King Saud

University

Research Articles In Interpretation and Translation

KSU - COLT ’s RAIT

Issue 4 - Fall 2015

2

RAIT is a compilation of research articles in the fields of translation and interpretation. All the articles presented in this magazine are written by a new generation of researchers; students enrolled in "Research Methodology" offered at the College of Languages & Translation, KSU. My deep gratitude to Mrs. Dania and Dr. Hind for their continued support in such endeavors. Happy reading! ~ Dina Al-Sibai, Course Instructor

TO OUR DEAR READERS...

3

4

Translating Humor across Cultures By Jumana Alwuhibi

Business Name

Humor in all its kinds is expressive of the social circumstance in which it happens. It

has been claimed that "it contains the most fundamental element of the joke, viz; the incongruity.

when the translator of jokes fails to transfer this effect or when the reader of the translation does

not comprehend the text as the SL reader, it means that the translator does not succeed in his

job" (Tisgam, n.d, para. 3- 4). For the translator, getting the meaning and having humor in the SL

function in TL is tightly bound to clearly understanding the culture and language-specific terms

(Gáll, n.d). However, there are more important perspectives when translating humor that should

be focused on than the linguistic which are the social and cultural perspectives.

It has been claimed that "When trying to translate cultural humor, opaque elements and

language-specific devices are expected to make the translator's work difficult, while some ele-

ments are ultimately not transferred at all" (p. 1). The point of translating cultural humor is that

the translator is trying to deliver a message from someone to another who are different in terms of

their cultures and languages. This study proves that literal translation of culture-specific jokes to

standard Arabic causes them to lose their point which is humor. Tisgam stressed that instead of

translating the originals, the translator can substitute them with others that are funny in the target

language (n.d.).

Cultural structures must be taken into consideration in specific expressions and writ-

ings including which are hard to be transmitted from one language to another. A primary step for

a translator is distinguishing the difference between the genre of the text and the linguistic world.

He also should take into consideration that there are constant changes in semantic and linguistic

structure of a language. Regardless the quality of the genre, the humor transmitted from source

language to target language should meet the cultural and linguistic structures and rules (Ekti,

2013).

It is not guaranteed that the humor in the source language text will preserve its humor in

the target language text throughout the translation process, especially if the humor is based on

cultural background that is not shared in the target language (Dore, 2012). Radical changes hap-

pen in the process of translation therefore texts lost some of their qualities, and this loss occurs

5

in all translations. These changes lead the humorous function to be preserved and well-

transmitted in the translated texts (Chiaro, 2005).

It is agreed that the priority in translating humor is to retain the humorous function, and

transliteration fails to achieve this goal. Sometimes in order for the translated humor to fulfil its

purpose, the translator may have to change the meaning of a word or more. However, the transla-

tor should keep in mind that a word may have multiple meanings and functions, so he should be

able to distinguish between them. The decision of what strategy to use that help the translated

humor to function in the target language as much as it does in the source language is up to the

translator (Maher, 2011).

The translation of humor is considered to be one of the most difficult and challenging types

in the translation field. It is not restricted only to the understanding of the translator; he might

recognise the humor in a text but have difficulties in reproducing this humor. So, this type of

translation requires the translator not only to be excellent in manipulating linguistic items and

having linguistic skills, but also to have a sense of humor. This enables him to have a humorous

text successfully translated and accepted in the target language (Bruzdziak, 2013).

References

Bruzdziak, E. (2013). Translation strategies and techniques in audiovisual translation of humour:

Analysis of shrek 2 and ice age . Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Chiaro, D. (2005). Verbally expressed humor and translation: An overview of a neglected field.

Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf

Dore, M. (2012). Delia Chiaro (ed.): Translation, humor and literature. Retrieved from http://

eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf

Ekti, M. (2013). Relating to the translatability of humour. Retrieved from http://

eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf

Gáll, L. (n.d.). Translating humor across cultures: Verbal humor in animated films (Doctoral dis-

sertation, Partium Christian University, Oradea, Romania). Retrieved from http://

www.scribd.com/doc/192835302/Laura-Karolina-Gall-Translating-Humor-Across-

Cultures-Verbal-Humor-in-Animated-Films#scribd

Maher, B. (2011). Recreation and style: Translating humorous literature in Italian and English .

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Tisgam, K. H. (n.d.). Translating cultural humour: Theory and practice (Doctoral dissertation,

University of Baghdad, College of Education for Women , Baghdad, Iraq). Retrieved

from http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=19938

6

Translation Underlying the Power of Policy By Areej Al-Jarboua

Business Name

Translations should completely render the importance of words and expressions from the

source language, without losing any of their cultural connotations. In the matter of political

texts in English, challenges spring from profound cultural contrasts in the comprehension of

race, religious or classification issues. The work of politicians is no longer sufficient–so lan-

guage specialists have discovered it their obligation to join in this correspondence exertion

(Ardelean, 2008). Without a doubt, the ideological factors in the translation of political texts are

sensitive issues faced by translators.

According to Kuhiwczak and Littau (2007) "translation, as product, are thus used as

tools for political action, i.e. they are politicalized" (p. 146). Such a utilization of translation for

political action is not limited to political writings in a smaller sense. For instance, Kadric and

Kaindl (1997) represent how, as an aftereffect of textual shifts, the Asterix translations into Cro-

atian strengthened negative sentiments towards the previous wartime adversary, Serbia. The

context of translation and morals are issues that have been talked about lately (Kuhiwczak &

Littau, 2007).

As a source language or a target language, generally, languages of translation express

the dynamics of culture and ideologies. Conflicts in the field of political, e.g., different opin-

ions, emotions, and attitude among others. Text is not sensitive by anyone else, but rather text

reflects sensitivity of individuals because of state of mind, belief system, religion, identity, e.g.,

ethnic gathering, race, gender (Schäffner, 2013).

It is not an easy task for the translator to manage specific terminology because he or

she may have other etymological inclinations, or might not acknowledge the current calque-

forms of expression. A further reason for trouble may be the way that documentation sources

are not accessible to them (Várnai, 2006, p. 48). In relation to political translation, it is essential

that the translator utilize the current source language terminology because this becomes the code

of political correspondence and the apparatus of consistent texts (SÁROSI-MÁRDIROSZ,

2014).

7

Problems of translators when translating political texts is not just related to the

power of policy or the culture of others. In his 2014 article, the author mentioned that this

may be due to the lack of understanding such ideas. Also, other possible reasons could be

a large number of political elements are not lexicalised in some languages, the absence of

learning of translation strategies, the SL items of political society are more indirect, the

poor reading abilities and lack of ability to utilize the lexicon and context to perceive the

meaning of such ideas. For instance, "home office" translated literally as " "المكتب الوطني

or ,"المكتب الرئيس"but the correct translation is "وزارة الداخلية"(p. 248). These indicate the

lack of understanding of such concepts (Qassem).

In conclusion, the ideological factors of translating political texts incorrectly can-

not affect just translators themselves but the society around them. Being aware of the

challenges that translators might face in the matter of translating political texts and how to

deal with them is a must. In addition, understanding political language is difficult some-

times because political language is not an easy language for everyone, not just for transla-

tors.

References

Ardelean, C. (2008). The challenge of political correctness in the translation of "sensitive"

texts. НАУЧНИ ТРУДОВЕ НА РУСЕНСКИЯ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ. Retrieved from

http://scholar.google.com

Kuhiwczak, P., & Littau, K. (2007). A companion to translation studies. Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.sa

Qassem, M. A. (2014). The Arab translation students’ hindrances in translating political

culture from English into Arabic. Arab World English Journal, 5, 240-253. Re-

trieved from http://www.awej.org

SÁROSI-MÁRDIROSZ, K. (2014). Problems related to the translation of political texts

(Master's thesis, University of Transylvania , Târgu Mureş, Romania). Retrieved

from http://www.acta.sapientia.ro/acta-philo/C6-2/philo62-2.pdf

Schäffner, C. (2013, May). Bridging the ideological abyss - translation strategies in politi-

cally sensitive texts. Retrieved from http://www.l3.ulg.ac.be

8

Translating Idioms by the Descriptive Strategy By Ghada M. AL-Hammad

Business Name

Translation has been used to transfer written SL texts to equivalent written TL texts. So

translator should have a great knowledge of the language from which he is translating and an

equally perfect knowledge of the language into which he is translating (Daniel, n.d). A translator

may face challenges when translating a text from one language to another especially when trans-

lating idioms. Hence, a translator should learn about strategies of translating an idiom to be a

professional translator and one of those strategies is descriptive translation.

Translation is not an easy task, and translating idioms makes it rather a more difficult

one. An Idiom can be define as an expression which functions as a single point and whose mean-

ing cannot be worked out from breaking up its parts. Idioms, therefore, create a problematic area

for both foreign learners and translators of English (Khalil, n.d). The foreign learners should have

a good knowledge of idioms in terms of their exact meanings as well as their cultural associations.

As a matter of fact, translators should meet three serious requirements that will make

their work a success. They should be familiar with three things; first is the source language, sec-

ond is the target language, and the third is the subject matter. According to the three requirements

above, the translator discovers the meaning behind the forms in the source language and does his

effort to produce exactly the same meaning in the target language by using the forms and struc-

tures of the target language. Accordingly, Larson (1984) examines "what is supposed to change is

the form and the code and what should remain unchanged is the meaning and the message" (para.

3).

A translator also must understand the meaning of the idiom and then look for the best

equivalent method to express the meaning of the idiom as a whole. Because words of an idiom

cannot be translated in isolation the translator may face not a single, but rather many problems

and challenges which may be when an expression has two meanings, one of which is literal, and

the other is idiomatic. However, descriptive translation uses generic terms to convey the mean-

ing. It is appropriate in a wide variety of contexts where formal equivalence is considered insuffi-

ciently clear. In a text aimed at a specialized reader, it can be helpful to add the original SL term

to avoid ambiguity (Ordudari, n.d.).

9

Because the first difficulty that a translator comes across is to deal with an idiomatic expres-

sion, descriptive translation is considered as the best way to translate the idiom if the transla-

tor doesn't find any equivalents (Eftekhari, 2008). It is also the best method to avoid any

challenges in translation even in general texts. Descriptive also could be paraphrasing.

However, the meaning of a considerable number of idiomatic as well as set expressions can

be rendered through explication only, i.e., in a descriptive way. Depending on the complexi-

ty of meaning contained in the source-language idiom, it can be expressed in the target lan-

guage in some ways.

A language is a living matter which evolves under the influence of different factors.

Being very flexible, English and Arabic languages constantly enrich their vocabulary with

the words made by the language speakers, making it more colorful with many expressions.

More often than not, idioms are culture-specific, an issue which needs more care and aware-

ness on the part of the translator (Sun, 2012). In order to maintain such a standard, the trans-

lator should work so hard, not only to avoid literalisms, but also to attempt to provide his

readers, whenever this is possible, with idiomatic translations in which not only the intended

meaning is presented, but also the cultural specificity essence.

References

Daniel, J. (n.d.). Translation theory. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com/

article414.htm

Eftekhari, N. (2008). A brief overview on idiomatic translation. Retrieved from http://

www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article1739.php

Khalil, G. (n.d.). Overcoming difficulties in translating idioms from English into Arabic.

IASJ. Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=37106

Ordudari, M. (n.d.). Translation procedures, strategies and methods. Translation Journal. Re-

trieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/41culture.htm

Sun, S. (2012). Strategies of translation. Retrieved from http://www.sanjun.org/

TranslationStrategies.html

10

Difficulties of Translating Multiple Word Meaning By Lujain A. Mohammed Ali

Business Name

There are lots of problems that face the translator. One of the problems is translat-

ing polysemy words. It means that one word has multiple meaning. There is no particular

basing linguistic context which gives the right choice of choosing the right word in the sen-

tence. Also, it cannot remove their ambiguity and specify their meanings. Then, the transla-

tor has to eliminate the ambiguity in the context. In order to resolve the ambiguity, the trans-

lator must take the context into consideration. Besides, the translator also has to realize that

his translation is reasonable and that it makes sense.

When translating a language to another language, it will have a word that has mul-

tiple meanings. For example the word "bass" (p. 287) has many meanings such as a type of a

fish, a low pitched voice or an instrument.  Also, the word "project" (p. 287) has many mean-

ings.  If the translator uses the wrong meaning word in his translation, it will be misunder-

stood by the readers. In 2010, Brady stressed that, "In the advertisements the Parker Pen

Company distributed in Latin America, the word bola was to be used to describe a ballpoint

pen" (p. 287). The word bola means "ball" (p. 287) in some Latin America countries which

has different meanings in one country.

In two languages there may be fifty words which are translated equivalent; never-

theless, sematic analysis has shown that even if words are equivalent they are significantly

different in meanings. For example, English has the word “fate”, Russian “sud.ab”, Polish

“los”, German “schicksal” and in Italy “destino”. They are all translated the same, but they

are differ in their meaning.

Between English words and Biblical Hebrew, the emotion words such as “fear”,

“shame”, “shyness”, “anger”, “sadness”, “joy”, “guilt”, “contempt”, “disgust”, “surprise”

and “interest” when compared to thirty Biblical Hebrew words with English they might have

similarities in meanings. In spite of the fact that these eleven listed words proposed by Izard

and Bachler (1980) as representing human’s emotions:

11

I found none of them has an equivalent in Biblical Hebrew (with one exception: joy is ba-

sically the same thing as sason, probably related to the specifically monotheistic and anti-

pagan worldview associated with joy etc. (p. 207).

Polysemous has another meaning which is one word has many meanings, but these

meanings revolve around one central word. For example, Bill put [sic] on his coat ارتدي"

,Wasfi, 2015)على هذا المنزل طبقة جديدة من الدهان "" the house has a fresh coat of paintبيل معطفه"

p. 59). From these two examples, there are different meanings between the first sentence

and the second sentence in the word “coat”. The first one means ,"معطف"the second one

means "طبقة"so both of them have different meanings, but they have a central purpose

which is to cover something.

To conclude, the problems of polysemous seem to occur in many languages, but this

phenomenon has different characteristics from one language to another. In other words,

linguistic form in English language carries different meanings which are not the same in

another language. Hence, the translator should be aware and patient of these problems be-

cause they cannot be translated only from the context (Wasfi, 2015, p. 60).

References

Brady, D. (2010). Essentials of international marketing. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa

Hervey, S., Higgins, I., & Haywood, L. (1995). Thinking Spanish translation. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa

Wasfi, N. (2015). Introduction to translation. Riyadh.

Tanaka, H. (1989). Technical prospect of machine translation. In M. Nagao, (Ed.), Ma-

chine translation summit (p. 240). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

Problems in lexical semantics. (1997). In K. Simms (Ed.), Translating sensitive texts: Lin-

guistic aspects (p. 207). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

12

Translating Idioms Strategies By Arwa Ibrahim Alshridi

Business Name

"Idioms are the essence of any language and the most problematic part to deal with. They

are part of daily language." (Adelnia, 2011). An idiom definition in the dictionary is an expres-

sion which meaning is not compositional. In a definition given by Larson, an idiom is “a string

of words whose meaning is different from the meaning conveyed by the individual

words” (Larson, 1984, p. 20). Translating idioms might be confusing and misleading. The

translator must learn translating idioms strategies to avoid mistakes. These strategies are not ap-

plied for all idioms; the translator should choose the right technique that suits each idiom. In-

deed, idioms have various translating techniques.

Translating idioms is a very difficult task especially if the translator is not aware of the

source language culture or not aware that this expression is idiomatic. The fundamental issue

that idioms pose in translation is the capability to realize that this expression is an idiom and

translate it accurately to the target language (Baker, 1992). After recognizing the idiomatic ex-

pressions from the non-idiomatic, the translator should follow certain techniques to translate

them.

First of all, using an existing equivalent idiom in the target language with the same

sense and form if there is. For example, "a bird in the hand is worth ten in the bush" has an

equivalent in Arabic: .عصفور باليد وال عشرة على الشجرةNot all idioms in the source language have

equivalence in the target language, so there must be another way to translate them. Find an idi-

om with the same sense, but different form. For instance, we can translate "kick the bucket" to

.they have the same meaning, but different lexical items and both are figurativeوافته المنية;

Many novice translators commit mistakes by omitting idioms if they don't have corre-

spondence in the target language. The wise way is to paraphrase the idiom, which could risk

losing the cultural significance and the impact of the idiom (Baker, 1992). For example, "to go

to town" means .يبذل جهدهAlso, رجع بخفي حنينmeans "He returned empty-handed". Omitting the

idiom is not preferable. It should be the last option, and it should be used only if there are no

matches linguistically or culturally between the two languages (Adelnia, 2011).

13

A common mistake by many novice translators is to translate the idioms literally. "A

word-for-word translation of idioms is often nonsense or even sometimes amus-

ing" (Mollanazar, 2004, p. 52). This is not applied for all idioms; some idioms give the same

meaning when we translate them literally. For instance, "stitch in time saves nine" in Arabic

means .غرزة في وقتها توفر سبعًا من أمثالهاOther idioms might give totally different meaning; e.g.,

"break the ice" .اكسر الثلجOther idioms will make no sense when we translate them literally;

e.g., "all ears" in Arabic is .كل اآلذان

To conclude, the translator should choose the best strategy to translate the idiom

correctly. The translator additionally needs to be sensitive to the use of idioms in the target

language and uses them naturally to make the translation lively and to imitate the style of the

source language. There will frequently be words in the source language which are not idioms

but it is preferable to translate them with idioms (Larson, 1984). Translating idioms is the

most complex task for the translator; however, after some practice the translator will master

translating them.

References

Adelnia, A. (2011). Translation of idioms: A hard task for the translator. doi:10.4304/

tpls.1.7.879-883

Baker, M. (1992).In other words: A coursebook on translation. London: Routledge.

Balfaqeeh, N. (2009). Strategies for translating idioms and culturally-bound expressions with-

in the human development, Genre, 80. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/

Idiom | define idiom at dictionary.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://dictionary.reference.com

Larson, M.L. (1984). Meaning based translation: A guide to cross language equivalence.

London and New York: University Press of America.

Mollanazar, H. (2004). Principles and Methodology of Translation. Tehran: SAMT

14

Translation Across Cultures By Hissah A. AlBarrak

Business Name

Translation, in general, is not an easy task. Languages keep changing over time.

Furthermore, Cultures are different from one country to another. It is a set of beliefs, ideas and

attitude. People living in the same country have some similarities in their culture, but upon

closer examination, one can also see the differences. Expressions like “working class culture”,

“high culture” and “low culture” refer to such differences. According to Burgess, 2007,

"Translation is not a matter of words only: it is a matter of making intelligible a whole cul-

ture." (p. 1).

In 2009, House emphasized that translation is not only a linguistic act; it's also a

cultural one, an act of communication across cultures. He stressed that, “Translation always

involves both language and culture simply because the two can not be separated.” (p. 11).

Language is culturally embedded: it both expresses and shapes cultural reality, and the mean-

ing of linguistic items can only be understood when considered together with the cultural con-

text in which the linguistic items are used.

According to Davaninezhad, 2009, “Translators should pay great attention to dif-

ferences in kind and degree of conventionalization in the source and target cultures when trans-

ferring a text from one culture to another.” (p. 60). One of the main characteristics of transla-

tion is its 'double-bind situation', where the translator has to link the source text in its cultural

context to the target communicative-cultural condition.

On the other hand, translation studies focus mainly on drawing the attention of

translators on why or what cultural elements are important when mediating between languages

or cultures. Furthermore, translators could not remain unresponsive to such developments, and

they must be able to face these challenges both in theories and practice. With this study, the

cultural approach to translation has witnessed an ever-growing interest. The translation pro-

cess is “What happens linguistically and cognitively as the translator works on the transla-

tion.” (Hatim and Munday, 2004, p. 13).

15

Translation has been approached differently across disciplines by various translations.

All translations imply a process or series of steps and decisions to be taken. Translators are

seen as cultural mediators who facilitate “Communication, understanding and action be-

tween persons or groups who differ with respect to language and culture” (Taft, 1981, p. 25).

For example; the need for cooperation in such areas as industry, transportations, communica-

tions and entertainment is crucial.

To conclude, translation is a process of replacing a text in one language of a text in

another language. A text is never just a sum of its parts, and when words and sentences are

used in communication, they combine to make meaning in different ways. The more similar

the systems and cultures of the two languages, the more efficient the translation is in cross-

cultural communication.

References

Davaninezhad, F. (2009). Cross-cultural communication and translation. Retrieved from

schoolar.google.com

Gracia, O., & Otheguy, R. (Eds.). (1989). English across cultures, cultures across English:

A reader in cross-cultural. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Hatim, B. (2006). Communication across cultures: Translation theory and contrastive text

linguistics. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

House, J. (2009). Translation. Retrieved from https://schoolar.google.com

Parlog, H., & Frentiu, L. (2013). Translating across cultures: Annual international

conference. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

16

Translating Collocations: Challenges and Difficulties By Manal Ibrahim Al Anazi

Business Name

What is collocation? In a book titled Narrative Progression in the Short Story: A Corpus

Stylistic Approach it was reported that "it is the lexical company a word tends to keep" (p.

18). It was added that words collocate when they occur together in a sentence with no separa-

tion between them. They have an inferred, implicit meaning and they are naturally phrased

(Toolan, 2009). Translating the collocations to another language is considered a problematic

area since it can’t be literally translated.

In 1998, Queralt emphasized that collocations are separate and they give a special sound

to the whole paragraph that they exist in. Even though some collocations exist in more than

one language, they still cause a challenge when it comes to translating them. He added that

"collocations are usually researched by means of concordances in corpora" (p. 93). He also

points out that collocations are the spotlight of many linguists in their researches and studies.

According to the importance of collocations in language and their existing in almost

every text, linguists tried to find a reference for collocations uses and their explanation too. As

a result, linguists came up with some dictionaries, e.g., monolingual dictionaries in which only

English collocations were stated and what they mean. After two decades, some bilingual dic-

tionaries exist, where English collocations are stated and their equivalents in Arabic

(Bahumaidi, 2006). However, these dictionaries do not contain all the collocations in lan-

guage.

In 2014, Alshaje’a discussed that “translators have to give the suitable attention to collo-

cations since they have their significance in both SL and TL” (para. 9). He stressed that the

significance of the collocations lies in three aspects. The first is the double and indeterminat-

meaning that collocations convey. The second is that collocations are field- dependent, and

every field constitutes of a variety of phrases that have definite meanings so translations should

be in the given field. Finally, the agreements between collocations in bilingual dictionaries are

unknown.

17

According to Smadja and McKeown, 1996, “collocations, commonly occurring word

pairs and phrases, are a notorious source of difficulty for non-native speakers of a lan-

guage” (p. 5). They also point out that their difficulty lie in the fact that “they cannot be

translated on a word-by-word basis” (p. 5). In addition, a translator must understand the

meaning of the collocation in the language and the common equivalent used in the target lan-

guage (Smadja & McKeown, 1996).

In conclusion, the process of translating collocations from a language to another re-

quires the translator to be aware of their meanings in the language and the collocations used

in the same situation in the target language. Some linguists tried to develop some machines

to translate collocations. However, those translating machines consider it a problematic area

too due to their literal translation.

References

Alshaje'a, H. (2014). Issues in translating collocations of the holy qur'an. Language in In-

dia,14(8), 49-65. Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com

Bahumaid, S. (2006). Collocation in English- Arabic translation. Babel, 52(2), 133-152. Re-

trieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/

Queralt, R. (1998). Foundation of translation: Fonaments de la Traducció . Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.sa/

Smadja, F., & McKeown, K. (1996). Translating collocations for bilingual lexicons: A statis-

tical approach. Computational Linguistics, 22(1), 1-38. Retrieved from https://

scholar.google.com

Toolan, M. (2009). Narrative progression in the short story: A corpus stylistic approach. Re-

trieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

18

Medical Translation Methods and Improvements By Shaden K. AlKhathlan

Business Name

For the last two centuries, medical fields have extremely improved by the existence of

globalization. Unlike other fields, like technical fields, medicine has had a very long history.

The precious medical findings existed in many different languages other than English, like Ar-

abic, Latin and Greek. After the dominance of the English language in the globalization pro-

cess, medical fields were improved intensely with the help of the combination of globalization

and translation.

In 2008, Fischbach discussed that Medical translation requires rudimentary

knowledge of the subject beside the basic prerequisites which are the knowledge of both lan-

guages and the usage of specialized dictionaries. Translators usually complain that there are

no real sources of information in the target language. However, it's obviously specious. He

stressed that "It's easier to translate medicine because much of its terminology is based on Lat-

in and Greek words" (p. 43).

Montalt and Davies (2014) discussed that courses on the History of Medicine are

included in most university medical programs. Viewing things about the history of medical

translation help us to understand our position in the professional world in a better way. You

should be aware of the different strategies and functions used in translation. It was reported

that “It may also help us to understand better different ways of thinking, writing, and arguing

and to build bridges between scientists, physicians, students, patients and the general public

from different cultures” (para. 18).

Fischbach (1961) discussed that a technical translator must combine three main fac-

ulties in order to translate properly. First, he must have extensive knowledge of the subject

matter of translation. Second, he must be able to read and understand (both the target and

source language) well enough so he can grasp the intended meaning. Finally, he must be able

to embody that meaning in a lucid and straightforward manner to the target language (p. 464).

19

Cosmatos and Chow (2008) explained that the difference in language, perception, culture and

medical practices commonly encountered lost are in translation. They stressed that “A typical

approach for assessment of the possible lost in translation is to first translate the inform consent

form or the case report forms by an experienced expert and then translate back by a different ex-

perienced but independent expert” (p. 120).

The failure to translate properly can be led from the distraction of the specialized terminol-

ogy and unfamiliar subject of medical papers. However, practicing in reading is essential to find

the semantic relationships and underlying linguistic structure. They help break down the struc-

ture and focus on the relationships between the different elements of the sentence (Wakabayashi,

1996).

References

Andriesen, S. (2006). Medical translation: What is it, and what can the medical writer do to im-

prove its quality?. American Medical Writers Association Journal. Retrieved from http://

eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost

Cosmatos, D., & Chow, S. C. (Eds.). (2008). Translational medicine: Strategies and statistical

methods. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Fischbach, H. (1961). Problems of medical translation. Retrieved from http://

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC197861/

Fischbach, H. (Ed.). (1998). Translation and medicine. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa

Montalt, V., & Davies, M. G. (2014). Medical translation step by step: Learning by drafting. Re-

trieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Wakabayashi, J. (1996). Teaching medical translation. Meta: Translators' Journal. Retrieved from

http://id.erudit.org/iderudit/004584ar