated

camp were selected. Eleven (11) persons,

including campers and camp officials were

interviewed in each of the camps visited for

this research, bringing the total number of respondents to thirty-three (33) persons.

The number of interviewee (11) in each of

the camp is as a results of the saturation

point attained in the elicitation of

information which aligns with Miles,

Huberman, and Saldaña (2013) assertion

on the determination of the number of

respondents in qualitative research.

Table 1 Internally Displaced Persons Camps within the F.C.T

S/N I.D.P Camp Location Population

1. Abuja IDP Camp Gidadaya, Orozo 754

2. Unnamed Kagruma, Kwali 504

3. Gwoza and Bama IDP Camp Durumi II, Area 1 2226

4. Internally Displaced Persons Camp, Old Kuchingoro

Old Kuchingoro 782

5. Internally Displaced Persons Camp, New

Kuchingoro

New Kuchingoro 500

6. Karmajiji IDP Camp Karmajiji, City Gate 340

7. Building Market Camp Saburi II, Dei-Dei 710

8. Guzape Internally Displaced Persons Camp Guzape, Asokoro Extension 661

9. Internally Displaced Persons Camp One Man Village 720

10. FCT III, Internally Displaced Persons Camp Kutunku II, Gwagwalada 711

11. EFAB IDP Camp Apo Mechanic Village 426

12. Abuja Internally Displaced Persons Camp Durumi I, Area 1 671

13. MSSN Camp for the Internally Displaced Lugbe I, Airport Road 543

14. No Name Waru, Gwagwalaga 1023

15. FCT II Internally Displaced Persons Camp Kwali 502

16. No Name Kuje 763

17. No Name Wassa 997

18. Kutunku Internally Displaced Persons Camp

Old Kutunku, Gwagwalada 210

19. Unnamed Piwoyi, Lugbe 678

20. FCT I Internally Displaced Persons Camp Kuchiyako 987


1

21. NASFAT Internally Displaced Persons Camp

Back of Market, Karmo 432

Source: Abuja Facts (2016)

As shown in Table 1, three sites that best

represent the nature of IDP camps found in

Abuja based on population were chosen. In

that regard, the most populated, least

populated and averagely populated camps

within the Federal Capital Territory. This is

because, population density influences

human behaviour and space.

Data collection Interviews constitutes one of the primary

sources through which people’s

perceptions about a phenomenon can be

understood (Rubin & Rubin, 2011). For

this study, the interview questions focused

on the resident’s perceptions about their

spaces and what they think needs to be

provided to meet their basic space needs.

While, the observations were carried out

using the minimum requirement checklist

of UNHCR (2015) for the assessment of

IDP camps as shown in Table 2.

Finally, the behavioural mapping of the

residents was carried out. The emphasis of

the behavioural mapping was on the nature

of activities that take place, by whom, and

at what time such activities took place

(Muhammad & Said, 2015). The trio

approaches (interviews, checklist and behavioural mapping) of qualitative data

collection allowed for triangulation of

information towards the attainment of valid

data that evidently best describes the

phenomenon under investigation

(Charmaz, Clarke, Friese, & Washburn,

2015; Tracy, 2012; Yin, 2013).

Table 2: UNHCR 2015 Checklist for Assessing IDP Camps

S/NO DESCRIPTION MINIMUM STANDARD

1. Covered living area 3.5sqm per person Minimum ceiling height of 2m

2. Camp settlement size 45sqm per person 3. Fire safety Minimum of 2m between structures or two times the

height of the structure

4 Gradient of camp site 1 to 5% 5. Drainage Appropriate drainage must be put in place, especially in

locations that experience drainage difficulties in rainy seasons.

Source: UNCHR (2015)

Results and Discussion The results of the analysis of the three

camps visited by the researchers are hereby

discussed below sequentially starting with

participants observations.

Socio-spatial Characteristics of the

Selected IDP Camps

Gwoza and Bama IDP Camp The Gwoza and Bama IDP camp in

Durumi incepted on 15th December 2014, is

one that has served as settlement for indigenes of Gwoza and Bama village, both

in Borno state, thus the name. The

population of the camp as at the time of the

visit was 2226, comprising of 375 women,

657 youths, 65 adult men, 58 children.

The camp consists of eleven (11) subsets, a

camp clinic, a camp nursery and primary

school, two mosques, a church, a

mechanical workshop, and an

administrative office. Some of these

facilities are shown in Figures 3 and 4.


85

Figure 3: Gwoza and Bama Camp School, picture taken in 2016

Figure 4: Gwoza and Bama Camp accommodation, image captured in 2016

The accommodation in the camp is

constructed using wooden support

columns, covered with sack bags and tarpaulin. They are arranged in no order on

the camp site and are not durable and so do

not protect their occupants from harsh

weathers. The school in the camp is a

structure constructed using wood and

galvanized roofing sheets.

The clinic, Figure 5, in the IDP Camp is a

single room and toilet. The single room

serves as a male and a female ward, doctors

consultation room and store for medical

equipment and medicines. A tank provides water, while a generator powers the clinic.

As such the camp clinic is inadequate to

meet the needs of the residents of the camp.

Figure 5: The Clinic building in Durumi IDP camp, Abuja

IDP Camp, New Kuchingoro, Abuja The internally displaced persons camp

located in the Kuchingoro area of Abuja

and which began operation on the 5th of

December 2014 is one that has served has a

home to internally displaced persons who

had to flee from their village, which is

Gwoza in Borno State of Nigeria. Although

a small percentage of camp resides are

indigenes of other parts of Borno State and

the northeast in general, 90% of them are from Gwoza. The camp comprises of 500

campers (230 women, 240 men, 30

children), with 4 officials in control of the

campers. The people relocated in the year

2014 and have settled extensively on the

piece of land they found fallow in

Kuchingoro. The camp, therefore, evolved

and is purpose built. The men and women

are basically farmers who go as far as

Nyanya and Mararaba areas of Nassarawa

state to farm. It was observed that the

residents of the camp travel as far as 10 kilometers for farming and the produce of

the farms are sold to meet their family

needs.

One of the distinctive physical characters

of the camp is that it is unplanned and

consists of structures made of cartons,

tarpaulin, sacks and cement bags, anchored

by wooden support. As such, nearly all the

structures such as the accommodation, a

camp office, a school, a church, a mosque, a skill acquisition centre and a relaxation

joint are made up of temporary materials as

shown in Figures 6 and 7. Figure 6: Sleeping Tent Erected Using Polythene Cover. Image Captured in 2016

Plate III Gwoza and Bama Camp Clinic

Source: Field Survey (2016)

Plate IV New Kuchingoro Camp Accommodation

Source: Field Survey (2016)


86

Figure 7: Kuchingoro Camp Rooms Interior. Image Captured in 2016

The accommodation in the camp consists

of single rooms measuring 2 x 2m. The

buildings are constructed using tarpaulin covers on wooden column supports.

IDP Camp, Karmajiji, Abuja The FCT internally displaced persons camp

is located on the Lugbe- Airport road axis in FCT Abuja. The camp was established

on the 26th of June 2013 by Muslim

Women’s Association of Nigeria

(MWAN). Sited in Karmajiji, it is one that

has accommodated 340 (170 women, 160

men and 10 children) internally displaced

persons from Borno and Adamawa states

of Nigeria. The camp, unlike others in the

Federal Capital could be seen to have some

of the accommodations built as permanent

structures.

The men amongst the residents of this

camp are basically engaged as labourers on

construction sites while some of the

women stay back as teachers for the

children. Similarly, some of the men and

women are also seen engaged in farming in

which the products of the farm are sold to

earn a living. Aside from these, Non-

Governmental organisations such as the

Muslim Women Association of Nigeria (MWAN) as well as other religious bodies

who see to the needs of the internally

displaced persons in the camp.

The gradual development of the camp by

the residents into permanent structures as

shown in Figure 8, showcases the

integration of cultural spatial norms. This

is because, the rooms are built together in compound settings, having courtyards in

the middle. A kitchen and toilet are placed

at the extreme ends of the buildings. This

suggests that the residents are linked to

their cultural roots in the development of

their spaces in a new location.

Figure 8: Karmajiji camp Accommodation, built as a permanent structure. Picture taken in 2016

Cumulatively, it can be deduced that, none

of the camps meet the required minimum

standards being laid down by the United

Nations for the establishment of internally

displaced persons camps. Furthermore, the state in which the IDP camps in

comparison to the UNHCR minimum

requirements are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3: Analysis of Physical Condition of Sampled Camps using UNHCR Spatial requirement

Camp Covered

Living Area

Camp

Settlement

Fire Safety Gradient of

Camp Site

Drainage

Gwoza and Bama IDP Camp

1.2sqm per person and 1.8m ceiling

3.0 sqm per camper (IA)

900mm between structures

4% (A) Presence of free-flowing Gutters to


87

height (GIA) (IA) drain waste water (A)

IDP Camp Kuchingoro

1.5sqm per person and

1.8 ceiling height (GIA)

4.0 sqm per camper (IA)

1.2m between structures

(IA)

2% (A) Absence of any form of

drainage (IA)

FCT IDP Camp Karmajiji

3.5 sqm per person and 2.1 ceiling height (A)

4.0 sqm per person (IA)

2m between structures (A)

6% (IA) Absence of any form of drainage system (IA)

Key: A- Adequate IA- Inadequate GIA- Grossly Inadequate

From the Table 3, it is evident that the

physical conditions of the existing IDP

camps are unpalatable and do not meet up

to the minimum requirements given by the

United Nations, the body in charge of

refugees and internally displaced persons.

Therefore, there is a dire need for an

internally displaced persons camp to be

provided for the IDPs within the Federal Capital Territory.

Residents Spatial Perceptions One of the main criteria for IDPs aside

from the accommodation is the provision

of safe heaven against external aggression.

As such, the researchers sought to

understand the perceived feelings of the

residents on security. The question thus asked was “Do you Consider Your Camp

Free from security threats? And most of the

respondents indicated their feelings. The

response collated showed that 80% of

respondents indicated that their camp is not

safe, this is further buttressed in the

following quotation by a woman aged 40

years;

“Our camp is not safe. We have been

attacked more than four times by

miscreants from outside. They took away the little we have managed to gather, they

steal our clothes, food and other

valuables”

The response from the IDP above, indicates

that the camp studied has no form of

security and as it is, is open to attack.

Thus, the refuge is not totally offered to the

residents of the camp. Furthermore, aside

from the security challenges, most of the

residents of these camps are concerned

with the state of health facilities within the camps. A female Respondent, aged 35

residents in the Kuchingoro IDP camp,

who was displaced since June 2013 had

this to say about health facilities in the

camps:

“We do not have a clinic in our camp. If we

go to the general hospital outside the

camp, nobody treats us because we are

IDP and they know we cannot pay. We are

rather asked for police report, we have lost 8 people in our camp because there is no

clinic. (With tears in her eyes, she added)

My sister’s only daughter died in

December last year (2015) because nobody

treated her”.

This suggests the need for the IDP camps

fortification with medical facilities. As

indicated, the hospitals outside the camps

do not readily accept patients without any

form of identification. This may be borne out of the fear of security challenges of the

country, thus the IDPs are left without

medical attention. More also is that it is

nearly impossible to provide the

identification required due to the nature of

how the IDPs left their home towns. In

sum, the general state of the New

Kuchingoro IDP camp is perceived to be

spatially insufficient.

Establishing Self-Esteem Through

Independence/ Self Sufficiency An IDP based in the Karmajiji IDP camp,

displaced since 5th of February 2014

replied (after he was being made to

understand that being self-sufficient means

that they need not be dependent on other

sources, but can obtain food, shelter and other basic amenities from their camp), as

translated from Hausa language-

“As you can see, we cannot get everything

we need from here. We have to wake up,


88

leave our camps and hustle daily for

survival. We have no land to farm, no

animals to rear, we have nothing. We came

here with nothing; we thank God for

sparing our life. Some of our women go all

the way to Keffi road almost every day to farm corn and yam. They bring some home

and sell some in Orange market.”

The respondent above states that the camp

in which they are housed are not self-

sufficient. They must fend for themselves

by going long distances to trade. A camp

facility ideally should be self-sufficient and

be able to provide basic needs of campers

(UNHCR, 2015). However, within the

context of Nigeria, the residents of the IDP

camps would not mind fending for themselves if the enabling environment is

provided. That is why the researchers

observed that in some of the IDP camps

plots of farmland were seen being

cultivated by campers. This is not different

from the results obtained in Congo refugee

camp where the cash aids were seen to

upgrade the economic status of the

refugees rather than in kind aids (Alloush,

Taylor, Gupta, Rojas, et al., 2017). This is

because the refugee would be able to invest in their area of interest and Specialty. In the

context of this scenario, the refugees would

invest in Farm inputs.

From the above, the Karmajiji camp is the

most adequate and sufficient in terms of

accommodation size, social amenities and

circulation, however, the residents will like

to have farm lands. None of the camps

have secondary schools, but the New

Kuchingoro camp has a skill acquisition

ground where campers acquire skills in leatherworks. The church also doubles as a

sewing and weaving workshop where

campers learn the skill for a fare as

organized by a private NGO.

In summary, the residents of the IDP

camps are not satisfied with the facilities

found at the camp. Consequently, the

respondents advocated for the need of a

standard health care facility, the need for

school and skill acquisition facilities. Additionally, there were also some cultural

specific spatial needs which is to have a

camp that has a traditional communal

compound setting. This is in contrast with

the individual single rooms that were found

in the IDP Camps which happened to be

individualistic in terms of social transactions. Similarly, the respondents

perceived an IDP camp to be that which

can offer them the opportunity to practice

their main occupation, farming. Other

needs of the campers also include

relaxation facilities, religious buildings and

sporting facilitates.

Conclusions The research did set out to understudy the

culture specific spatial needs of the IDP

camps in Nigeria. Aside from the minimum

requirement stipulated by UNHCR, it is

expected that the spatial need could be

contextual. The findings of this research

show that the needs of the IDPs who are

mainly from the North-Eastern States of

Nigeria are culturally sensitive in their

perception of what is required in an IDP

camp. These needs aside from the

minimum standard of the UNHCR include the setting of the camp in a compound like

structure, the provision of privacy for the

female members and the provision of

secured places for farming. This thus

suggests that, the planning of IDP camps

aside from the socio-cultural needs, the

profession of the displaced person must be

considered to make the camps users

oriented. This finding is potentially

important for IDP policies that need to

include cultural spatial needs of IDPs in the planning of IDP camps (Alloush et al.,

2017).

References Adibe, J. (2012). Boko Haram: One sect,

conflicting narratives. African

Renaissance, 9(1), 47-64.

Agbiboa, D. E. (2013). Why Boko Haram

exists: The relative deprivation

perspective. African Conflict &

Peacebuilding Review, 3(1), 144-157. Alloush, M., Taylor, J. E., Gupta, A.,

Rojas, V., Ruben, I., & Gonzalez-

Estrada, E. (2017). Economic Life in


89

Refugee Camps. World Development,

95, 334-347. doi:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2

017.02.030

Blummer, B., & Kenton, J. M. (2014). 12 -

Methodology: the data analysis Improving Student Information

Search (pp. 125-136): Chandos

Publishing.

Charmaz, K. C., Clarke, A. E., Friese, C.,

& Washburn, R. (2015). Situational

analysis in practice: Mapping

research with grounded theory.

London: Left Coast Press.

Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational

Research Planning, Conducting and

Evaluating Quantitative and

Qualitative Research (P. A. Smith Ed. 4th ed.). Boston: pearson Education

Inc.

Dudley, D. (2016). The Ten Countries

Most Affected by Terrorism. doi:

https://www.forbes.com/sites/dominic

dudley/2016/11/18/countries-most-

affected-by-terrorism/#49e05af530d9

Facts, A. (2016). Handbook on The Events

and Happenstances Within the

Federal Capital Territory (pp. 2-16).

Kinghorn, J. (2015). Five Countries Most Frequently Hit by Natural Disasters.

doi: http://www.air-

worldwide.com/Blog/Five-Countries-

Most-Frequently-Hit-by-Natural-

Disasters/

Kosk, K. (2016). Social Participation in

Residential Architecture as an

Instrument for Transforming Both the

Architecture and the People Who

Participate in It. Procedia

Engineering, 161, 1468-1475. doi:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.08.612

Liu, Q., Ruan, X., & Shi, P. (2011).

Selection of emergency shelter sites

for seismic disasters in mountainous

regions: Lessons from the 2008

Wenchuan Ms 8.0 Earthquake, China.

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences,

40(4), 926-934.

Macmillan, R. (2011). Seeing things

differently? The promise of

qualitative longitudinal research on the third sector.

Mannay, D., & Morgan, M. (2014). Doing

ethnography or applying a qualitative

technique? Reflections from the

‘waiting field’. Qualitative Research,

1468794113517391.

Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962). Phenomenology of perception (C.

Smith, Trans.) Humanities Press. New

York.

Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., &

Saldaña, J. (2013). Qualitative data

analysis: A methods sourcebook:

SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Moghimi, V., Jusan, M. B. M., Izadpanahi,

P., & Mahdinejad, J. (2017).

Incorporating user values into

housing design through indirect user

participation using MEC-QFD model. Journal of Building Engineering, 9,

76-83. doi:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2016.

11.012

Muhammad, I. B. (2017). Cultural

Landscape Transactions and Values

of a Nupe Community in Central

Nigeria. Delaware ,United States:

Vernon Press.

Muhammad, I. B., & Said, I. (2015).

Behavioral use of courtyard in a Nupe cultural landscape of Nigeria

Interdisciplinary Behavior and Social

Sciences (pp. 227-232): CRC Press.

Mundo-Hernández, J., Valerdi-

Nochebuena, M. C., & Sosa-Oliver, J.

(2015). Post-occupancy evaluation of

a restored industrial building: A

contemporary art and design gallery

in Mexico. Frontiers of Architectural

Research, 4(4), 330-340. doi:


09.003 NRC (2015). Internal Displacement

Monitoring Centre (NRC/IDMC).

Global Overview 2014: people

internally displaced by conflict and

violence-Democratic Republic of the

Congo, 14.

Nwagbo, O., & Gerald, O. (2015). Identity

and Language Attitudes Among

Liberian Refugees in Oru Camp,

Ogun State, Nigeria. Procedia -

Social and Behavioral Sciences, 212, 106-110. doi:




90

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.201

5.11.306

Oesch, L. (2017). The refugee camp as a

space of multiple ambiguities and

subjectivities. Political Geography,

60, 110-120. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.201

7.05.004

Okanlawon, K., Anene, O., & Reeves, M.

(2010). Sexual History, Condom Use

and STDs among Refugee Men in

Oru refugee camp, Nigeria. Journal of

Men's Health, 7(3), 304. doi:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jomh.2010

.09.074

Patton, M. Q. (2005). Qualitative research:

Wiley Online Library.

Ramadan, A. (2013). Spatialising the refugee camp. Transactions of the

Institute of British Geographers,

38(1), 65-77.

Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (2011).

Qualitative interviewing: The art of

hearing data: Sage.

Sliwa, M., & Wiig, H. (2016). Should I

stay or should I go: The role of

Colombian free urban housing

projects in IDP return to the

countryside. Habitat International,

56, 11-19. doi:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2

016.01.003

Tracy, S. J. (2012). Qualitative research methods: Collecting evidence,

crafting analysis, communicating

impact: John Wiley & Sons.

UNHCR, R. (2007). Handbook for

Emergencies: Geneva.

UNHCR, (2015). United Nations

Guidelines for the Establishment of

Refugee Camps and IDP Camps:

http://www.unhcr.org/news/latest/201

6/6/5763b65a4/global-forced-

displacement-hits-record-high.html

Yin, R. K. (2013). Case study research: Design and methods: Sage

Publications. Washington DC

Yuksel, B., & Hasirci, D. (2012). “An

Analysis of Physical and

Psychological Expectations of

Earthquake Victims from Temporary

Shelters: A Design Proposal.” METU

JFA 29:225-40

http://www.unhcr.org/news/latest/2016/6/5763b65a4/global-forced-displacement-hits-record-high.html




91

Socio-Economic and Psychological Impacts

of Land Use Conflicts on Herdsmen and

Local Communities in Kogi State, Nigeria

Adebayo Michael Adedayo and Ojo Babajide Department of Estate Management, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.

[email protected] or [email protected]

Abstract The importance of land resources to mankind has brought with it a lot of competition

amongst its uses and users. This has led to series of conflicts and litigations such as the crisis

between Fulani herdsmen and the local community farmers in the middle belt region and the

northern states of Nigeria being reported by the media almost on daily basis. The

consequences of these incessant conflicts are becoming worrisome and a threat to national

security. It is on this basis that this study was carried out to assess the socio-economic and

psychological effects of such conflicts amongst Fulani herdsmen and local community

farmers in Kogi State of Nigeria. A total of 293 farmers from Alloma, Okula and Iboko villages and 56 herdsmen from Gaa Ofolikpa, Gaa Iboko and Gaa Efekpe were selected for

this study. Structured questionnaire were administered on the sampled respondents to obtain

data on their losses and gains from such conflicts. Descriptive and inferential statistical

techniques were used to analyse the data. The study revealed that both parties suffered

untold hardships ranging from destruction of crops, herds, houses, bush burning to loss of

lives. Others include raping, food insecurity and sleepless nights. In order to forestall these

hardships, it is recommended that both herdsmen and community farmers be properly

educated and sensitized on living together in harmony for peace to reign. Moreover, policy

makers should create ranches where the herdsmen could feed their cattle without moving to

community farmlands.

Keywords: Community farmers, Fulani herdsmen, land use conflict, psychological, socio-economic.

Introduction The competition between farmers and

herdsmen has often times turned into

serious overt and covert manifestation of

hostilities and social friction in many parts

of Nigeria. The conflicts have

demonstrated high potential to exacerbate

the insecurity of life and properties

particularly in rural communities where

most of the conflicts are localized, with

reverberating consequences nationwide (Adisa, 2011). In fact, incidences of crises

between farmers and herdsmen in the

northern states were being reported almost

every week (Ofuoku, 2010). Nweze (2005)

stated that many farmers and herders have

lost many lives and herds, while others

have experienced dwindling productivity in

their herds. This was supported by Ajuwon,

(as cited in Nweze, 2005) in his

observation that in Imo State for instance

between 1996 and 2005, nineteen (19) people died and forty-two (42) people were

injured in this rising incident of farmers-

herders conflict and the violence that often

accompanies such conflict is an issue that

can be regarded as being of national

concern. These conflicts were threats to

both state and national stability. It also has

implication for tribal coexistence, Nigeria

being a multi-ethnic and a multi tribal

nation (Ingawa, 1999). Conflict in resource

use is not uncommon and perhaps not

unnatural in human ecosystems. Ekong (2003) opined that conflict may have

positive and negative effects. In positive




92

effect, people may not know that certain

nagging issues exist. Thus conflict leads to

clear definition of issue. Once such issues

have been identified, they can then be

amicably resolved. Moore (2005) noted

that conflict per se, is not bad: it is perhaps a necessity in the evolution and

development of human organizations. But

when conflicts degenerate to violent,

destructive clashes, they become not only

unhealthy but also counterproductive and

progress-threatening. Nyong and Fiki

(2005) pointed out that resource-related

conflicts are responsible for over 12

percent declines in per capita food

production in sub- Saharan Africa.

Many researches have been carried out on

conflict resolution and management, especially on conflicts between the Fulani

herdsmen and local farmers in Nigeria.

While most of these studies focus on the

causes of the conflicts (Adisa, 2007;

Ajuwon, 2009; Ibrahim, 2009; Olabode,

2010; Abbas, 2011; Adisa, 2011b;

Alawode, 2013; Okoli & Chukwuma,

2014), others like Tenuche and Ifatimehin

(2009), Oladele and Oladele (2011) dwell

on the effects of such conflicts. However,

more expansion of frontiers of knowledge in this area of national concern cannot be

unjustifiable; hence, the aim of this study is

to examine the socio- economic and

psychological effects of the incessant

conflicts between the Fulani herdsmen and

the local farming communities in Kogi

State of Nigeria with a view to finding a

lasting solution to identified bitter

consequences of such conflicts.

Review of Related Literature Whatever the causes of farmer-herdsmen

conflicts are, it is evident that the conflicts

have been of great negative effects. These

range from economic effects (such as loss

of income/resources/yield) to physical

(such as home/farm destruction, bodily

injury or death of family member) and

socio-psychological effects such as

emotional exhaustion, job dissatisfaction,

etc, (Adisa, 2011a). The manifestations of the conflicts ranged from mere altercations

to violent skirmishes resulting in loss of

livestock, crops, lives and valuable

property. Categorically, the economic

effects include loss of yield, reduction in

income, loss of household resources, loss

of man-hours and security expenses. Also,

the physical effects of conflict include

home destruction, bodily injury and death of household member while the socio-

psychological effect also involves

declining quality of children’s education,

sleepless nights, anger/anxiety/emotional

exhaustion, reduction in family food

quality/quantity and job dissatisfaction

(Adisa, 2011b). Ajuwon (2009), in

determining the effects of Fulani-farmers

conflicts in Bauchi state discovered that

between 1994 and 2002, 28 villages were

affected and recorded loss of lives, crops,

livestock and properties while between 1995 and 1997, in 8 out of the 28 villages

affected, it was reported that 31 farmers, 66

herdsmen and 4 policemen were killed.

Also 44 farmers and 2 herdsmen were

injured (Bauchi State Agricultural

Development Programme, 1997). Between

1997 and 2002 in Gombe state, a woman

was abducted for some days and another

was amputated, 366 people were seriously

injured, two herdsmen were apprehended

by the police, 20 people lost their lives, a number of cattle were killed and some

houses were burnt. Also some valuables

were lost, rainy season crops were

prematurely harvested and there were

delays in starting dry season farming as a

result of the conflicts. Between 1996 and

2002, 27 persons were injured and 17

persons lost their lives. Crops estimated at

over a million of were reportedly damaged

in Kogi State. In Imo State, there were loss

of lives, properties, animals and farm

produce. Between 1996 and 2002, nineteen (19) people died and forty two (42) persons

were injured. One hundred and ninety one

(191) animals valued at ₦233,000 and

crops worth over ₦334, 000 were

destroyed during the conflict (Okoli et al,

2014). The herdsmen live in fear of attacks

on their cattle and themselves (Adisa,

2011b). Accordingly, Okoli, et al (2014)

asserted that conflicts have resulted in dire

humanitarian, social, economic, and socio-

economic consequences. For instance, herder/farmer conflicts in Nasarawa State

Adebayo & Ojo Socio-Economic and Psychological Impacts of Land Use Conflicts on Herdsmen and Local Communities in Kogi

State, Nigeria

93

have led to loss of lives, population

displacements, human injury and livelihood

crisis. According to a source credited to the

National Orientation Agency (NOA

Nasarawa State Pulse Report, 2013), the

conflicts have led to the killing of not fewer than one hundred and thirty (130)

persons between 2011 and 2013. This is in

addition to scores of people who have been

rendered morbid, homeless, displaced and

destitute by the conflicts. Psychologically,

the conflicts have created an atmosphere of

mental siege and terror among the populace

in such a manner that threatens public

peace and tranquility. The conflicts have

also led to tense and volatile inter-group

relations amongst the various peoples of

Nasarawa, Plateau, Benue, Kogi and some other states in the northern part of Nigeria

(Ofuoku, 2010). This manifests in mutual

mistrust and animosity which are often

misplaced. The pastoralists see the settled

farmers as enemies of their collective

survival and destiny, and vice versa. This

creates an ambience of mutual suspicion

and perpetual tension that threatens

peaceful coexistence, security and stability of the society.

On the whole, the conflicts have been

engendered untoward outcomes that

impede sustainable societal peace and

development. As pointed out by Nchi

(2003) “these rounds of strife disrupt

community life and solidarity and destroy

local and national economies with negative

consequences on general social and

economic development”. Sunday Trust of

1st September, (2013), reported cases of Fulani/Farmer Clashes in Nigeria with their

respective date, place of incidence and the

number of deaths recorded as follows.

Table 1: Cases of Fulani/Farmer Clashes in Nigeria

Date Place of Incidents No. of Casualties

January 1 Jukun /Fulani clash in Taraba State 5 January 15 Farmers/Fulani clash in Nasarawa State 10 January 20 Farmers/Fulani clash in Nasarawa State 25 January 24 Fulani/Farmers clash in Plateau State 9

February 7 Fulani/Eggon clash in Nassarawa State 30 March 20 Clashes between Fulani an Tarok, Jos, Plateau State 18 March 28 Clashes between Fulani and Farmers in Riyon,

B/Ladi, Jos, Plateau State 28

March 29/30 Clashes between Fulani and Natives in Bokkos areas of Bokkos LGA Jos, Plateau State

18

March 30 Police killings in clashes between farmers and Fulani 6 April 3 Farmers/Fulani clashes in Guma LGA, Benue State 3

April 10 Clash between Fulani and Tiv farmers 28 April 23 Fulani/Egbe Farmers clash in Kogi State 5 May 4 Fulani/Farmers clash in Plateau State 13 May 4 Jukun/Fulani clash in Wukari, Taraba State 39 May 13 Fulani/Agatu clash in Benue State 50 May 20 Tiv/Fulani clash at Benue-Nasarawa boarder 23

Source: Sunday Trust, 2013.

Empirical studies on socio-economic effects of herdsmen/farmers’ conflicts

include Ajuwon (2009) on conflicts in

Fadama communities in Nigeria. Using

descriptive statistics, the study identified

the effects as destruction of lives and

properties on the people of Bauchi, Kebbi,

Nassarawa, Gombe, Benue and Plateau

states. Ibrahim (2009) researched into

access to and conflict on farm and grazing

lands in semi-arid areas of Nigeria with

particular reference to Yusufari Local Government Area of Yobe State. While

these two studies have done much on the

subject matter, they were carried out,

outside Kogi State, hence the necessity to

replicate it in the State due to social and

geographical differences. Tenuche and

Ifatimehin (2009) examined resource

conflict among farmers and Fulani

herdsmen and the implication on resource

sustainability. The study described the


94

traditional relationship between farmers

and Fulani herdsmen in the incessant

resource conflict witnessed in Kogi State as

strained and of consequential effects on

resource sustainability of the communities.

However, Oladele and Oladele (2011) studied the effects of pastoralist-farmers

conflicts on access to resources in Savanna

area of Oyo State and found that the

conflicts did not significantly hinder the

agro-pastoralists access to resources. As it

were, the study did not address the holistic

impact of conflict on the psychological,

social and economic life of the

communities which this study is out to take

care of.

The Study Area Kogi State is located between latitude

6o30’N and 8o51’N and longitude 5°51’E

and 8°00’E. The State is structured into 21

Local Governments Areas with a total

landmass area of about 30,354.74 km2 and

a population of 3,278,487 (NPC, 2006). It has an average temperature of 28°C.

Annual rainfall ranges from 1016mm to

1524 mm and humidity is 69%. The State

is endowed with both human and physical

resources. It hosts the confluence of the

two largest rivers in Nigeria-Rivers Niger

and Benue.

The study area comprises Alloma, Okula,

and Iboko, all in Ofu Local Government

Area, Kogi State, Nigeria. The total

population of the people in the study area is

about 53,725 (NPC, 2006) and most of the inhabitants are predominantly farmers. This

area is located within 8o50’N and 8o20’E of

the equator. The study communities located

within Ofu Local Government Area share

boundaries with Ajaokuta in the West, Idah

in the South and Dekina in the North.

The climate in the study areas in particular

permits the growing of arable and

permanent crops. They grow crops like

yam, cassava, maize, millet, beans etc. Due

to the abundance of palm trees in the areas,

most women engage in palm oil

processing. Annually, the area is subjected

to extensive bush burning in the dry season

and flooding in the rainy season. Poultry,

sheep and goats are also kept in small

scale. The vegetation is savanna type,

hence the area is also good for grazing. There are two distinct seasons – wet and

dry. The wet season is normally from April

to October, with the highest amount of

rainfall between June and September. Most

of the vegetation however has been

destroyed by man through cultivation and

grazing, as a result of which the present

vegetation is a secondary type.

Research Method The target population for this study

comprised of Farmers and Herdsmen in

Alloma, Okula, and Iboko farming

communities and Fulani camps consisting

of Gaa Ofolikpa, Gaa Efekpe and Gaa Iboko. The sampling frame and size for the

study are presented in Tables 2 and 3.

Table 2: Sampling frame and size (Farmers).

Farming

Communities

Sampling frame

Sample Size

Alloma Okula Iboko

270 165 158

151 117 113

Total 593 391

Source: Author’s computation, 2015

Table 3: Sampling frame and size (Fulani herdsmen)

Fulani Herdsmen Sampling Frame

Sample Size

Ofolikpa

Iboko Efekpe

25

18 20

25

18 20


State, Nigeria

1

Total 63 63

Source: Author’s computation, 2015.

To obtain the sample size, the formula by

Yamane (1967) was chosen for this study

for the fact that the population is finite; the

formula is given as follows:

n = N - - - - - - - - - - (i)

1+N (e)2

n= sample size

e = accepted error (the precision) taken

as ±0.05

N = population

The application of this formula gives a

sample size of 391. Isreal (2003) suggests

that the census method should be applied

for a population less than 200. Hence the

sample size for the Fulani herdsmen was

63. For the purpose of this study

proportional random sampling was used for

the farming communities. This is necessary because the three villages were not of the

same population. Structured questionnaires

were administered on both farmers and

herdsmen to elicit relevant information, on

the socio-economic and psychological

effects of conflicts in the study areas. The

questionnaires were designed in simple

forms to enable the respondents to answer

appropriately by ticking either yes or no.

Moreover, the questionnaires were

interpreted to the respondents in their local

languages by trained field officers.

Results and Discussion Tables 4 to 6 show the socio-economic and

psychological effects of conflict in the study area.

Table 4 indicates that loss of income had

the highest frequency (91%) among

farmers, followed by loss of yield (85%),

household resources (23.5%) and stored

products (23%). On the part of herdsmen,

losses whether material or not were

minimal. Indeed, 14.3%, 8.9%, 7.1%, and

3.8% of herdsmen claimed to have suffered

losses in respect of their, income, yield, stored products and household resources

respectively. However, concerning non-

material resources, 30%, 20%, and 13% of

herdsmen suffered losses in respect of job

status, self-esteem, and quality of

relationship respectively. These figures in

respect of herdsmen were generally far less

than those for farmers. This implies that

farmers experienced more losses than the

herdsmen. It also means that farmers

suffered loss of material and non-material

resources than the herdsmen.

Table 4: Socio-economic effects (loss) of conflicts on farmers and herdsmen.

Loss of

Resources Farmers Percentage (%) Herdsmen Percentage (%)

Yield 249 85.0 5 8.9 Household resources 70 23.5 2 3.6 Social support 13 4.4 2 3.6 Stored products 66 22.5 4 7.1

Job status 162 55.6 17 30.3 Self esteem 154 52.9 11 19.6 Income 266 90.8 8 14.3 Family/personal health 40 13.9 9 16.1 Quality of relationship 72 24.6 12 12.5

Source: Field Survey (2015).


96

Table 5: Socio-economic effects (gain) of land use conflict on farmers and herdsmen.

Gain of

Resources Farmers Percentage (%) Herdsmen Percentage (%)

Yield 0 0.0 0 0.0 Household resources 0 0.0 .0 0.0

Social support 78 30 10 17.9

Stored products 0 0.0 0 0.0

Job status 0 0.0 0 0.0

Self esteem 0 0.0 0 0.0

Income 0 0.0 0 0.0

Family/personal health 0 0.0 0 0.0

Quality of relationship 0 0.0 0 0.0

Source: Field Survey ( 2015).

Table 5 shows that the only item that

constituted a ‘gain’ for both parties were in

areas of social supports and quality of

relationship, although the figures were very

low; 4.1% for farmers and 5.4% for

herdsmen. This implies that both farmers

and the herdsmen were assisted in the areas

of provision of relieve materials from the

Government and NGOs like foods, clothing and other necessary materials.

Table 6 shows the result of the

psychological effect of mutual conflict on

the quality of their respective lives in the

aspects of the quality of their children

education, physical exhaustion, sleepless

night, reduced interest in family matters,

reduction in food quality and quantity,

staying more away from home and

farm/job abandonment. All the adduced

psychological effects of conflict have t-cal.

< t-tab. except in the aspect of the quality

of children education with the t-cal. > t-tab. This means that of all the factors

considered, decline in quality of children’s

education is the only factor that is

significant at 0.05 levels.

Table 6: Result of t-test of variables of socio-psychological effects of the conflicts

Effects

Mean scores Df t-calc. t-

crit.

Decisio

n Farmers Herdsmen

Decline in quality of children education

3.55

1.05

348

5.71

1.645

S**

Physical exhaustion

3.75

2.15

348

1.47

1.645

NS

Sleepless night

3.85

3.56

348

1.56

1.645

NS

Reduced interest in family matters

1.40

1.25

348

1.07

1.645

NS

Reduction in food quality and quantity

3.95

1.50

348

1.11

1.645

NS

Farm/job abandonment

1.35

1.15

348

1.52

1.645

NS

Staying more away from home

1.38

1.05

348

1.60

1.645

NS


State, Nigeria

1

Source: Field survey, 2015 **significant at 0.05 level

Findings and Implications Mostly, farmers suffered various socio-

economic effects than the herdsmen as a result of the conflict between the farmers

and herdsmen. There is reduction in output

and income of farmers through destruction

of crops by cattle and through

indiscriminate bush burning by the

herdsmen. This reduces yield which

translate into low income on the part of the

farmers who take farming as major

occupation.

The study found that both farmers and herdsmen reported a few non-material

gains. Both farmers and the herdsmen

gained social support as a result of mutual

conflict. Social supports for the farmers

and herdsmen were in the form of non-

tangible and tangible or instrumental

supports such as money and housekeeping.

Sometimes, Governments and NGOs come

to their aid by providing food items,

clothing materials and shelter.

The farmers and herdsmen experienced socio-psychological effect of conflict on

the quality of their family lives. From the

findings, there was significant difference in

the effect of the conflict between the

farmers and herdsmen in terms of the

quality of children education. Farmer-

herdsmen conflicts affected the proper

education of children as many farmers

claimed to experience difficulties in paying

school fees, textbooks and other school

materials. The findings confirm the outcome of studies such as Ortega, et

al(1994), Coelcho (2000), and Bosch

(2003) that work related stress have

negative socio-psychological effects on

family lives among farmers. During crises,

school buildings were burnt down, teachers

posted to these communities ran away for

their dear lives. This evidently, does not

augur well for the development of the

affected children, and is capable of creating

further social problems in the future if not

timely checked. The farmers suffer this

most because the Fulani herdsmen do not

disposed favourably to western education.

Conclusion and Recommendations The study has examined the socio-

economic and psychological effects of land

use conflicts on the Fulani herdsmen and

local community farmers in Kogi State

Nigeria. It identified the major losses and

gains resulting from the conflicts on both

sides. It also further identified the psychological effects suffered especially by

farmers as truncated children education,

physical exhaustion, sleepless nights and

farm abandonment among others. The

study can unequivocally conclude that both

herdsmen and farmers have suffered huge

losses as a result of the incessant conflicts

between them.

Following the result of this study, it is

hereby recommended that farmers and

herdsmen alike should be educated and sensitized on the need for peace and mutual

co-existence. Moreover, policy makers are

advised to create ranches where the

herdsmen could feed their cattle without

moving to community farmlands.

References Abbas, I. M.(2010). “No Retreat, No

surrender: Conflict for survival between Fulani pastoralists and

farmers in Northern Nigeria”.

European Scientific Journal. 8(1),

331-346.

Adisa, R. S. (2011a). Management of

Farmer-Herdsmen Conflicts in

Nigeria: Implications for

collaboration between Agricultural

Extension Service and Other

Stakeholders. Journal of International

Agricultural and Extension Education, 18(1), 60-72


State, Nigeria

98

Adisa, R. S. (2011b). Patterns of Conflict

and Socio-psychological Coping

Strategies among Natural Resource

User-groups in Tourism Communities

of the Nigerian Savannah. The

Journal of Tourism and Peace Research, 1 (3), 1-15.

Ajuwon, S. S. (2004) Case Study: Conflict

in Fadama Communities. In

Managing Conflict in Community

Development. Session 5, Community

Driven Development.

Ajuwon, S.S. (2009). Managing Conflicts

of Interests In Community

Development: Conflict in

Fadama Communities – Case study on

Fadama Conflicts Issue

http:info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/39228/Conflict%20managemen

t.doc. file// local

host/f:Conflicts%20in%fadama%20A

reas%20srpeache.htm

Atelhe G. A, Okoli,A. C and Chukwuma

A. (2014) ‘Nomads against Natives:

A Political Ecology of Herder/Farmer

Conflicts in Nasarawa State, Nigeria’.

American International Journal of

Contemporary Research, 4 (2), 17-25.

Ekong, E. E. (2003): An Introduction to Rural Sociology. 2nd Ed. Dove of

Educational Publishers, Uyo, Nigeria,

(1),140-145

Ingawa, S. A; Ega, L. A; and Erhabor, P.

O. (1999). Farmer-Pastoralist

Conflict in Core-states of the National

Fadama Project, FACU, Abuja.

Isreal, G. D. (2003). Determining Sample

Size, Programme Evaluation and

Organisational Development. IFAS,

University of Florida.

Moore, K. M. (2005). Conflict, Social

Capital and Managing Resources: A

West African Case Study. CABI

Publishing, Cambridge, USA. (1), 44-53.

Nchi, S.I. (2003). Religion and politics in

Nigeria: The constitutional issues.

Jos: Greenworld

Nyong, A and Fiki, C. (2005). “Droughts-

Related Conflicts, Management and

Resolution in the West African

Sahel.” Human Security and Climate

change International Workshop. Oslo;

GECHS, CICERO and PR20. (1)5-16.

Ofuoku A.U, Isife B.I. (2010) Causes,

Effects And Resolution Of Farmers-Nomadic Cattle Herders Conflict

In Delta State, Nigeria, Asaba

Campus,Asaba,Nigeria

Olabode A.D, and Ajibade, L.T. (2010)

Environment Induced Conflict and

Sustainable Development a case of

fulani-farmers’ conflict in Oke-Ero

lgas, Kwara state, Nigeria. Journal of

Sustainable Development in Africa

(12, No.5, 2010) ISSN: 1520-5509

Oladele O.T, Oladele O.I.(2011) ‘Effect of Pastoralist-Farmers Conflict on

Access to Resources in Savanna Area

of Oyo State, Nigeria’. Life Science

Journal, 2011; 8(2)

http://www.lifesciencesite.com

Yamane T. (1967). Statistics: An

Introductory Analysis, 2nd edition,

Harper and Row, New York.

http://www.lifesciencesite.com/


99

Analysis of Residential Property Rental

Values Trends in Abaji City, F.C.T Nigeria

Sule, Abass Iyanda Department of Estate Management & Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna

[email protected]

Abstract This paper examined the residential property rental values and demographic trends of Abaji

City in order to uncover the housing market dynamics in Abaji area council. It is aimed to

study rental performance so as to serve as a guide for potential investors in the study area.

The rental values were obtained with the aid of questionnaire from ten ‘Care takers’ (Estate

agents) for the period of 2003 – 2013, while population data was obtained from National Population Census and National Bureau of Statistics archives. The data collected were

analyzed using trend analysis with simple linear regression models of Microsoft Excel,

population projection and growth rate matrix. The study findings revealed an exponential

increase in the residential rental values over the years, there is positive relationships between

the rental values and time, given coefficients of determination R2 as 0.9594, 0.8971 and

0.9115 for three, two and one bedroom houses respectively. Also, it revealed the potential

investment opportunity in the residential sector of the study area. This study therefore,

recommends among others that the local planning authority of the Abaji area council should

be more proactive about development control so as to curb urban sprawl as the area is a

potential destination for real estate investors and developers.

Keywords: Rental value, Residential properties, Demographic, Trends

Introduction Growth in cities is accelerated by the

readiness of the citizens and government to

alienate land for development purposes.

Land alienation is high in Abaji- the seat of Abaji Area Council of FCT-Nigeria leading

to a fast pace of development especially in

residential sector. As cities develop from

the core to the countryside like the ocean

waves on a beach, the land on the urban

periphery be it farmland, grassland or

forest is alienated for functional urban uses.

The prices of land in periphery of cities in

most Nigeria cities are very unstable,

expensive and suspicious. The

unpredictability of the land prices in Nigeria cities is a function of population

aggregate and pressure occasioning high

demand. Land appears to be significantly

inelastic in price while demand remains

high (Fasakin, et.al, 2006). Ajayi (1998)

observes that, as economically efficient

cities expand, pressure on land is reflected

in high prices throughout the city. Again,

the demand for land in cities especially in

the periphery is a derived demand from that of product or services such as residential

units which in turn is derived from

demographic aggregate dynamics and

profiles. The use of demographic

information has been predominantly

restricted to household population forecast

considered essential when estimating future

demand in a given area for which the

demographic data is ideally suited

(Runnels, 1989; Reed, 2001). However,

when property valuers and analyst are

looking towards the future in relation to housing and investment, demographic



100

statistics is increasingly acknowledged for

their significant contribution towards an in-

depth understanding (Hill & Peterson,

1994). In every part of the world where life

exists, the number of residents within the

area tends to change over time. The population changes affect the housing

market dynamics of such an area which

need to be understood by policy decision

makers as well as stakeholders in the real

estate investment sector. Therefore, this

study aimed to establish the future

performance of residential property in

Abaji City by undertaken market feasibility

study and forecast the future trends of

rental values, and probable additional

housing demand.

Objectives of the Study The objectives are as follows:

(i) To find out the rental values of

residential properties in the study area

(ii) To examine the rental value

performance of residential properties in the

study area

(iii) To find out housing demand in

relation to population changes of the study area

Literature Review Housing is viewed as consumption and an

investment good in the literature.

According to Reed (2001), housing

represents the largest single source of

wealth for individuals and has an important

role in the macro economy. Housing as an investment requires a performance analysis

of the housing market which the literature

suggests that real estate market

performance depends on location. Hence,

real estate performance inclusive of rental

trend analysis has to be location specific

(Udoekanem et al., 2014). Rental value

trend of residential properties have been

carried out by various authors and their

studies are examined in the following

paragraph.

The early study of Mankiw and Weil

(1989) explored the relationship between

demographics and the housing market in

the United States. The study revealed that a

large demographic change stimulate large

changes in the demand for housing.

Similarly, Reed (2001) investigates the

changes in the established residential house

prices in Brisbane and the study confirmed

strong relationship between established

residential house prices and demographic variables. Adrian (2012) assesses the City’s

housing needs of Upper Hutt City in New

Zealand based on demographic change

over a period of 25 years. The study

showed that the Upper Hutt City will

require substantial additional dwelling

units due to population growth though with

a declining average household size. In his

exploratory study, Mulder (2006) regards

the relationship between housing and

population as a two-sided phenomenon. An

exposition of the side one relate to the fact that people live in households and

invariably households need housing, hence,

increase in housing demand will have a

push effect for supply of housing in the

area. However, side two link housing to

population which has to do with three

variables- migration, household formation

and birthrate. (For exposition see Mulder,

2006). Bello (2012) examines residential

property performance in Akure, the study

findings revealed a continuous rental growth in the two selected area. Similarly,

Adebisi et al. (2015) find out that students

population pressure contributes to high

residential property rental values in the

neighbourhoods in close proximity to the

Federal University of Technology, Akure,

Nigeria. Also, Ogunleye (2015)

investigates the performance of residential

properties rental value of government

housing estates in two neighbourhoods of

Akure, Nigeria. The study revealed a

strong relationship between rental growth and time; however, he adduced population

deprivation in the study area to lack of

good housing and related infrastructure

facilities. In another study conducted by

Chukwu et al. (2015) in Enugu State of

Nigeria, the study revealed that

infrastructure development impacted

positively on the rental values of residential

properties in one of the two

neighbourhoods examined. The study

which discovered that rental value growth in New-Heaven area was higher compare

Sule, Analysis of Residential Property Rental Values Trends in Abaji City, F.C.T Nigeria

101

to Achara Layout area up to the year 2009,

reported that massive infrastructure

development thereafter by the government

in the latter reduced the gap drastically.

From the foregoing, apart from Mankiw

and Weil (1989), Reed (2001), Adrian (2012) and Mulder (2006) who had

examined the relationship between

demographic and housing market. Other

studies especially from Nigeria seem not

inquiring in this area and therefore, this

study fills the gap.

Methodology Data for this study came from both primary

and secondary data sources. The primary

data mainly consist of rental value data of

residential properties in the study area.

These include a range of annual rental

values paid for 3, 2 and 1bedroom flats for

the period of 2003 – 2013, from which the average rental values for each category of

residential property type was arrived at

through Microsoft Excel function. The

rental values were obtained from ten (10)

‘Care takers’ as popularly known in the

study area with aid of questionnaire, ‘Care

takers’ became the source of information

due to nonexistence of registered estate

firm in the study area. ‘Care takers’ are

estate agents who practice estate agency

but not registered with either the Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valuers

(NIESV) or Estate Surveyors and Valuers

Registration Board of Nigeria

(ESVARBON). Secondary data for the

study is mainly population data sourced

from National Population Census (NPC)

and National Bureau of Statistics

documents. The data collected were

presented in tables and the analysis was

done with simple linear regression models

of Microsoft Excel. This was used to depict

the trends in rental values and to compute

the growth rate in the rental values of the

residential properties in the study area. The

second analysis conducted was on the population growth rate based on the

population data of the study area obtained

from NPC (2006) and NBS (2012) as well

as population projection for short term

period (2011 – 2016) and (2016 - 2021).

The population growth rate was calculated

with the formula:

r = [(P2/P1)1/t - 1] × 100 …………… (1)

Where

r = growth annual rate (in %)

P1 = population at the beginning of the census period

P2 = population at the end of the census

period

t = number of years of census period

For the population projection is

Pt = Po * (1 + r/100)1/t …………… . (2)

Where

t = number of years of census period

Pt = population after t years

Po = population at the start

r = growth annual rate (in %)

Analysis and Findings

Assessment of rental values

progression of the study area From the average rental values of one, two

and three bedrooms obtained in Senior and

Junior Quarters of Abaji, the trends in the

rental values between the year 2003 and

2013 is graphically illustrated as shown in

Figure 1.


0

Figure 1: Rental values (N) trends in Senior and Junior Quarters Area of Abaji

Figure 1 shows an upward trend positive

relationship between rents and time. Also,

it revealed the exponential growth of rents

in the area especially for the two and three

bedrooms houses. The rent passing on the 2

and 3 bedrooms residential property in the

area increase exponentially in the year 2009 compared to 1 bedroom residential

property. However, the rent passing on the

2 and 3 bedrooms residential property

remain stable till 2013 while 1 bedroom

residential property has gain a little

increase in 2012.

The average rental values of one, two and

three bedrooms as obtained in Sabon-Tasha

Area of Abaji are as reported in Table 1.

The trends in the property values of the

area are graphically illustrated as shown in

Figure 2.

Figure 2 shows the average rent passing on

1, 2 and 3 bedrooms residential property in

Sabon-Tasha Area of Abaji. The rent

passing on all the three types of residential properties in the area increase

astronomically in the year 2009. The

average growth rate of rent passing in the

area as at 2009 stood at 1.67, 2.25 and 2.22

per cent for 3 bedrooms, 2 bedrooms and 1

bedroom respectively. However, the rent

passing on the 2 and 3 bedrooms residential

property remain stable till 2013 while 1

bedroom residential property has gain a

little increase in the average growth rate of

rent passing of 1.25 per cent as at 2012.

Table 1: Average rental values (N) in Sabon-Tasha Area of Abaji

House

types

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

One

Bedroo

m

18,00

0

18,00

0

24,00

0

24,00

0

36,000 36,000 36,000 80,000 80,000 100,00

0

100,00

0

Two

Bedroo

m

24,00

0

24,00

0

36,00

0

36,00

0

80,000 80,000 80,000 180,00

0

180,00

0

180,00

0

180,00

0

Three

Bedroo

m

36,00

0

36,00

0

65,00

0

65,00

0

120,00

0

120,00

0

120,00

0

200,00

0

200,00

0

200,00

0

200,00

0

Source: Authors’ Field Survey, 2013


102

Figure 2: Rental values (N) trends in Sabon-Tasha Area of Abaji

Table 2: Average rental values (N) in Pipeline Area of Abaji

House

types

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

One

Bedroo

m

18,00

0

18,00

0

24,00

0

24,00

0

36,00

0

36,00

0

60,00

0

60,00

0

80,00

0

80,00

0

80,00

0

Two

Bedroo

m

36,00

0

36,00

0

60,00

0

60,00

0

80,00

0

80,00

0

120,0

00

120,0

00

120,0

00

120,0

00

120,0

00

Three

Bedroo

m

60,00

0

60,00

0

100,0

00

100,0

00

150,0

00

150,0

00

150,0

00

200,0

00

200,0

00

200,0

00

200,0

00


Table 2 presents the average rental values

of one, two and three bedrooms as obtained

in Pipeline Area of Abaji during the field

survey. Subsequently, the trend in the

property values of the area is as shown in

Figure 3.

The rent passing on all the residential

properties in Pipeline area of Abaji shows a

linear pattern since 2003 to 2013 (Figure

3). The average growth rate of rent passing

in the area depicts a steady pattern of

growth. The highest increase gain attracted

by the properties in the area was in 2009

with 0.67 per cent and 0.5 per cent for one

and two bedrooms respectively while the

three bedrooms gained 0.5 per cent

increase in the year 2007 and 2010.

Table 3 presents the average rental values

of one, two and three bedrooms as obtained

in Kekeshi Area of Abaji during the field

survey. Next is the trend in the property

rental values of the area as shown in figure

4 below.


104

Figure 3: Rental values (N) trends in Pipeline Area of Abaji

Table 3: Average rental values (N) in Kekeshi Area of Abaji

House

types

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

One

Bedroo

m

12,00

0

12,00

0

18,00

0

18,00

0

30,000 30,000 42,000 42,000 50,000 50,000 50,000

Two

Bedroo

m

30,00

0

30,00

0

45,00

0

45,00

0

60,000 60,000 100,00

0

100,00

0

100,00

0

100,00

0

100,00

0

Three

Bedroo

m

50,00

0

50,00

0

80,00

0

80,00

0

120,00

0

120,00

0

120,00

0

150,00

0

150,00

0

150,00

0

150,00

0


Figure 4: Rental values (N) trends in Kekeshi Area of Abaji

Figure 4 shows the steady pattern of rental

growth in Kekeshi Area of Abaji. The average rent passing on one and two

bedrooms residential property in the area

gained its highest increase of 0.67 per cent

in 2007 and 2009 respectively. While three

bedrooms residential property gained an

increase of 0.5 per cent as at 2007.

However, residential properties rental

values in the area continue to show a

positive relationship with time.

Again from Table 4, all the three

residential property types shows and

upward increase in rental value. The data in

the table 5 is graphically illustrated below (Figure 5) to show clearly the trend in the

rental flow.

Table 4: Average rental values (N) in Tundun Wada Area of Abaji

House

types

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Sule, Analysis of Residential Property Rental Values Trends in Abaji City, F.C.T Nigeria

1

One

Bedroo

m

12,00

0

12,00

0

12,00

0

12,00

0

18,00

0

18,00

0

18,000 18,000 70,000 70,000 70,000

Two

Bedroo

m

18,00

0

18,00

0

18,00

0

18,00

0

24,00

0

24,00

0

24,000 100,00

0

100,00

0

100,00

0

100,00

0

Three

Bedroo

m

30,00

0

30,00

0

60,00

0

60,00

0

80,00

0

80,00

0

120,00

0

120,00

0

200,00

0

200,00

0

200,00

0


Figure 5: Rental values (N) trends in Tundun Wada Area of Abaji

Figure 5 shows the rental values of one and

two bedrooms in the Tundun Wada area of

Abaji was almost at par between the year

2003 and 2009. The difference in the rental

values of these residential properties at that

period was insignificant as can be seen from the figure 5. However, in 2010 there

was an unimaginable rise in the rental

value of two bedrooms residential

properties in the area which gained about

316 per cent increase in rent. Furthermore,

the three bedrooms in the area in 2011

attracted an increase in rental value of up to

67 per cent.

In Table 5, all the three residential property

types shows and steady increase in rental value. The data in the table 6 is graphically

illustrated below (Figure 6) to show clearly

the trend in the rental flow.

Similarly, the rental value trends in

Abbattior area of Abaji show a similar

pattern of rental growth in the year under review. In the Figure 6 above, the rental

values of one and two bedrooms in the

Abbattior area of Abaji was almost at par

between the year 2003 and 2009. The

difference in the rental values of these

residential properties at that period was

insignificant. On the other hand, in 2010

there was rental value growth of 316 per

cent for two bedrooms residential

properties in the area. Besides, the three

bedrooms residential property rental values in the area rise by 67 per cent in 2011.

Table 5: Average rental values (N) in Abbattior Area of Abaji

House

types

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

One

Bedroo

m

12,00

0

12,00

0

12,00

0

12,00

0

18,00

0

18,00

0

18,000 18,000 70,000 70,000 70,000

Two

Bedroo

m

18,00

0

18,00

0

18,00

0

18,00

0

24,00

0

24,00

0

24,000 100,00

0

100,00

0

100,00

0

100,00

0

Three

Bedroo

m

30,00

0

30,00

0

60,00

0

60,00

0

80,00

0

80,00

0

120,00

0

120,00

0

200,00

0

200,00

0

200,00

0


106


Figure 6: Rental values (N) trends in Abbattior Area of Abaji

.

Figure 7: Statistical analysis of average annual rental values (N) trends in Abaji City (Residential properties)

Figure 7 shows the overall annual average

rental value trends of one, two and three

bedrooms residential properties in Abaji

City as a whole. It can be seen from the

figure 7 that the annual average rental values of residential properties in the study

area depict a progressive increase over the

years. The positive relationships between

the rental values and time have the

coefficients of determination R2 as 0.9594,

0.8971 and 0.9115 for three, two and one

bedroom houses respectively. These results

depict a high strength correlation between

time and rents.

Figure 8 shows the projections in the rental

values of the residential property in the

study area based on linear equation as

shown in the graph above. The projections

to the year 2021 revealed the R2 of the

three residential housing types in the area

as follows: 0.9918, 0.9794 and 0.9816 for

three, two and one bedroom houses respectively. These results indicate that all

the three types of residential houses in the

area will be more profitable in future. The

R2 values of all these residential properties

are high; however, it is clear that the three

bedroom residential houses have the

highest R2 value (0.9918). This shows that

about 99 per cent of the rental value

variation of the three bedroom residential

houses is explained by time variation in the

model.


0

Figure 8: Statistical analysis of projected average annual rental values (N) trends in Abaji City (Residential

properties)

Analysis of population growth of

the study area According to the National Population

Census (NPC) conducted in Nigeria during the year 1981, 1991 and 2006, the

population of Abaji is as shown in Table 6.

However, National Bureau of Statistics

(2012) document revealed a projected

population of Abaji from the year 2006 to

2011 as shown with asterisk in Table 6.

The projected population growth of 2016

(Table 6) is based on the established

population census of 2006 and the

projected population of 2011 by National

Bureau of Statistics (2012). As such, the projections are a conservative estimate of

the increase in population between 2006

and 2011 (see Table 6 & 7).

Over the last decade (2006 - 2016), Abaji

has experienced population growth of 0.15

percent per annum. Focusing on the next 5

years, if the recent trends were to continue

based on the annual average growth rate of

projected population of 2011 to 2016

which stood at 0.09 percent per annum to 2021. Hence, the change in population

indicates 88,047 people will need to be

accommodated by the year 2021 (Table 7).

Furthermore, the projected population

figures are converted to an estimate of

required dwelling units using the

anticipated average number of residents per

household in Abuja which is 4.5 (NBS, 2012 p110). Therefore, on the

aforementioned scenario, the required

housing units for the population of 88,047

on the average basis of 4.5 numbers of

persons per household will result to 19,566

units of housing as other things are held

constant.

Conclusion This study has shown that, the rental value

of residential properties in Abaji City has

grown over the years, and the future

projected rental value of the residential

properties in the area revealed an

exponential growth rate. Although all the

three types of residential properties

examined in this study have very high R2

values which are practically and statistically significant, however, the 3-

bedroom residential houses have the

highest R2 value of (0.9918). Besides, the

projected housing need or requirement of

the City based on medium term (2016 -

2021) according to assumptions as

described in the analysis suggest that there

will be sufficient demand. Evidently, an

addition of about 3, 913 housing units are

required annually to cater for the ever

increasing population of the study area.

Hence, Abaji City in Abaji Area Council is a destination for potential real estate


108

investors and developers for optimal

investment returns. However, this study

recommends that the local planning

authority of the Abaji area council should

be more proactive about development

control so as to prevent sprawl formation in

the area. Furthermore, this study

recommends that demographic trend

should be given attention as this influence

cities growth.

Table 6: Trend in population growth of Abaji

Years 1981 1991 2006 2008 2009 2010 2011

Population 3,360 21,081 58,642 70,630* 77,513* 85,068* 93,359*

Sources: National Population Census (2006) & *Projected Population by NBS (2012) Table 7: Projected population growth, at an average growth rate of 0.097 percent p.a.

Years

2006

2011

2016

2021

Change in population 2016 to 2021

Population 58,642 93,359 148,655 236,702 88,047

References Adebisi, O. S., Ezeokoli, N. B., Oletubo, A.

A. and Alade, T. J., 2015. Rental

Analysis of Residential Properties in Close Proximity to the Federal

University of Technology, Akure,

Nigeria. Journal of Economics and

Sustainable Development, Vol.6,

No.10.

Adrian, S., 2012. Analysis of

Demographic Trends and Housing

Demand in Upper Hutt City. Business

and Economic Research Limited,

BERL House, wellington, New

Zealand Ajayi, C.A., 1998. Property investment

valuation and analysis. Ibadan: De

Ayo Publication, Bodija Ibadan.

Bello, V.A., 2012. Performance of Rental

Values of Residential Properties in

Selected areas in Akure, Nigeria

between 2001 and 2011.

Mediterranean Journal of Social

Sciences, 3(3), 531 – 536.

Chukwu, A.C., Aniagolu, C.O., and

Obodo, C.M., 2016. Trends in Rental

Values of Residential Properties in Enugu, Nigeria; A Comparative Study

between New Haven and Achara

Layouts. Journal of Multidisciplinary

Engineering Science and Technology

(JMEST) Vol. 3 Issue 2.

Fasakin, J.O. and Ogunmakin, O.T., 2006.

Some characteristic of Alienated

Land for Residential Development in

Akure, Nigeria (1999-2003) in Social

Sciences 1(1):72-76.

Hill, J.K. and Petersen, D.M., 1994.

‘Demographics and the Long-Term Outlook for Housing Investment’ in

Economic Review, First Quarter.

Mankiw, N.G., Weil, D.N., 1989. The baby

boom, the baby bust, and the housing

market. Regional science and urban

economics 19(2): 235-58

Mulder, C.H., 2006. Population and

housing: A two-sided relationship.

Demographic Research: Vol. 15,

Article 13. Published by the Max

Planck Institute for Demographic Research Konrad-Zuse Str. 1, D-

18057 Rostock GERMANY

NBS, 2012. Quarterly Statistical Report,

Abuja: National Bureau of Statistics

National Population Census, 2006.

National Population Commission

http://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/pdfupl

oads/annual_abstract_2012.pdf.

(Accessed on 8th August 2016)

Ogunleye, B. M., 2015. Analysis of

Investment Performance of

Residential Property in Government Housing Estates in Akure, Nigeria.

http://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/pdfuploads/annual_abstract_2012.pdf

http://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/pdfuploads/annual_abstract_2012.pdf


108

Journal of Emerging Trends in

Economics and Management Sciences

(JETEMS) 6(3):193-201.

Reed, R., 2001. The significance of social

influences and Established Housing

Values, The Appraisal Journal, 69 (4), 56 – 61.

Runnels, J.A., 1989. Projecting Housing

Demand from Demographics. Real

Estate Issues, 14-20.

Udoekanem, N.B., Ighalo, J.I. and Nuhu,

M. B., 2014. Determinants of

Commercial Property Rental Growth in Minna, Nigeria. EUL Journal of

Social Sciences (V: I) LAÜ Sosyal

Bilimler Dergisi June 2014 Haziran

Attributes and Patterns of Mixed-Use

Buildings in Ikeja Model City Planned

Corridors Lagos, Nigeria

Shakirat Folashade Salami, Abubakar Danladi Isah,

Stella Nonyelum Zubairu

Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology Minna, Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract Several developed countries are comprised of planned cities that support and sustain the

needs of their inhabitants. In the 21st century it is almost impossible to find a thriving city

without mixed-use developments or buildings. The concept of mixed-use has long been

incorporated into our building developmental practices spontaneously. However, planning

laws and developmental processes are now emerging to standardize the kinds of mixed-use

that are permissible within the built environment. It therefore suggests that mixed-use

buildings are indispensable in a metropolitan city due to increasing urbanity. Meanwhile

debates abound on what constitute mixed-use as generalization is difficult because localities

and socio-cultural dynamics affect the development of mixed-use structures. Mixed-use

buildings are notable because they are characterized with combining several functions, and it is also part of the compact city and new urbanism developmental strategy. Mixed-use

attributes promote strong relationships and opportunities between residents, and provides

varied job while supporting integration. In aligning with other megacities across the world,

and to deal with the haphazard development as well as conversion of uses in urban areas

prompted the development of Model City Plans (MCPs) for different areas in Lagos State,

Nigeria. The goal of this paper is to examine the attributes of mixed-use buildings in Ikeja

Model City Plan through focused observation in order to determine the emerging pattern of

mixed-use for the area and its implications. After eighteen mixed-use buildings were



109

purposely observed, the study concluded that a well-integrated mix of use is achievable in

corridors due to density. But the compliance with the maximum number of floors would take

a while due to the level of income of the inhabitants of the area. The study perceived the

need for attitudinal change in cultural lifestyle of continual property ownership without

means to sustain it, especially in city centers. Similarly, infrastructural developments are

also very imperative for the sustainability of mixed-use. Therefore, unless there are special platforms the government could use to ease implementation, the specified maximum heights

by the MCP for mixed-use corridors in Ikeja is yet to be achieved due to income level of

inhabitants of the area.

Keywords: Attribute, Ikeja, Mix-Use Building, Model City Plan, Patterns

Introduction According to United Nations Population

Fund, it is estimated that by 2030 about

61% of the world total population would

live in the cities (UNFPA, 2001). This

shows a continual growth in global

population of urban residents with a

resultant effect on the infrastructures and

physical development that will cater for the

upsurge. In view of this rise in population

of urban residents, the Sustainable

Development Goals (SDG) of the United Nations advocates for the creation of

sustainable cities and communities (Ban,

2014). In creating these sustainable cities,

built environment is a huge consumer of

resources such as land and energy; thus an

important entity that needs attention.

Furthermore, mixed-use buildings are

significant urban physical developments of

the built environment commonly practiced

that have thrived into the twentieth century

majorly at transit and intersection

(Artscape, 2013: Arizona, 2013). It re-emerged in 1960 and 70s as a tool for

urban revitalization (Rowley, 1996).

Mixed-use buildings are notable because

they accommodate multiple functions. The

most referenced classification of what

constitute mixed-use according to Gentin

(2009) and Wardner (2014) was

championed by Urban Land Institute (ULI)

that described mixed-use as a structure

where uses are integrated and pedestrian

oriented. Besides, according to Metropolitan Area Planning Council,

Boston mixed-use building that conforms

to the minimum development standard

promotes strong relationships between

residents, contributes access to health

living, varied job opportunities and

regional interaction which sustains the

society (MAPC, 2010). Hence in

investigating the attributes of mixed-use building, it is important to also analyze its

progress toward sustainability usually

credited to mixed-use.

However, the development of mixed-use

and high density houses in a lot of urban

centres is confronted with challenges due

to zoning laws (Kellett & Tipple, 2000).

Land use zoning is basically used to control

physical developments. Prior to the modern

zoning law and land-use policies, the most

prevalent method of zoning was Euclidean (Arizona, 2013). This practice clearly has

consequences and effect on the

development of mixed-use buildings

(Herndon, 2011). Because it zones land use

into residential, industrial and commercial

with each use having its own sub-

categorization. Meanwhile, Foster (2003)

and Herndon (2011) asserts that the

ensuing effect of such zoning is urban

sprawl, increase in commuting time,

pollution and traffic congestion. This therefore suggests the need for flexibility in

zoning laws where people’s participation is

highly essential (Otubu, 2012). Although

zoning is practiced generally in Nigeria in

accordance with the National Building

Code (NBC, 2006)., however in Lagos

State land use policies accommodate

mixed-land use practices as well.

Lagos State is the fastest growing urban

city in Nigeria with persistent rapid growth

in population (Adeleke et al, 2016). As a result of this there are continual demands

for basic infrastructure which necessitate

the development of Model City Plans


110

(MCPs) by the Ministry of Physical

Planning and Urban Development. These

plans are aimed towards creating a livable,

greenery and sustainable city. The plan

stipulates ordering of land-use, smart

development, compact city through high density development and mixed use

building in order to create functional

environment that reduces urban problems

(Isidore & Adedapo, 2014). The plan for

redevelopment of Lagos State has five

MCPs and three master plans. The MCPs

include Ikoyi-Victoria Island Model City

Plan, Ikeja Model city plan, Apapa Model

city plan, Lagos Island Model City Plan,

Mainland Central Model city plan and

Alimosho model city plan. While the three

master plans are; Badagry master plan, Lekki Penisula master plan and Ikorodu

master plan (Mainland Model City Plan,

2011-2033). Moreover, the Lagos State

Development Plan (2015-2025) which

specifies the provision of infrastructure and

basic services at every 15 minutes walking

distance (1000 meters) in settlement

habited by low income earners, indicates

embracement of mixed-use development

(Adeleke et al, 2016). In line with this,

Coupland (1997) opined that mixed-use is an approach towards providing functional

urban spaces at different levels of

development, and this has been part of

developmental pattern overtime (Herndon,

2011).

The MCPs in Lagos administrative

precincts include the Ikeja Model City

Plans. Ikeja was the political capital of

Nigeria before the relocation of the capital

to Abuja in 1986 due to reasons among

which is traffic congestion in Lagos State (Filan, 2012). Amazingly, Lagos State

which is the most populous state in Nigeria

has the smallest land area of about

385.9m2. Consequently, the Model City

Plan for Lagos tends towards verticality in

terms of building development and higher

density (Mainland Model City Plan, 2011-

2033. The Ikeja Model City Plan proposed

corridors for mixed-use building and High

Street due to haphazard development and

illegal conversion of building uses. These corridors are meant to legally control the

haphazardness in building development

with specification which varies in terms of

maximum building height, percentage of

mix, building density and setback. Thus,

this study seeks to investigate the attribute

and pattern of mixed-use building in Ikeja as well as their implication on the

corridors. This is necessary in order to

ascertain the attributes peculiar to Ikeja in

order to facilitate the necessary

development for sustainable mixed-use

building in Lagos, Nigeria.

The Renaissance of Mixed-use

development Scholars have often referred to Jacob

(1996) when discussing the renaissance of

mixed-use development (Grant, 2002,

Hoppenbrouwer & Louw, 2005; Rabianski

et al., 2009; Rowley, 1996). The study

opined that mixed-use is formed by a fine-

grained mix of uses; preferably two uses and should be pedestrian oriented.

Brundtland’s report according to Walker,

(1997) reawakened the concept of mixed-

use development because its principles are

in line with the new urbanism, Smart

Growth and the compact city concept, and

are all aimed towards improving the built

environment (Herndon, 2011). Universally

there is a lack of generally accepted

delineation of what constitutes mixed-use

development (Coupland, 1997; Grant, 2002; Hoppenbrouwer, 2005; Rabianski et

al., 2007). In line with this Rowley (1996)

asserts that mixed-use development cannot

be detached from cultural priorities and

lifestyle. Similarly, Dave (2010) re-

established Rapoport (1997) idea that

location and socio-cultural factors in

developing countries are factors that inhibit

the generalization of attributes of mixed-

housing, which are sometimes referred to

as mixed development or neighbourhood.

However, Angotti and Hanhardt (2001) opined that over time development of a

community has never exclusively been

single use or mixed-use. It thus suggests

that mixed-use building attributes might

vary depending on location and

inhabitants’ socio-cultural needs.

Salami, Isah & Zubairu l Attributes and Patterns of Mixed-Use Buildings in Ikeja Model City Planned Corridors Lagos, Nigeria

111

Classification and Conceptualization

of mixed-use Developments There are various classifications of what

constitute mixed-use. For instance, Urban

Land Institute (ULI) describes

development as mixed-use when mutually

supporting functions co-exist (Joost, 2008;

Herndon, 2011). Another classification was

done in 2006 by cross-sections of

associations’ bodies, in a study to identify

the major feature of mixed-use

development (Niemira, 2007). In sum, the

two studies describe mixed-use as a well-planned structure that maximize available

land with functions or uses that could be

well incorporated with one another, and

each use should be adequate and enough to

attract demand (Niemira, 2007). Despite

these, there are deliberations as to what

constitute mixed-use development, so also

its conceptualization but the most cited

concepts are (Rowley, 1996), and

(Hoppenbrouwer & Louw, 2005).

Therefore the variables used in this study were adapted from these two concepts.

Although the variables specifically address

mixed-use development or mixed-use

buildings at neighbourhood level, it was

adapted to look at mixed-use at building

level because MCPs in Lagos were based

on regeneration of an urban area, where

focus was on mixed-use building in

specified corridors. The parameters that

were operationalized to examine Ikeja

mixed-use corridors are grouped into

tripartite factors. Firstly are the physical attributes that include building dimension,

number of floors for vertical development,

accessibility and building location.

Secondly are the functional patterns with

variables that include nature of combined

functions, number of functions combined

in a building, arrangement of activities,

building texture /intensity of mix i.e. grain

and density. Thirdly are the property

market (demand), and public policy and

regulation. These factors are necessary because they are essential to the success of

any given mixed-use building.

The Ikeja Model City Plan

The emergence of Model city plans

(MCPs) in Lagos was largely informed by

the disorderliness in development and lack

of infrastructure to cope with the ever

increasing population in Lagos. The Ikeja

model city plan identified corridors for mixed-use buildings; these corridors are

largely along major transport routes. The

MCPs specified maximum height for the

corridors. Ikorodu road, Anthony-Oshodi

express way, Lagos-Ibadan Express way,

Mobolaji Bank Anthony Way, Obafemi

Awolowo Way and Kodesoh/Oba-Akran

Way are mixed-use corridors of maximum

height of fifteen floors; Lateef Jakande-

Ogba-Isheri Road, Kudirat Abiola Way

(Oregun road), Allen-Avenue/Opebi Road,

Opebi link, LASUTH to Oba Ogunjobi leading to fomer Kingsway stores,

Adekunle Fajuyi, Joel Ogunnaike and Isaac

John are mixed-use corridor of maximum

height of ten floors; while ACME Road,

WEMPCO and Billings Way, Toyin Street,

Ikosi road, Mobolaji Johnson Avenue,

Oregun link bridge/Osho and Olowu Street

are mixed-use corridors of maximum

height of six floors (Mainland Model City

Plan, 2011-2033). Ikeja is significant

because despite the movement of Nigeria’s Federal Capital, it is still thriving in

commercial and industrial activities

scattered all over the area. Ikeja still

accommodates the seat of government in

Lagos State therefore Ikeja is indispensable

when it comes to the development process

in Lagos State.

Methodology This study utilized case study strategies

(Yin, 2003) as it considers and focuses on

mixed use pattern and attributes as both a

phenomenon and relevant contemporary

issue due to its benefit of aiding the

understanding of ideas clearly

(Stake,2010). Thus the study area

comprises of mixed-use corridors within

Ikeja Model City Plan (MCPs) with limitation to corridors located within Ikeja.

The study espoused exploratory approach

and is part of an ongoing research on

sustainability in mixed-use building

development in Lagos, Nigeria. Although,

there are emphases on the development of


112

mixed-use corridors in Lagos State, it was

visibly not yet part of the mainstream

development strategy which makes sample

frame difficult to attain. However, utilizing

the case study research approach the study

extended consultation to stakeholders involved in urban development process in

Lagos State in addition to the review of

MCPs and follow up leads from experts.

Meanwhile, the variables adopted in

examining the phenomenon were

investigated using an observation checklist

developed from the concepts of (Rowley,

1996), and (Hoppenbrouwer & Louw,

2005). Subsequently, eighteen (18)

buildings that met the criteria of multiple

functions, vertical development and

situated along the mixed-use corridors were purposively selected and considered fit to

provide the required data. These buildings

are chosen as a representative sample of

identified mixed-use buildings in order to

target illustrative tendencies of the mix-use

patterns and attributes rather than

generalize the outcome. The selections

were made from the following mixed-use

corridors; Mobolaji Bank Anthony,

Kodesho / Oba- Akran, Ikorodu road,

Obafemi Awolowo way, and Allen-Avenue / Opebi road. Further still the selection was

done one after the other until saturation

was attained. Thereafter the data obtained

were analyzed using descriptive method by

means of content analysis. Results are

presented in figures as implicit findings

were deduced to project explicit mix-use

pattern in the study area guided by the

ideals of Miles et al., (2014) for generating

meaning and confirming findings.

Intuitively, recurring mixed-use patterns

and themes (attributes) emerged from the data through the consideration of options

enshrined in the factors as frequent

phenomena.


The Ikeja area of Lagos State is a developed urban setting with residents

comprising of moderately high and

medium income earners. Nevertheless,

the study discovered relatively high density in the area and continual

increase in population growth. After

subjecting the data derived from the

evaluation of the eleven (11) variables to descriptive statistics, the study

recorded the following significant

outcomes.

Physical Attributes Component Building Location

The location of mixed- use buildings

observed were a functions of specifications in Ikeja Model City Plan. Meanwhile, four

major urban neighborhood distributions

that include Central Business District

(CBD), Main city, Old city and Fringes

were identified. Figure 1a present the

summary of mixed-use building in these

quadrille locations. Twelve (12) of the

buildings observed were located in the

main city area while six (6) were in the

Central Business District (CBD). These

two areas are located within the urban

center which is the nucleus of the city, thus supporting continual change in terms of

demand. Therefore, this result indicates the

reason as to why corridors designated for

mixed-use building in Ikeja are neither in

the fringes nor in the old city.

Accessibility to buildings

Access road to majority of the buildings

studied are shared by different functions as summed up in Figure 1b, this perhaps is

because the idea of mixed-use building are

usually not conceived from the initial

design stage. Meanwhile mixed-use

building with shared premises has separate

access roads which tend to also reflect on

the provision of parking spaces. Yet there

are no distinguishing parking spaces for the

various functions, as only functions with

separate access have separate parking

spaces. The implication is manifests when the issue of shared parking spaces found

not to resonate well with the users.


1

a. b.

Figure 1: Location and Accessibility of Mixed-Use Buildings

Building Dimension

All the mixed-use buildings studied are

vertical in dimension as illustrated in

Figure 2a and was found to be common

across the neighborhoods. Lagos State is a

state of aquatic splendor with limited land

area compared to other states. The scarcity

of land in Ikeja for instance is responsible

for vertical building design practiced by

developers. Although among the mixed-use buildings studied, there are four that are in

shared premises, the building dimension in

such cases is a combination of shared

premises with verticality. Thus, the urban

nature of Ikeja suggests that the horizontal

dimension of mixed-use building

development is inappropriate for the area

as indicated by the outcome of observed

buildings that is recorded in Figure 2b.

Number of floors for vertical development

The Ikeja MCP specified fifteen (15), ten

(10) and six (6) floors for maximum height

of mixed-use building. In Figure 2c, the

result shows that four floors were common

while just three out of the eighteen

buildings studied had more than five floors.

This is due to the fact that mixed-use

building is not yet well accommodated into

the mainstream of building development in

the area. Additionally, the larger

percentage of the residents belong to the

low and middle income earners’ group that could not afford the cost of higher numbers

of floors as specified by the MCP. Thus,

this has an impact on the nature of mixed-

use building within the corridors and the

demand for the scarce spaces due to limited

number of floors which is definitely

resulting into high rental charges. Hence, it

implies that there is a need for increase in

the number of vertical floors as rightly

proposed by the MCP.

a. Typical Verical buildings


1

b. Corridor building dimension c. Number of Floors

Figure 2: Vertical building development along Ikeja MCP corridors.

Functional Patterns Combination of Functions in a Building The breakdown presented in Figure 3a

shows the types of functions commonly

combined in mixed-use buildings. In all the

nine different categories of functions

identified were observed to have been

combined. And all the categories do not

have more than four types of functions

housed in a building. This shows that the

users and residents of Ikeja could cope with

three to four functions combined in a

building. Administrative and Commercial category (combination) is more prominent

along the corridors, an indication that users

do not have problem with such

combination because they have similarities

in terms of their day to day operational

process. Residential, Administrative and

Commercial category (combination) is also

conspicuous in all the corridors studied

with Administrative and Commercial mix-

use having their peak period of services

during the day while the residential part

keeps the building functioning in the night when residents have retired after the day’s

activities. This has great impact on the

corridor giving the buildings 24 hours

operation duration. Therefore, in corridors

for mixed-use building in Ikeja and Oshodi

MCP, Administrative/Commercial and Residential/Commercial/Administrative

functions are combinations that require

consideration at the design stage.

Number of functions combined in a

building

All the building observed had one or more

functions combined which is an attribute of

mixed-use development. It was observed

that buildings with two functions combined

are most recurring as reported in Figure 3b.

This could possibly be linked to the upgraded building laws in the corridor

where building in those areas are

recommended for higher numbers of floors

and mix of use by the provision of the

MCPs. However, five functions were

observed as the highest number combined

in a building. Although such category is

very minimal, it indicates the possibilities

of having such combination in a well-

planned mix-use building.


1

a.

b.

Figure 3: Nature and distribution of functions in Mixed-use buildings. Density of functions nature

Density here implies the frequency of

occurrence of functions located within a

mixed-use building. It signifies the amount

of space or number of units of a function

contained within a building and is a measure of the intensity of functions

occurrence as shown in Figure 4a. The

purpose of this is to establish functions that

are more prominent and possibly

patronized based on high, medium and low

categories. Majority of the buildings

observed recorded the administrative

function towards a high density pattern;

this suggests that it is the most frequently

needed by the inhabitants. However the

aggregate numbers of medium and low density for commercial use are more than

that of administrative uses. This implies

that some factors are inhibiting frequency

of commercial uses. These factors might

include level of income of the resident and

high rental rate among others. Therefore,

administrative and commercial uses are

suggested functions that should be most

considered for developments in the area.

Arrangement of functions By arrangement commercial activities are

usually located on the ground floors and in

some cases first and second floors as

summarized in Figure 4b. This is because

ground floors in particular and lower floors

in general are more suitable for circulation

and movement of customers therefore more

peculiar to commercial activities.

Administrative activities tend to be more

formal, thus majority of the offices are

located at the higher floors. Although administrative offices like banks are also

on the ground floor, this is to ease access

for customers. Most of the residential

functions are located on higher floors

especially on the last floors. This is


116

important in order to provide privacy for

the inhabitants. In a mixed-use building

that has shared premises residential

activities are ordinarily at the back with

separate access and are usually not facing

the major corridor or access road.

Grain (Degree of mix)

The outcome of the degree of mix is

presented in Figure 4c. The most common

degrees of mix observed are basically

medium (slightly separated). This is when

different functions are at the same floor but

not necessarily at close distance (not next

to one another). Eleven out of the buildings

observed have slightly separated mix of

functions. While functions that are fine

(close) were found in three out of all the buildings observed. This category consists

of functions within a floor (next to one

another). Further still four (4) of the

buildings are coarse (more slightly

separated) with functions separated by

floors. This is perhaps due to different

categories of inhabitant influencing the

demand for a type of use, thus having less

concern about the degree of mix of

functions.

a

b

c

Figure 4: Number, Frequency and

Arrangement of Functions in Mixed use

developments.

Policy and Market Demand Property Market Demand

In terms of demand for mixed-use

buildings, Figure 5a indicates a high

demand for administrative purposes. This

is due to the concentration of the buildings

within the main city and central business districts (CBD). Although same demand

would have been thought about commercial

uses, but it is otherwise due to the cost of

rent which is high for the low and middle

income earners that reside in the area. The

idea of mixed-use is to bring work-live

environment, where there is 24 hours use

of the building. Residential use recorded

low ranking in Ikeja corridors while there

is also an absence of commercial functions

like club house that could keep the building

alive even at night hours.

Public Policy and Regulations

Public policy and regulation on mixed-use

building, according to the MCP suggest

areas for mixed-use corridors along with

building height, density and setback. In


117

Figure 5b, it is noticeable that there is

mixed-use building outside the corridors

dedicated to it. Although, all the buildings

observed are in line with previously

approved setback. This will change when

the owner and developer start erecting mixed-use buildings according to the

maximum height specified by the MCP,

which varied from 6 floors, 10 floors to 15

floors depending on corridor. Density

would also definitely change as the height

increases.

Identifying Attributes and Patterns. The evaluation of the parameters provided an insight into the inherent findings where

inferences were deduced that subsequently

revealed the mixed-use attributes and

patterns practiced along Ikeja MCP

corridors. The outcome shows that

verticality of mixed-use building

dimension is a foremost practiced pattern

in Ikeja with isolated cases of shared

premises. This phenomenon is common in

cities particularly where land constrain is

common as the case of Lagos state,

Nigeria. In Ikeja Mixed-use buildings are commonly located in the main city and the

central business districts (CBD). The most

popular combinations found are

Administrative and Commercial functions

while a combination of Administrative,

Commercial and Residential functions are

likely patterns that may be valued in these

corridors as there exist mixed-use buildings

with such combinations. Meanwhile, the functions that are distributed horizontally

and vertically across the mixed-use

buildings are usually closely related with

compatibility of functions as a determinant

of the degree of mix. Most often

Commercial functions are at the lower

floors while Administrative and Residential

functions are sited on higher floors. In

shared premises provision for access and

parking are usually separated. The ordering

of the density of functions that coincides

with the demand is usually patterned- Administrative, Commercial, and

Residential in ranking. Existing regulations

advocates compliance and conformity with

MCPs’ building height, density and set

back as long term plan towards ensuring

sustainable development which requires

attitudinal change in property ownership. A

matrix of evolutional emergence of

attribute and patterns is presented in Table

1 and illustrated in Figure 6.

a. b.

Figure 5: Residents’ Demand and Policy Regulation on Functions.

Table 1: Explicit and Implicit outcome- Derivation of Attributes and Patterns

Parameters Explicit Findings Implicit Inferences Emerging Attribute/

Pattern

1. Building dimensions Relatively high density and scarcity of land.

Verticality & shared development is practiced.

Verticality (shared premises)


118

2. Numbers of Floors Four floors predominant

MCPs specification is a long time plan /strategy

Verticality inevitable

3. Functions combined Administrative &

commercial most commonly combined functions

Ability to produce

24hours usage of mixed-use buildings

Administrative &

commercial. Administrative, Commercial & Residential are possible patterns

4. Number of function combined

2 to 3 numbers of functions is common

Possibility of more than 3 functions in a building

Several closely related functions should be combined.

5. Functions arrangement

Functions are mixed within floors but some functions are more common to certain floors

Function that require influx of different kind of people are located on lower floors

Commercial functions in the lower floors, while administrative and residential in higher floors

6. Accessibility and parking

Access and parking are usually shared

Need for separate access and parking especially for

residential use

Shared premises provides necessary separation of access and parking

7. Grain (Degree of mix)

Slightly separated with different functions within a floor

Users’ needs and compatibility influences demand for use

Compatibility should determine the degree of mix

8. Density of functions Administrative is high, Commercial is medium and

Residential is low density

Intensity of function depends on resident income and needs

Order of density of functions: Administrative, commercial, and residential

9. Location Basically mixed-use buildings are located in main city and Central Business Districts CBDs.

Mixed-use in Ikeja MCP are peculiar to urban centers

Main (New) city area and the central business districts (CBD) have concentration of Mix-use structures.

10. Property market

(demand)

High demand for

administrative use than commercial

Demands are due to

inhabitant income and rent fees

Significantly order of

demand for functions include; administrative, commercial, and residential

11. Public regulations Present mixed-use conform with initial buildings set back

Conformity with MCPs building height, density and set back is a long

term plan

Attitudinal change in property ownership is essential

The distribution of Misused buildings

along the corridors in Ikeja MCP as

illustrated in Figure 6 confirms the results

recorded from the observation.


119

A. Kodesoh Street B. Obafemi Awolowo way

C. Oba-Akran way D. Allene Avenue

E. Kudirat Abiola way F. Olowu Street

G. Joel Ogunnaike H. Olowu Street

Figure 6: Mixed-use corridors in Ikeja MCP. Source: www.instantstreetview.com

Conclusions It is important to study the attributes and

pattern that are germane and could

determine the sustainability or otherwise of

mixed-use building. Although scholars

differ as to what constitute a mixed-use

development, not much has been done in

analyzing mixed-use development or

building in Nigeria. This is an attempt to

address the practicality in the application of

the provisions made by MCPs in Lagos, Nigeria particularly the Ikeja MCP. Also,

the study tried to ascertain how receptive

the residents are and the overall benefit to both the affluent and the common man on

the street. The study thereafter reveals that

a successful integration of mixed-use could

be achieved in the area through vertical

building dimension. Although there are

variations in the number of functions

combined, apparently two is most common.

Administrative and Commercial uses

dominate the demand, followed by its

combination with Residential uses. Also


120

for mixed-use in the area to be successful,

the general pattern desirable is mixed-use

with commercial and retail on lower floor

and residential on higher floors.

Nonetheless the sharing of access road in

majority of the corridors as practised now is not sustainable. To achieve sustainable

development access routes should be

separated, especially for residential users.

The grain of mixed-use building is medium

(slightly separated) because it is clearly

difficult to presume the kind of use within

and between floors. Administrative

function, followed by commercial and

residential perhaps should be the order of

function provision due to demand and the

fact that all the corridors are located within

the urban area, then other functions like eatery could also be incorporated, It is

concluded that a well-Integrated mix of use

is achievable in corridors due to density,

but the compliance with the maximum

number of floors would take a while due to

the level of income of the inhabitants of the

area.

References Angotti, T. & Hanhardt, E. (2001). Problems

and Prospects for Healthy Mixed-use Communities in New York City

Planning Practice and Research, 16, 145-154.

Arizona, (2013). Complete Neighborhoods for healthy, safe and affordable living,

unpublished course outline pup 544, spring semester Arizona state

university. Artscape DIY, Resources (2013). Approaches

to Creative Place Making. Retrieved

from www.artscapediy.org/ on 15th

September 2017 by 9.06pm. Ban, Ki Moon (2014). “The Road to Dignity

by 2030: Ending Poverty, Transforming All Lives and Protecting the Planet.”

Synthesis Report of the Secretary-General on the Post-2015 Agenda. New

York, United Nations. Available at www.un.org/disabilities/documents/rep

orts/SG_Synthesis_Report_Road_to_Dignity_by_2030.pdf (last accessed

December 24, 2014). Coupland, A. (Ed.). (1997). Reclaiming the

city: Mixed Use Development. London, Taylor and Francis.Dave, S. (2010).

High urban densities in developing

countries: A sustainable solution. Built environment, 36(1), 9-27.

Filani, M. O. (2012). The changing face of Lagos: From vision to reform and

transformation. Report funded by Foundation for Development and

Environmental Initiatives (Nigeria), and Cities Alliance.

Foster, N. (2003). Architecture and Sustainability, retrieved from

www.fosterandpartners.com/media/546486/essay13.pdf on 15th September,

2016. Gentin, M. (2009) All Mixed up - A Critical

Analysis of Mixed Use, Unpublished thesis submitted to UNSC Australia for

the award of Bachelor of Planning. Retrieved from https://www.be.unsw.

edu.au/sites/default/files/upload/pdf/schools.../5A3_28.pdf

Grant, J. (2002). Mixed Use in Theory and Practice: Canadian Experience with

Implementing a Planning Principle. Journal of the American Planning

Association 68(1), 71 – 84. Habitat, U. N. (2013). State of the World’s

Cities 2012/2013, Prosperity of cities Nairobi/ New York: Routledge.

Herndon J. D. (2011) Mixed-Use

Development in Theory and Practice: Learning from Atlanta’s Mixed

Experiences. Hoppenbrouwer, E. & Louw, E. (2005).

Mixed-Use Development: Theory and practice in Amsterdam's Eastern

Docklands, European Planning Studies. 13(7), 967-983.

Isidore E. & Adedapo O. (2014). Densification as Sustainable Urban

Policy: The Case of Ikoyi, Lagos, Nigeria. Proceedings of the CIB W107

International Conference, Lagos, Nigeria, 28th-30th January, 2014.

Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities, New York,

Random House. Kellett, P. & Tipple, A. G. (2000). The Home

as Workplace: A Study of income-generating activities within the

domestic setting. Environment and Urbanization, 12(1), 203-214.

Kofo A., Ebere A., Soji A., Aro I., Lookman O., & Tao S., (2016). Urban Planning

Process in Lagos: Policies, Laws, Planning instruments, strategies and

http://www.artscapediy.org/


121

actors of urban projects, urban

development, and urban services in Africa’s largest city, Ed. Monika U. and

Heinrich B., Switzerland and Nigeria, Heinrich böll stiftung Nigeria and

Fabulous Urban. Landman, K. & Du Toit, J. (2014).

Residents’ perceptions of the importance of outdoor spaces and

neighborliness for medium-density Mixed-housing in South Africa. Town

and Regional Planning, 65, 23-34. Landman, K., Matsebe, G.& Mmonwa, M.

(2009). Assessing the Physical characteristics of medium density

Mixed-housing in South Africa Town and Regional Planning, 54, 15-26.

Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A

method sourcebook. CA, US: Sage Publications.

MAPC, (2010). Mixed use zoning, A planners’ guide by Metropolitan Area

Planning Council Boston with support from the Minuteman advisory group on

inter local coordination and the commonwealth’s priority development

retrieved from http:www.mapc.org/sites/default/files/m

ixed-use.planners_Toolkit.pdf.

MPPUD, (2011a). Ikeja and Oshodi Model City Plan, 2011-2033. Ministry of

Physical Planning and Urban Development, Regional and Master

Plan Department, Lagos State Government.

MPPUD, (2011b). Mainland Model City Plan, 2011-2033: Ministry of Physical

Planning and Urban Development, Regional and Master Department,

Lagos State Government. NBC, (2006) National Building Code of

Federal Republic of Nigeria. Niemira, M. P. (2007). The Concept and

Drivers of Mixed-use Development: Insights from a Cross-organizational

membership survey, Research Review, 4(1), 53-56.

Otubu, A. K., (2012). Conceptualizing

Zoning within the Lagos Megacity Project: A Prognosis, Journal of

Environment and Earth Science, 2(10), 36-44.

Rabianski, J. & Clements, J. (2007). Mixed-Use Development: A Review of

Professional Literature. The National Association of Industrial and Office,

Properties Research Foundation. Rapoport, A. (2016). Human aspects of urban

form: towards a man—environment approach to urban form and Design,

Elsevier. Rapoport, A. Human Aspects of Urban Form.

Towards a Man-Environment Approach to Urban Form and Design. Pergamon

Press, Oxford, 1977 Rowley, A. (1996). Mixed-use Development:

ambiguous concept, simplistic analysis and wishful thinking. Planning Practice

and Research, 11(1), 85-98. Rowley, A., (1998). Planning Mixed use

development; issues and practice, Research report founded by Royal

Institute of Chartered Surveyors, UK. Stake, R. E. (2010). Qualitative Research:

Studying how things work, New York, The Gulford Press.

United Nations Population Fund. (2001). The

State of World Population 2001, United Nations: New York, retrieved from

http://www.unfpa.org/publications/state-world-population-2001.

Van Den Hoek, J. W. (2008). The MXI

(Mixed-use Index) as Tool for Urban Planning and Analysis. Corporations

and Cities: Envisioning Corporate Real Estate in the Urban Future, Brussels.

Wardner, P. A. M. E. L. A. (2014, May). Explaining mixed-use developments: A

critical realist’s perspective. In 20th Annual Pacific-Rim Real Estate Society

Conference (19-22 January 2014), Christchurch, New Zealand. Retrieved

(Vol. 27). Yin, R. (2003). Case Study Research Design

and Methods, London, Sage Publications.

http://www.unfpa.org/publications/state-world-population-2001

http://www.unfpa.org/publications/state-world-population-2001


122

Digital Mapping of Cholera in Parts of

Kaduna State, Nigeria

Bello Z.Y.1, A. Isah

2 and H. G. Dikko

1

1Department of Statistics, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 2Department of Statistics, Federal University of Technology, Minna

[email protected]

Abstract The focus of this paper is to analyze the spatial patterns and clusters of cholera epidemic in

five local government areas (LGAs) of Kaduna State. To achieve this goal, inventories were

obtained from Kaduna State Ministry of health on cholera epidemic. The K-function method

was used to determine the spatial heterogeneity of cholera epidemic. The identification of

clusters and mapping were achieved through the use of digitized and google earth image

2016. The result shows that four among the five local governments were clustered with the

exception of Kaduna North for which the disease pattern is random. Moreover, the result

revealed that the overall spatial pattern of cholera epidemic in the study area is clustered,

and the overall cholera disease risk was more concentrated in Igabi and Kaduna North LGA.

Key words: Spatial Pattern, Cholera, Digitized, K-function and Cluster.

Introduction Cholera is endemic in Nigeria (Falade &

Lawoyin, 1999). Nigeria reported an

outbreak of cholera in May 2013. Since then and up until October 2014, a total of

40,608 suspected cholera cases have been

reported. There have been 898 deaths,

giving a case fatality rate (CFR) of 1.95%.

The outbreak has experienced a strong

upsurge since early 2014, with more than

34,000 cases and 664 deaths reported from

January 2014 to October 2014. Suspected

cholera cases were recorded in 19 of the

country’s 36 states (51%). The states

affected include; Bauchi, Kaduna, Plateau, Kano, Borno, Adamawa, Katsina, Kebbi

and Zamfara States (WHO, 2013).

The threat of cholera rampaging through

Nigeria has been a concern. Recent global

health reports show a continual

vulnerability of large populations to

infectious diseases in relation to our

environment. Cholera is one of the

deadliest disease in Africa (WHO 1993),

within 2-3 hours of unset symptoms a

previously healthy person may severely become dehydrated and if not treated may

die within 24hours (WHO 2010). Cholera

is an epidemic and infectious disease which

is of global and public health significance,

hence the need of this research to recognize

and address it accordingly with the aid of

geospatial techniques.

Nigeria is a prime area to study spatial patterns associated with diseases because it

is a country where millions of people live

in close proximity not only to other people

but also to open and unsafe water sources.

It is also a country that is actively engaged

in alteration of its aquatic ecosystems, a

process often associated with changed

disease ecologies (WHO, 1993).

Spatial statistics is the process of extracting

or creating new information about a set of

geographic features to perform routine examination, assessment, evaluation,

analysis or modeling of data in a

geographic area based on pre-established

and computerized criteria and standards.

Spatial analysis is a technique for

analyzing spatial data mostly on human

scale. Complex issues arise in spatial

analysis, many of which are neither clearly

defined nor completely resolved. The most

fundamental of these is the problem of

defining the spatial location of the entities being studied (Scott & Getis, 2008).


Bello, Isah & Dikko Digital Mapping of Cholera in Parts of Kaduna State, Nigeria

123

Geographic Information System (GIS) and

epidemiological approaches are helpful

tools to control the disease spatially and

temporally. GIS is a computer system for

capturing, storing, querying, analyzing, and

displaying geospatial data (Chang, 2008). The general functions of GIS in health

studies are disease mapping and modeling,

spatio-temporal changes analysis and risk

assessment, public health care and hospital

management. GIS has the capabilities of

analyzing the spatial patterns, cluster and

distribution of disease and its influential

environments towards creating an

innovative cholera control plan in the

country. Spatial epidemiology is an

essential approach in understanding of

spatial disease risk transmission and pattern particularly, disease mapping and

descriptive analysis (Chin-Lai, 2009).

Several approaches have been used to

study the incidence of cholera. Notably

among them are (Osei & Duker 2008) who

used spatial regression models to explore

the spatial dependency of cholera

prevalence on an important local

environmental factor (open-space refuse

dumps) in kumasi, Ghana. Inhabitants with high density of refuse dumps were

observed to their cholera prevalence than

those with lower density of refuse dumps.

Ali et al, (2001,2002a, 2002b) utilized

logistics regression , simple and multiple

regression models to study the spatial

epidemiology of cholera in an endemic

area of Bangladesh. Akyala et al,(2014)

,investigated cholera outbreak in an urban

north central Nigerian community. They

employed descriptive statistics, active case search and un-matched case control study.

Diego et al,(2010) examined the spatial

clustering of cholera outbreaks using

Ripley’s K and L indices and bootstrapping

methods to evaluate the occurrence of the

clustering in the cases during outbreaks

using different temporal windows. The

spatial location of cases was also against

the spatial clustering.

Frank and Alfred (2008) conducted a research on spatial and demographic

patterns of cholera in Ashanti region –

Ghana. A GIS based spatial analysis and

statistical analysis were carried out to

determine clustering of cholera, and the

result showed that high cholera rates are

clustered around Kumasi metropolis.

This study present the application of K-

function method to determine the spatial

heterogeneity of cholera epidemic in parts

of Kaduna State by generating eminent spatial patterns in the data through spatial

maps, evaluate the degree of spatial

clusters of points and disease risks and

creating an inventive cholera control plan

by exploring spatial analysis toolset in

ArcGIS software for cholera mapping and

pattern analysis in the study area.

The Study Area The study area is Kaduna state and lies

between latitudes 10o20’0”N and

11o10’0”N of the equator and between

longitudes 7°10‘0”E and 8°0’0”E East of

Greenwich Meridian. The state shares

boundary with Zamfara, Katsina , kano in

the North, Bauchi, Plateau in the Eastern

part of the Nigeria and to the western part

lies Niger state. The state has a projected population of 7, 205,354 with twenty three

local government areas. Five Local

Government Areas with higher cholera

cases were chosen for this research namely;

Igabi, Kaduna North, Kaduna South,

Sabon-Gari and Zaria (see Figure 1). These

Areas were selected because based on the

data collected, they have re-occurrence of

cholera outbreak.


124

Figure 1: Map of Kaduna State showing the five Local Government Areas. Source: Administrative Map of Nigeria 2015.

Methodology The population under study is Kaduna

State while the five Local Government

Areas with frequent incidence of cholera outbreak constitute the sample. The type of

data used in this research are the polygon

and point data. The polygon data are the

administrative map of the study area

(polygon), location of the cholra cases

(point data) and inventory data for the

cholera epidemic which was used in

populating the location of the cholera

patients settlements. The data was obtained

through secondary source.the secondary

data is the baseline data list of all cholera

outbreaks in Kaduna State from 2010 to

2015. The cholera outbreaks inventories

information obtained comprises

information on the locations of the cholera

cases in terms of wards and localities, and

number of people affected. The data was

obtained from Kaduna State Ministry of Health.

The Estimators of K (h) The Naive Estimator

A naïve approach consists of counting the

number of observable pairs of objects, lying within the window D, that are less


125

than a distance h apart. The resulting

estimator, K1^ (h) is given by the equation.

AhK

n n

ji

ij

1

)(ˆ1

2 (1)

The resulting estimator )(ˆ1 hK is evidently

negatively biased, since it fails to take

proper account of neighbouring objects

lying undetected outside D but in its

vicinity. Now

}1{)}(ˆ{ 1

2

n n

ji

ijEhKAE (2)

Ohser et al (1985) show that for a Poisson

process, the right-hand side of (2) is.

h

D

n n

ji

ij rdKrE0

2 )()(}1{ (3)

Where

} of(area E{= (r) D yDD and

y is uniformly distributed on the boundary

of the circle center at the origin and radius

r. The function γD (r) can be interpreted in

the following way: For a rectangular window Ohser et al.,

(1985) deduced that for small enough r, γD

(r) is approximately equal to

/)22( barA . Therefore,

h

D

n n

ji

ij rdKrE0

2 )()(}1{

h h

rrdKbardKA0 0

2 )}(]/)22[()({

However for a Poisson process, 2)( rrK and

rdrrdK 2)(

h

D

n n

ji

ij rdKrE0

2 )()(}1{ K(r) =

πr2, and dK(r) = 2π rdr.

Whence

3/)(4}1{ 3222 bahhAEn n

ji

ij

thus:

abbahhhKE 3/)(4)}(ˆ{ 32

1 ,

for small enough h.

Border edge correction (S.I. Doguwa, 1988)Consider only those

objects within a variable inner window

0D , which shrinks as h increases. For the

case'h h , the inner window is a

centrally located rectangle of dimensions

)2( 'ha by )2( 'hb . The effect is that

the positions of any object up to a distance 'h outside the inner window are known.

The resulting estimator )(ˆ2 hK is given by

the equation (4):

0

2

2

0

1

ˆ ( )

n n

ij

i jK h

A

(4)

Here is the area of and n0 is the

number of objects in . If 2 is unknown,

it can be estimated by:

0

0 )1(

AA

nn .

Evidently, )(ˆ2 hK is unbiased for all

values of that are less than and

providing that the inner window is not

empty of objects. To see this, we obtain the

expected value of equation (4) conditional

on the number n0 of objects in as,

0

2

2ˆ[ ( )] [ [1 ]

n n

ij

i j

E K h E for a

Poisson process

0

( , )

{ } /

i

n n

i j D b x r

dV dr A

where

),( ji xxdr

h

Ardrnn0

0 /2)1(

Ahnn /)1( 2

0

Where V is a one dimensional Lebsesgue

measure on the boundary of the

circle centered at X and radius r. Now


126

2 2

2 0 0 0 0ˆ{ ( ) / ( ) } ( 1) / ( )E K h N D n n n h AA K h

However, the rapidly decreasing size of

0D inevitably leads to a rapid increase in

the variance of this estimator.

Ripley’s Estimator Ripley (1976, 1977) suggested considering

every ordered pair of objects ),( Ji XX

within the sampling window and assigning

a scaling factor ijS to each pairing. The

scaling factor is defined by, 1)(

ijS = The proportion of the perimeter

of the circle, centred on object Xi and

passing through object Xj, which lies

within the sampling window D

r

rXbDV i

2

)],([ (5)

Note that ijS is not necessarily equal to

ijS . We shall refer to object Xi as the

central object and object Xj as the distant

object.

Ripley’s estimator )(ˆ3 hK is given by

equation (6) as:

A

S

hK

n

ji

ijij

n

1

)(ˆ3

2 (6)

usually the value of λ2 will be unknown, in

which case we suggest replacing it by the

estimate, 2/)1( Ann which is unbiased

for a Poisson process. For a Poisson

process, )(ˆ3 hK is unbiased for values of

h for which dh 2

This follows, since

}1{})(/)(ˆ{ 3

2

n n

ji

ijijSEnDNhKAE

}1{

n n

ji

ijijSE

n n

ji

h

rxbD

ij AdrdVS

i

/}{0 ),(

n n

ji

i

h

ij AdrrXbDVS /)],([0

But rrXbDVS iij 2)],([ , for all

i and j, provided that,

0)],([ rXbDV i (7)

However (4.10) is satisfied if and only if

dh 2 . Whence

h

rdrAnnnDNhKAE0

3

2 2/)1(})(/)(ˆ{

for dh 2

)(})(/)(ˆ{ 3 hKnDNhKE

Ripley’s estimator is limited to values of h

for which dh 2 . The restriction occurs

because the formulation of )(ˆ3 hK ,

assumes that each of the objects in D can

assume the role of a central object.

However if dh 2 , then there will be a

‘null region’ in the interior of D containing

objects for which this central role has been

removed, because the entire perimeter of

the circle of radius h centered on one of

these objects lies outside the sampling

window.

Procedure for Data Analysis and

Presentations of Results The software used is Google earth image

2016. It was used to update digital map in

ArcGIS 10.3 environment. The Microsoft-

excel software was used to compile cholera

data and ArcGIS 10.3 software was used as

the engine for the data analysis and presentation of results.

The data was converted to Microsoft query

format in excel. The query was done to

extract the name of wards, name of

localities and the cases of cholera with

respect to the localities. This aids in

locating the geographical locations of the

localities and their coordinates on Google

Earth Pro software. This was done in order

to link both the spatial and non-spatial data

because the data collected from the Kaduna State Ministry of health were not

referenced to geographic locations. The


127

data was then analyzed using the

ArcCatalog window which is an ArcGIS

software extension. The Spatial Analysis

tool and K-Function was used for the

spatial analysis of cholera epidemics. For

each of the analysis conducted, a report was generated and the output of the results

were presented in form of Figures, Maps

and ArcMap documents.

The analysis of data consist of calculation

the Euclidean distance between one point

and the other point, using the Ripley’s

estimator as an estimator of spatial pattern

of points.

Results and Discussion Spatial Distribution

Figure 2 shows the location of the five

selected local government areas that were

highly affected by the cholera epidemic

and the locations of the cholera cases in the

areas. The five local Government areas are

namely; Igabi, Kaduna North, Kaduna South, Sabon Gari and Zaria.

Figure 2 shows the total 187 locations with

cholera incidence between the years 2010

to 2015. Five local government areas were

highly affected with Igabi LGA having 53

locations affected by the cholera incidence, Kaduna North has 16 locations, while

Kaduna South has 28 locations, Sabon Gari

has 19 locations and with Zaria LGA

having 71 locations. On the reported cases

across the LGAs under study, 1363 cases

were reported in Igabi LGA, 378 and 447

cases were reported in Kaduna North and

South respectively, while 301 cases were

reported in Sabon Gari LGA and 217 cases

in Zaria LGA. The disease mapping

provides a rapid visual summary of

complex geographic information as supported by Goovaert and Jacquez (2004).

The results show the advantages of

advances in technology that allows

disease and spatial distribution of

disease mapping.

Figure 2: Location of the Cholera Epidemic in the Study Area


127

Spatial Patterns of Cholera

Epidemic in the Study Area The results of the analysis are presented in

Figures 3 to 7. The red line in Figure 3 is

the observed L-function and is above the

Upper Confidence Envelop for values of h

between 1000 and 3000 indicating

clustering within the range. The result

revealed that the diseases were clustered in

Sabon-Gari LGA like the research

conducted by Diego et al., (2010) which

show that spatial clustering of cholera

cases were detected at different temporal

and spatial scales. The result of Figure 3

was generated from the map in Figure 2 to show the charts of clustering and dispersed

locations.

Figure 3: Spatial Patterns of Cholera Epidemic in Sabon Gari LGA

ExpectedK

ObservedK

Confidence Env.

K FunctionClustered

Dispersed

Distance40002000

L(d)

4000

3000

2000

1000

Figure 4: Spatial Patterns of Cholera in Kaduna South

ExpectedK

ObservedK

Confidence Env.

K Function

Clustered

Dispersed

Distance

4000 2000

L(d)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000


128

Also from Figure 4, the red line revealed

that the observed L(d) is above the

Confidence level for values of h between

800 to 1100 indicating clustered pattern of

spread of Cholera disease.

It was found from the result on Figure 5,

that the spatial pattern of cholera disease in

Kaduna North is random as shown from the

red line that the observed L(d) is roughly

within the Confidence Envelops. This

finding also contradicted the research

conducted by Diego et al., (2010) which

showed that spatial clustering of cholera

cases was detected at different temporal and spatial scales and cases relative to

water sources also exhibit spatial

clustering.

Figure 5: Spatial Patterns of Cholera in Kaduna North

ExpectedK

ObservedK

Confidence Env.

K FunctionClustered

Dispersed

Distance100005000

L(d)

15000

10000

5000

Figure 6: Spatial Patterns of Cholera in Zaria

The spatial pattern of cholera disease in

Zaria is clustered. As indicated in Figure 6,

the red line is constantly above the Upper

Confidence Envelop as in the research


130

finding of Ruiz-Moreno et al (2007) which

observed that clustering of cholera in

Bangladesh occur at different spatial

scales. This result confirmed the outbreak

reported in Zaria in the Kaduna state with

192 cases recorded in two weeks as at 2015 United nations children’s fund (UNICEF,

2015). However, according to WHO (2013)

the cholera outbreaks are attributed to the

fact that Cholera is most likely to be found

and spread in places with inadequate water

treatment, poor sanitation, and inadequate

hygiene.

Moreover, the observed red line in Figure 7

is above the Upper Confidence Envelop for

values of h between 0 and 7000 indicating

clustering pattern of cholera spatial distribution in Igabi LGA. The situation in

Igabi LGA was as a result of

socioeconomic and demographic factors

because most of the people living in that

area are farmers and fishermen and it has

been reported (Ali et al 2002a, 2002b;

Borroto and Martinez-Piedra 2000; Sasaki

et al 2008) that socioeconomic and

demographic factors significantly enhance

the vulnerability of a population to infection and contribute to epidemic spread

of cholera.

Degree of Spatial Clustering of

Points and Disease Risks The result for the degree of spatial cluster

of Cholera locations and disease risks are

presented in Figures 8 to 11. The point

density was used to calculate a magnitude

per unit area from point features that fall

within a neighborhood around each cell in

the study area. In evaluating the degree of

spatial cluster, only the points that fall

within the neighborhood were considered

in calculating the density.

Figure 7: Spatial Patterns of Cholera in Igabi LGA


131

Figure 8: Spatial Clusters of Cholera in Kaduna North


132

Figure 9: Spatial Clusters of Cholera in Kaduna South

From Figure 8, the result show that the yellow color constitute higher cluster

which ranges from 5 to 15, red moderate

cluster (0 to 5) and green (15 to 25) with

lowest spatial cluster respectively. The

spatial cluster in Kaduna North LGA

ranges from high to low cluster. From

Figure 9, the result shows that the yellow color constitute higher cluster which ranges

from 1.4 to 5.9, red indicates moderate

cluster (0.1 to 1.4) and green (5 to 16)

indicates low spatial cluster. This shows

that Spatial Cluster in Kaduna South LGA

ranges from high to low cluster

.


133

Figure 10: Spatial Clusters of Cholera in Igabi


134

Figure 11: Spatial Clusters of Cholera in Sabongari and Zaria

From Figure 10, the result show that the

green color constitute higher cluster which

ranges from 0 to 10, followed by yellow

(10 to 20) and red indicates moderate

cluster (20 to 31) with low spatial cluster. The result shows that spatial clusters in

Igabi LGA has low cluster. From Figure

11, the result shows that the green color

constitute higher cluster which ranges from

0 to 10 with low spatial cluster. Sabon-gari

and Zaria LGAs has low cluster.

It was generally found that the degree of

cholera spatial cluster is Highest in Igabi, followed by Kaduna North, and Kaduna

South and low in Sabon Gari and Zaria

LGAs.


135

Figure 12: Spatial Clusters of Cholera Epidemic in the whole of the study area

Cholera Disease Risk In order to evaluate the spatial pattern of cholera diseases risk, there is the needs to

calculate a magnitude per unit area from

point features using a kernel function to fit

a smooth surface to each point. The larger

values of the search radius parameter

produce a smoother, more generalized

density raster whereas the smaller values

produce a raster that shows more detail.

Cholera disease map for the study area is

presented on Figure 13. The five local governments in the study

area are at risk of the Cholera disease

outbreaks. However, the cholera disease

risk was more concentrated in Igabi and

Kaduna North LGAs. The high

concentration in cholera epidemic in

Kaduna North and Igabi LGAs could be as a result of the rivers in the two LGAs. The

discharge of pollutants as a result of

agricultural activities into the tributaries

(rivers) in the study area is one of the major

determinant factors that lead to the cholera

outbreak.


136

Figure 13: Cholera Disease Risk in the whole of the study area

Inventive Cholera Control Plan Figures 8 to 11, has revealed that Igabi,

Kaduna North and Kaduna South LGAs

should be given priority for cholera control

measures. The areas that are vulnerable to

the disease risk are shown in Figures 12 to

16 and should be used as a decision making guide for cholera control plans in the study

area especially. Finally, the GIS interface is

an inventive cholera control decision

making tool because the integration of GIS

and epidemiological approaches are helpful

tools to control the disease spatially and

temporally as pointed out by Chang (2008).

As such the outcome of this research serve

as an innovative cholera control plan in

five local government areas of Kaduna

State as supported by Chin-Lai (2009). These intervention includes;

1. Case Management,

2. Surveillance of the outbreak

including laboratory analysis and data

management,

3. The WASH activities such as

hygiene promotion, safe burial, household

disinfection, water treatment etc

4. Community mobilization,

5. Possible oral- cholera vaccine

(OCV) campaigns.

Conclusion The study reveals that GIS is a useful tool

to epidemiologists to visualize, manage,

and analyze large volumes of data. It can help to better define populations exposures

with perhaps better specificity. The results

shows the advantages of advances in

technology that allows not only disease

mapping but also the application of spatial

statistical methods such as cluster analysis.

The study determined the presence and

extent of clustering in the study area. The

spatial pattern of cholera mirror the spatial

pattern of the population at risk. The

association between population density and environmental exposure was established.

Recommendation It is recommended that surveillance should

be intensified in Igabi and Kaduna North

LGAs that has high incidence of cholera

epidemic most especially during wet seasons. A further study can be carried out

on the effects of socioeconomic and


137

environmental factors on the pattern and

risks of cholera.

References

Ali, M., Emch, M. & Sack, R. (2002);

identifying environmental risk factor for epidemic cholera; a raster GIS-

apporoach. Health place ,(8), 201-

210.

Ali M., Emch, M., Donnay J. P, Yunus M.

and Sack R. B. (2002): Identifying

environmental risk factors for

endemic cholera: a raster GIS

approach. Health Place 8, 201–210.

Borroto and Martinez, P. (1996);

Geographical pattern of cholera in

Mexico (1991-1996); international

Journal for epidemiology 29(4)764-2000.

Chang, K. T. (2008). Introduction to

Geographic Information Systems

(New York: The MaGraw Hill

Companies, Inc). p. 1-418.

Chin-Lai P, Mun-So, F. & Wing, C.

(2009). Spatial Epidemiological

Approaches in Disease Mapping and

Analysis (USA:CRC Press). P.35-49

Dickson, S. N., Julius, A., Peter, N. F.,

Elvis, A. T., Charlotte, W. A. & Odette, D. K.(2015). Assessing the

risk factors of cholera epidemic in the

Buea Health District of Cameroon.

BMC Public Health (2015) 15:1128.

Diego, R., Mercedes, P., Michael, E. &

Mohammad, Y. (2010). Spatial

clustering in the spatio-temporal

dynamics of endemic cholera.

BioMed Central Infectious Diseases,

International Journal of Health

Geographics, 10:51.

Falade & Lawoyin, W. (1999). The uses of spatial analysis in medical geography:

a review. Soc Sci Med 1986;23:963-

73.

Frank, B. O. & Alfred, A. D. (2008).

Spatial and demographic patterns of

Cholera in Ashanti region –Ghana.

BioMed Central. International

Journal of Health Geographics, 7:44.

Google Earth Image (2016).

Luque, F. M. A., Schomaker, M., &

Mason, P.R. (2012). Elevation and cholera: an epidemiological spatial

analysis of the cholera epidemic in

Harare Zimbabwe. BMC Health, 12:

442.doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-442.

National Population Commission. (2006).

Population and Housing Census:

Class Size of Household. Abuja, Nigeria.

Ohser, J. & Stoyan, D. and Ripley, B.D.

(1981 - 1985). On the efficiency of

edge correction for spatial point

processes. Biometrical Journal 23,

522-533.

Osei, F. B. & Duker, A. (2010). Spatial

dependency of cholera prevalence on

potential reservoir in an urban area,

Kumasi Ghana; international of

applied earth observation and geo

information. Ripley B.D. (1976). The second order

analysis of stationary point process.

Journal of applied probability, 13,

255-266.

Ripley B.D. (1977). Modelling spatial

patterns (with discussion). Journal of

the Royal statistical Society B 29,

172-212.

Ripley, B.D. & Kelly, F.P. (1977). Markov

Point processes. Journal of the

London Mathematical Society 15, 188-192

Riyan K. J. (2004). MedSical Biology.

Mcgraw Hil 2004

Ruiz-Moreno D., Pascual M., Emch, M. &

Yunus, M. (2010): Spatial clustering

in the spatio-temporal dynamics of

endemic cholera. BMC Infect Dis

2010,10:51.

Scott L, Getis A. (2008) Spatial statistics.

In Kemp K (ed) Encyclopedia of

geographic information. Sage,

Thousand Oaks, CA. S.I. Doguwa (1988): Statistical Analysis of

Mapped Point Patterns, http:

Kubanni.abu.edu.ng

UNICEF (2015). Cholera outbreak in the

West and Central Africa: Regional

Update, 2015 - WEEK 37.

http://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/chol

era-outbreak-west-and-central-africa-

regional-update-2015-week-37-enfr.

Generated on 11 November, 2016.

Utsalo S.J, Eko F.O, Antia-Obong O.E, (1991). Cholera and Vibrio

http://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/cholera-outbreak-west-and-central-africa-regional-update-2015-week-37-enfr




138

parahaemolyticus diarrhoea

endemicity in Calabar, Nigeria. W.

Afr. J. Med., 10(2): 175-80.

WHO,(1993): Guidelines for cholera

control. World Health Organisation,

Geneva. http:/www./helid.desastres.net/en/d/jw

ho.90e/. last accessed 5 November,

2010

WHO, (2010): Outbreak news. Cholera,

Haiti - update. Wkly Epidemiol Rec

2010,85:489–490.

WHO,(2013).

http://www.who.int/csr/don/archive/

disease/cholera/en/. Generated on 11

November, 2016.

Xueying, W. and Jin, W. (2014). Analysis

of cholera epidemics with bacterial growth and spatial movement.

Journal of Biological Dynamics,

2015, 9; 233–261.

http://www.who.int/csr/don/archive/


139

Construction Worker’s Perceptions of the

Effectiveness of Health and Safety Training

Practices of Construction Firms in Abuja,

Nigeria

I.U. Shehu, Y.M. Ibrahim & M. Abdulrazaq

Department of Building, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Federal University Birnin-Kebbi, Kebbi-State.

[email protected]

Abstract The effectiveness of safety training practices is an important part of safety management on a

construction site. Construction workers’ ability to identify and assess risks and hazards is

acquired through training and experience and is among the key factors that determine their

behaviour and thus their safety. Yet researchers have questioned the effectiveness of health

and safety training practices in construction. This research explored construction workers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of safety training practices of construction firms based on

two objective outcomes namely: reaction on safety training design and delivery; and

learning in safety training. The study involved the conduct of a survey using self-

administered questionnaires with both closed and open-ended questions to obtain data. The

self-administered questionnaire was presented to 150 medium and large construction firms

which were purposively sampled from 245 construction firms registered with Corporate

Affairs Commission (CAC). Descriptive statistics specifically, frequency tables, mean and

standard deviation were used to gain an overview of the effectiveness of safety training

practices of construction firms, while independent sample t-test was used to test for

significance in the difference between mean scores of respondents. The results of the study

revealed that construction workers in civil engineering firms are more satisfied with their firm’s safety training practices than their counterparts in building construction firms in terms

of safety training design and delivery components that corresponds to workers’ safety needs;

and learning strategies that aid worker learning of safety knowledge, skills and attitudes in

safety training. It was therefore recommended that construction firms and practicing

professionals should pay special attention to the key components of safety training design

and delivery that yield better safety outcomes in terms learning of safety knowledge, skills,

and attitudes by workers. The contribution of this study is that it reports the views of

construction workers about the effectiveness of health and safety training practices of

construction firms in developing countries.

Keywords: Construction safety, Safety training, Safety management, Training method, Training delivery, Training reaction, Worker learning.

Introduction Every year, more than 60,000 fatalities are

reported from construction projects around

the world (Lingard 2013). In the United

States, the Bureau of Labor Statistics

reported 908 fatal injuries and more than

200,000 nonfatal injuries in 2014 (BLS, 2015). Despite significant advances in

safety management research and practice,

unacceptable injury rates in construction

continue to be a worldwide pattern. Apart

from emotional and physical distress, the

annual cost of these injuries exceed 48

billion dollars in terms of litigations in the

United States (Ahmed, Azhar & Forbes,

2006) and adversely impact profit margins



140

and project success (Zou & Sunindijo,

2015).

Given the high proportion of fatal and non-

fatal accidents occurring in the construction

industry, construction companies constantly seek different and novel

strategies to reduce the number of work-

related accidents. The construction safety

literature shows that researchers mostly

focus on safety performance on

construction sites and on ways to minimize

the number and severity of accidents.

Among others, human factors have

received much recent attention. For

example, Hinze (2006) and Haslam et al.

(2005) found that more than 70% of

construction injuries involve unsafe worker actions. Tixier et al. (2014) explain that

such unsafe worker actions are not

deliberate safety violations; but are rather

outcomes resulting from poor hazard

recognition and safety risk perception. In

another study, Huang and Hinze (2003)

investigated construction worker falls and

found that falls represent a high proportion

of construction accidents that result in

fatalities. Esmaeil et al. (2012) developed a

framework to investigate the effectiveness of fall protection systems in roofing

projects.

As evidenced by these few examples and

many others, in general, the literature

highlights the importance of the

development of effective strategies in

preventing work accidents in the

construction industry. One such strategy

that is mentioned often in the literature is

formal, well organized and effective safety

training. Effective safety training may lower accident rates, but there are several

challenges associated with safety training

that need to be overcome by construction

firms. Among these challenges is the extent

to which workers' learning experiences are

affected in safety training sessions and the

extent to which workers learn safe

practices in training sessions. Furthermore,

the prevalent use of ineffective,

unengaging, and poorly designed training

programmes is a major factor that significantly impede training efforts. In

fact, Li et al. (2012) argue that a positive

correlation does not exist between

traditional safety training and safety

performance. Not surprisingly, workers

lack essential safety knowledge despite

having received substantial safety training (Haslam et al., 2005).

For effective training, employers must

adopt training practices that will yield

maximum benefits. However, there is a

dearth of research in construction that

explores perceptions of construction

workers about the effectiveness of safety

training practices of construction firms in

terms of design and delivery and about

worker learning in safety training. The aim

of this study is to explore safety training

practices of construction firms based on the perceptions of construction workers on two

(2) objective outcomes of safety training

namely: reaction of workmen on safety

training design and delivery; and worker

learning in safety training.

Construction Safety Training Safety training is one of the most widely

adopted interventions to improve

workplace safety. Each year, organizations

invest millions of dollars to train their

workforce on safety issues including

hazards recognition, hazard management,

and safe work practices. For example,

safety training is provided to promote the

proper use of personal protective

equipment (PPE) and to encourage the

implementation of effective injury prevention strategies. Not surprisingly,

hundreds of research articles emphasize the

importance of safety training, and many

others have established causal relationships

between safety training and safety

performance (Cohen et al. 1998;

Lingard2002; Ruttenberg, 2013).

In view of these potential benefits, safety

regulations require that employers provide

their workers with safety and hazard recognition training (Occupational Safety

and Health Administration, 2010). Despite

these efforts, however, research has

revealed that workers still lack essential

safety skill and knowledge. In fact,

examination of accident reports has

Shehu, Ibrahim & Abdulrazaq Construction Worker’s Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Health and Safety Training Practices of Construction

Firms in Abuja, Nigeria

141

identified deficits in safety knowledge as a

principal contributing factor in a

disproportionate number of injuries

(Haslam et al., 2005). According to Haslam

et al. (2005), more than 70% of accidents

in construction projects are associated with poor safety knowledge. These deficits in

safety knowledge and skills have

traditionally been attributed to industry

barriers for effective training. For example,

the transient nature of the workforce

discourages some employers from adopting

innovative, sophisticated, and resource-

intensive training programs (Goldenhar et

al., 2001). Other common barriers to

effective training include schedule

constraints in time-sensitive projects,

unavailability of funds and resources, lack of interest among workers, and the

uncertainty and difficulty of quantifying

training benefits (Wang et al., 2008).

Apart from these barriers, several training

programmes fail because of common

design flaws including unorganized

material, ineffective trainers, and an

insensitivity to effective instructional

methods (Bunch, 2007). Most training

programmes are delivered based on the naïve assumption that knowledge transfer

can easily occur when conventional

classroom instructional techniques are

adopted. However, Haslam et al. (2005)

argues that these passive instructional

methods do not sufficiently engage

workers, and that they can instill negative

attitudes among workers towards safety

issues. Similarly, Wilkins (2011) suggests

that pedagogical and classroom

instructional methods must be replaced

with andragogical approaches that encourage participation and are more

suitable for adult learners. More recently,

Burke et al. (2011) argued that engaging

safety training methods that facilitate

dialogue, feedback, and action can result in

higher learning gains.

Learning as an Objective Outcome

of Safety Training Some examples of research work that

involves “learning” in safety training

include the following. Han et al. (2008)

state that low skill levels, inadequate

technical knowledge, and a steep learning

curve are the factors that affect the safety

performance of construction workers in a

negative manner. Porteous (1997) states

that safety knowledge, skills and abilities could be improved by well-generated

learning theories. The Occupational Safety

and Health Administration specifically

requires that safety proficiency be

evaluated and documented by the use of a

written assessment and a skill

demonstration to evaluate the knowledge

and individual skills developed in the

course of training (OSHA, 2012).

Kirkpatrick (1998) suggests that the

effectiveness of learning could be tested by

observing the differences between a control group that does not receive training and a

trained group. Furnham (2005) argues that

individuals learn best when they encounter

an obstacle or an intellectual challenge that

is of interest to them. According to

Furnham (2005), the best way to help

people learn is to explain the abstract of the

situation and provide varied examples over

an effective learning period. Furnham

(2005) also states that people learn by

modeling others' skills. In addition, Furnham's (2005) study also indicates that

safety learning might be achieved by

computer-aided tools since it has the

benefit of being self-paced.

Business Legal Reports (2007) asserts that

three basic learning styles exist, including

visual learning, auditory learning, and

hands-on learning. Workers learn things in

different ways and at their own pace. For

example, visual learners learn best by

seeing, while auditory learners like to listen, and hands-on learners learn best

through practical instruction. The BLR

(2007) report suggests using more visual

aids in safety training sessions. Dudley

(2010) defines two teaching styles

commonly used by trainers, namely

andragogical and pedagogical styles. In the

andragogical style, the learner is self-

directed and is responsible for his/her own

learning. Contrastingly, in the pedagogical

style, the trainer takes the full responsibility in how the material is


142

learned and the trainer evaluates learning.

In the andragogical style, learners are

internally motivated, display self-esteem,

recognition, and confidence, while in the

pedagogical style, learners are externally

motivated by competition for performance and the negative consequences of failure.

It is to be noted that safety training is

negatively affected by factors such as

economic downturns, limited training

budgets, and unpredictable product and

technical innovations (Furnham, 2005).

Additionally, the efficiency of safety

training programs depends on

organizational, feedback, content, process,

and worker-related issues.

Organizational issues consist of the firm's structure, middle management's

commitment to safety, and the

effectiveness of safety trainers in

improving the quality of training sessions.

Bontis et al. (2002), Sicilia and Lytras

(2005), and Pham and Swierczek (2006)

assert that a supportive firm structure

results in knowledge transfer and motivates

workers to learn quickly and capture the

necessary information in an effective

manner in safety training sessions. According to Jaselskis et al. (1996), and

O'Toole (2002), middle management's

commitment to safety training results in

experiencing lower injury rates and helps

with improving a company's safety culture.

Concerning the qualifications of a trainer,

occupation safety and health administration

standards mandate that a trainer is

considered to be qualified if he/she has

previously completed a training program

on the subject to be instructed.

Furthermore, these trainers are expected to possess relevant academic credentials and

teaching experience (OSHA, 2013).

Feedback issues play an important role in

improved safety performance. Indeed,

according to Furnham (2005), safety

performance is enhanced by accurate and

timely feedback because feedback

reinforces safety learning. Also,

Loosemore (1998) conducted research

about the psychological mechanisms that cause poor safety performance in

construction companies and found that

feedback should be continuous to achieve

actual safety performance that is aligned

with planned performance. Therefore,

feedback issues deserve special attention in

conducting safety training.

Issues related to the content of training

sessions consist of goal setting before

conducting safety training and developing

the safety training content with respect to

worker needs and interests. A well-

designed content that addresses worker

needs and interests results in higher

efficiency during training sessions as

workers start with different levels of

knowledge (Tam & Fung, 2012).

Therefore, designing safety training content requires an in-depth analysis of the

materials, methods and processes that are

perceived by workers to be of importance

to safety.

Issues related to the training process may

have significant impact on the effectiveness

of safety training. The use of visual aids in

the training session deserves special

attention. Miller et al. (2012) emphasize

that the use of 4D and 5D visualization tools helps to increase the knowledge

gained in training sessions. Also, observing

worker practices after training sessions

could indicate how much workers learned

in the training session.

Worker-related issues include encouraging

worker awareness about safety issues,

promoting pride in work completed without

accidents, and motivating workers through

frequent and effective training meetings.

Workers who are part of an effectively trained team take pride in their firm if

projects are completed with a great safety

record (Bontis et al. 2002). Han et al.

(2008) studied critical factors and possible

solutions to motivate foreign construction

workers and found that one of the measures

to be taken to motivate foreign construction

workers was training for better

communication. In a more recent study,

Wanberg et al. (2013) asserts that the

promotion of safety and quality can be achieved through strategies such as



143

assigning resources to preplanning,

motivating leadership at workplace, and

motivating workers to take pride in their

work. The literature appears to support the

idea that a good safety record can be

achieved if workers are motivated through effective training.

There are several methods that can be used

to train workers in construction safety.

Kraiger (2003) highlighted four methods,

namely computer-based training which is

flexible, cheap and allows easy-access;

team training which aims to practice with

other teammates' tasks, roles and

responsibilities in order to increase

understanding; cross-cultural training

which helps with enhancing sensitivity and flexibility towards cultural differences; and

corporate training which consists of

distance learning and specialized courses.

McMahan et al. (2010) encourage the use

of virtual environments as a strategy in

worker training because they found that

virtual environment applications improve

worker training in pre-inspections of haul

trucks and operational procedures of

conveyer systems. In another study, Chen

et al. (2013) proposed a virtual system that consists of a BIM/2D model developed to

enhance safety awareness by the careful

consideration of hazard types and safety

issues along with the testing of users'

ability to resolve problems, hence offering

a “learning by doing” technique to better

recognize site hazards and gain awareness

about the severity of accidents.

Reaction of trainees on key

components of training as an

objective outcome of safety training Emotional reaction refers to the attitudes of participants at the end of safety training.

An employee who has considerably gained

safety skill and knowledge from the

training will be willing to apply it on the

job environment, thus bring positive

reaction (Kirkpatrick, 1976). This could be

a barometer for measuring employee’s

general attitude, expectations and

motivation. Although subjective, reaction

also provides feedback on training style

and content (Mohammed & Norsiah,

2013). Measurement is useful in fostering

management support for the training

programme.

Post training questionnaire can be used to measure emotional reaction (Kirkpatrick,

1998). According to Bates (2004),

questionnaire should be directed towards

measuring the training attitudes as regards

content, process (presentation style),

definition of course objectives, attainment

of course objectives and overall course

value. The focus of the type of

measurement is to investigate the attitudes

toward the training material provided

during safety training and obtain feedback

from the trainees (workers). The post training questionnaire methods have also

received several criticisms in terms of their

accuracy and bias, also regarding forms ad

type of questions included in the

questionnaire can largely influence the

answer provided in the questionnaire

(Bates, 2004). Attempt at improving both

pre and post training questionnaires have

been made with accuracy and bias issue in

mind (Kirkpatrick, 2006). The issue of

quantification of measuring believes cannot be totally devoid of bias (Kirkpatrick,

2006).

At reaction level, employee (workers)

reactions are understood to show their

perceived and subjective evaluation of the

relevance and quality of the safety training

programme. According to Kirkpatrick

(2006), training program should at least

first be evaluated at this level to help

improve the conceptualization and design

of the safety training programme for use in future. Employee (worker) reaction at this

level measured satisfaction derived from

evaluation categories of training such as

safety training program objectives, course

materials and relevance, facilitator

knowledge, facilitator delivery, program

evaluation and training facility.

Methodology This study adopted a quantitative research

approach. As defined by Hughes (2006),

quantitative research is concerned with the


144

collection and analysis of data in numeric

form. The study involved the conduct of a

survey using self-administered

questionnaires with both closed and open-

ended questions which were used to

explore the safety training practices of construction firms based on the perceptions

of construction workers. The self-

administered questionnaire was designed to

have two sections (sections A and B).

Section A of the questionnaire was

designed to get respondent’s demographic

information, while section B of the

questionnaire was designed to seek views

of workmen employed by medium and

large construction firms in Abuja (FCT)

based on two questions. Question 1 was

designed to gauge reactions of workmen on the key components of safety training

design and delivery of construction firms.

It asked “what is the level of your

agreement with the following statements on

key components of safety training design

and delivery based on the safety training

practices of your firm?” Question 2 sought

to explore information on the strategies

used by construction firms to achieve

worker learning in safety training. It asked

“how does your firm achieve worker learning in safety training?” For question 1,

sixteen key components of health and

safety training design and delivery were

identified from the literature and

respondents were asked to indicate their

level of agreement with each component on

a scale rating of 1-5, where 1= strongly

disagree, 2= disagree, 3= neither disagree

nor agree, 4= agree and 5= strongly agree.

Similarly, question 2 was assessed through

fifteen strategies that facilitate worker

learning in safety training identified from detailed literature review. Respondents

were then requested to indicate the extent

to which construction firms employ each

strategy to ensure learning in safety

training on a rating scale of 1-5, where 1=

never, 2= seldom, 3= sometimes, 4= often

and 5= always. The self-administered

questionnaire was distributed to 150

medium and large construction firms which

were purposively sampled from the 245

medium and large construction firms registered with Corporate Affairs

Commission (CAC) in Abuja, Nigeria. The

sample size was computed based on

Watson (2001) formula for getting a

representative sample size from a large

population. Out of the 150 questionnaires

distributed, 130 were returned and found useful for analysis, thereby giving a good

response rate of 86.7%. The study

employed the use of descriptive statistics

specifically, frequency tables, mean and

standard deviation were used to analyse the

collected data in order to achieve the aim

of the study. Furthermore, the independent

samples t-test was performed in order to

see if the differences between the groups

are statistically significant at α = 0.05. All

these statistical analyses were undertaken

using the statistical package for social science (SPSS) for Windows version

Results and Discussion Results of Demographic Features

The results revealed that most of the

respondents (86%) have had between 1 and

15 years of experience at the construction

firm and remaining (14%) have years of

experience between 20 years and above. In the light of this, the respondents are

discovered to be suitable to provide

accurate answers to the questions in the

research questionnaire.

It was also revealed that majority of the

respondents (52.6%) have been involved in

building construction works while the

remaining (47.4%) are involved in civil

engineering works. It thus, can be

concluded that the majority of respondents that took part in this study were involved in

building construction works. In terms of

health and safety training practice,

respondents were requested to indicate

whether or not their firm practice health

and safety training. Results revealed that

majority (87.6%) of the respondents

indicated yes, while the remaining (12.4%)

indicated no. This result shows that the

majority of construction firms that

participated in this study consider health

and safety training as a strategy for improving safety on construction sites and

therefore, are qualified enough to provide

accurate data for the study. In addition,



145

respondents were requested to indicate the

frequency/rate at which safety training is

provided by their respective firms. Results

revealed that (17.5%) of construction firms

provide safety training on daily basis,

(40.4%) weekly, and (42.1%) monthly. This implies that the construction firms that

took part in this study provide safety

training at least once a month.

Reactions of workmen on key components

of health and safety training design and

delivery of construction firms

From the review of literature in this study,

16 key components of health and safety

training design and delivery were identified

and ranked by workmen in order of

agreement using a five-point scale

(1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree). Table 1 and Table 2 summarise the

reactions of workmen on these key

components of health and safety training

design and delivery in building

construction and civil engineering firms.

The mean score used to rank the key


design and delivery of construction firms in

Table 1 revealed that out of the 16 key


design and delivery, workmen in building construction firms agreed with only 1

component, disagreed with 11 key

components, and neither agree nor disagree

with the other 4 components. The only

component that workmen agreed to is: “I

was appropriately challenged by the

material” (with a mean score of 4.13). The

11 components of health and safety

training design and delivery that workmen showed disagreement with range between I

felt that the course materials will be

essential for my success (2.45) and I was


146

given ample opportunity to practice the

skills I am asked to learn (1.77). The other

4 components that workmen showed

neither agreement nor disagreement with

range between I experienced minimal

distractions during the training session (3.02) and my learning was enhanced by

the knowledge of the facilitator (3.00).

Respondent’s assessments on the key


design and delivery (Table 1) showed that

workmen are mostly dissatisfied with the

way building construction firms design and

deliver health and safety training.

Table 2 shows respondents’ assessments in

civil engineering firms on the key components of health and safety training

design and delivery. The mean score used

to rank the key components revealed that

workmen disagreed with only 1 component

out of the 16 components of health and

safety training design and delivery

identified. According to the results in Table

2, respondents disagreed with the statement

“I was appropriately challenged by the

material” with a mean score of 2.30. Also,

workmen showed agreement with the

remaining 15 key components. These key

components range between I found the

course materials easy to navigate (4.22)

and my learning was enhanced by the

knowledge of the facilitator (3.59). Results

in Table 2 indicated that workmen are mostly satisfied with the way civil

engineering firms design and deliver health

and safety training. Indeed, trainees who

are satisfied with the health and safety

training practices of their firms tend to be

more motivated to learn safe practices than

those who are dissatisfied.

Additionally, Independent Samples Test

was carried out to compare the mean scores

of the respondent’s assessments on the key


design and delivery between building construction and civil engineering firms in

order to ascertain if significant differences

exist. Results in Table 3 show that

(p<0.001) which is less than p-value= 0.05

and thus it can be concluded that there was

a statistically significant difference in mean

scores between building construction and

civil engineering firms as regards key


design and delivery.


147

Table 3: Results of independent samples t-test of key components of training design & delivery

between building construction & civil engineering firms

Levene's Test for

Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

95%

Confidence Interval of the

Difference

F Sig

. T df

Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean Differen

ce

Std. Error

Difference Lower

Upper

Type of constructi

on firm

Equal varianc

es assumed

1.979

.170

-

6.842

30 .000 -

1.29000 .18854

-

1.67505

-

.90495

Equal variances not assumed

-

6.842

28.051

.000 -

1.29000 .18854

-1.676

17

-.9038

3


0

Results of strategies employed by

construction firms to ensure/achieve

worker learning in safety training

From the review of literature in this study,

15 worker learning strategies in health and

safety training were identified and ranked by workmen based on level of

implementation using a five-point scale

(from 1=never to 5=always). Tables 4 and

5 show the respondent’s assessments in

building construction and civil engineering

firms respectively.

Results in Table 4 revealed the mean score

used to rank the strategies mostly practiced

in building construction firms to achieve

learning in safety training. According to the

respondents, only 2 out of the 15 learning

strategies are implemented in building

construction firms. Respondents indicated

that the safety related behaviours of

workers are observed is the most critical

issue in achieving learning in safety training with a mean score of 3.62.

The second learning strategy cited by

respondents in safety training involves

encouraging experienced workers to share

their safety knowledge with the

inexperienced workers (3.62). This means

that building construction firms mostly

perform health and safety training in an

environment where experience sharing

does occur.


148

Results in Table 5 revealed the mean score

used to rank the strategies mostly practiced

in civil engineering firms to achieve

learning in safety training. According to the

respondents, 8 out of the 15 learning

strategies in safety training have been

implemented in civil engineering firms.

Respondents indicated that organisational

structure encourages safety training (4.35),

qualified safety trainers are employed

(4.24), safety goals are set before safety training (4.22), content of safety training is

designed to satisfy workers’ needs/interests

(4.22), experienced workers are

encouraged to share their safety knowledge

with the inexperienced workers (4.19),

questions and answers are encouraged in

safety training (4.00), workers are

motivated to follow safety rules (4.00), and

the safety related behaviours of workers

are observed (3.93). According to the

respondents, the other 7 learning strategies

in safety training which are yet to be

implemented in civil engineering firms

range between workers are aware of the

critical safety issues (2.65) and exams are

administered to workers during or after

safety training (2.06).

Furthermore, Independent Samples Test

was carried out to compare the mean scores

of the respondent’s assessments on the

worker learning strategies’ implementation between building construction and civil

engineering firms in order to see if

significant differences exist. Results in

Table 6 show that (p<0.01) which is to less

than p-value= 0.05 and thus it can be

concluded that there was a statistically

significant difference in mean scores of the

worker learning strategies between

building construction and civil engineering

firms.

Table 6: Results of independent samples test of learning strategies in safety training between

building construction & civil engineering firms

Levene's Test for

Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means


1

95% Confidence

Interval of the Difference

F Sig

. t df

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Mean Differen

ce

Std.

Error Differen

ce Lower Uppe

r

Type of construction firm

Equal variances assumed

4.845

.036

-2.72

4 28 .011 -.90867 .33361

-1.592

04

-.2253

0

Equal variances not assumed

-

2.724

27.411

.011 -.90867 .33361 -

1.59270

-.2246

3

Discussion of Results

Reaction of workmen on key

components of health and safety

training design and delivery The descriptive results in section 3.1.2

revealed that workmen in civil engineering

firms are more satisfied than their

counterparts in building construction firms

with the key components of health and safety training design and delivery of their

construction firm. The results therefore,

imply that construction firms that majorly

carry out civil engineering works are more

likely than their counterparts that carry out

building construction works to design and

deliver health and safety training practices

that suit the safety needs of workmen. The

result of the study carried out by Wilkins

(2011) is evident to the findings discussed

above because it revealed that construction workers in The US showed dissatisfaction

with the ways in which health and safety

training is designed and delivered. Wilkins

highlighted the needs for safety training to

cover content relevant to the lives of the

trainees, for presentation by a trainer

knowledgeable about the subject, and for

supplementing training with tangible

materials that are understandable.

Strategies employed by construction

firms to ensure/achieve worker

learning in safety training The descriptive results in section 3.1.3

revealed that building construction firms

achieve worker learning in safety training

through 2 strategies which are: the safety

related behaviours of workers are observed

and experienced workers are encouraged to

share their safety knowledge with

inexperienced workers. The findings of this

study are supported by the findings of

David and Sevilay (2015) that revealed that companies that perform building works

monitor workers’ safety related behaviours

more closely than companies that are

involved in civil engineering works,

because building works involve a large

number of activities with a multitude of

trades compared to civil works that are

generally composed of fewer trades. Also,

Rowlinson (2004) mentions that building

works are more labor intensive and

repetitive than civil works, hence providing the opportunity to observe safety related

behaviours of workers more consistently.

The findings of this study also revealed that

civil engineering firms employ 8 strategies

to achieve worker learning in safety

training which are: organisational

structure encourages safety training,

qualified safety trainers are employed,

safety goals are set before safety training,

content of safety training is designed to

satisfy workers’ needs/interests, experienced workers are encouraged to

share their safety knowledge with the

inexperienced workers, questions and

answers are encouraged in safety training,

workers are motivated to follow safety

rules, and the safety related behaviours of

workers are observed. The results therefore


150

imply that workers in civil engineering

firms are more likely than their

counterparts in building construction firms

to learn/acquire safety knowledge, skills

and attitudes in safety training. The

findings of this study are supported by Demirkesen and Arditi’s (2015) study that

states that companies that perform mostly

civil works design the content of training

sessions more in line with workers’ needs

and interests, because civil works may

include many diverse types of construction

such as highways, bridges, railroads, dams,

etc., each requiring a tailor made training

program.

Conclusion This study explored safety training

practices of construction firms based on the

perceptions of construction workers on two

(2) objective outcomes of safety training

namely: reaction of workmen on safety

training design and delivery; and worker

learning in safety training. For each

objective outcome, questions were asked to

find out the actual practices of construction

firms on each of the two objective outcomes of safety training used. The

findings of the study revealed that

workmen in building construction and civil

engineering firms have contrasting

opinions on the key components of health

and safety training design and delivery. In

building construction firms, workmen are

dissatisfied with the majority (15) out of

the 16 key components of health and safety

training. Conversely, workmen in civil

engineering firms are satisfied with the majority (15) out of the 16 key components

of health and safety training design and

delivery.

It was also established that building

construction firms achieve worker learning

in safety training through two strategies.

The two strategies are; observing workers’

safety-related behaviours and encouraging

experienced workers to share their safety

knowledge with the inexperienced workers.

On the other hand, civil engineering firms use eight (8) strategies to achieving worker

learning in safety training. The 8 strategies

are; setting up organizational structure that

supports safety training, employing

qualified safety trainers, setting goals

ahead of safety training, designing safety

training content to satisfy worker

needs/interests, encouraging questions and

answers in safety training sessions, allowing experienced workers to transfer

safety knowledge to less experienced

workers, motivating workers to follow

safety rules and observing workers’ safety-

related behaviours.

Based on the findings of the study, the

study thus, concludes that construction

workers in civil engineering firms are more

satisfied with their firm’s safety training

practices than their counterparts in building

construction firms in terms of safety training design and delivery components

that corresponds to workers’ safety needs;

and learning strategies that aid worker

learning of safety knowledge, skills and

attitudes in safety training. This therefore,

means that civil engineering firms consider

effective health and safety training as a

company strategy for better safety

outcomes more than building construction

firms.

Recommendation In view of the conclusion from the research

findings, it was therefore recommended

that construction firms and practicing

professionals should pay special attention

to the key components of safety training

design and delivery that yield better safety

outcomes in terms learning of safety

knowledge, skills, and attitudes by workers.

It should be noted that this study explored

the effectiveness of health and safety

training practices of construction firms

based on two objective outcomes namely:

reactions of workmen on health and safety

training design and delivery and worker

learning in safety training. Further studies

can be conducted by identifying additional

objective outcomes of health and safety

training such as hazard recognition, return

on investment and safety risk perception. It would also be interesting to directly

measure in future research how much



151

safety knowledge workers actually learn

and implement in training sessions.

References Ahmed, S. M., Azhar, S., and Forbes, L. H.

(2006). Costs of injuries/illnesses and

fatalities in construction and their

impact on the construction economy.

CIB W99, International Conference

on Global Unity for Safety and Health

in Construction, Beijing.

Bates, R. A. (2004), A critical analysis of

evaluation practice: the Kirkpatrick model and the principle of

beneficence’, Evaluation and Program

Planning, 27, 341–7.

BLR, (2007). 50 tips for more effective

safety training. Special Report,

Business. Legal Reports. Inc.,

Nashville, T.N., Bontis, N., Crossan,

M.M., Hulland, J., (2002). Managing

an organizational learning system by

aligning stocks and flows. Journal of

Management. Studies. 39 (4), 437–469.

BLS (Bureau of Labor Statistics). (2015).

National census of fatal occupational

injuries in 2014.

⟨http://www.bls.gov/news.release/cfoi

.nr0.htm⟩ (Nov. 15, 2016).

Bunch, K. J. (2007). Training failure as a

consequence of organizational

culture. Human Resource

Development Review. 6(2), 142–163. Burke, L.A., Hutchins, H.M., (2008). A

study of best practices in training

transfer and proposed model of

transfer. Human Resource

Development. 19 (2), 107–128.

http://dx.doi. org/10.1002/hrdq.

Chen, A., Golparvar-Fard, M., Kleiner, B.,

(2013). Design and development of

SAVES: a construction safety training

augmented virtuality environment for

hazard recognition and severity

identification. Proc., International Conference on Computing in Civil

Engineering. ASCE, Los Angeles,

CA, pp. 841–848.

Cohen, A., Colligan, M. J., Sinclair, R.,

Newman, J., and Schuler, R. (1998).

Assessing occupational safety and

health training: A literature review.

National Institute for Occupational

Safety and Health, Cincinnati.

Dudley, L., 2010. Andragogy vs. pedagogy

in training.

http://managementhelp.org/blogs/trai

ning-and-development/2010/03/30/andragogy-

vs-pedagogyin-training/ (Mar. 30,

2010).

Esmaeil, B., Hallowell, M., Roucheray, M.,

(2012). Developing a framework for

measuring the effectiveness of

common fall prevention/protection

practices. Proceedings of

International Conference on

Sustainable Design, Engineering, and

Construction. (ASCE), Fort Worth,

TX, pp. 719–726. Furnham, A., (2005). The Psychology

Behavior at Work: The Individual in

the Organization. Second Edition.

Taylor & Francis Group, New York,

NY.

Goldenhar, L. M., Moran, S. K., and

Colligan, M. (2001). Health and

safety training in a sample of open-

shop construction companies. Journal

of Safety Resource. 32(2), 237–252.

Han, H.S., Park, H.S., Jin, J.E., Kim, H., Seong, K.Y., (2008). Critical issues

and possible solutions for motivating

foreign construction workers. Journal

of Management Engineering. 24,

217–226.

Haslam, R. A., et al. (2005). Contributing

factors in construction accidents.

Applied Ergonomics, 36(4), 401–415.

Hinze, J. (2005). Concealing the

Occurrence of Construction Injuries.

In: The W99 Triennial Conference,

Rethinking and Revitalizing Construction Safety, Health,

Environment and Quality (edited by

Haupt, T. C. and Smallwood, J.).

Construction Research Education and

Training Enterprises, Port Elizabeth,

714-727.

Huang, X., Hinze, J., (2003). Analysis of

construction worker fall accidents.

Journal of Construction Engineering

and Management 129 (3), 262–271.

Jaselskis, E., Anderson, S., Russell, J., (1996). Strategies for achieving

http://dx.doi/

http://managementhelp/


152

excellence in construction safety

performance. Journal of Construction

Engineering and Management 122

(1), 61–70.

Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1976). Evaluation of

training. In R. L. Craig (Ed.), Training and development handbook:

A guide to human resource

development. New York: McGraw

Hill. Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1959).

Techniques for evaluating training

programs. Journal of American

Society for Training and

Development, 11, 1–13.

Kirkpatrick, D. L. and Kirkpatrick, J. D.

(1998), Evaluating Training

Programs: The Four Levels, 3rd

edition (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler).

Kirkpatrick, D. L. and Kirkpatrick, J. D.

(2006), Evaluating Training

Programs: The Four Levels, 3rd

edition (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-

Koehler).

Kraiger, K., (2003). Perspectives on

training and development. In:

Borman, W.C., Ilgen, D.R., Klimoski,

R.J. (Eds.), Handbook of Psychology.

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, pp. 171–192.

Li, H., Chan, G. and Skitmore, M. (2012).

Visualizing safety assessment by

integrating the use of game

technology. Automation in

Construction, 22, 498–505.

Lingard, H. (2002). The effect of first aid

training on Australian construction

workers’ occupational health and

safety motivation and risk control

behavior. Journal of Safety

Resources, 33(2), 209–230. Lingard, H. (2013). Occupational health

and safety in the construction

industry. Construction Management

and Economics, 31(6), 505–514.

Loosemore, M., (1998). Psychology of

accident prevention in the


Construction Engineering and

Management, 14 (3), 50–56.

McMahan, R., Schafrik, S., Bowman, D.,

Karmis, M., (2010). Virtual environments for surface mining

powered haulage training. Extracting

the science: a century of mining

research. In: Brune, J. (Ed.). The

Society for Mining, Metallurgy and

Exploration, pp. 520–528.

Miller, G., Dawood, N., Kassem, M., (2012). Building an emergent learning

environment for construction health

and safety by merging serious games

and 4D planning. Proceedings,


Computing in Civil Engineering.

(ASCE), Clearwater Beach, FL, pp.

129–136.

Mohammed, S.A., and Norsiah, B.M.,

(2013). Evaluation of the

effectiveness of training and

development: The Kirkpatrick model. Asian Journal of Business and

Management Science.

OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health

Administration). (2010). OSHA

training standards policy statement.

Washington, DC.

OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health

Administration). (2013). Top 10 most

frequently cited standards.

⟨https://www.osha.gov/Top_Ten

_Standards.html⟩ (Oct. 15, 2015).

O'Toole, M., (2002). The relationship

between employees' perceptions of

safety and organizational culture.

Journal of Safety Resources 332,

231–243.

Pham, N.T., Swierczek, F.W., (2006).

Facilitators of organizational learning

in design. The Learning,

Organization. 132, pp. 186–201.

Porteous, M., (1997). Occupational Psychology. Prentice Hall, London,

UK. OSHA, (2012). Occupational

safety and health administration

regulations.

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/ow

asr h.search_fo m?p_doc_type=

STANDARDS&p_toc_level=1&p_key

value=1910 (Apr. 26, 2011).

Rowlinson, S., (2004). Construction Safety

Management Systems. Taylor and

Francis Inc., New York, NY.

Ruttenberg, R. (2013). The economic and social benefits of OSHA-10 training

in the building and construction

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owasr%20h.search_fo%20m?p_doc_type

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owasr%20h.search_fo%20m?p_doc_type



153

trades. Center for Construction

Research and Training (CPWR),

Silver Spring, MD.

Sicilia, M., Lytras, M., (2005). The

semantic learning organization.

Learning Organisation 12 (5), 402–410.

Tam, V., Fung, I., (2012). Behavior,

attitude, and perception toward safety

culture from mandatory safety

training course. Journal of

professional Issues in Engineering

and Education Practice 138 (3), 207–

213.

Tixier, A. J., Hallowell, M. R., Albert, A.,

van Boven, L., and Kleiner, B. M.

(2014). Psychological antecedents of

risk-taking behavior in construction. Journal of Construction Engineering

Management,

10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-

7862.0000894, 04014052.

Wanberg, J., Harper, C., Hallowell, M.,

Rajendran, S., (2013). Relationship

between construction safety and

quality performance. J. Constr. Eng.

Manag. 139 (10), 04013003.

Wang, Y., Goodrum, P. M., Haas, C. T.,

and Glover, R. W. (2008). Craft

training issues in American industrial and commercial construction. Journal

of Construction Engineering

Management, 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-

9364(2008)134:10(795), 795–803.

Watson, J. (2001). How to Determine

Sample Size: Tip sheet #60,

University Park, P.A: University

Cooperative Extension, Pennsylvania

State University.

Wilkins, J. R. (2011). Construction

workers’ perceptions of health and

safety training programmes. Construction Management and

Economics, 29(10), 1017–1026.

Zou, P., and Sunindijo, R. Y. (2015).

Strategic safety management in

construction and engineering, Wiley,

Hoboken, NJ.


154

Effect of Household Head’s Gender on

Crowding in Government-Built Multifamily

Apartments in Lagos

Anthony C. O. Iweka and Anthony K. Adebayo Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Sciences,

University of Lagos, Akoka-Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract The inclusion of gender perspectives is highlighted globally by planners, architects and

policy makers in tackling the built-environment developmental issues. Living arrangements

in multifamily apartments and exposure to housing stress are influenced by household

demographic factors such as gender. Access to reliable data on household crowding which

recognizes and understands gender-specific patterns is cherished by governments and policy

makers across the globe. Exploring the gender differences in the experiences of crowding is

one of the areas that has not attracted adequate research attention in multifamily apartments

owned and operated by the Lagos State Development and Property Corporation (LSDPC) in

Lagos, Nigeria. This study aimed to assess the differing degrees of crowding experience in

households headed by men and households headed by women. A case study of four large

housing estates belonging to LSDPC was employed. The study sample frame was 7,764 out of which a sample of 7.5% (582) was randomly selected using stratification and systematic

techniques. A pre-test questionnaire was used to collect relevant gender disaggregated data

from household heads. Descriptive statistical analyses were used to compare the crowding

experiences faced by households headed by males and females in the study area. The results

showed that in all the six apartment types investigated across four locations, the gender of

household head had no significant effect on apartment crowding. It is therefore

recommended that planning, design and policy inclination towards crowding in LSPDC’s

multifamily apartments should be based on gender neutrality.

Keywords: crowding, gender, household head, multifamily apartment

Introduction The question of gender differences in

housing occupancy and housing utilization

is a complex, controversial and contentious

one, notwithstanding that gender is widely

acknowledged as a developmental issue.

Although reliable data on household crowding is essential to analysis and

housing issues, the problem of how this

crowding phenomenon is expressed in

male-headed and female-headed

households is an under-researched

question. Ngaiza (2010) acknowledges that

research on urban planning and housing

has for the most part failed to incorporate

gender analysis of apartment crowding.

In Nigeria the matching of household

head’s gender with crowding levels in

public housing multifamily apartments has

not attracted adequate research attention

among scholars of housing demography

despite the fact that demographic

characteristics and features are frequently

used to explain housing behaviour. All

these have implications for multifamily

housing design. Hence it is important to apply gender-based analysis of crowding

experiences in existing apartments to

determine whether households headed by

women have higher risks of crowding than

households headed by men. Presently,

housing policies and programmes in

Nigeria and many other countries are

described as gender-neutral. However,


Iweka & Adebayo Effect of Household Head’s Gender on Crowding in Government-Built Multifamily Apartments in Lagos

155

traditional ideas about gender, masculinity

and femininity still create an imbalance in

the housing field.

Gender as a construct refers to economic

and socio-cultural attributes, values and opportunities associated with being a man

or a woman (UN-Habitat, 2008).

Researches by Dimitri (2008) and UNFPA

(2014) have attempted to clarify the

difference between gender and sex. They

contend that sex is defined by the

circumstances of birth which classify

people as male or female based on

biological and physiological

characteristics. In this sense, sex

characteristics are fairly constant and

universal whereas gendered ideas could vary across locations and across times.

Focusing on gender (the socio-cultural

construct) rather than sex (the biological

marker) reveals that access to housing is

not only gendered but varies according to

factors such as whether or not household

includes children and other occupants.

Therefore the recognition of gender

diversity in household living experiences is

essential in terms of housing delivery, urban planning and governance. Ignoring

gender implies that assumptions about the

household structure may end up being

incorrect, especially in urban locations that

have a growing preponderance of female-

headed households.

Thus, manifestation of gender diversity in

the area of crowding poses a big challenge

for city planners and policy makers, and

constitutes a research gap. This gap appears

evident in Lagos, Nigeria, where an empirical study of gender-segregated

objective crowding experiences of

households is rare. In Lagos state, most of

the multifamily apartments developed by

Lagos State Development and Property

Corporation (LSDPC) were built with

male-dominance mentality. Further,

LSDPC apparently saw housing problems

in terms of the demand for family housing

and so did not emphasize the need to

deliver housing that is suitable for different genders.

LSDPC needs to be clear about the

volumes of housing suitable for different

genders. One way to achieve this is to

investigate how living arrangements for

different genders impact on household crowding. The question is whether or not

there is a disparity in objective crowding

levels, based on the gender of the

household head. Knowledge of this can

elicit new approaches that could change

LSDPC’s housing delivery models. The

outcome could provide supporting

information to justify whether or not there

will be a need for larger range of

innovative housing options or models in

LSDPC.

Literature Review Historically, most traditional gender

ideologies and cultural norms legitimize

households and housing systems in which

men are assigned dominant roles and

women subordinate roles (Tester, 2007;

Ngaiza, 2010; Bammeke, 2010). Based on

this historical legacy and cultural

prescriptions, household headship is associated with men to the extent that some

women who, in fact, head households may

not name themselves as such. Gender

scholars have demonstrated that the

stereotypical roles and responsibilities

assigned to men and women create

disadvantages in the housing arena (Tester,

2007).

Internationally recognized definitions and

concepts have been developed to respond to these biased orientations. Accordingly,

gender roles are now shifting in the

direction of more flexibility that do not

rigidly correspond to any specific form of

gender expectations.

Thus, the household head is now

recognized as the person within the

household who retains the ultimate

authority for decision-making and

allocation of resources about the affairs of

the apartment (Ngaiza, 2010; Blank, 2013).

Such authority covers a number of variables like the person who owns the

apartment, or who supports the people that

reside in it.


156

Shift towards gender balance in

housing experiences in Nigeria Scholars have been unequivocal about the

need and necessity to accommodate the

differences between men and women in

planning at the level of the household

(Moser, 1987; Ibem & Azuh, 2013;

Asiyambola, 2013; Agbola, 1990).

Previous tilt towards male superiority and

dominance in Nigeria’s housing sector is gradually changing in line with

international definitions and concepts. This

shift found expression in the 1991 census

of the Federal Republic of Nigeria which

defined a household in terms of co-

residence (common living arrangements for

multi-person households), common

cooking arrangements and the recognition

of one person as the household head. This

unbiased definition of household head

makes it imperative to empirically investigate the interlink in the housing

needs, housing decisions and housing

experiences between genders. In Nigeria,

one of the noticeable constraints is the

dearth of empirical evidence of women’s

actual experience of housing,

notwithstanding the fact that women

constitute about 49% of Nigeria’s

population (Federal Republic of Nigeria,

2007; Olotua & Ajayi, 2008). It has also

been revealed that female-headed households in Nigeria’s urban areas

constitute 19% (Bammeke, 2010; NPC

(Nig.) 2000). Only a few gender-based

studies are available in Nigeria and these

mainly address the issues concerning

women as a disadvantaged group in

accessing urban housing and social

services, (Agboola, 1990; Asiyambola &

Filani, 2007; Ibem & Azuh, 2013).

In Lagos, government-built housing

apartments have been in existence for several decades. The largest part of

available units are owned and operated (or

leased) by LSDPC without a clear evidence

of gender-based experiences in the area of

objective crowding. Such a focus on

gender-induced demographic changes

could influence housing consumption in

such a way as to change LSDPS’s housing

delivery models.

Methodology This study was designed to be comparative,

involving male-headed households and

female-headed households in government-

built multifamily apartments, using LSDPC

as a case study. The aim was to explore

whether gender roles would predict

objective crowding levels in LSDPC’s

multifamily apartments. Thus the approach

was to compare the crowding experiences faced by households headed by males and

females. There is no one international

standard definition of crowding. However,

in this study, the issue in focus is the

number of persons in the apartment, based

on objective statistical measures of density

and does not incorporate people’s

perception of crowding (Iweka, 2013).

Hence, household crowding was

summarized using a continuous variable

called people-per-room, calculated by the number of residents divided by number of

rooms.

The “Adult-equivalent” concept was

applied as a key crowding measure using

combinations of criteria such as age, sex

and relationships, to follow the approved

number of people per room. This

measurement provided an indication of

room occupancy in LSDPC’s multifamily

apartments based on household head’s

gender. This approach has been used in

Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom. The Canadian National

Occupancy Standard (CNOS) and the

Equivalized Crowding Index (ECI) were

applied in determining what constitutes an

adult-equivalent occupant. In applying

these indexes, each individual who is in a

marital relationship was rated as one-half,

as well as children aged less than 10 years.

Children under one year were not taken

account of, while children of one year old

and above, but less than 18 years of age were counted as one-half. Other apartment

occupants who are 18 years and above

were counted as one. The outcome gives

the equivalized number of people living in

the apartment. (Basavarajappa, 1998;

Schuluter, Carter & Kokaua, 2007;


157

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008;

Iweka, Adebayo & Igwe, 2009; Iweka,

2012).

In the current study, it was assumed that

there is no difference between ownership

and headship. Also joint headships and contested household headship situations

were assumed to be non-existent.

Household size was used as a proxy to

statistically measure crowding levels in

LSDPS’s multifamily apartments.

Research design The case study approach was applied in

this research to provide in depth details for

objective assessment of crowding levels

differentiated by household head’s gender

in LSDPC’s multifamily apartments. A

survey research component provided an

indication of the prevalence of over-

crowding or under-crowding in the selected

multifamily apartments.

Out of the forty residential public housing

estates belonging to LSDPC, there are twelve that contain multifamily apartments

comprising nine in the low income

category and three in the medium income

category (Iweka, 2012). The estates in the

low income category are Abesan, Amuwo

Odofin, Anikantamo, Dairy Farm/Ijaiye,

Dolphin II, Iba, Iponri, Isolo and Ojokoro.

The medium income estates are Ebute-

Metta, Femi Okunnu and Ijaiye. The total

number of apartments in these twelve

estates is 17,679, and this constituted the

study population. For this study, three housing estates in the low income category

(Abesan, Dolphin II and Iba) and one estate

in the medium income category (Ebute-

Metta) were purposively selected.

Sample selection and data collection The study sample frame was 7,764

multifamily apartments classified into two-

bedrooms, three-bedrooms and four-bedrooms. These apartments are located in

the four estates purposively chosen for in-

depth investigation of effect of household

heads’ gender on apartment crowding. Of

this figure, 7.5% was selected through

stratified and systematic random sampling

method. Consequently, 582 apartments

consisting of 135, two-bedrooms, 447 three bedrooms and 40 four-bedroom were

chosen for questionnaire administration.

Out of the 582 questionnaires distributed to

household heads who were the respondents

only 184 (that is, 32% effective response

rate) were subsequently retrieved for data

analysis. Although the number of responses

seemed low for such a study, nonetheless,

considering the time and resource

constraints, low public awareness and

education as well as the prevailing situation

in which people were reluctant to share information, the response rate was

considered sufficient to interpret this

research objective. Five out of all the

returned questionnaires were defective and

could not be used for further analysis. The

data were analyzed using descriptive

statistics.

Findings The crowding levels, based on the gender

of household head in the different

categories of LSDPC’s multifamily

apartments investigated in this study were

computed using the adult-equivalent model

of occupants per apartment.

Group measure was applied to interpret the

crowding level experienced during

habitation by the male-headed households

and female-headed households. Three

groups were subsequently employed. These

are (a) households that harboured one to

two adult-equivalent occupants, (b)

households that harboured three to five

adult-equivalent occupants, and (c)

households that harboured six or more

adult-equivalent occupants. The results from these three groups are represented in

Table 1.


158

Table 1 Grouped Measures of Crowding Levels, Based on Gender in Different Apartment Types

Apartment

type

Gender 1 – 2

Occupants

(%)

3 – 5

Occupants

(%)

6 occupants

& above

(%)

Total

(%)

Type 1

2-bedroom

Abesan

Male-headed household 16.6 50.0 5.6 72.2

Female-headed household

- 27.8 - 27.8

TOTAL 16.6 77.8 5.6 100

Type 2

2-bedroom

Dolphin



- 6.7 - 6.7

TOTAL 6.7 66.7 26.6 100

Type 3

3-bedroom

Abesan



8.8 14.7 2.9 26.5

TOTAL 25 66.2 8.8 100

Type 4

3-bedroom

Iba

Male-headed household 28.7 50 7.1 85.8

Female-headed

household

- 7.1 7.1 14.2

TOTAL 28.7 57.1 14.2 100

Type 5

3-bedroom

Dolphin

Male-headed household 13.0 65.3 21.7 100


- - - -

TOTAL 13.0 65.3 21.7 100

Type 6

4 bedroom

Ebute-Metta



3.0 21.2 - 24.2

TOTAL 24.2 69.7 6.1 100

Apartments where the crowding

level is one to two occupants Female-headed households were very few

among apartments containing one to two

occupants. Among the six apartment types

investigated, female-headed households

could not be found in four types. These are

Type 1 (two-bedroom) at Abesan, Type 2

(two-bedroom) at Dolphin, Type 4 (three-

bedroom) at Iba and Type 5 (three-

bedroom) at Dolphin. Thus the two

apartment types harbouring one to two

occupants are Type 3 (three-bedroom) at

Abesan (8.8%) and Type 6 (four-bedroom) at Ebute-Metta (3.0%).

On the contrary, male-headed households

harbouring one to two occupants were

found in all the six apartment types

investigated, ranging from 6.7% to 28.7%.

Overall, the results revealed that

apartments where the crowding level was

one to two occupants constitute the second

most dominant group after the group

containing three to five persons group.


level is three to five occupants Table 1 reveals that male-headed

households containing three to five adult

equivalent persons were found in all

apartment types and were most dominant in

all of them. Type 5 (three-bedroom) at

Dolphin ranked highest with 65.3% of the

respondents belonging to this group of three to five occupants in male-headed

households. On the

Other hand, Type 6 (four-bedroom) at

Ebute-Metta ranked lowest for male-

headed households, with 48.5% of the


159

respondents belonging to this group of

three to five occupants.

In the case of female-headed households,

this group of three to five occupants were

also the most dominant, though to a lesser

degree than the results obtained from male-headed households. There were no female-

headed households among the respondents

in Type 5 (three-bedroom) at Dolphin. In

the other four types of apartment,

households headed by females and

harbouring three to five occupants range

from 6.7% to 27.8%. It was also observed

that the highest record of 27.8% for

female-headed households was far less than

the lowest record of 48.5% for male-

headed households.


level is six or more occupants The results for female-headed households

containing six or more persons were very

similar to, though less dominant than

female-headed apartments containing one to two occupants. Female headed

households did not exist in four apartment

types namely Type 1 (2-bedroom) at

Abesan, Type 2 (2-bedroom) at Dolphin,

Type 5 (three-bedroom) at Dolphin, and

Type 6 (four-bedroom) at Ebute-Metta.

Even in the two apartment types where

female-headed households existed, the

figure was significantly low (2.9% to

7.1%).

The situation with apartments containing

six or more occupants for male-headed households was not very different from

female-headed households even though the

male-headed households can be found in

all the six apartment types. The crowding

level ranged from 5.6% in Type 1 (2-

bedroom) at Abesan to 26.7% in Type 2 (2-

bedroom) at Dolphin.

Statistical test of gender effect on

crowding levels in the six apartments

investigated. A chi-square test was carried out to establish the effect of gender on crowding

levels in the six apartments investigated.

The results are shown in Table 2. The

statistical level of significance for

acceptance or rejection was set at 95%

confidence interval. Thus P-Value (that is,

T tabulated) represents the effect of gender

on crowding levels. The decision rule is

that at the same degree of freedom, if the

P-Value is less than 0.05, the effect of

gender on crowding levels is classified as “significant”. This implies that at the same

degree of freedom, if the P-Value is higher

than 0.05, the effect of gender on crowding

levels is classified as “not significant”. The

inference from Table 2 shows that in all the

six apartment types investigated, the

gender of household head had no

significant effect on crowding levels, at

95% confidence level. Therefore, whether

the household head is a male or female is

not likely to be relevant in formulating an occupancy policy for LSDPC’s multifamily

apartments in the future.

Table 2 Effect of Gender on Crowding Levels

Apartment type Chi-square Value

X2

D.F.

P-Value

(T-

tabulated)

Remarks

Type one (two-bedroom), Abesan 1.978 2 0.372 Gender has no

significant effect on crowding level in all apartment types

Type two (two-bedroom), Dolphin II

0.536 2 0.765

Type three (three-bedroom), Abesan;

1.242 2 0.537

Type four (three-bedroom), Iba 2.771 2 0.250

Type five (three-bedroom),

Dolphin CONSTANT

Type six (four-bedroom), Ebute-Metta

1.721 2 0.423

Conclusion and Recommendation This research aimed to access whether

gender-based factors affect crowding in

LSPDC’s multifamily apartments in Lagos,

to an extent that it could influence the

agency’s disposition to deliver multifamily

apartments that are suitable for different genders to occupy and utilize.


160

The results showed that for female-headed

households, apartments containing 3-5

occupants constitute the most dominant.

This result was replicated in all the male-

headed households investigated, where it was found that multi-family apartments

harbouring 3-5 occupants were most

dominant. The trend is the same as the case

of 1-2 persons crowding levels and in the

case of six persons or more crowding

levels. Since the trend is the same for each

of the three group measures adopted in this

research, it suggests that the effect of

gender on crowding levels was negligible.

Furthermore the inference from statistical

validation confirms that all the six apartment types, the gender of household

head had no significant effect on apartment

crowding. This finding tends to diffuse the

potential conflict of interests on the effects

of crowding on men’s and women’s

housing experience in the study area. It can

thus be argued that the outcome of this

research confirms that previously held

assumptions regarding male and female

gender differences in housing experience

do not extend to multifamily apartment crowding in LSPDC’s estates.

Nevertheless, the study found that in each

of the three categories of crowding level,

female-headed households were scanty and

figures obtained were proportionally very

low compared to male headed households.

It is hereby recommended that planning,

design and policy inclination towards

crowding in LSPDC’s multifamily

apartments should be based on gender

neutrality.

References Agbola, T. (1990). The nature of women’s

involvement in housing development:

A survey of the literature. African

Urban Quarterly, 5(3&4), 178-185. Asiyanbola, R. A. (2013). Urban housing

experience and gender: An empirical

study in Ibadan, Nigeria. Journal of

Geography and Geology, 5(1), 45-57.

Asiyanbola, R. A. & Filani, M. O. (2007).

Perception and involvement of

women in housing development in

Nigeria, Journal of Environment and

Culture, 4(2), 1-22.

Australian Bureau of Statistics, (2008).

Housing utilization. Year Book

Australia, 2008. Bammeke, F. (2010). Gender, household

headship and children’s educational

performance in Nigeria: Debunking

the myth of poor performance in

female-headed households. African

Population Studies, 24(1&2), 26-41.

Basavarajappa, K. G. (1998). Living

arrangements and residential

overcrowding: The situation of older

immigrants in Canada 1991. The

Analytical Studies Branch Research

paper Series No. 115, Statistics Canada, September.

Blank, S. (2013). An historical and

contemporary overview of gendered

Caribbean Relations Journal of Arts

and Humanities (JAH), 2 (4-May).

Dimitri, S. (2008). Addressing gender

issues through the production and use

of gender-sensitive information. The

African statistical Journal 7, 101-124.

Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2007).The

Nigerian Statistical fact Sheets on Economic and Social Development.

National Bureau of Statistics, Abuja.

Ibem, E. O. & Azuh D. E. (2013).

Satisfaction with public housing

among urban women in Ogun State,

Nigeria. Covenant Journal of

Research in the Built Environment

(CJRBE) 1(2), 67-90.

Iweka, A. C. O. (2013). Marital status and

crowding intensity: The case of

multifamily apartments in Lagos,

Nigeria. International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development

3(4), 35 – 40.

Iweka, A. C. O. (2012). A post-occupancy

evaluation of dwelling density in

multifamily apartments in public

housing estates in Lagos

(Unpublished doctoral dissertation).

University of Lagos.

Iweka, A. C. O., Adebayo, A. K., & Igwe,

J. M. (2009). Millennium development

goals and slum alleviation in developing nations: The challenge of


161

sufficient living area for households.

Paper presented at the International

Conference on Millennium

Development Goals and the Built

Environment, Obafemi Awolowo

University, Ile-Ife. Moser, C. (1987). Women, human

settlements and housing: a conceptual

framework for analysis and policy-

making. In C. Moser & L. Peake,

(eds). Women, human settlement, and

housing. London. Tavistock

Publications.

National Population Commission (Nigeria),

2000. Nigeria Demographic and

Health Survey 1999.

Ngaiza, M. K. (2010). Challenges of

gender mainstreaming with a male perspective: experiences from

Tanzania. In: M. Tadesse and A.

Daniel (eds.) Gender mainstreaming

experiences from Eastern and

Southern Africa. Addis Ababa:

Organization for Social Science

Research in Eastern and Southern

Africa (OSSREA) - Eastern Books

Collective

Olotua, A. O. & Ajayi, M. A. (2008).

Repositioning women in housing

development in Nigeria. Indian

Journal of Gender Studies, 15(1),

101-113.

Schluter, P., Carter, S., & Kokaua, J. (2007). Indices and perception of

crowding in pacific households

domicile within Auckland New

Zealand: Findings from the pacific

islands families study. The New

Zealand Medical Journal, 120(1248),

1-12.

Tester, G. M. (2007). The relational and

status foundation of gender

discrimination in housing. Doctoral

Dissertation. The Graduate School of

Ohio State University. UN-HABITAT, (2008). State of the

world’s cities 2008/2009 harmonious

cities. London: Earthscan.

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA),

(2014). Methodological guidelines for

the gender analysis of national

populations and housing census data.

Technical Division of the United

Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)


1


162

Assessment of Skill Acquisition Techniques

for Architectural Training Using Students

Industrial Work Experience Scheme in

Kaduna Polytechnic-Nigeria.

Ryal-Net Marcus Balah 1; Obaje Juliet Azuka 2;

Boumann Ephraim Sule3

1&3 Department of Architecture, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna.

[email protected]

Abstract Over the years, industries and the general public have expressed concern on the low capacity

of graduates in exhibiting the requisite skill for life of work after their training. This paper assessed the use of Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) towards

enhancing skill acquisition techniques for architectural training and practice. The

methodology adopted for the research was qualitative which included the use of interviews

and structured questionnaires for data collection, while the SPSS statistical tool was used for

the descriptive analysis of data collected. The population comprised of SIWES institutional

and industry supervisors and graduates from department of architecture Kaduna polytechnic.

The research established that enhancing skill acquisition technique for architectural training

and practice using the Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme in Kaduna Polytechnic

has a slightest mean response of 2.72 and 3.29 as the significant mean respond. The research

finding amongst others has implication on the effect of SIWES on skill acquisition in the

Department of Architecture in Kaduna Polytechnic. This is with respect to financing SIWES

trainee, management/office procedure, good work ethics and score in and the need for enhanced entrepreneur appetite by trainees including tools and facilities applications. The

paper concludes that enhancing skill acquisition techniques for architectural training and

practice using Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme in Kaduna Polytechnic is

significant and quite relevant to employability and real life of work in architecture.

Keywords: Architectural Training, Industrial Experience, Kaduna Polytechnic, Practice,

Skill Acquisition.

Introduction The opportunity provided to students of

higher learning through the Student Work Experience Scheme (SIWES), a mode of

industrial skill acquisition and a training

avenue for the seamless transition to work

life is quite central to employability of

graduates of all fields; particularly

Technical and Vocational Education and

Training (TVET) base courses (Aswaju,

1972; Abubakar & Mohammed, 1999;

Abubakar, 2001; Industrial Training Fund,

2002; Bukar, 2011; Dangana, 2011; Nse

2012). For accelerated development in Africa to occur, pragmatic technical and

technological base education must lead the

way rather than the idealist education style

that has been the trend (Bukar, 2011; Dangana, 2011; Umar, 2011).

Ugwuanyi and Ezema (2010) asserted that

practical knowledge relates to doing, and

that practical knowledge is learning

without which mastery of an area of

knowledge may be too difficult to achieve.

However, it is obvious that no society can

achieve meaningful progress, without

encouraging its youth to acquire necessary

practical skills and it is such skills that enable them to harness available resources


Ryal-Net, Obaje & Boumann Assessment of Skill Acquisition Techniques for Architectural Training Using Students Industrial Work Experience

Scheme in Kaduna Polytechnic-Nigeria.

163

towards meeting the needs of society.

Therefore, against this background SIWES

otherwise referred to as Industrial Training

(IT), was introduced in Nigerian tertiary

institutions. SIWES being a skill

development program was designed to prepare students of universities,

polytechnics/monotechnics, and colleges of

education for switch from the school

environment to the field of labour

(Akerejola 2008). Oyedele (1990) and

Ugwuanyi and Ezema (2010) also did

affirm that work experiences are

educational programs in which students

participate in work activities while

attending school.

The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) therefore, is a central

part to the basic training requirement of

architectural technicians and technologists

in the Nigerian Polytechnic (as cited in

National Board for Technical Education

[NBTE], 2009). Essentially SIWES serves

as a medium to enhance a seamless

transition from training to work. A careful

observation seems to suggest that students’

rated performance during SIWES training

is not really a direct reflection of aptitudes being demonstrated by the students on

graduation or when employed (Wodi &

Dokubo, 2009; Okolocha & Okolocha,

2012). This state of affairs is creating a

great deal of concern as variously asserted

by (Wodi & Dokubo, 2009).

The problem of trained architectural

graduates’ capacity in the industry based

on acquired skill and actual work

competency demonstrated is a cause for

serious concern. Once this challenge is tackled frontally there would be a

momentous impact on the general world of

learning and the quality of trained

graduates of Architectural Technology

specifically. The various architectural firms

and construction companies will also gain

quality workforce and the nation would be

better developed.

The paper essentially identifies required

skills for architectural training and practice; established suitable techniques for skill

acquisition in architectural training and

practice through establishing whether

SIWES training enhances TVET skill

acquisition techniques in the Department of

Architecture, Kaduna Polytechnic and

making recommendation for skill acquisition in architectural training and

practice through industry based

collaboration.

Student Industrial Work Experience

Scheme (SIWES) Traditional education system emphasised dignity of labour, hard work, moral

instruction including emphasis on

traditions, culture, beliefs, attitudes and

peoples’ religion (Katola, 2014). Dangana

(2011) and Umar (2011) did affirm that

apart from the traditional educational

system, there are several other factors that

affected teaching and learning in Nigeria

that include, the Islamic, Christian

missionaries’ influences and then the

colonial heritage from the British.

According United Nations Conference on

Trade and Development [UNCTAD]

(2012), Nigeria educational systems have

been laden with internal/societal economic

imbalances considering the dynamics of

growth, development and change.

Therefore, for proper economic

development in the country our educational

component must include; requirement for

economic growth and socio-cultural

development, resource supplies of the economy, long production cycle of

education and educational change cum

quality for entrepreneurship (Wheeler,

1968; Asiwaju, 1972; Fabunmi, 2005;

Dangana, 2011; Umar, 2011; Azike, 2013).

The lack of adequate practical skills

preparatory for employment in industries

by Nigerian graduates of tertiary

institutions informed the establishment of

SIWES by the ITF in 1973 (SIWES, 2002). The scheme allows students to gain

industry based skills necessary for

transition from classroom to the world of

work and affords them the opportunity of

being familiarised and experienced in

handling machinery and equipment (ITF,


164

2002; Chodozie, 2009). It can be adduced

from Mafe (2009) that there are two basic

forms of learning; education and training,

both of which are indispensable to the

productive world of work and the

functioning of society today.

Skill Acquisition and Productive

Performance in Technical Vocational

Education and Training (TVET) Skill acquisition is a process of utilising one’s cognitive skills (thinking) alongside

physical abilities to learn how to execute

actions that were previously unknown in a

gradual developmental process (Huitt,

2011). TVET is concerned with acquisition

of knowledge and skills for the world of

work to increase opportunities for

productive work, sustainable livelihoods,

personal empowerment and socio-

economic development in knowledge

economics. Contemporary needs for employment requires meeting demands of

societies, thus the need for a combination

of knowledge, practical and social skills

that includes positive attitudes and the

ability to adopt to rapidly changing work

environments (Amasa, 1995; Krönner,

2006; Dangana, 2011; Nse 2012). There is

need to examine important matters relating

to changing world of work; the extent of

appraisal process effectiveness and the

relationship of the rating tools to the specific field of study/vocation being

trained for post-graduation assimilation (as

cited in UNESCO, 2004).

Technical Vocational Education and

Training (TVET) Skill Acquisition in

Architectural Training and its

Relevance. Professionally, an architect's decisions

affect public safety, and thus an architect or

architect technologist must undergo

specialised training consisting of advanced

education and a practicum (or internship)

for practical experience to earn a license to practice architecture at whatever level of

proficiency. The practical, technical and

academic requirements for becoming an

architect vary by jurisdiction (Architect

Act, 2006;). For this research, it is the place

of technical-practical skills on academic

learning environment that is the desire of

this inquiry.

The definition of Architecture according to

the Architects Registration Council of Nigeria (ARCON) amended decree section

13 of 1990 states:

“Architecture as the art and science in

theory and practice of design, erection,

commissioning, maintenance, management

and coordinating of allied professionals

thereto of buildings or parts thereof and

the layout and master plan of such building

or groups of building forming a

comprehensive institution establishment or

any other neighbourhood as well as any

other organized space, enclosed or opened, required for human and other activities.”

(as cited in Federal Government of Nigeria

[FGN], 1990).

Architecture does not only involve teaching

theory, but it is a verb ‘doing word’ which

requires training to apply the assumptions

being taught. Historically and from the

definitions above, it is clear that the

training of architects is centred on

demonstration of the trainee’s practical competency in actual work environment

and not only the acquisitions of certificates

as has been variously affirmed (FGN,

1990; Doshu, 2005;).

The strategic place of Technical Vocational

Education and Training (TVET) for

National development cannot be attained

without an appropriate curriculum

(Abubakar & Mohammed, 1999;

Abubakar, 2001; Maigida, et al., 2013).

NBTE (2009) further clearly stated that curriculum of all National Diploma (ND)

and Higher National Diploma (HND)

programmes are consisting of four main

components that include; General

Studies/Education, Foundation Courses,

Professional Courses and Supervised

Industrial Work Experience Scheme, this is

however being currently reviewed. TVET

is a concept that has reassessed the blooms

taxonomy of learning from its noun to verb

form where more active form of thinking is emphasised (Harrow, 1972; Krathwohl, et



165

al., 1973; Huitt, 2011). It has set the basics

for review of the current curriculum on

architectural technological training under

NBTE guidance.

The architectural technologist is supposed to be complimentary to the university

graduates and not competing or struggling

in a conflicting role definition. It is quite

important to establish possible variance in

required training skill depending on the

institutional objectives. Specifically, these

greatly determine the nature and form of

the SIWES experience required of each

trainee accordingly. Polytechnic trained

graduates in architecture are supposed to

acquire practical skills in drafting, model

making, perspective drawing and data collection, while having an understanding

of organisational pattern and functional

system of an architectural-based

establishment. They should also be familiar

with general office procedures in the

establishment, appreciate basic building

site organisation and operations, including

production of a technical report on the

specific experience during the SIWES

(adapted from NBTE, 2009:150). Currently

there are no definite differences in assessment of university and polytechnic or

colleges of education trainees; this greatly

negates the individual institutions mandates

and their specific objectives.

The current observed skill capacity of most

polytechnic graduates and above all the

attitudes of those that have successfully

undergone SIWES training in addition to

the other relevant educational requirements

has become a source for concern. The

scored performance of the generality of students does not seem to be a reflection of

the exact reality of the competency

acquired by the individual after the

requisite training. It has been variously

demonstrated that most of the firms have in

place requisite equipment and qualified

industry base supervisors to expose the

students on methods and techniques in

handling equipment and machinery in the

industry (Doshu, 2005). The challenge of

this study is the appropriateness and effectiveness of rating of activities vice-a-

vice, the high scores and the constant

public and professional concern on the

poor skill acquired by graduates of

architecture at all levels. In other words,

how the rating of SIWES does during

architectural attachment relates to actual meaning and essence of architecture as

defined by ARCON.

SIWES and indeed TVET based programs

have to be responsive to the emerging

needs, concerns and issues for

employment, since without TVET being

relevant and responsive to skills needs in

the workplace, there is the danger of

learners completing their education and

training without employable skills and

knowledge. Hence, it is common practice in a number of countries to undertake

periodic reviews of their TVET system

(Adapted from Vocational Education

Research [VOCED], 2012). It is in this

light that current efforts by NBTE to

review curriculum of all courses to

conform to broad and specific goals needs

that can guarantee true competency is

commendable.

Strategies for Enhanced

Performance of SIWES Skill

Acquisition Techniques on TVET

Programs. In recent years there seems to be a

paradigm shift towards practical skills

training and also craving for innovation,

hence the need to make TVET more

attractive, effective and efficient (Abban &

Quarshie, 1996; Bhuwanee, 2006; Anaele,

2014). According to African Union (2007)

it is expected that TVET will promote skill

acquisition through competency-based

training. Hence the strategic place of trainees’ proficiency in any particular

chosen field of endeavour. TVET system

and programmes need to remain relevant

therefore should continually be renewed to

the changing demands of the workplace

and adaptable to the contemporary

challenges of training in the relevant field

of studies. Also the technological

innovations and dynamics of employment

must always be at the centre of all


166

strategies for enhanced performance

(Aswaju, 1972; Chidozie, 2009; Dasmani,

2011). While evaluating makes judgments

about the values of ideas or materials;

creating that is advocated by TVET builds

a structure or pattern from diverse elements. This diversity is the current crux

of thinking, innovation and change in all

fields globally (Pohl, 2000). This concept

being central to TVET should be adapted

into our education and training of

Architecture technologist.

“While education is the key to any

development process, TVET is the ‘Master

Key’ that can transform the world of work

and the economy, alleviate poverty, save

the environment and improve the quality of

life” (UNESCO, 2009).

Whatever policy and practice changes are

adopted for TVET, the following

comments seem pertinent because TVET

institutions, like others, cannot be operated

in isolation: Recognising that the vast

majority of the worldwide labour force,

including knowledge workers, require

technical and vocational skills throughout

life; the skills development leading to age-

appropriate TVET are integral to education at all levels, and can no longer be regarded

as optional or marginal. It is especially

important to integrate skills development in

Education for All (EFA) programmes and

to satisfy TVET demand created by

learners completing basis education.

The Relevance of SIWES to TVET

Programs and Architectural

Training and Practice. Practical skill acquisition can be hampered

by inadequate supply of instructional

materials, large class size, inadequate

training facilities and the glaring weak

linkage of training institutions with local

industries for hands-on-experience for both instructors and the trainees. This had

entrenched the ineffective and inefficient

training of students on TVET programs,

thereby leading to more emphasis on

passing final exams only (Dasmani, 2011).

Basically there are available various

training options for TVET programs, that

may include, ministry or agency supervised

institutions, workplace based training and

currently most suitable the combined

multiple type training that includes

sandwich and dual systems. Monitoring

and evaluating TVET performance and identifying the possibilities for improving

its quality and coverage require an

understanding of the nature of TVET, its

functions, goals including key

characteristics. This is where the SIWES

clearly comes to play and a suitable

adaptation in all sectors of TVET will be

most advisable for a guarantee

development.

Methodology

The research adopted the use of historical

and descriptive survey designs, this is

because both past researches and the

opinion of people on the subject under

study was required (Awotunde &

Ugoduluwa, 2004; Bukar, 2005; Centre for

Innovation in Research & Teaching

[CIRT], 2012). The study was conducted at

the Department of Architecture College of

Environmental Studies, Kaduna Polytechnic, Barnawa-Kaduna. The

College of Environmental Studies is one of

the five colleges in Kaduna Polytechnic,

made up of two schools namely the School

of Environmental Design and School of

Geodesy and Land Administration with

total of eight departments in all.

Department of Architecture is one of the

four departments in the School of

Environmental Design.

The major subject or respondents of this

study included the National Diploma (ND)

students in the Department of Architecture

of Kaduna Polytechnic which is about 247

(ND2-85; HND1-78; HND2-84) from

(Departmental Admission and Registration

Records, 2014), the institutional

(departmental) supervisors that are thirty

two (32) from staff disposition list of the

department and 15 industry/firm base

supervisors within Kaduna metropolis that

had supervised some ND students or graduates from the Department of

Architecture during their SIWES

programme.



167

The study adopted the stratified random

sampling to collect data from the three

major strata of the students that have

undergone SIWES program at various

levels, academic staff that have supervised SIWES students and the industry base

supervisors from building industry firms

that are within Kaduna metropolis and had

supervised ND architectural technology

students from Kaduna Polytechnic. This

sampling technique was adopted to allow

proportionate representation from each of

the groups being studied (Awotunde &

Ugodulunwa, 2004; Bell, 2010). According

to Barttett (2001) assuming a confidence

level of ninety-five percent (95%) and

confidence interval of five percent (5%) the sample size for the student’s respondents to

be used is one hundred and thirty two (132)

respondents. However, considering the

limited number of the population of the

institutional and industry base supervisors,

about half of them were used as the sample

towards ensuring adequate and varied

responses. It is worthy to state here that

only industries where these Kaduna

Polytechnic students of Architecture had

undergone SIWES training under their supervision were considered amongst the

firms/industries within Kaduna metropolis.

Structured questionnaire was used for the

research and it clearly covered the various

effects of TVET skills acquisition

techniques adapted during SIWES training;

suitable techniques for skill acquisition in

architectural training and practice. Personal

experiences and discussion with industry

base supervisors, SIWES unit of the

institution and departmental SIWES officer also formed part of data collected. The

modified Likert scale of four points was

used and preferred towards ensuring

specific response that are explicit and

illuminating (Dallas, 2006:292).

The research instrument was validated first

on its face value with respect to the SIWES

component and general appropriateness

with the SIWES unit of the Polytechnic and

the departmental SIWES officer. The specific content validity of the

questionnaire was by experience experts in

the field of architectural training and

practice including a competent and

experienced statistician respectively. The

research used the reliability coefficient of

0.7 or more as basis to confirm the

instruments reliability. In administering the

research instrument, research assistants

were employed and liaised with

accordingly, right from the commencement

of the research study up until when the data was collected. All data collected from the

study was analysed using descriptive

statistical analysis through tables and chart

with the aid of the Excel package and

Statistical Package for Social Science

(SPSS) package 20. The four-point rating

scale was used which shows that response

1 is Highly Insignificant, 2-Insignificant, 3-

Significant and 4-Higly Significant.

Findings From Table 1 it was identified by most

respondents with respect to General Skills

that SIWES enhances Good Work Ethics

at significant mean response of 3.36 while

the least influenced of TVET skill

acquisition techniques during SIWES is

particularly Basic Literacy being at a

significant mean response of 2.97. Both the

least and highest mean responses showed that the identified parameters on TVET

skill acquisition stated above which were

enhanced using SIWES are mostly

considered as being significant.


168

Table 1: Mean Response on Enhancing General Skill Acquisition Techniques Using SIWES

General Skills Aspects N Sum Mean

Basic Literacy 100 297 2.97 Basic Oral Communication Skills 100 306 3.06 Numeracy Skills 99 305 3.08

ICT Skills 100 324 3.24 Honesty and Integrity 100 328 3.28 Good Work Ethics 100 336 3.36 Punctuality 100 325 3.25 Adaptability and Flexibility 100 303 3.03 Team Working Spirit 99 309 3.12 Etiquettes and Good Manners 100 315 3.15 Self Confidence 100 322 3.22 Appropriate Dressing 100 304 3.04

Networking Skills 100 303 3.03 Valid N (list wise) 98

Table 2 shows that Management Training

and Office Procedures Skill Acquisition

Techniques is being improved majorly in

an observed definite management and

organisational pattern of the industry/firm at 3.06 mean response and least enhanced

during SIWES in an observed deficient

skill acquisition of architectural and project

management services delivery during

tendering and award stage at 2.81 mean

response. Both the least considerable and

the most considerable parameters with

respect to Management Training and being

familiar with Office Procedures are here

considered as significant by most

respondents.

In Table 3 the mean response of 2.82 least

importance was computed as response for

model making skills acquired during

SIWES in terms of drawing, cutting and

assemblage; while the most enhanced skill acquisition techniques was considered as

design/drafting skill acquired using

computer during SIWES at 3.29 mean

responses. Considering the overall

responses, it can be adduced that

practical/technological employability skill

in acquiring practical skill on tools

application was adjudged as being

significant by most respondents.

Table 2: Mean Response Enhancing Management Training /Office Procedures Skill Acquisition

Techniques Using SIWES

Management Training /Office procedures Aspects N Sum Mean

Organogram that outlines hierarchy in management of the industry/firm

100 291 2.91

Observed definite management and organisational pattern in the industry/firm during SIWES

100 306 3.06

Perception of the functional management system of the architectural-based establishment during SIWES

100 296 2.96

There was observed deficient skill acquisition of architectural and project management services delivery at design stage during SIWES

100 300 3.00

There was observed deficient skill acquisition of architectural and project management services delivery at tendering and award stage during SIWES

100 281 2.81

There was observed deficient skill acquisition of architectural and project management services delivery at post construction period

100 291 2.91



169

during SIWES There was observed deficient skill acquisition of architectural and project management services delivery at post construction period

during SIWES.

100 289 2.89

Valid N (list wise) 100

Table 3: Mean Respondent Enhancing Practical/Technological Employability Skill Acquisition

Techniques Using SIWES (Acquired Practical Skills in Tools Application).

Practical/Technological employability skill: Acquired practical skills in Tools Application.

N Sum Mean

Design/drafting skill acquired using computer during SIWES 100 289 2.89 Design/drafting skill acquired using computer during SIWES 100 329 3.29 Model-making skills acquired during SIWES (drawing, cutting and assemblage).

100 282 2.82

Perspective drawing/3-D computer modelling skills acquired during SIWES.

100 311 3.11

Data collection skill and analysis technique in case studies for

specific design was attained during SIWES. 100 309 3.09

Data collection skill and analysis for specific design and report purposes (literature reviews and relevant sketches) during SIWES.

100 301 3.01

SIWES as an integral component of architectural training program curriculum.

100 315 3.15


From Table 4 the computed mean response

of 2.72 was the least with respect to extent of perceived aptitudes in terms of

carpentry/woodwork activities and or

workshop usage during SIWES. The work

out figure however that was most

considerate base on respondents mean

response was 3.21, as being significant.

From the least and most considerate response, it can be adduced that the mean

response with respect to

practical/technological employability skills

is generally considered as significant by

most respondents.

Table 4: Mean Response on Enhancing Practical/Technological Employability Skill Acquisition

Techniques Using SIWES (Perceived Utilization of Critical Training Facilities).

Practical/Technological employability skills: perceived utilization of critical training facilities during SIWES

N Sum Mean

Extent of perceived aptitude in terms of structures and materials laboratories usage during SIWES

100 273 2.73

Extent of perceived aptitudes in terms of modelling activities and or workshop usage during SIWES.

100 282 2.82

Extent of perceived aptitudes in terms of carpentry/wood activities and or workshop usage during SIWES.

100 272 2.72

Extent of perceived aptitudes in terms of block laying and concrete activities and or workshop usage during SIWES.

100 285 2.85

Extent of perceived aptitudes in terms of mechanical/electrical activities and or workshop usage during SIEWS.

100 291 2.91

Extent of perceived aptitudes in terms of architectural/computer studio activities during SIWES (using various BIM tools, i.e.

AutoCAD, Revit, etc.).

100 321 3.21

Extent of perceived aptitudes in terms of photographic studio activities during SIWES (using cameras and processing the prints).

100 301 3.01

Extent of perceived aptitudes in terms of jury presentation involvement during SIWES (using traditional methods and contemporary IT tools, i.e. PPP, projector, etc.).

100 278 2.78

Extent of perceived aptitudes in terms of architectural/surveying equipment activities and or during SIWES.

100 280 2.80

Extent of perceived aptitudes in terms of duplicating/printing 100 277 2.77



1

facilities usage during SIWES.


Source: Authors Field Survey (2015)

The four variables administered on

enhancing TVET Skill Acquisition

Techniques with respect to General Skills,

Management Training, Office Procedures, Tools and Facilities Application during

SIWES did indicate a mean response level

as being significant by most respondents

considering all parameters.

Discussions (a) The most noteworthy aspect/factor

TVET skill acquisition techniques based on

general skills during SIWES was

considered as Good Work Ethics, with the least important effect as Basic Literacy.

(b) The least improved TVET skill

acquisition techniques during SIWES with

regard to management training and office

procedures is in the observed deficient skill

acquisition of architectural and project

management services delivery during

tendering and award stage. However, the

most considerable aspect is in the observed

definite management and organisational pattern of the industry/firm.

(c) The least important enhanced TVET

skill acquisition techniques in

practical/technological employability skill

for tool application was in model making

skills acquired during SIWES in terms of

drawing, cutting and assemblage; while the

most important effect was considered as


computer during SIWES.

(d) The enhanced TVET skill acquisition

techniques in practical/technological

employability in terms of perceived

utilization of critical training facilities

during SIWES was most momentous in the

extent of perceived aptitudes in terms of

architectural/computer studio activities. It

was however least considerate in the

perceived aptitudes in terms of

carpentry/wood work activities and

workshop usages.

Conclusion TVET skill acquisition techniques base on

general skills during SIWES was

considered most noteworthy in good work

ethics, while for management and office

procedures was most considerable in the

management and organisational pattern of

the industry/firm. Furthermore skill for tool

application has most important effect in


computer during SIWES and perceived

utilization of critical training facilities

during SIWES was most momentous in the observed extent of perceived aptitudes in

terms of architectural/computer studio

activities by all respondents. In similar

vein, Maigida, et al. (2013) as well as

Abdullahi and Mohammed (1999) did

appropriated enhancement of TVET

training to adapting relevant component

units of activities. Also Harrow (1972),

Krathwohl ‘et al’, (1973) and Huitt (2011)

advocates TVET building structures or

pattern for various elements.

Recommendations The government should prioritize

giving jobs to the indigenous

industries so that these industries will

have the willingness, opportunity,

manpower and courage to accommodate students for Industry

Training (IT).

Adopt and implement policy

frameworks that will foster innovation

in the building sector, supporting and

enabling sustainable training and

practice in TVET orientated courses.

Industries should foster changes in

their production pattern and educate

the students on the new

methods/techniques and the benefits to ensure long-term performance and

passage of the knowledge or ideas.

The industries should help boost the

practice by providing placements for


.

171

students to participate and carry out

trainings.

Well thought and mapped out

objectives and training plan/goals

should be provided by the industries

on the training for the students in liaison with ITF for better skill

acquisition technique amongst trainee.

The polytechnic and architecture

education regulator bodies that is

National Board for Technical

Education (NBTE), Nigeria Institute of

Architects (NIA) and Architects

Registration Council of Nigeria

(ARCON) should ensure that the

curriculum of architectural training are

updated to match with international

best practices, the world of work and to include leadership training and

management capabilities abilities.

Institutions should ensure that the

students participate in the industrial

training by paying visits to the places

of attachment since the effective

training of the students during those

periods aids teaching and learning

process. This in turn is beneficial to

the student who is placed in a better

pedestal for self-reliance, the institution having better products that

are ready for employment and general

development of the nation.

The students should be mandated to go

for SIWES on relevant skill training

and should be effectively monitored

and assessed by both the institutions

and industries.

References Abban, C., & Quarshie, J. (1996).

Integrated skills training for self-

employment: The case of Ghana. In

Grierson, J.P. & Mckenzie I. (Eds):

Training for self-employment through

vocational training institutions. Turin,

Italy: ILO International Training

Centre.

Abubakar, M.S. (2001). Curricullum

design in technical and vocational

education. A paper Presented During the First Curriculum Review

Workshop Organised under the

UNESCO-Nigeria Project on the

Revitalisation of Technical and

Vocational Education in Nigeria.

Held at Excellence Hotel, Lagos from

25th June to 6th July, 2001.

Abubakar, M.S. & Mohammed, M. B.

(1999). Curriculum in the polytechnic sector: accreditation and beyond.

Being a paper presented at the


Challenges of Polytechnics in Africa

in the Next Millennium and the Way

Forward. Held at the Kaduna

Polytechnic from 9th to 11th

November, 1999.

African Union (2007). Strategy to

revitalize technical and vocational

education and training (TVET)

in Africa. Addis Ababa: Final Draft. Bureau of the Conference of

Ministers of Education of the

African Union (COMEDAF II+)

Akerejola, O. (2008). Information and

guidelines for students industrial

work experience scheme. Retrieved

on 23rd March, 2012 from

http://www.itf-nigeria.org/docs/siwes-

op-guide.pdf

Amasa, G. D. (1995). Strategies for

improving partnership between industries and technical institutions

for effective vocational training.

Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis,

Department of Vocational Teacher

Education, University of Nsukka.

Anaele, E. O., Adelakun, O. A., Olumoko,

B. O., & Kanu, J. A. (2014).

Strategies for empowering individuals

for self-employment through

technical, vocational education and

training (TVET) in Nigeria.

International Journal of Education Learning and Development, 2(3),

pp.1-9. Retrieved on from

http://www.eajournals.org/wp-

content/uploads/Strategies-for-

Empowering-Individuals-for-Self-

employment-through-Technical-

Vocational-Education-and-Training-

TVET-in-Nigeria.-Recovered.pdf

Architect Act (2006). An act respecting the

practice of architecture. Bill N0.115

as passed with Amendments. Nova Scotia, Canada.

http://www.itf-nigeria.org/docs/siwes-op-guide.pdf

http://www.itf-nigeria.org/docs/siwes-op-guide.pdf


Scheme in Kaduna Polytechnic-Nigeria

172

Asiwaju, A.I. (1972). Ashby revisited: A

review of Nigeria’s educational

growth, 1961-1971. JSTOR: African

Studies Review, 15(1):1-16.

Awotunde, P. O. & Ugodulunwa, C. A.

(2005). Research methods in education. Jos: Fab Anieh (Nig)

limited.

Azike, A. A. (2013). Historical analysis of

constitutional provision for education

in Nigeria (1976 -2011): Implication

for educational administration.

Journal of Social Sciences and

Humanities, 4(3). Retrieved on

15/09/2013 from

http://www.savap.org.pk/journals/AR

Int./Vol.4(3)/2013(4.3-40).pdf

Barttett, J. (2001). Research methods in education. Bolden Tyne and Wear,

Great Britain: Wearset Limited: 48-

49.

Bell, J. (2010). Doing your research

project: A guide for first time

researchers. (5th ed.). Milton Keynes,

United Kingdom: Open University

Press.

Bhuwanee, T. (2006). Reforming technical

and vocational education in Sub-

Saharan Africa: Case studies of Ghana - Mauritius - Tanzania and

Zimbabwe. Dakar, Senegal: BREDA.

Bukar, B. (2011). History of TVE: Early

development of technical education in

Nigeria. Lecture Notes for History of

Technical Vocational Education and

Training (EDT. 603). Post Graduate

Diploma in Technical Education

(Special), Kaduna Polytechnic,

Kaduna.

Centre for Innovation in Research &

Teaching [CIRT] (2012). Basic research designs. Retrieved on

12/03/2013 from

https://cirt.gcu.edu/research/developm

entresources/tutorials/researchdesigns

Chidozie, O. K. (2009). A report on the students’

industrial work experience scheme

(SIWES) carried out at atiteco Nigeria

limited. Prepared for Human Resources

Department Telnet Nigeria Limited, Victoria

Island,Lagos, Lagos State.

Dallas, M. F. (2006).Value and risk management: A guide to best

practice. Oxford, UK: Blackwell

Publishing.

Dangana, D. M. (2011). Factors that

Influence the system of TVET

education in Nigeria. Lecture Notes

on Curriculum Development in Technical Education Vocational

Education and Training (TVET-

EDT.609). Post Graduate Diploma in

Technical Education (Special),

Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna.

Dasmani, A. (2011). Challenges facing

technical institute graduates in

practical skills acquisition in

the upper east region of Ghana. Asia

Pacific Journal of Cooperative

Education 12(2): 67-77.

Doshu, R.G. (2005). A Follow-up Study on the Performance of HND (Arch.)

Graduates of Kaduna Polytechnic in

Kaduna State. PGDE Research

project, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna

,2005).

Fabunmi, M. (2005). Historical analysis of

educational policy in Nigeria:

Implication for educational planning

and policy. International Journal of

African and African American

Studies. IV(2):1-7. Federal Government of Nigeria [FGN]

(1990). Architects Registration

Council of Nigeria (ARCON)

Amended Decree. Lagos: Federal

Government of Nigeria [FGN] Press.

Federal Government of Nigeria [FGN]

(2004). National policy on education.

Lagos: Nigeria Educational Research

and Development Council (NERC).

Harrow, A. (1972). Taxonomy of

psychomotor Domain: A Guide for

Developing Behavioural Objectives. New York: David McKay.

Huitt, W. (2011). Bloom et al.'s taxonomy

of the cognitive domain. Educational

Psychology Interactive. Retrieved

[date], from

http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topi

cs/cogsys/bloom.html [pdf]

Industrial Training Fund [ITF], (2002).

Information and guideline for student

industrial work experience scheme.

Retrieved on 25th March, 2012 from

http://www.savap.org.pk/journals/ARInt./Vol.4(3)/2013(4.3-40).pdf

http://www.savap.org.pk/journals/ARInt./Vol.4(3)/2013(4.3-40).pdf


.

173

http://odich.com/itfnig/docs/siwes-op-

guide.pdf

Katola, M. T. (2014). Incorporation of

traditional African cultural values in

the formal education system for

development, peace building and good governance. European Journal

of Research in Social Sciences, 2(3).

Retrieved on 21/03/2015 from

http://www.idpublications.org/wp-

content/uploads/2014/07/incorporatio

n-of-traditional-african-cultural-

values-in-the-formal-education-

system-for-development-peace-

building-and-good-governance.pdf

Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia,

B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of

educational objectives, the classification of educational goals.

Handbook II: Affective Domain. New

York: David McKay Co.,Inc.

Krathwohl, D. (2002). A revision of

Bloom's taxonomy: An overview.

Theory into Practice, 41(4), 212-218.

Retrieved on 23/03/2011

fromhttp://www.unco.edu/cetl/sir/stati

ng_outcome/documents/Krathwohl.pd

f

Krönner, H. (2006). National workshop on technical and vocational education

and training. Pyongyang Democratic

People’s Republic of Korea 30

August to 01 September 2006.

Retrieved on 15-05-12 from

http://www.intervoc.de/DPRK/DPRK

-TVET-Module_2.pdf

Mafe, O. A. T. (2009). Effectiveness of

SIWES with respect to chemical

engineering. European Journal of

Social sciences. 7(3).

National Board for Technical Education [NBTE] (2009). Curriculum for

technical colleges and polytechnics.

Kaduna: National Board for

Technical Education (NBTE).

Nse, J. (2012). Evaluation of student

industrial work experience scheme

(SIWES) in library school: the federal

polytechnic Nekede experience.

Journal of Library Philosophy and

Practice. Retrieved on 17th May,

2013 from http://unillib.unl.edu/LPP/

Maigida, J.F., Sada, T.M., & Namkere J. U.

(2013). Entrepreneurial skills in

technical vocational education and

training as a strategic approach for

achieving youth empowerment in

Nigeria. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(5).

Okolocha, C. C. & Okolocha, C. B. (2012).

Students' entrepreneurial skill

acquisition through SIWES in

Nigeria: An Analytical Approach.

International Journal of Independent

Research and Studies. 1(3), 97-105.

Oyedele, J. P. (1990). Co-operative work

experience programme for youths in

business education. Business

Education Journals 2: 30-53.

Pohl, M. (2000). Learning to think. thinking to learn: models and

strategies to develop a classroom

culture of thinking. Chelternham, Vic:

Hawker Browlow.

Students Industrial Work Experience

Scheme [SIWES], (2002).

Information and guidelines for SIWES

review. Pp1.41.

Ugwuanyi, C. F. & Ezema, J. U. (2010).

Challenges of students’ industrial

work experience scheme (SIWES) in library and information science in the

ict environment. Library Philosophy

and Practice (e-journal). Paper 401.

Retrieved on 24th March, 2012 from

http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphil

prac/401

Umar, L. K. K. (2011). History of

curriculum development efforts in

Nigeria. Lecture Notes on Curriculum

Development (EDU. 209). Post

Graduate Diploma in Technical

Education (Special), Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna.

United Nations Conference on Trade and

Development [UNCTAD] (2012).

Economic development in Africa

report 2012: Structural

transformation and sustainable

development in Africa. United

Nations Conference on Trade and

Development. Retrieved on from

http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibra

ry/aldcafrica2012_embargo_en.pdf

http://odich.com/itfnig/docs/siwes-op-guide.pdf

http://odich.com/itfnig/docs/siwes-op-guide.pdf

http://www.intervoc.de/DPRK/DPRK-TVET-Module_2.pdf

http://www.intervoc.de/DPRK/DPRK-TVET-Module_2.pdf

http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/401

http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/401


Scheme in Kaduna Polytechnic-Nigeria

174

United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organisation [UNESCO]

(2004). TVET for Sustainability of

human kind. Bonn Declaration on

Learning for work, Citizenship and

Sustainability at UNESCO Conference.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organisation [UNESCO]

(2009). Bonn Declaration. UNESCO

World Conference on Education for

Sustainable Development held in

Bonn, Germany on 31 March to 2

April 2009. Retrieved on 24th March,

2012 from

http://www.esd‐world‐conference‐200

9.org/fileadmin/download/ESD2009_BonnDeclaration080409.pdf

Vocational Education Research [VOCED]

(2012). Development of TVET systems

and strengthening of national

research and development

capabilities. a guide for managers of

TVET. Adelaide, South Australia: National Centre for Vocational

Education Research. Retrieved on

December, 13th 2011 from VOCED:

http://www.ncver.edu.au/voced.htm

Wheeler, A. C. R. (1968). The organisation

of educational planning in Nigeria.

Paris, France: UNESCO.

Wodi, S.W. & Dokubo, A. (2009).

Appraisal of students work

experience scheme (SIWES) in five

tertiary institutions in Rivers State

Nigeria. European Journal of Social Sciences. 7(3). Pp42-51

.

http://www.ncver.edu.au/voced.htm

Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 2 December 2017.

175

Impact of Vehicular Carbon Emission on

Ambient Air Quality in Minna, Nigeria

Micheal Emmanuel, Mohammed Bala Banki, Mohammed Maikudi &

Santali Benjamin Aliyu Department of Urban and Regional Planning, School of Environmental Technology

Federal University of Technology, Minna1 [email protected]

Abstract Movement of vehicles from one point to another is crucial to the enhancement of economic

development of any society, and it leads to air pollution resulting from carbon emission.

While there are substantial studies that had investigated this phenomenon, majority of it are conducted in more developed countries, and some developing countries including Nigeria.

However, there is limited study on this subject in the north-central, Nigeria, which has

experienced tremendous influx of different category of vehicles over the last one decade.

Thus, in order to address this gap, the main objective of this paper is to assess the influence

of vehicular carbon emission on ambient air quality in Minna town, with a view to

ascertaining the level of carbon emission, and the variation of various emissions from

different vehicular classes. For data collection, MSA Multi-Gas Detector, Smoke Meter and

Handheld Gas Monitor were used to measure and determine the level of carbon emission

around some roundabouts. Descriptive analysis and one sample T test were conducted. The

findings of the study shows that average carbon emission around Tunga roundabout, Mobil

roundabout, Kpakungu, and Obasanjo complex roundabout are 14.6ppm, 26.0ppm,

24.4ppm, and 20.8ppm respectively. All of these values are above the limit set by USEPA and WHO, and therefore classify as “highly unhealthy” limits. The study also found a highly

significant variation in carbon emission around the roundabouts and various types of

vehicles. The study recommends enforcement of relevant regulations on pollution control as

it relates to vehicular carbon emission.

Keywords: Vehicles; Carbon emission; Pollution; Ambient air quality

Introduction Vehicle emissions greatly affect the air quality in many cities, especially in

developing countries (MEPPRC, 2011; and

Chen et al., 2016). For three decades now,

number of vehicles has increased rapidly

worldwide, and vehicle emissions have

become an important source of air

pollution in most urban areas (Mayer,

1999; Panis et al., 2006; as stated by Wu et

al., 2011). According to Shancita (2014), a

vehicle emits gases, such as NOx, CO and

VOCs, from its tailpipe, and even during idling state.

A considerable number of gaseous

hazardous compounds are present in diesel

and gasoline exhaust being emitted by

vehicles (Salami, 2007). Pollutants emitted

from diesel and gasoline engines of a

vehicle can be divided into three major

elements: NOx (nitrogen oxide), CO

(Carbon monoxide) and HCs (Hydrocarbons) and PM (Particulate

Matters). NOx is composed mostly of

nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide

(NO2). In diesel exhaust, NO has a larger

quantity than that of NO2, though NO2 is

more contagious than NO (Rodrigue,

2016).

The environmental impacts of vehicle

emission arises from transportation

activities as a result of increasing mobility

demands for passengers and freight, which are associated with growing levels of

environmental externalities (Badejo, 2011).

The growth of personal and freight


Emmanuel, Banki, Maikudi & Santali Impact of Vehicular Carbon Emission on Ambient Air Quality in Minna, Nigeria

176

mobility in recent decades have expanded

the role of transportation as a source of

emission of pollutants and their multiple

impacts on the environment (Rodrigue et

al., 2016).

The adverse effects of vehicular carbon

emission is heavily documented in the

literature, and while the dominance of this

kind of study is on many cities and towns

in developed countries and some

developing countries, very few have been

conducted on cities and towns in Nigeria.

There is clearly a dearth of this nature of

study in Nigeria north-central region,

which is currently experiencing increasing

influx of vehicles of various categories.

Therefore, in addressing this gap, the main objective of this paper is to assess the

influence of vehicular carbon emission on

ambient air quality in Minna town with the

view to ascertaining the level of carbon

emission and variation of various emissions

from different vehicular classes. .

Study Area Minna lies at latitude 9o 37’ North and

longitude 6o 33’ East on a geography base

of undifferentiated Basement Complex of

mainly gneiss and magmatite. The Town

has a mean annual precipitation of

1300mm, taken from an exceptionally long

record of 50 years. The highest mean

monthly rainfall is in September with almost 3000mm. The raining season starts

on average between the 11th -20th April,

and lasts between 190 and 200 days.

Temperature rarely falls below 22o C. The

peaks are 40o C (February-March) and 35o

C (November-December). Minna City is

both the administrative headquarters of

Niger State and Chanchaga Local

Government Area. The City has 2017

estimated population of 489,351. It covers

approximately 1000Ha (Maxlock, 1980).

According to the Niger State Board of Internal Revenue (BIR) (2017), a total of

13,729 vehicles were registered in Minna

from September, 2013-December 2016.

This includes motorcycles, tricycles, cars,

buses, light and heavy trucks. Figure 1.1

shows street guide map of Minna showing

major roundabouts, while figure 1.2 shows

selected traffic light points.

Figure 1.1: Street Guide Map of Minna Showing Major Roundabouts

https://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch8en/conc8en/tenvitbl.html


177

Figure 1.2: Street Guide Map of Minna Showing Major Junctions

Literature Review

Transportation and Greenhouse Gas

Emission Transportation is the major contributor of

air pollution accounting for over 80 percent

of total air pollutants (UN Habitat’s State

of the World Cities 2008/2009). According

to USEPA (2014), greenhouse gas

emissions from transportation accounted

for about 26 percent of total U.S.

greenhouse gas emissions, making it the

second largest contributor of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions after

the electricity sector. US Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) (2014) indicates

that the transportation sector includes the

movement of people and goods by cars,

trucks, trains, ships, airplanes, and other

vehicles. Majority of greenhouse gas

emissions from transportation are carbon

monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2),

sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide

(NOx) emissions resulting from the combustion of petroleum-based products,

such as gasoline, internal combustion

engines. Fossil fuel usage is the primary

source of CO2. The transportation sector

directly accounted for about 28 percent of

total U.S. GHG emissions in 2006, making

it the second largest source of GHG

emissions after electricity generation (UN

Habitat’s State of World Cities 2008/2009).

NESREA (2014) noted that air pollution

can occur inside homes, schools, and

offices; in cities; and across continents.

Major air pollutants which can be experienced at any given time include:

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX), Oxides of

Sulphur (SOX), Carbon monoxide (CO),

Ozone (O3), Hydrogen sulphide (H2S),

Methane (CH4), Total Non-methane

Hydrocarbon (TNMHC), Particulate Matter

(PM) and Volatile Organic

Chemicals/Compounds (VOCs).Vlieger et

al.,(2010) stated that the largest sources of

transportation GHGs in 2006 were

passenger cars (34%) and light duty trucks, which include sport utility vehicles, pickup

trucks, and minivans (28%). Together with

motorcycles, these light-duty vehicles

made up about 63% of transportation GHG

emissions. The next largest sources were

freight trucks (20%) and commercial

aircraft (7%), along with other non-road

sources, which combined totalled about

7%. These figures include direct emissions

from fossil fuel combustion, as well as

https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions#electricity

https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases#carbon-dioxide


178

HFC emissions from mobile air

conditioners and refrigerated transport

allocated to these vehicle types.

In Nigeria, little attention is given to

pollution caused by mobile transportation which is a source of air pollution according

to Abam (2009) and Nwachukwu (2012).

The situation of increased pollution from

mobile transportation source is as a result

of increase in private and public vehicle

ownership, thus resulting in high road

congestion in cities and towns in Nigeria,

and increase in the concentration of

pollutants in the air, resulting in increased

health risk of human population (Odotong,

2015). Studies conducted in Kaduna and

Abuja cities show higher values of CO2concentration in heavily congested

areas: 1840ppm was recorded for Sabo in

Kaduna city, 1780ppm for Stadium

roundabout in Kaduna city, and 1530ppm

for A.Y.A in Abuja city, 1160ppm for

Asokoro in Abuja city (Hassan et al.,

2012).

Materials and Methods Instrument for Data Collection:

The following instruments were used:

Digital Camera, Hand held GPS (Garmin,

etrex10 model), and the MSA Altair 5X

Multi-gas Detector. The MSA Altair 5X

Multi-gas Detector of version SW 1.27.06.50 is a portable hand held device

used to measure the concentration of gases

in the environment. The device monitors

gases in ambient air, and is available with a

maximum of four sensors, which can

display readings for five separate gases

(one Dual Toxic Sensor provides both CO

and H2S sensing capabilities in a single

sensor), Oxygen (O2) and 2 combustible

gases including Pentane. For the purpose of

this research, 7 of out of the 13

roundabouts in Minna were considered for the study. They are: Tunga roundabout,

Kpakungu roundabout, Mobile roundabout,

Obasanjo Complex roundabout, Maitumbi

roundabout, Minna City-Gate roundabout,

and Paiko roundabout. The factors

considered for selection include; volume of

traffic generated, hierarchy of the road,

activities along/ adjacent the route, and

busy nature of the roads. Also, 3 of the

major traffic junctions out of the 7

junctions identified were selected for the

research due to the traffic generated and

clustered nature of the roads. The ambient air monitoring procedure was adopted

using the description made by Harrop

(2002) and Robert (2004).

During the atmospheric measurement, air

samples were measured in part per million

(ppm) at a height of 1 metres above the

ground level at each of the graded distances

of 1 metres from the road. An approximate

distance of 0.27 metres from the tail pipe of

idling vehicles was adopted for the second

strategy. This measurement was done at the windward direction. Carbon emission

levels at the roundabouts were taken at

three distinct period of the day; 8am-10am,

12pm-2pm, and 4pm-6pm and the

collection of air samples was measured on

site. Second by second measurement with

an interval of 2-3 seconds was adopted.

The second by second emission data

provides a better method for the

development of models for estimating

vehicular emission. A GPS receiver was used to record the positional status of all

the major roundabouts and junctions. The

collected data was analysed using SPSS 22,

where descriptive analysis and one sample

T test was conducted. The results of

analysis are presented in charts and tables.


Average Level of Carbon Emission

at Selected Roundabouts in Minna The average daily carbon emission at the

selected roundabouts in Minna ranges from

14.6ppm at Tunga roundabout to as high as

26.0ppm at Mobile roundabout. This is

presented in Table 4.1. The result shows

that the average carbon emission around selected roundabouts in the city is

19.7ppm. Mobile roundabout recorded the

highest average carbon emission of

26.0ppm, followed by Kpakungu and

Obasanjo Complex with 24.4ppm and

20.8ppm values respectively. These three

(3) Roundabouts recorded higher carbon


179

emission than Minna City-Gate

roundabout. The average carbon emission

at Minna City-Gate roundabout is 18.3ppm,

Paiko roundabout recorded 17.6ppm,

Maitumbi roundabout recorded 16.3ppm,

while the lowest value (14.6ppm) was recorded at Tunga roundabout.

The United States Environmental

Protection Agency (USEPA, 2015)

identified six levels of carbon emission,

and their health implication. Going by their

standard, six (6) out of the seven (7)

selected roundabouts recorded carbon

emission that falls under the very unhealthy

level (see table 4.1). Carbon emission value

recorded at Tunga roundabout is unhealthy

for sensitive group of people (Asthmatic).

Therefore, majority of the roundabouts in

Minna experiences high concentration of

CO2 that is harmful to man. Excessive

concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere

according Bascom, et al (1996) can reduce

the oxygen carrying capacity of blood which might affect the sensitive organs of

the human body such as the heart and

brain. Similarly, USEPA (2015) reveals

that acute exposure to vehicles’ emission

over a period of time reduces lung

function. Furthermore, Balogun (2015)

noted that vehicle that produces excessive

smoke (smoke could be gray, blue, white or

black depending on the engine’s state) on

the road can affect visibility, thereby

causing Road Traffic Crash (RTC).

Figure 4.1: Vehicular Emission around Selected Roundabouts in Minna

Table 4.1 Daily Average Carbon Emissions at Selected Roundabouts in Minna

Roundabout

Location

Daily Average Carbon Emission Remark

Tunga 14.6 Unhealthy for sensitive groups

Kpakungu 24.4 Highly Unhealthy

Mobile 26.0 Highly Unhealthy

Obasanjo 20.8 Highly Unhealthy

Maitumbi 16.3 Highly Unhealthy

City Gate 18.3 Highly Unhealthy

Paiko 17.6 Highly Unhealthy

City Mean 19.7 Highly Unhealthy

Note that: 0-4.4ppmc = Good, 4.5-9.4ppmc = Moderate, 9.5-12.4ppm = Unhealthy for Sensitive groups,

12.5-15.4ppm = Unhealthy, 15.5-30.4ppm = Highly unhealthy, 30.5-50.4ppm = Hazardous (USEPA, 2015)


180

Variation in Volume of Carbon

Emission Recorded At the Selected

Roundabouts in Minna Table 4.2 shows the variation in volume of

carbon emission recorded at the selected

roundabouts in Minna using one sample T

Test. The one sample T test recorded a t

value of 14.266 and a P-value of 0.000.

Since the p-value is less than 0.001 at 95%

confidence level, it therefore implies that

there is a significant variation in the level of carbon emission recorded at the selected

roundabouts in Minna.

Amount of Carbon Concentration

Emitted by Vehicles in Minna The carbon emission from nine major categories of vehicles was examined at

idling state using the MSA Multi-gas

Detector. The average volume of carbon

emitted by vehicles at idling state is

presented in Figure 4.2. The result shows

that the average volume of carbon emitted

by tanker/trailer, lorry/truck motorcycle,

tricycle, private car at idling state are

153.43ppm, 232.13ppm, 236.12ppm,

289.39ppm, 343.17ppm respectively.

Furthermore, the volume of emission

recorded from luxury bus at idling state is

388.64ppm, Omni bus recorded

442.53ppm, pick-up van recorded

520.23ppm, while commercial cars recorded 627.04ppm. The result shows that

the volume of carbon emission from

vehicles is not a function of its size, but

other numerous factors not considered in

this study.

Variation in Volume of Carbon

Concentration Emitted by Various

Categories of Vehicles in Minna

Table 4.3 shows the variation in volume of

carbon concentration emitted by various

types of vehicles in Minna using one sample T Test. The one sample T test

recorded a t value of 7.100 and a P-value of

0.000. Since the p-value is less than 0.001

at 95% confidence level, it therefore

implies that there is a significant variation

in the concentration of carbon emitted by

various categories of vehicles in Minna.

Table 4.2. One-Sample Test

Test Value = 0

t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean

Difference

95% Confidence Interval of

the Difference

Lower Upper

Carbon Emission

14.266 7 .000 19.71250 16.4450 22.9800

Figure 4.2: Carbon Concentration Emitted by Vehicles in Minna

Table 4.3. One-Sample Test

Test Value = 0


181

t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean

Difference

95% Confidence Interval of

the Difference

Lower Upper

Emission 7.100 8 .000 359.18667 242.5343 475.8391

Conclusion and Recommendations

This study has shown that the amount of

carbon emission (particularly CO concentration) by vehicles around the

roundabouts and some junctions in Minna

are above the recommended limits. It

therefore confirmed the findings of Ndoke

et al (2000) and Nwachukwu et al(2012)

that vehicular emission contributes to the

concentration CO in the atmosphere with

its impact on the environment.

Based on the findings of the research, the

following recommendations are suggested: i. The Vehicle Inspection Office

(VIO) should be strengthened by the State

to enforce Excessive Smoke Violation

(ESV) among the motorists.

ii. The use of intelligent traffic

system should be introduced in Minna in

order to reduce the idling time of vehicles

in major Junctions.

iii. The Motor park at Mobile

roundabout should be relocated to reduce

both human and vehicular traffic around

the Roundabout. iv. The Obasanjo Shopping Complex

is the main economic hub around the

Obasanjo Complex roundabout. The State

should provide multi-level parking lots

based on Private Public Partnership (PPP)

within the trekking distance of five (5)

minutes, or 25 to 30 metres away from the

Shopping Complex in order to reduce the

rate of vehicular movement around the

axis.

v. Residential buildings around the major Roundabouts should be relocated

because of the carbon exposure, while

residential development should be

discouraged.

vi. There should be enforcement of

setbacks for other buildings and informal

economic activities at the major

Roundabouts.

vii. The use of non-motorised

transport system which is pollution free

should be encouraged to replace the

vehicles driven by fossil fuel.

viii. There is need for integrated

approach to tackle air pollution relating to

vehicular movement and climate change, thereby making use of the most cost-

effective measures. A good example is

vehicle maintenance, use of catalytic

converter as pollution control device, and

planting of trees or plants around the traffic

hotspots to trap carbon.

ix. There should be awareness

creation on the impact of carbon emission

on major traffic hotspots in Minna. This

will include production and distribution of

information and communication materials on air pollution control in public places.

x. There should be enforcement of

relevant of regulations on motor vehicle

emission and pollution control as it relates

to carbon emission.

xi. There is the need to address the

transport demand issues through the use of

intra mass transit system and discourage

private vehicular use in the Town. This will

reduce carbon emission and improve

energy efficiency.

xii. Ring roads and Bye-passes should be constructed to avoid thoroughfare for

vehicles that do not have business in the

city of Minna.

References Abam, F and Magbabeola T (2009):

Vehicular Emission and Air

Quality Standard in Nigeria;

European Journal of Scientific Research, Vol.34 No.4

Agbola, T., Egunjobi, L., Olatubara, C.O.,

Ola Yusug D.O and Alabi M

(2003). Research Methods: A

Practical Guide. Murlab

Educational Services Marina,

Lagos. Pp 255-264.

Badejo, B. A. (2011). Transportation:

Removing the Clogs to Nigeria’s


182

Development. Anchorage Press and

Publishers, Lagos. Pp 67-89

Balogun, S., A (2015). Introduction to

Road Traffic Crash Investigation. A

paper delivered during SRC-CRC

Course at FRSC Academy Udi, Enugu.

Balogun, S., A (2011). Road Safety

Practice in Nigeria; BOAAS

Resource Publishers Nig. Ltd, Abuja,

2nd Edition.

Bascom, R., Bromberg, P., Costa, D.,

Delvin, R., Dockery, D., Frampton,

M., Lambert, W., Samet, J., Speizer,

F. and Utel, M. (1996), “Health

effects of outdoor air pollution: Parts

I and II”, American Journal of

Respiratory Critical Care Medicine, Vol. 153, pp. 477-498

Chandioa, I. A., Brohi, K. M., & Memon,

M. A. (2010). Managing road traffic

noise pollution, through sustainable

planning approach. International

Journal of Chemical and

Environmental Engineering, 1(2).

Chen, J., Li, C., Ristovski, Z., Milic, A.,

Gu, Y., Islam, M. S., & Guo, H.

(2016). A review of biomass burning:

Emissions and impacts on air quality, health and climate in China. Science

of the Total Environment.

Environmental Protection and Disaster

Risk Reduction (2012). A school

guide, UN/SDR Africa Educational

Series, 4, 3.

Faiz, A. (1993). Automotive Emissions in

Developing Countries- Relative

Implication for Global Warming,

Acidification and Urban Air Quality.

Transport Research A, 27, 167-186.

Frank, M (2009): Control of Motor emission-the US Experience. Critical

Review on Environmental Control.

Available at

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1064338919

9.388423

Good, P., Gosling, S. N., Bernie, D.,

Caesar, J., Warrens, R., Arnell, N.

W., & Lowe, J. A. (2010). An

updated review of developments in

climate science research since the

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.

Han, X. and Naeher, L. P. (2006), “A

review of traffic-related air pollution

exposure assessment studies in the

developing world”, ENVIRONMENTAL

INTERNATIONAL, Vol. 32, pp. 106 –

120. Harrop D.O (2002). Air Quality

Assessment and Management . An

online publication.

Hassan, S. M., & Abdullahi, M. E. (2012).

Evaluation of Pollutants in Ambient

Air: A Case Study of Abuja-

Nigeria. Int. J. Sci. and

Research, 2(12), 1-9.

Kolawole, P. (2012). Global Warming and

Food Engineering Emissions.

Mac Kinnon, M., Shaffer, B., Carreras-

Sospedra, M., Dabdub, D., Samuelsen, G. S., & Brouwer, J.

(2016). Air quality impacts of fuel

cell electric hydrogen vehicles with

high levels of renewable power

generation. International Journal of

Hydrogen Energy, 41(38), 16592-

16603.

Mastrandrea, M. D., Heller, N. E., Root, T.

L., & Schneider, S. H. (2010).

Bridging the gap: linking climate-

impacts research with adaptation planning and management. Climatic

Change, 100(1), 87-101.

Maxlock (1980). Minna Master Plan

MEPPRC (2014). The Interaction Between

China’s Economic Growth, Energy

Production and Consumption and the

related Air Emission During 2000-

2011. Ecological Indicator,Vol 46

Ndoke P.N. and Jimoh O.D. (2000). Impact

of Traffic Emission on Air Quality in

a Developing City of Nigeria.

Leonardo Electronic Journal of Practices and Technologies. 6 (9): 88-

92.

NESREA (2014). Air Pollution Control: A

Strategy in Environmental Protection.

Module 6. A NESREA Publications

Nigeria Highway Code (2016). Federal

Road Safety Commission, 4th Edition,

Detail Work Publishers Ltd, 110-120.

Nwachukwu, A. N., Chukwuocha, E. O., &

Igbudu, O. (2012). A survey on the

effects of air pollution on diseases of


183

the people of Rivers State,

Nigeria. African Journal of

Environmental Science and

Technology, 6(10), 371-379.

Okunola, O. J., Uzairu, A., Gimba, C. E., &

Ndukwe, G. I. (2012). Assessment of gaseous pollutants along high traffic

roads in kano, Nigeria. International

Journal of Environment and

Sustainability, 1(1).

Olagunju, K (2011): Road Sense, 1st

Edition, Veragap Publishers Nigeria

Limited.

Qu, L., Li, M., Chen, D., Lu, K., Jin, T., &

Xu, X. (2015). Multivariate analysis

between driving condition and vehicle

emission for light duty gasoline

vehicles during rush hours. Atmospheric

Environment, 110, 103-110.

Robert, B (2004). The Vehicle Emission

and Performance Monitoring System:

Analysis of Tailpipe Emission and

Vehicle’s Performance. Centre for

Transport Studies, Department of

Civil and Environmental Engineering,

Imperial College London, London

SWT2AZ

Rodrigue, J. P., Comtois, C., & Slack, B. (2016). The geography of transport

systems. Taylor & Francis.

Salami, K., A (2007): Emission Control

Technology by Automotive Industry:

Trend and Challenges; Inaugural

Lecture Series 10, Federal University

of Technology, Minna, Nigeria.

Shancita, I., Masjuki, H. H., Kalam, M. A.,

Fattah, I. R., Rashed, M. M., &

Rashedul, H. K. (2014). A review on

idling reduction strategies to improve

fuel economy and reduce exhaust

emissions of transport

vehicles. Energy conversion and

management, 88, 794-807.

Stephens, R. D., & Cadle, S. H. (1991).

Remote sensing measurements of

carbon monoxide emissions from on-road vehicles. Journal of the Air &

Waste Management

Association, 41(1), 39-46.

Udotong, J. I. R. (2015). Air quality

Assessment at Traffic Control Points

in Uyo Metropolis. Nigeria–

International Journal of Engineering

and Technical Research (IJETR), 3,

325-331.

United States Environmental Protection

Agency (2014). Global Greenhouse

Gas Emissions. Data. Available at https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/gl

obal-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data

United States Environmental Protection

Agency (2015). US Greeenhouse Gas

Inventory Report; 1990-2014.

Published April, 2015

UN Habitat’s State of the World Cities

(2008/2009) Harmonious Cities:

Earthscan Publishers. London.

Sterling.

Vlieger, J (2010). Impact of Eco-driving on Passenger Use and Greenhouse Gas

Emission. Technical Document,

California Environmental Protection

Agency, Air Resource Board.

Wu, J., Xie L., Li Q and Chen, D (2011).

Association Control for vehicular Wi-

Fi Access: Pursuing Efficiency and

Fairness. IEEE Transaction on

parallel and Distribution System. Vol

22, No 6, 2011


184

Effects of Desertification on Rural Resources

in Machina Local Government Area, Yobe

State

Duchi, Fidelis Christopher and Habila, Sunday Kazahshii Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Environmental Design,

Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria-Nigeria. [email protected],

Abstract This study examines the effects of desertification on the rural resources (livestock, crops and

vegetation) of Machina Local Government Area of Yobe state. Data were collected from the

Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NiMet)Makia Yobe state, on rainfall, temperature and

relative humidity and outcomes of desertification effects from the Ministry of agriculture

and Natural Yobe state. Data on the vegetal cover for a period of three (3) years was

retrieved from the U.S Geological Survey (2012-2014) to show the vegetal degradation in

the study are. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics in understanding the causes

and effects of desertification on the rural resources of the study area. The research revealed

that there is a drastic drop in rainfall distribution from 750.6mm in year 2000 to 365.5mm in

year 2009, increasing temperatures of 34.2oC to 36.0oC in (2000 and 2009) and decreasing

average relative humidity of 40% to 37.7%. The foresaid climatic variability necessitates the depleting outcomes on local resources of Machina LGA in livestock production with a

shortfall of 5,620 cattle, 9,380 goats and 2,072 sheep between years 2007 to 2010 were

recorded. Decreasing natural vegetation was observed and on the verge of extinction within

the period of year 2006-2014. Recommendations were made to control and reverse the

process of desertification in other to increase productivity, maintain the functional base of

the environment, reduce crop failure, death of livestock, loss of settlement and decrease in

poverty level of the populace.

Keywords: Degradation, Desertification, Environment, Environmental effects, Resources.

Introduction Desertification is a significant global

ecological and environmental problem that

results to permanent decrease in biological

productivity of dryland areas (Geist, 2006).

It is a type of land degradation in which a

relatively dry area of land becomes

increasingly arid typically losing its bodies

of water as well as vegetation and wildlife

(Geist, 2017). World Ecology Report

(2009), revealed that drylands comprise 41% of the earth’s land area and are home

to roughly 2 billion people, or 34% of the

earth’s population. currently, over 250

million people in more than 100 countries

are directly affected by desertification and

more are at risk and the situation is most

severe in Africa, where 66% of the total

land area is arid or semi-arid.

Desertification is closely related to

drought. Drought is also associated with desert condition. It is an aspect of the

widespread deterioration of eco-systems

and has diminished the biological potential

of the land, such as plant and animal

production, for multiple use purposes at a

time when increased productivity is needed

to support growing populations in quest of

development (UNEP, 2003).

United Nations Convention to Combat

Desertification (2016), defined desertification as “land degradation in arid,

semi-arid, and dry sub-humid regions

resulting from various factors, including

climatic variations and human activities”.

On this basis, Adams and Mortimore

(1997) also defined desertification as a


Duchi & Habila Effects of Desertification on Rural Resources in Machina Local Government Area, Yobe State

185

process that causes land degradation due to

some prevailing climatic conditions and

human activities such that it resulted into

the inability of the environment to sustain

the demands being made upon it by socio-

economic systems at existing levels of technology and economic development.

Desertification has played a significant role

in human history, contributing to the

collapse of several large empires, such as

Carthage, Greece and the Roman Empire,

as well as causing displacement of local

Populations (Geist, 2006; Geist, 2013).

Desertification is a major serious challenge

and threat facing sustainable development

in northern Nigeria and other African

countries. Dry lands occur on all continents

except Antarctica (United Nations, 2006). The problem has an adverse effect on

human health, food security, economic

activity, physical infrastructure, natural

resources, and the environment, both

national and global security is also affected

by desertification (United Nations

Economic and Social Council (UNECSC),

2007). As depicted in the report of United

Nations Conference on Desertification

(UNEP, 2003) which states that

“desertification is the diminution or destruction of the biological potential of

the land, and can lead ultimately to desert-

like conditions. It is an aspect of the

widespread deterioration of eco-systems

and has diminished the biological potential

of the land, i.e. plant and animal

production, for multiple use purposes at a

time when increased productivity is needed

to support growing populations in quest of

development”.

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification revealed the following

figures in relation to livelihoods on

degraded dry lands, that more than 1.5

billion people in the world depend on

degrading land, and 74% of them are poor.

Poor people spend between 50% and 80%

of their income on food. Meanwhile,

Agricultural yields could fall by up to 50%

in some African countries if production

practices are not changed, while 52% of the

land under agriculture is moderately or severely degraded and 12 million hectares

of productive land become barren every

year due to desertification and drought

alone, which is a lost opportunity to

produce 20 million tons of grain (UNCCD,

2014).

Mayell (2001), revealed in his study of the

Global desertification map, that the Lake

Chad located in the North-eastern part of

Nigeria has been shrunk by 94% between

1960’s and 2001, and this is the same

climatic region with Machina Local

Government Area, Yobe State. Medugu

(2009), observed that a good number of

policies and programmes have been

implemented by Nigerian government to

combat desertification, yet the problem is

rather aggravating due to numerous issues including but not limited to handling the

problem as a sectoral issue instead of an

integrated approach that will bridge the gap

between the formation of policy and

strategies of combating drought and

desertification. In the light of the foresaid,

the study intends to examine the effects of

desertification on the rural resources of

Machina Local Government Area of Yobe

State with the view to suggesting ways in

improving / ameliorating the adverse outcomes of the phenomena. This will be

achieved through these objectives:

i. Reviewing the causes of

desertification and environmental

management approaches in controlling

desertification.

ii. Examining the effects of

desertification on rural resources in the

study area and recommending ways of

controlling desertification in Machina

Local Government area.

Study Area

Machina Local Government Area is

geographically situated in the north-west of

Yobe state (Figure 1). Its headquarter is in

the town of Machina at 13°08´ 11´´ N and

10°02´ 57´´ E. It has an area of 1,213km2,

with a total Population of 61,606 persons

according to the NPC census, 2006. It is

307km away from Damaturu and it is

bordered to the north by Niger Republic, to

the south and west by Jigawa state and to


186

the east by Nguru Local Government area of Yobe state (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Map of Yobe state showing Machina Local Government Area Source: Wikipedia Encyclopedia, and modified by Author, 2017.

Causes of Desertification Desertification is caused by concomitant of

natural (climatic) and Human factors

discussed below:

Natural (Climatic) Factors The natural factor is basically on the Shift in the Inter Tropical Discontinuity (ITD). A

supposedly climate trend may in fact be

part of a climatic cycle (Ayoade, 2004). It

is noted that when the Inter Tropical

Discontinuity shifts, for Instance, toward

the equator, the incursion of rain bringing

south-west trade wind is restricted to the

coastal areas, this means a southern shift of

climatic belt, resulting in lack of rain in

areas north of the ITD (Ayoade, 2004).

Increase in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Content; Carbon dioxide prevents the

escape of earth reaching sun heat from

escaping back into the atmosphere. The

increase in CO2 far above the natural

volume means that its heat preservation

will be higher; creating what is called

greenhouse effect, thus this result in

increase in temperature and global

warming (retrieved from

https://history.aip.org/climate/co2.htm).

Increase in albedo; Albedo is the rate of

emission of ground reaching heat from the

sun. Bare land surface emits more heat than

soft and vegetation covered surface.

Increase in albedo means the warming of

the lower layer of the atmosphere. Increase

in Atmospheric dust; A part of CO2, other

gases and dust are said to be on the

increase. This is said to create warm

inversion layers and to suppress convection

rising of humid surface air (Ayoade, 2004).

During the course of the 20th century, the

average temperature has risen between

0.3°C and 0.6°C. This is probably due to

the effects of industrialization that has

increased greenhouse gas emissions. The

general rise in temperature has increased

the rate of evapotranspiration leading to a

drop in soil humidity and an increase in the

condition of top soil, particularly in the dry

lands, is a consequence of temperature

variation, rainfall and soil humidity that exacerbate the process of desertification.

Onyeanusi and Otegbeye (2012), showed

that Nigeria is not excluded from the

impacts of climatic variability and global

warming with prominent localized effects

in the highly industrialized cities and


187

Northern Nigeria which has resulted into

the observed environmental degradations.

Increased temperature of the average 1.1°C

and decreased rainfall of average 81mm.

Human Factor Overgrazing removes the vegetation cover

that protects soil from erosion (UNCCD,

2011) and degrades natural vegetation that

leads to desertification and decrease in the

quality of rangelands. Livestock population

in Nigeria has been estimated to consist of

16 million cattle, about 13.5 million sheep,

some 26 million goats, approximately 2.2

and 150 million pigs and poultry respectively (Gadzama, 1995). The dry

lands of Nigeria are said to support much

of the country’s livestock economy,

hosting about 90 % of the cattle population.

In the Sudan and Sahel zones, which carry

most of the livestock population, nomadic

herdsmen graze their livestock throughout

the area and are constantly in search of

suitable pastures. Additional pressure is

also put on pasture resources by livestock

from neighboring countries, notably

Cameroon, Chad and Niger respectively (www.greenfacts.org). Nneji (2013) also,

attributed rapid economic growth and

urbanization as causal factors of

desertification. The problem is more severe

and complicated in developing world.

Clearing of lands to accommodate the

increasing population and accommodate

the necessary infrastructure in northern is

commonly done without adequate

environmental consideration; this has led to

the removal of vegetation cover in the area and as such, making the area desertified.

There is a negative impact of the energy

sector on forest and other vegetation cover

and land productivity globally. This is why

Biomass constitutes 30% of the energy

used in Africa and over 80% used in many

sub-Saharan countries such as Burundi

(91%), Rwanda and Central Africa

Republic (90%), Mozambique (89%),

Burkina Faso (87%), Benin (86%), with

Madagascar and Niger (85%) (Africa

Regional Review, 2005). Urbanization in Kano City for instance has been estimated

to be increasing rapidly at the rate of

between 5 to 10% per annum (Federal

Ministry of Environment of Nigeria, 1994).

At least, 20,000 ha of land are cleared

annually for construction. Cultivation of

marginal lands: In periods of higher than

normal rainfall, people tend to extend farming activities into the marginal areas.

When the years of plenty are followed by

dry years, exposed land with very little

vegetal cover is at the mercy of the winds.

The fine clays and silts are carried away as

dust, and the sand drifts into dunes. The

effect of this could be irreversible except

through carefully planned rehabilitation

programme.

Effects of Desertification According to the United Nations Economic

Commission for Africa report (2008), the

impacts of drought and desertification are

among the costliest events and processes in

Africa. The widespread poverty, the fact

that a large share of Africa’s economies

depends on climate-sensitive sectors

mainly rain fed agriculture, poor

infrastructure, heavy disease burdens, high

dependence on and unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, and

conflicts render the continent especially

vulnerable to impacts of drought and

desertification. The effects of

desertification are far-reaching and diverse.

All aspects of human lives are either

directly or indirectly impacted wherever

the phenomenon exists. It ranges from food

insecurity, water scarcity, and

socioeconomic hardship to political unrest.

Food insecurity: Crop failure and death of

animals means shortage of food supply for

people which eventually results to famine.

Water Scarcity: Shortage of water makes

life become unbearable and people are

forced to leave their settlement. The

scarcity of water leads to dryness of surface

water and absence of natural recharge for

ground water. This intensifies aridity

condition and contributes to human

sufferings.

http://www.greenfacts.org/


188

Control of Desertification

Nwokocha (2015) identified the following

Environmental management practices

evolved over time to combat

desertification. Various ancient and modem

environmental management practices have been developed under a great diversity of

socio-economic and ecological conditions.

These practices can be categorized as:

1. Water management

2. Plant management

3. Soil management

Water Management: This can be achieved

through, water conservation, improved

irrigation methods, dependable water

supplies, salinity control, run off

management and flood control. Each has various technological methods that could

improve productivity, halt desertification,

reverse the process and reclaim extremely

degraded areas.

Plant Management: This can be achieved

through plant conservation, plant

establishment and plant production

(Agricultural, Rangeland and forestry). The

most promising and effective technologies

to halt desertification or to reclaim deteriorated areas are. Re-vegetation,

Rotational grazing, deferred grazing,

rotational pasture, crop rotation, fuel wood

control, wind breaks shelterbelts and

fencing.

Soil Management: The main aim of soil

management is to halt desertification. Soil

conservation, Soil moisture conservation,

salinity control, drainage and measures of

improving soil fertility are applied to solve

problems of soil degradation. Various technologies are applied in each of the

above.

Materials And Methodology The data required for the study includes

rainfall, temperature, relative humidity for

the period of ten (10) years (2000-2009)

and were obtained from the Nigerian

Meteorological Agency (NiMet) Yobe

state. The data helped to show climatic

variability that explains the desertification

conditions of the study area. Available data

on livestock and agricultural production

were collected from the Ministry of Agriculture which revealed the impact of

desertification on local resources such as

farm produce for a period of four years

(2007-2010) and data on the vegetal cover

over for a period of three (3) years was

retrieved from the U.S Geological Survey

(2012-2014) to show the vegetal

degradation in Machina Local Government

Area, Yobe State. The information derived

from the data aforementioned were useful

in drawing inferences on the subject matter.


Rainfall Figure 2.0 shows that Rainfall in Machina

LGA has been decreasing since 2000 to

2006 and then there was a rise in 2007

which was recorded to be 483.1mm. Between 2007- 2009 rainfall has been

inconsistent with a fall in 2008 (320.3mm)

and a slight rise in 2009 (366.5mm). The

amount of annual rainfall over the years

reveals the location of study area as Sahel

region of Nigeria. The fluctuation in

amount of rainfall between years 2007,

2008 and 2009 clearly indicates uncertainty

of rainfall distribution in the area. The

uncertainty of rainfall distribution, in

addition to the fact that rainy season in the

Sahelian region of Nigeria only last for three to four months (Geography of Nigeria

retrieved from www.wikipedia.org on the

5th December, 2017) will in turn has

adverse consequences on farming

activities, livestock production and general

livelihood of the people. By extension,

Rainfall is highly irregular which makes

farming activities difficult since small

differences in the amount and timing of

rain received at the area may determine the

success or failure of critical stages in vegetal growth and development.

http://www.wikipedia.org/


189

Figure 2: Average rainfall in Machina Local Government Area Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency, Yobe State (2012).

Temperature By the records of the NiMet (2012) Makia

Yobe, the mean temperature is about 37°C,

the highest is about 42°C normally

experienced in April and the minimum is

about 30°C normally experienced in December. Fig. 3 shows that the highest

temperature was recorded in 2009 with a

mean minimum and maximum temperature

of 21.7°C and 36.0°C respectively. Over

the years temperature has been on the

increase with a slight fall in 2002 and 2003

which was 33.7oC and 32.8oC, this

indicates increase in the heating condition

which is an indicator of the advancement of

desert like condition. It can be inferred that

there has been intense heating of the ground surface and also the temperature

exceeding the limit to which plants can

survive.

Relative Humidity

Records from NiMet (2012), shows that

relative humidity is high during the rainy

season and low during the dry season.

Figure 4, revealed that over the years high

relative humidity is associated with the

morning hours because of the high

moisture content and relatively low during

the afternoon hours, because air moisture

content has reduced this is in consonance

with the relative humidity of the Sahelian region as seen in Literature. In 2004 there

was a sudden rise in relative humidity of

42.4. % and then a sudden decline in 2009

with 37.7% relative humidity. This

fluctuation depicts the climatic variability

posed by climate change factor and the

decline in moisture content of air means

low moisture content that could encourage

more rains in the region. It can be inferred

that low relative humidity in Machina

explains the decrease in the amount of rainfall due to light burdened (dry air)

predominant in the region. This in turn has

adverse effect on the general livelihood of

Machina and environs

.


190

Figure 3 Showing mean annual temperature in oC Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency (2012)

Figure 4: mean relative humidity (%).

Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency (2012)

Effects of Desertification on

Principal Rural Resources in

Machina Local Government Area LIVESTOCK: Livestock farming is one of

the major activities that take place in most

of the rural settlements in Machina LGA.

The major livestock that are being reared

include goats, cattle, and sheep and a few

rear camels which are mostly used for

transportation. Other livestock that are

being reared on a smaller scale include

poultry, ducks etc which are mainly meant

for domestic consumption. There has been

a decrease in the number of livestock over

the years (Table 5), due to insufficient feed

as a result of low and unpredictable rainfall


191

distribution, high temperature and Low

relative humidity which encourages

desertification. Machina known as an

agricultural Local Government area with

this revelation means an economic down

turn and loss of livelihood to many residents, because so many households

raises livestock for the sake of sustenance

of their families, with the foresaid so many

families are said to be experiencing

economic hardship. To a large extent it

affects the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

of the area and even the state at large.

NATURAL VEGETATION: The

vegetation of the study area is located

within the Sahel (dry) Savannah belt which

means that trees and shrubs are sparsely distributed (Plate 1). Figures 5, 6 and 7

reveals an appalling information on the

depleting trend and loss of vegetal cover

from years 2006-2008, 2009-2011, and

2012-2014 respectively. This is in

agreement with the increasing temperatures

as discussed in figure 3. that is harsh for

plant survival, decreasing amount of rainfall and its uncertainty alongside short

period of fall explains this depleting

circumstance of the vegetal cover. In

addition, the rural dwellers in Machina

LGA depend on the scares and depleting

vegetation resource for their source of fuel

wood (Plate 2) and feeding of livestock

which has resulted in the decrease of the

scanty vegetation cover that cannot be

replenished with the very little amount of

rainfall. Over the years’ tree felling for

either domestic or commercial purposes, clearing of land for farming purposes has

become very intense.

Table 5: Showing mean number of livestock produced

Livestock 2007 2008 2009 2010

Cattle 45,400 43,380 40,400 39,780

Goat 23,587 17,117 16620 14,207

Sheep 20,722 19.724 19,151 18,650

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Yobe state (2016)

Figure 5: Vegetal cover of Machina LGA (2006-2008) Source: United States Geological Survey (2016)


192

Figure 6: Vegetal cover of Machina LGA (2009- 2011) Source: United States Geological Survey (2016)

Source: United States Geological Survey (2016) Figure 7: Vegetal cover of Machina LGA (2012- 2014)


193

Plate. 1: Scattered trees plantings

Plate 2: Wood gathered by a hut

.

CROPS FARMING: Table 6. Shows that

Crop farming is the predominant

occupation of the rural dweller, either as

source of income or source of food. The major crops that are being produced

include beans, millet, guinea corn, maize. It

revealed a declining crop yield per hectare

for Beans the crop yield per hectare in

2007 was 1.25 but declined to 1.12 in 2010,

maize 0.95 in 2007 to 0.75, and Millet 4.25

in 2007 to 3.91 in 2010. This again is bad

revelation to the threat of livelihood of the

Machina community because hunger/ food crises and economic hardship is already

being experienced in the area. In addition,

with the rapid rate of unemployment in

Nigeria, many heads of household may

depend on the sale of their produce so as to

be able to meet up with some domestic

needs of the household. As desertification

increases, crop production reduces making

it difficult for some of the rural dwellers to

have food for themselves and also get

income from sale of produce.

Conclusion The study has established that the causes of

desertification in the study area includes

Inadequate and uncertain rainfall

distribution / amount, increasing mean

annual minimum and Maximum

Temperatures by the years and decreasing

relative humidity. This in turn reverts,

negative influence on the output of average crop yield per hectare, depleting vegetation

cover, and decreasing livestock production

in Machina Local Government area.

Table 6: showing average crop yield per hectare

Crops 2007 2008 2009 2010

Beans 1.25 1.21 1.17 1.12

Maize 0.95 0.86 0.83 0.75

Millet 4.25 4.10 4.05 3.91

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Yobe state (2016)

Recommendation Based on the findings of this the following

are recommendations on ameliorating the effects of desertification on the principal

rural resources (vegetation, crop production

and livestock) of Machina Local

Government Area.

Vegetation

1. The use of pampers should be

encouraged for planting of seedlings

because of its high-water retention

capacity due to presence of high

temperatures that encourages evapo-

transpiration.

2. The establishment of shelterbelts is

good, but that alone cannot guarantee

the success of natural vegetation cover restoration without the involvement of

the communities located close to the

project sites. Therefore, it is strongly

recommended that efforts be geared

towards enlightening the local

communities on the need for

conservation. Government and Non-


194

Governmental Organizations should as

well encourage the foresaid.

3. Drought resistant grasses, shrubs and

trees (such as gum Arabic seedlings)

with high forage values should be used

in rangelands and farmlands. 4. Discourage the indiscriminate felling

of trees, by introducing the use of

efficient wood burning stove which

cooks faster and consumes little

quantity of wood. and encourage the

use of kerosene stoves to those that

can afford.

Crop production

1. Promoting sustainable agricultural

practices using drought-resistant crops

such as drought tolerant, early

maturing and high yielding crop varieties should be provided by the

Ministry of Agriculture.

2. The use of Farm Yard manure and

compost should be encouraged so as to

add nutrient to the soil which aids in

the early maturity of crops.

3. All water for irrigation purposes

should be examined to establish the

PH level that is conducive and devoid

of low level of salt that may be have

negative effects on crop production as well as ensuring a good drainage

system.

Livestock

1. Strengthening of livestock extension

services to deliver qualitative

Veterinary services should be provided

by the ministry of agriculture.

2. Rain water harvest and storage should

be provided in all grazing/ rangelands

so that rain water can be collected and

used for animals feeding.

Reference Adams W. M., & Mortimore, M. J., (1997).

"Agricultural Intensification and

Flexibility in the Nigerian Sahel”. The

Geographical Journal of

Environmental Transformations in

Developing Countries: 150-60.

Africa Regional Review (2005). Report on

Energy for Sustainable Development. Ayoade, J.O. (2004). Introduction to

Climatology for The Tropics.

Spectrum Books Limited (2nd ed.)

Ibadan.

Federal Ministry of Environment (FMEnv)

(1994). A report on National Action

Programme to Combat Desertification

in Nigeria. Gadzama, N.M. (1995) Sustainable

Development in the Arid zone of

Nigeria. Monograph Series No. 1

32pp, Centre for Arid Zone Studies,

University of Maiduguri, Nigeria

Geist, H. (2006). Dry land Ecohydrology.

Springer Science and Business Media.

Retrieved from

tps//books.google.com.ng

Geist, H. (2017). The causes and

Progression of Desertification.

Ashgate studies in environmental policy and practices. Taylor and

Francis publishers Limited, United

Kingdom.

Geography of Nigeria (2017) retrieved

from www.wikipedia.org on the 5th

December, 2017.

Manuel, A.G. (1977): Technology and

Desertification. United Nations

Conference on desertification.

Nairobi, 29 August- 9 September

1977 (Nairobi: UNEP). Mayell, H. (2001) Shrinking African Lake

offers Lesson on Finite Resources.

Retrieved from

National Geographic News on the 21st

June, 2011.

Medugu, I.N. (2007) A Comprehensive

Approach to Addressing Drought and

Desertification in Nigeria

Ministry of Agriculture and Natural

Resources, Yobe state (2016).

Unpublished records from the

Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources.

Musa, M. A. (2016): Assessment of the

Effects of Desertification on Rural

Resources in Machina Local

Government Area, Yobe State. An

unpublished Bachelor of Urban and

Regional Planning Dissertation,

Department of urban and regional

planning, Ahmadu Bello University

Zaria, Nigeria.

http://www.wikipedia.org/


195

Nneji, L.M. (2013). A Review of the

Effects of Desertification on Food

Security. Representative Opine.

5(10): 27-33

Nigerian Meteorological Agency, MAKIA,

Yobe state (2012). Nwokocha, C. (2015). Effects of

desertification on Environmental

Management in Northern Nigeria.

Arabian Journal of Business

Management Vol. 3. No.6 retrieved

from www.arabianjbmr.com

Onyeanusi, A.E and Otegbeye, G.O (2012).

The impact of Deforestation on Soil

Erosion and on the Socio-economic

Life of Nigerians. Sustainable

Environmental Management in

Nigeria, Book Builders publisher, Nigeria. pp. 315-331.

U.S Geological Survey

(2016).https://www.usgs.gov/science-

explorer results. Machina +

vegetation

UNEP, (2003). Desertification. United

Nations Environmental Programme,

Nairobi, Kenya.


Desertification (2016) retrieved from

www.unccd.int on the 21st June

2016).


Desertification (UNCCD) (2014): a

carrying pillar in the global combat

against land degradation and food insecurity. Background paper for the

San Rossore meeting ‘Climate

change: a new global vision’ Pisa,

Italy.

United Nations Economic and Social

Council (2007). Africa Review

Report on drought and desertification,

Fifth Meeting of the Africa

Committee on Sustainable

Development (ACSD-5), Regional

Implementation Meeting (RIM) for

CSD-16, Addis Ababa, 22-25. United Nations, (2006). International Year

of Deserts and Desertification,

retrieved February

2006, http://www.iydd.org/

World Ecology Report (2009):

Desertification: Its Effects on People

and Land. spring 2009 vol.XX1

No.1Special Focus.

http://www.arabianjbmr.com/

https://www.usgs.gov/science-explorer%20%20results.%20Machina%20+%20veget



http://www.unccd.int/

http://www.iydd.org/


196

Perspective of Neighbourhood Preference: A

Study of Ilorin City, Nigeria

Abdulraheem Maimuna O.1, Olorunfemi Jacob F.2, Ajibade Lanre T.2

& Agava Yusuf H.3 1Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Ilorin, Nigeria.

2Department of Geography and Environmental Management, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. 3Department of Estate Management, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

[email protected]

Abstract Previous studies have long-established a strong relationship between the neighbourhood and

the kind of environment to which an individual has been exposed and life chances available

to him. Attributes of neighbourhoods and the experiences provided have been found to affect

people’s capabilities in terms of their ideas, achievements in life, as well as their socio-economic development. This has made studies on neighbourhood preferences attractive.

This paper is an attempt to identify the category of and preference for neighbourhoods by

residents in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State, Nigeria. Data used were collected through a

systematic random sampling of 334 households with the aid of structured questionnaire.

Descriptive analysis was used to analyse and present data. Findings of the study revealed

that 38% of the households had preference for the high income residential neighbourhoods

irrespective of ethnic background or level of income. That neighbourhood preference is not

dependent on socio-economic status or background of individuals but on perception of the

attribute of a neighbourhood. However, the study confirmed that the actual ability to reside

in the preferred residential zone is highly determined by socio-economic factors such as the

level of income. The study recommends re-creating the kind of layouts that exist in the high

income residential zones in all other neighbourhoods within the city by stakeholders. However in the course of recreation, government should endeavour to embark on urban

renewal projects in the core traditional area housing most of the low income

neighbourhoods, though citizens participation must be garnered to ensure that government

projects are supported by the ultimate end users.

Keywords: Environment, Neighbourhood, Preference, Residential zones, Urban.

Introduction The importance of neighbourhood to city dwellers cannot be overemphasized. Where

people live affects their health, economic,

social and mental well-being.

Abdulraheem, Olorunfemi and

Muhammad-Lawal (2014) noted that the

choice of a place of residence is an

important marker of a person’s social

status. There is an increasing concern about

the quality of life in modern towns and

cities around the world hence, the

increasing interest among built environment professionals and

policymakers on how to measure those

factors that influence neighbourhood

choice by residents. Abdulraheem et al.

(2014) further asserted that individuals

with a varied cultural background may live

in a neighbourhood and yet share similar views regarding environmental features.

Some urban researchers such as James,

Lisa, and Stafanie (2002) have argued that

residents’ preferences and evaluation of

their neighbourhood vary as a result of the

diversity in their senses of judgment as

well as their individual lifestyles.

Universally, improving the residential

environment has become one of the

fundamental goals of urban planners and

policy makers, hence a motive for this research.


Abdulraheem, Olorunfemi, Ajibade & Agava Perspective of Neighbourhood Preference: A Study of Ilorin City, Nigeria

197

Whereas residential mobility and

neighbourhood preferences impact on

urban growth and change, neighbourhoods

do not share the same level of

infrastructure and environmental quality as

well as the residents who reside in them (Julius & Ojeifo, 2007). Rapid urbanization

coupled with the expansion of towns and

cities in Nigeria has brought about

continuing competition among people for

the most desired locations. However,

everyone cannot live where they would

prefer to live due to several limiting

factors. Nevertheless, availability of

information on preference for

neighbourhood and residential types has a

lot of implication for planning and urban

management. This study aims at examining neighbourhood characteristics and

preference among the residents of Ilorin

metropolis, Kwara state, Nigeria.

The objective of the Study is to identify

and evaluate the available and preferred

residential types and neighbourhood by

households in Ilorin.

The Study Area The location of Ilorin, Kwara State capital

is on the intercept of Latitudes 80 30’ and

80 50’ North of the Equator and Longitudes

40 20’ and 40 35’ East of the Greenwich

Meridian. The city serves as the link

between the Northern and Southern parts of

Nigeria. Oyebanji (1994) described Ilorin

as the socio-cultural, religious and political

meeting point of Nigeria. Bounded by

Niger State to the North and Ifelodun L.G.A to the West, Ilorin shares a

boundary with Oyo State on the Southern

end (Fig.1). Situated 500km from Abuja

the city has an approximate land mass of

about 100sq km and is populated by

diverse people with different cultural

backgrounds (Kwara State Gazette, 1991)

e.g. Yorubas, Nupawas, Baribas, Hausas,

Gwaris, Kemberis and Fulanis. However,

the population of the Igbos and people

from the Eastern part of Nigeria has

increased drastically in recent times. Indeed, tribal heterogeneity and cultural

diversity are well pronounced in the state,

to an extent that Ilorin can aptly be referred

to as a microcosm of Nigeria (Unilorin

Bulletin, 2012). The cultural plurality of

Ilorin makes it easy for many Nigerians to

find a niche within this dynamic city

without much stress.


198

Literature Review

Defining Neighbourhood Neighbourhood is a term often used to

describe the sectors of urban or rural places such as cities, towns and villages. Berk

(2005) defined a neighbourhood simply as

the vicinity in which people live. The

motives for communal living are usually

for economic, sociological and

psychological reasons. Jørgensen,

Knudsen, Arp and Skov (2016) revealed

that social differences seem to be

connected to different types of attachment

to neighbouhood, that the individuals in the

highest and lowest socioeconomic

positions display the strongest connection to neighbourhoods, and the strongest

preference for neighbour relations and local

community. Indeed Neighbourhoods

usually have some specific social or

physical characteristics distinguishing them

from the rest of the settlement, while they

vary in population and density. According

to Duany et al. (as cited in Bender, 2015),

the size of a neighbourhood is limited, so

that majority of the population is within

walking distance of its centre where needs of daily life are easily satisfied.

Tunde (2013) reiterated that

neighbourhoods offer facilities for transit

stops, work places, police posts, retail

community events and leisure activities in

addition to providing places for primary

and post primary education. The streets

provide alternate routes to most

destinations for both vehicles and

pedestrians (Duany et al., 2003). Furthermore, the development of

neighbourhood is often incremental in form

or pattern and therefore one finds a mixture

of large and small houses, shops,

restaurants, offices, informal activities and

so on. Civic buildings such as schools,

multipurpose halls, museums, mosques,

and churches are often placed at the open

playground while parks are also provided

for the residents’ use. James et al. (2002)

affirmed that life chances of individuals

and families can be influenced greatly by the condition of the neighbourhoods. The

attributes of, and experiences provided by a

neighbourhood, have profound effects on a

person’s capability and his idea about what

can be accomplished (Yusuff, 2016).

Indeed, it has been stated that

neighbourhoods where poor people

concentrate isolate their residents from the

resources and networks they require to


199

attain their full potentials. This, by

extension deprives the larger community of

the human capital resource of such

neighbourhoods. A good neighbourhood

should create a better environment for

safety, health, aesthetics, comfort and general welfare of the inhabitants.

Impact of Neighbourhood

Environment on Residents The quality of life of residents of any given

neighbourhood depends on socio-

economic, environmental and cultural factors, as well as physical conditions and

spatial characteristics of such

neighbourhood. Mohammad, Michal, Tiina

and Marketta (2015) revealed that

inhabitants of neighbourhoods with a larger

percentage of green surroundings had a

greater perception of neighbourhood

stability than did the residents of

neighbourhoods with a smaller percentage

of green surroundings. However, Okusipe

(as cited in Yusuff, 2016) reported that the urban physical environment of cities in

Nigeria has been shaped continually by

land use planning, zoning and development

control without adequate concern for

sustainability and environmental quality.

City layout and aesthetics, land use

patterns, population and building densities,

transportation and ease of access of

residents to basic goods, services and

infrastructures affect the liveability of

settlements. Results of a research

conducted by Adamu (2012) revealed that environmental quality and condition of

many Nigerian urban areas is below

desirable standard and by implication,

greater number of households in those

areas lack good quality houses, clean and

safe neighbourhoods that provide amenities

which ameliorate the stress of urban living.

Nevertheless, it has been confirmed that

provision of good housing has profound

influence on the health, efficiency and

wellbeing of any community (Onokerhoraye, 1984). Parks and green

spaces are aspect of the environment that

makes it attractive likewise the presence of

peaceful, crime-free and clean

surroundings. Studies have revealed that

the conditions of any given neighbourhood

go a long way in shaping individual

outcomes (Tunde, 2013). The fact is that

people want to live in decent

neighbourhoods and to have their children

grow up in a safe environment because growing up in an unhealthy neighbourhood

could reduce the life chances of those

children (Clark et al., as cited in Daramola,

2016). Consequently, attention to the

environmental quality of neighbourhoods

and the impact it might have on the

wellbeing and health of residents is

increasing.

Factors that Influence

Neighbourhood Desirability The decision of a household on whether to

move or not, the choice of a suitable

destination within affordability and the

ability to actually relocate are the primary

issues that often govern residential location

or relocation. Mohammad et al. (2015) in

their study verified a close association between the characteristics of built

environment (i.e., density, destination

accessibility, and green area) and the

preferences residents had for their

neighbourhood. Residing in a good

residential neighbourhood has several

advantages, but it is uncommon to have a

neighbourhood that has all the good

characteristics, and this explains why

different people choose different kinds of

neighbourhoods to live in (Adamu, 2012).

It has been argued that the choice of a particular neighbourhood is majorly the

result of the desire to live in a specific type

of dwelling, taking into account its tenure,

size and price (Lina Bergstrom, Maarten

Van Ham & David Manley, 2010). Mixed

ethnic neighbourhoods are seen crucial for

achieving social cohesion (Phillips 2006;

Brown as cited in Susanne & Brit 2015).

Social cohesion refers to the bonds or the

‘glue’ that hold people together in society,

particularly in the context of cultural diversity. In line with spatial assimilation

theory, there seems to be a widespread

belief that people interact with those living

nearby (Park 1926; Peach as cited in

Susanne & Brit 2015). Nowadays most


200

people are concerned with the safety of

their home and family when choosing of

where to live, because of the high crime

rate in many cities. A good neighbourhood

to such homes must have lower incidences

of thefts, burglaries etc. Neighbourhoods that are characterized by improved

accessibility, proximity to means of public

transportation, shopping, places of worship,

recreational areas and schools are often in

demand. According to Galster (as cited in

Fajimi, 2011) the closer a resident is to an

unwholesome neighbourhood; the more

likely it is that he will be affected by it. The

study further established that there are push

and pull factors that determine the reason

why residents live in a certain

neighbourhood. The choice of neighbourhood can also be a function of,

but not limited to, availability of

employment, business opportunities, access

to education, cultural or recreational

opportunities and microeconomic factors

such as disposable income, and access to

finance. People also prefer associating with

natural and aesthetically appealing

environment. Lina et al. (2010) in their

work observed that the choice of a

particular neighbourhood is equally influenced by the desire to live in a specific

type of dwelling. Neighbourhood

characteristics such as reputation, status,

population composition and location are

also important factors that residents take

into consideration in making

neighbourhood choices.

Materials and Method Data was gathered from both the primary

and secondary sources. The study adopts a

survey investigation approach. Oshungade

(2013) recommended that surveys should

be based on random sampling and not on

judgment or purposive sampling. While

noting that random sampling is based on

sampling theory, detailed planning and

execution of sample survey, he also

confirmed that parameters obtained from

random sampling with adequate sample

size are close representation of the target population.

Four field assistants and one facilitator

were employed to assist the researcher in

the administration, collection and collation

of questionnaire forms. This was however

done sequel to the proper training of the

assistants who were recruited on the strength of their educational qualification

and knowledge of the locality. Two of the

field assistants hold the Higher National

Diploma degree while two had Ordinary

National Diploma degree. However, the

facilitator had a Master’s degree (all in the

social sciences). The training of the field

assistants took two days.

A reconnaissance survey of the selected

neighbourhoods was conducted in order to

gather firsthand information on the peculiar characteristics of the neighborhoods,

familiarize the field assistants and

researcher with the study area and make

visual observations that would assist during

the main field work. Using the facts

gathered during the reconnaissance survey,

the entire study area was sub-divided into

four zones. Criteria used were proximity of

one neighborhood to the other, income

level of the inhabitants in each zone,

internal homogeneity of the areas, the residential types and neighborhood

characteristics. The zones carved out as

study area by the researcher were labeled

as:

A. Zone H - High Income Earners

Residential Area Fate, Agba Dam,

Mandate Estate, Adewole Estate, Central

Bank of Nigeria (C.B.N.) Quarters,

Government Reserved Area (GRA)

B. Zone M- Medium Income

Earners Residential Area Niger Street, Taiwo, Harmony Estate, Gaa-Akanbi,

Agbo-Oba, Offa Garage, Unity, Post

Office, Irewolede Estate, Oloje Estate

C. Zone L - Low Income Earners

Residential Area Abayawo, Zango,

Baboko, Agbaji, Adangba, Pakata, Eruda,

Isalekoto, Ita Merin, Ita Amo, Ode - Alfa

Nda, Popo – Giwa, Alagbado, Kuntu, Idi –

Ape, Kulende Estate


201

D. Zone C - Combined (Mixed)

Income Residential Area Asa-Dam, Oko-

Erin, Sabo-Oke, Osere, Tanke, Basin

Minimum Sample Size In gathering relevant information for the

purpose of this research work, Census data

and figures would have been the most

useful but it was not available in the

detailed chronological presentation that

would be valuable for this study. An

alternative means of gathering reliable and

relevant data was thus employed in the

form of structured questionnaire. To

validated the questionnaire and determine the minimum sample size for the study, it

became very necessary to carry out a pilot

survey.

The pilot survey conducted to test the

research instrument and determine the

minimum sample size for the study

involved a total of 80 copies of the

questionnaire forms and a survey which

lasted for 5 consecutive days. Based on the

result of the pilot survey, a minimum

sample size was determined using the formula proposed by Snedecor and

Cochran (1967 adopted by Jimoh 1988).

The pilot survey provided an opportunity to

test the research instrument, familiarize

more with the study area. It made the

researcher to become aware of the likely

future challenges in the course of the major

survey. In addition, it helped to highlight

some ambiguous questions which the

researcher had to recast while it enabled the

researcher know more about the disposition

of residents in each neighbourhood zone.

Most importantly, the researcher was able

to determine a basis for calculating an

appropriate sample size for the entire study area.

Many well-known formulas, using either

the z-distribution (Snedecor & Cochran

1989) or the t-distribution (Sokal & Rohlf

1995) are available for calculating sample

size at different levels of statistical power

when testing differences in means with two

independent samples. The simplest formula

to use is based on the z-distribution

(Gerow, 2009). In order to determine the

minimum sample size for the purpose of investigation, the formula proposed by

Snedecor and Cochran (1967), Jimoh,

1988) was applied to the five days reading

from pilot survey.

The Snedecor and Cochran formula

(1967) adopted by Jimoh (1988):

L = 2 σ √n (n= size of preliminary survey)

n = (4σ2/L2 at 95% level of probability).

n = (6.6σ2/L 2 at 99% level of probability).

Where;

n = minimum sample size. σ= standard deviation.

L = limit of accuracy of estimated

mean.

The reading from the pilot survey is

summarized below:

Zone Limit of Accuracy of Estimated Mean Minimum Sample Size Estimated No of Questionnaire

H L = 2 X0.748/ 16 = 0.374 n = 6.6 x 0.562 / 0.3742 15

M L = 2 X 0.92 / 16 = 0.46 n = 6.6 x 0.922 / 0.462 26

L L = 2 X 0.4 / 14 = 0.213 n = 6.6 x 0.42 / 0.2132 24

C L = 2 X 2.06 / 17 = 0.999 n = 6.6 x 2.062 / 0.9992 28

TOTAL = 93 Questionnaire forms /per day

The Snedecor and Cochran’s formula was

applied to determine the minimum sample

size and in order to calculate the

appropriate number of days that would be

ideal for the major survey based on the

minimum sample size, we arrived at

approximately 18 days.

H L = 2 X 0.748/V5 = 0.669 n = 6.6 x 0.75/ 0.669 8.30


202

M L = 2 X 0.92 /V5 = 2.24 n = 6.6 x 0.92 /2.24 1.11

L L = 2 X 0.4 /V 5 = 0.667 n = 6.6 x 0.4/ 0.667 8.30

C L = 2 X 2.06 /V 5 = 3.685 n = 6.6 x 2.06 / 3.69 0.32

TOTAL 18.03 Days

Based on this number of days, the mathematical formula of direct proportion

was employed to finally arrive at a total

number of 334 copies of the questionnaire

which was prepared, representing the

appropriate minimum sample size for this

research. 303 copies of the questionnaire

forms were successfully administered

through the systematic random sampling

survey method while 31 copies were

returned uncompleted out of a total of 334.

An oral interview was also conducted at

random where there was need to confirm some statements or answers supplied on the

questionnaire forms.

Analysis of data on socioeconomic and

demographic characteristics of the

respondents was done through the use of

descriptive statistics such as graphs,

frequency analysis and tables and charts.

Among data gathered in order to achieve

the desired research objectives included

data on socio-economic profile of household heads, family size, types of

residence and categories of

neighbourhoods available to households.

Neighborhood Types in Ilorin The neighbourhoods within the study area

were categorized based on observations

made by the researcher during the

reconnaissance survey. The population density of each zone could also have been

used as criteria for categorization, but the

researcher chose the level of income

because it was observed that most

inhabitants reside in neighbourhoods where their income could sustain annual rent paid

on apartments or rooms in such areas. For

ease of understanding, the major

characteristics of each of the zones are as

detailed below;

(a) Zone H – Residential Zones: The very highly educated civil servants,

politicians and business men who are high income earners and wealthy enough to

afford most of the basic comforts and

luxuries of life reside in this zone. These

residential areas are clean and quite with

adequate green covers and are generally

owner – occupier. Lush trees, shrubs and

beautiful flowers are abundant in this area

in comparison with other zones in the city.

Houses here are built on large and spacious

compounds with tall fence cordoning them.

The areas are well planned with adequate

infrastructure, site and services and absence of open gutters and refuse dumps.

Architectural designs of buildings are very

modern and can be compared to those

present in other developed nations. The

road network and refuse disposal methods

are modern and good. This area includes

the exclusive Government Reserved Area

(G.R.A.), which initially housed the

colonial masters but later converted to

residence for the high class government

workers and the wealthy families (See Plates 1.1 to 1.2).


203

Figure 3.1: Subdivision of Residential Zones in Ilorin According to Income Level.

Plate 1.1: Wall Fence around Private

Residence H

Plate 1.2: Good Road Network in Zone H


204

(b) Zone M – Residential Zones: Zone M is residence for the medium

income earners, who could be classified as

the educated middle class, civil servants,

business men or traders. There is a

concentration of the regular 2/3 bedroom

bungalows while tenement storey buildings

are also common. The environment is

generally well maintained, though not as

clean as Zone H (Plates 1.3 and 1.4) but

with wider roads than those in Zone L. The

houses usually have in-built taps and water cistern toilets facilities. Infrastructure exist

for pipe-borne water supply, but often

times, water does not run from these taps

and residents can be seen moving around

with carry jerry-cans and buckets to fetch

water from nearby boreholes or hand-dug

wells.

Plate 1.3: Open Refuse Dump Site in Zone M

Plate 1.4: Blocked Drainage in Zone M.

c) Zone L – Residential Zones This area houses majority of the low

income earners. Main features of this zone

are high density buildings closely spaced,

basically built with mud or plastered mud.

Buildings exist mostly of the old traditional

architecture. Hand dug well is the

commonest source of water except for a

few bore holes sunk by the government.

The layout is not planned but follows the

old traditional pattern with narrow roads

and foot paths. Pit latrine is the most common form of toilet facility available,

while open gutters and large heaps of

refuse are common. One prominent

characteristic of this zone is the complete

absence of walled fence around individual

houses unlike in the high income

residential zone. (Plate 1.5and 1.6)

Plate 1.5: Road Network in Zone L

Plate 1.6: Houses in some parts of Zone L.

d) Zone C - Residential Zones This zone combines features of two or

three zones earlier mentioned. Therefore it

was labelled “Combined” Residential

Zone. This particular neighbourhoods have

a relative mixture of all types of income

groups (Low, medium and High). There

isn’t any clear-cut demarcation between the

different residential areas, housing the

different income groups (Plates 1.7 and

1.8)


205

Plate 1.7: Residential Type in Zone C.

Plate 1.8: Road Network in Zone C

Field Survey During the main field survey, each field

assistant was assigned to a particular zone.

Administration of questionnaire took place

between 5pm - 6pm daily, because based

on knowledge of the study area and

previous pilot survey result; the researcher

knew that was the most probable time for

most household heads to have returned

home from their various places of work or

other outside engagements. Once the 1

hour time period was accomplished, the interview stopped to continue the following

day. The experience gathered through the

pilot survey assisted in the successful

conduct of the main field survey. The

systematic random sampling method was

used. (Burton, 1970) recommended a one

in fifteen household for an urban centre of

comparable size as Ilorin, and his was used

along the main streets of the entire study

area. The first house was picked at random

along the designated street. Thereafter

every fifteen household was sampled in a

systematic manner. Out of a total of 334

households that were selected for this study, 303 households provided useful

data. Simple percentage distribution was

adopted in the analysis relating to

investigations of neighbourhood

preferences in Ilorin. The data gathered for

the 18-day survey period for all the zones

was then collated for further analysis.


Gender of household Heads Eighty-two percent of household heads are

male while eighteen percent are female as

in cases of widows, divorcees and

separated couples (Table 4.1). This finding

also affirms the popular believe that in

Africa, a man is always the head of the

household since the male folks also form

the largest percentage of the household heads in Ilorin.

Table 4.1: Gender of Household Heads.

Gender Frequency %

Male 247 81.5

Female 56 18.5

Total 303 100.0

Level of Education Research result indicates that more than

half, precisely 51.2% of the respondents

possess either a Bachelor of Arts degree

(B.A.), Bachelor of Science degree (B.Sc.)

or Higher National Diploma (HND), in

addition to about 29% who possess either a

National Certificate of Education (NCE),

or Ordinary National Diploma (OND) certificates. Out of the remaining 10%,

about 6% possess only Quranic education

while 4% are holders of a Master of

Science, Arts or Doctor of Philosophy

Degree. (Figure 4.3


206

level of education

Ph.DM.SC./M.A.B.A./B.SC.

/HND

NCE/ONDsecondaryprimaryquranic

education

No

. of

ho

use

ho

ld h

ead

200

150

100

50

0

F

igure 4. 1: Level of Education of Household Heads.

Net Monthly Income of Household

Heads The average monthly income of households

in Ilorin falls between N60,000 and N

30,000. About one out of every two household (50.5%) earn N 30,000 and

below monthly in addition to a smaller

percentage (11%) that earn between

N61,000 and N90,000 monthly (Table 4.2).

Nevertheless, the average monthly

expenditure varies between N31, 000 and

N 60,000 for majority (44%) of households

in Ilorin.

Rent Per Annum Survey results revealed that the average

annual rent paid by households range

between N30, 000 and N 60, 000 per

annum (Table 4.3). Though 30% of the

residents indicate they pay no rent at all,

because they live in their family houses or own house. Fifteen percentage (15%) of

respondents pay rent of between N61,000

to N100,000 per year. Only very few

families (3%) live in apartments where the

annual rent paid is between N101, 000 to

N150, 000 or above N200,000 per annum.

Table 4: 2 Net Monthly Incomes of Household Heads.

Rent Frequency Per cent Valid Percent Cumulative %

Less than 30,000 153 50.5 50.7 50.7

31,000-60,000 101 33.3 33.4 84.1

61,000-90,000 33 10.9 10.9 95.0

91,000-120,000 11 3.6 3.6 98.7

above 120,000 5 2.0 1.3 100.0

Total 303 100 100.0


207

Table 4.3: Household Rent per Annum

Annual Rent (N)

Frequency Percentage

30,000 - 60,000 157 51.8

61,000 - 100,000 45 14.9

101, 000 -150,000 7 2.3

151,000 - 200,000 1 .3

Total 210 69.3

Live in own or family house (pay no rent)

93 30.7

Total 303 100.0

Residential Types Preferred by

Households in Ilorin The objective of this section was to

examine households in Ilorin and identify

their most preferred residential type. The researcher tried to elicit response from the

respondents through a survey question

which goes thus: “If you had to choose,

what type of residential accommodation

would you prefer to live in most”?

The options available to choose from were:

(a) One bedroom or 2 bedrooms (self-

contained).

(b) 3 or 4 bedroom flat.

(c) Duplex. (d) Semi-detached house or 3/4 bedroom

storey building.

(e) Mansionnette

f) Others

The results of the study showed that most

people (62%) preferred the 3 or 4 bedroom

bungalow/flat as residential

accommodation they would want to live in

(Table 4.4). About 23% showed strong

preference for the Duplex residential type. Results also showed that all the

respondents that chose the Duplex

accommodation type were the Igbo ethnic

group in Ilorin. The researcher was able to

deduce this fact by isolating and finding the

total number of all positive responses to a

particular type of accommodation. In a

nutshell, could it be affirmed that ethnic

background has a strong influence on taste

and preference for particular types of

dwelling? This could be an area for future research.

Only about 5% of respondents preferred to

live in the semi-detached / 3 or 4 bedroom

storey buildings while 5% showed strong

preference for one/two bedroom self-

contained dwelling units. The mansionnette

residential type has the lowest popularity;

only 2% of the entire population sampled

indicated preference for this residential

type.

The residential type preferred by residents

of Ilorin city is the three/four bedroom flat.

It would be expected that neighbourhood

preference by the inhabitants will follow

this medium trend, but this study revealed

that it does not.

.

Table 4.4: The Most Preferred Residential Type

Type of Residential Accommodation Frequency Percent

One or two bedroom self-contained 16 5.3 Three/four bedroom flat 188 62.0 Duplex 69 22.8 Semi-detached or Storey building 24 7.9

Massionnete 6 1.9 Others --- --- Total 303 100.0


208

The results showed that out of 303

households, 116 of them (38%) had

preference for the high income residential

neighbourhoods (Table 4.4). The level of

preference for the medium income zones

and combined zone were almost the same. About 23% of the respondents had

preference for medium income

neighbourhoods while 22% had preference

for the combined residential

neighbourhoods. Seventeen percent (17%)

of respondents had strong preference for

the low income residential neighbourhood

(Table 4.4). In a rather strange

development it was observed that 98% of

residents of the low income neighbourhood

had no intention of moving to any other

neighbourhood other than the neighbourhood where they presently live.

When probed further (oral interview) on if

they were forced to change residence, they

maintained that their preference would still

be for other areas within the

neighbourhoods accommodating the low

income earners (Zone L). The reasons

adduced for such a resolution by

respondents, included responses such as

“we understand our people”, “we are happy” or “we are comfortable”. This

response is in contrast to that of the 68% of

the residents living in either the medium or

combined residential zones, who indicated

future ambition to relocate to other

residential zones other than where they

presently live. Could this be a confirmation

of the saying that the poor are usually

happier and more contented than the rich

members of the society? Or could it be the

effect of the communal living pattern

widespread in the low income neighbourhoods enhanced by absence of

walled fenced cordoning individual

residence? This could be left for future

research.

Table 4.5: Most Preferred Neighbourhood in Ilorin Metropolis

Neighbourhood Zones Frequency Percent

Zone C (combined ) 68 22.4 Zone H (high income) 116 38.3 Zone L (low income) 50 16.5 Zone M (medium income)

69 22.8

Total 303 100.0

Figure 4.2: Preferred Neighbourhood by Households in Ilorin.

Conclusion and Recommendation Findings of this study revealed that irrespective of ethnic background or level


209

of income, the high income residential

neighbourhood is the preferred place to live

by majority of residents. In other words,

environments close to nature, clean and

beautiful, home that is spacious surrounded

with adequate green cover in the form of trees, shrubs, lawns, flowers and green

areas. This is how neighbourhoods in zone

H appear. More importantly, the study also

revealed that neighbourhood preference is

not dependent on socio-economic status but

on perception of the environmental

attributes and quality of a neighbourhood.

The following actions are hereby

recommended;

Concerted efforts should be made

government and stakeholders to re-create the kind of layouts existing in the high

income residential zones in all other

neighbourhoods within the city especially

areas that are being newly developed.

In the course of recreating, urban

renewal projects should be embarked upon

by the government targeting the low

income neighbourhoods in the core

traditional areas, but efforts should be

made to preserve the traditional character

of this area, since the natural and cultural heritages are great features that must be

preserved for the sustainability of renewal

projects. In addition, citizen participation in

these projects should be encouraged via

massive campaign and sensitizations of the

populace by government and non -

governmental organization, to ensure that

projects implemented are supported by the

ultimate end users and not abandoned or to

wrong.

Creation of green open spaces and

enforcement of urban planning standards is needed to replicate the high income

residential neighbourhood type in all parts

of the city. This offers a means of peaceful

getaway to residents from the bustle of city

life. It would may reduce the incidences of

violence, insecurity and youth unrest which

has gradually infiltrated daily existence in

the once peaceful traditional area of Ilorin.

References

Abdulraheem M. O., Olorunfemi J. F. &

Muhammad-Lawal A. (2014).

Residential MobilityBehaviour of

Households in Developing Nations: A

Case Study of Ilorin, Kwara State,

Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 16 (8), 88-98.

Adamu, M.K. (2012). Comparative

Analysis of Housing Need and

Housing Demand. The Case of

Metropolitan Minna. Nigeria Journal

of Sustainable Development. 4(2),

107-122.

Andersen, H. S. (2016). Spatial

assimilation? The development in

Immigrants’ Residential Career with

Duration of Stay in Denmark. Journal

of Housing and the Built Environment. 31(2),297-320.

Bender, T. (2015). Residence and the city.

New York, Oxford University Press.

Berk, M. G. (2005). The Concept of

Neighbourhood in Contemporary

Residential Environment: An

Investigation of Occupants’

Perception. Conference paper

“Doing, thinking, feeling home: the

mental geography of residential

environments”, Delft, The Netherlands; 2005.

Brown, K. J. (2013). “A Neo-Rawlsian

Approach to Residential Integration”.

Social Inclusion 1(1), 72–83.

Clark, W. A. V. Duerloo R.C. & Dieleman

F. M. (2004). Residential Mobility

and Neighborhood Careers. In

:Goetgeluk R. and Musterd S.(eds.)

Beyond Residential Mobility: Linking

Residential Choice and Urban

Change.Open House International.

23(3), 35-47. Daramola, T. A. (2016). Assessment of

Environmental Quality Impacts on

Property Value inAkure. Unpublished

Dissertation, Federal University of

Technology, Akure, Nigeria.

Fajimi, F.A. (2011). The Urban Poor and

Home Ownership Quest in Ilorin.

African Research Review. 5(3), 98-

119.

Gbakeji J. O. (2006). The Structure of

Intra-Urban Residential Mobility and


210

Neighbourhood Preferences in the

Warri Metropolis Delta State,

Nigeria. Ph.D. Thesis (Unpublished)

Ekpoma: Ambrose Alli University.

Gerow, K. G. (2009). Power and Sample

Size Estimation Techniques for Fisheries Management:

Assessment and a New

Computational Tool. North American

Journal of Fisheries Management.

27(3), 397–404.

James, E. R, Lisa, R. & Stafanie, D.

(2002). How do Places Matter? The

Geography of Opportunity, Self –

Efficacy and a Look inside the Black

Box of Residential Mobility. Housing

Studies. 17(1), 71-82.

Jimoh, H. I. (1997). Individual Rainfall Events and Sediment Generation on

Different Surfaces in Ilorin, Nigeria.

Ph. D. Thesis University of Ilorin.

Jørgensen, A., Knudsen, L., Arp, M., &

Skov, H. (2016). Zones of Belonging

- Experiences from a Danish Study on

Belonging, Local Community and

Mobility. GEOFORUM PERSPEKTIV.

15(29) 223-234.

doi:10.5278/15.29.1450

Julius, O.G. & Ojeifo, M.O. (2007). Aspect of Residential and Neighbourhood

Preferences in the Warri Metropolis,

Delta State, Nigeria. Research Gate.

[Retrieved on 4th January 2015], from

https://www.researchgate.net/publicat

ion.

Kwara State of Nigeria (1985-1991).

Official Gazette. Government Press.

Lina Bergström, Maarten van Ham &

Manley David (2010).

Neighbourhood Choice

andNeighbourhood Reproduction. [Retrieved on 23rd July 2016] from

http://ftp.iza.org/dp5238.pdf

Mohammad H., Michal C., Tiina L. &

Marketta K. (2015). Neighbourhood

preferences, Active Travel

Behaviour, and Built Environment:

An Exploratory Study. Elsevier

Transportation Research Part F (29)

57–69

Onokerhoraye, A. G. (1984). Urbanisation

and Social Services in Nigeria. Paper

presented at Two-day Policy Seminar

on Migration, Urbanisation and

Living Conditions in Nigerian Cities,

at the University of Benin, Benin City.

April 4 - 7, 1984.

Oshungade, I.O. (2013). The art of everyday sampling – 121st Inaugural

Lecture of University of Ilorin,

Library and Publication Committee,

University of Ilorin Nigeria.

Oyebanji, J. O. (1994). “Kwara State”. In

Udo, R. K and Mamman. A. B (eds.)

Nigeria, Giant in the Tropics. State

Surveys. 0012. Lagos: Gabumo

Publishing Co. Ltd. 283-289.

Peach, C. (2005). “The Ghetto and the

Ethnic Enclave.” In Desegregating the

City, edited by D. P. Varadi, 31–48. Albany: State University of New

York.

Phillips, D. (2006). “Parallel Lives?

Challenging Discourses of British

Muslim Self-

segregation.”Environment and

Planning D: Society and Space. 24

(1), 25–40.

Phillips, D. (2010). “Minority Ethnic

Segregation, Integration and

Citizenship: A EuropeanPerspective.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration

Studies. 36 (2), 209–225.

Rohlf, F. J. & Sokal, R. R. (1995).

Statistical tables. New York,

Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

Schmidt, G. (2017). Going beyond

Methodological Presentism:

Examples from a Copenhagen

Neighbourhood 1885–2010.

Immigrants & Minorities, 35(1), 40-

58.

Susanne S. & Brit L. (2015): Do Immigrants’ Preferences for

Neighbourhood QualitiesContribute

to Segregation? The Case of Oslo,

Journal of Ethnic and Migration

Studies. [Retrieved on 28th of

November 2017] from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 1369183X.

2015.1054795

Tunde, O.D.(2013). Issue of Homelessness

in Metropolitan Lagos. Housing

Studies. 24(4), 14-24.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5278/ojs.perspektiv.v15i29.1450

https://www.researchgate.net/publication

https://www.researchgate.net/publication

http://ftp.iza.org/dp5238.pdf

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/%201369183X.%202015.1054795

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/%201369183X.%202015.1054795


211

Unilorin Bulletin (2012). The Alma Mater:

Ilorin as a Model. Article featured on

Monday, 2nd July, 2012.

Yusuff, A.H. (2016). Residence Choices

among Inner-city Dwellers: The case

of Lagos City.Unpublished M. Sc.

Thesis, Ahmadu Bello University,

Zaria, Nigeria.


212

Residents' Satisfaction with Residential Property Management ...

Documents

Transcript of Residents' Satisfaction with Residential Property Management ...