Research- and Evidence-based Teacher Education: Implications for Policy and Practice

RESEARCH-DRIVEN TEACHER EDUCATION IN AFRICA 1

Research- and Evidence-based Teacher Education: Implications for

Policy and Practice

H. Johnson Nenty, PhD (Prof.)

Educational Foundations

University of Botswana

[email protected] & [email protected]

Abstract

To succeed in a knowledge-driven economy, every profession must be able to generate and be guided by knowledge crated by its professionals. For education it is the knowledge about the behaviour of the learner, which education is to change desirably. Teachers are the prime movers of the education process but their training programmes in Africa are still prodding in the dark and hence education cannot be effective if teacher education is not improved. This paper ponders on how education could be empowered by research in the training of teachers and explores the results of such effort in the context of policy formulation and implementation as well as professional practices in teacher education. Research empowers teacher education to validly identify, explore, develop and utilize the potentials of teacher trainees. The success of education at achieving this task depends on the how well it is guided by valid policies. And the ability of the implemented policy to achieve the desired goal depends on its validity. The validity of a policy, in turn, depends on the validity of the information and experiences utilized as inputs into the formulation of such policy. Research is the most effective means of generating information for formulation of valid policy in education. Hence the effectiveness the implementation of any teacher education programme depends on the quality of the research on teacher education whose findings provided input into the making of its guiding policy. There is the need therefore for valid research in teacher-education.

Key words: Potential exploration and development; evidence-based research problem; research-driven or evidence-based teacher education;formulation and implementing valid policy; educational policy and practices.

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Introduction

Mining the Human Potentials

There is that which is dearer than gold, diamond, and

petroleum in the brain, heart or muscle of every child. Every one

of them is born with at least one useful potential which if

validly identified, explored, developed and utilized will lead to

improved quality of life to every African child. These are the

potentials we must come up with the most efficient means of

identifying, exploration and developing. The greatness of African

future as a nation depends on the efficiency with which we can

mine the human potential of African children now. According to

Nenty (1999), we cannot imagine the standard of life every

African would enjoy if every member of the society has his or her

potential validly identified and developed to the maximum in the

different areas of their talents. The popular saying that

‘everybody is not equal’ is true to the extent that everybody

does not have the same talent, but everybody has some developable

talent. The problem is that a great majority lacks the

opportunity or what it takes to validly detect such talents and

developed them. Unlike undeveloped material resources,

undeveloped human resources constitute an unrecoverable loss to

the society, deter progress and constitute a source of several

societal problems like faced in several African countries.

The greatness of a nation does not seem to be directly

dependent on its size or population, neither does it depend

significantly more on the material sources with which she is

endowed than on the level to which she is able to identify,


develop, harness and utilize her human resources (Nenty, 1998,

p.1). Excellence in the development of human resources provides

the foundation for high level of national development and

attainment as well a high level of quality of life.

This is how Japan, which is relatively poorly endowed in

natural resources, became the world's second largest

economy. Good education is the reason that other countries

or 'Tigers' in that part of the world -like Malaysia,

Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea -have emerged as

contemporary economic success stories (Forde, 2004, p. 5).

Japan's mineral resources are her human potential which she has

effectively explored, developed, and utilized successfully and

thence attains greatness as the third greatest economy on earth;

and a high level of achievement of economic development as well

as a high level of quality of life for her people (Nenty, 2010).

Whose duty is it to explore and develop the latent potential

of every African child? I thought everybody is going to say

“Education”. You are right! Whose duty is it to ensure that this

is done ‘validly’? Again you are right if you say ‘research’.

Within the education process who is directly responsible for

exploring and developing the potential of every African child?

You will be wrong if you do not say ‘the teacher’. In education, teachers are the chief miners of human potentials.

Purpose of the Study

The mission of this paper is to ponder on how education

could be empowered by research in the training of teachers whose

duty is to mine the potential of African children efficiently. It


intends to explore and position the results of such effort in the

context of policy formulation and implementation as well as

professional practices in teacher education. The teacher is the

prime mover of the education process and hence the process

through which these prime movers are themselves trained must be

very accurately articulated given what the society expects of its

products. Research empowers teacher education to validly

identify, explore, develop and utilize the potentials of teacher

trainees. Validly here implies a process whose products yield the

most desirable and true results and hence provides the society

with the best she can ever have.

Education

One might ask, what is education? The answer to this seems

to depend on the class or group one finds him/herself. In an

educational philosophy class education is often seen as an

environment-sustained process of finding out the truth about

oneself. That is a process of enabling an individual become, in

time, what he/she was meant to be (Brubacher, 1939). Dewey (1953)

sees it as a continuous reconstruction of experience with one

round of reconstruction constituting a refinement towards the

truth. In an education sociology class however education is often

seen as a process of identifying and developing the inborn

potential of every individual for the benefit of the person and

his society. For the business of this paper, education is a

research-based prompting of the mind, heart and muscle in order

to evoke and develop to its maximum, the good inherent in every

individual for the benefit of self and the society (Nenty, 1997).


The process of ‘mining the human mind’ and developing the

potentials therein.

Etymologically, the meaning of education is said (Craft,

1984) to involve two Latin roots: “educere” which means to “lead

out" and “educare” which means to “train or to mold”. One can

therefore see the task of education as being to "led out" and

"caused to develop" the latent potential in the learner. The

basic assumption of this definition is that each child has, at

least, one useful potential which if validly "led out" and

"caused to develop" will make him a success in life (Nenty,

1997).. Generally in the realms of psychology and hence

measurement, education is seen as the process of ensuring

desirable changes in human behaviour. Desirable changes in

learners’ behaviour, as defined by the society, are therefore the

dependent variable for all processes that are labeled

“education”. For empirical research this definition enables

objective operationalization of variables involve in the inputs,

processes, outcomes and impact of education.

Research

We are familiar with scientific research as an objective,

systematic and controlled method of searching for truth about a

phenomenon. Most research problems are such that imply

relationship between two or more variables, and solving

such problems basically involves finding the nature and strength

of such relationship. For example, to arrive at the truth about

the degree of a relationship between two phenomena, the

scientist, through research design, makes sure all other factors


that could interfere with and cause the degree of relationship

between the phenomena to appear higher or lower than what it

really is, are controlled for. Hence a research study, whether

it is done in the laboratory or in the field, is primarily

concerned with controlling for extraneous sources that might

prevent the researcher from attaining the truth.

Research as a critical study is closely tied to its

objective nature. It is a process of critical thinking in that

judgment is reserved until empirical evidence shows what we

speculate or hypothesize to be tenable. Scientific knowledge

evolves by critical solution to problem during which man only

proposes solutions - hypotheses, but nature disposes of their

truth or falsity. The method used must be such that can stand

both internal and external criticisms. Research is a rational

process which tries hard to overthrow its speculations instead of

defending it (Popper, 1972).

According to Ziman (1974), the communication system of the

scientific research community is open to the fullest with the

belief that truth will ultimately be attained only through

reliable consensus, convergence and critical evolution. Hence it

is only a small proportion of the findings contributed and

intended as scientific knowledge through research that is

eventually and actually incorporated in the body of scientific

knowledge. The result of a research study must be consensual for

a very critical community. An article in a reputable

professional journal does not merely represent the opinions of

its author; it bears the seal of scientific authenticity given to


it by the representative of the scientific community - competent

editors, referees and reviewers. Even when the result of a study

is published, it must stand up against a period of external

criticism before it can be finally accepted as tentative truth.

The intellectual and social repercussions of having a

researcher’s findings refuted by even a junior researcher in the

field deter hasty, subjective and uncritical studies (Ziman,

1974).

What is Science?

Most people tend to be more conversant with what the

products of science and its applications are than what science

itself is. Philosophers and practical scientists see science as

the systematic process of searching for the truth about a

phenomenon by logical inference from theoretical and empirical

observations. This involves the induction of what really is,

from what has been observed to occur a great number of times. It

is the product of this process - the scientific knowledge, which

serves as input into technology and forms the body of knowledge

also called science which serves as the subject matter content

for science subjects, like physics, chemistry, geology, etc.

This definition neither discriminates between physical and non-

physical sciences, nor limits the scientific method to

experimentation only. It incorporates all objective methods of

searching for truths in nature, be it physical, sociological, or

behavioural. According to Dewey (1933) “the heart of science

lies not in the conclusions reached, but in the method of

observation, experimentation and mathematical reasoning by which


conclusions are established” (p. 110). Science, according to

Ziman (1974) “is not a subsidiary consequence of the ‘scientific

method’; it is the scientific method itself” (p. 9). “Everything

that is science ultimately has its basis in the scientific method

... and whenever the scientific method cannot be applied, there

cannot be science ... ” (Weisz, 1961, p. 4). Based on this

definition of science, a field of study is science to the extent

that it is founded on scientific methodology.

This paper views science as a systematic process of

searching for truth about a phenomenon and the knowledge obtained

through such a process. As the former, it is a process of

finding out the truth about nature, be it physical or

behavioural. It is through this process that knowledge is made,

and to the extent that a field of study depends on scientific

methodology for its knowledge, it is science. As the latter, it

is a product - the knowledge generated which serves as an input

into technology, and which is written and stored in textbooks,

journals, etc., and taught to pupils as science. Hence, the name

science is applied to subject matter areas whose knowledge is

made through the scientific process. To be a discipline, any

field of study must have a means of generating knowledge, and

thus adding to or expanding its knowledge base to guide practice

and policy in the area. Science “aimed at discovering things

about the world, encapsulating these findings in theories that

help to explain the particular phenomena and that also leads to

predictions about those or similar phenomena” (Macmillan &

Garrison, 1984, p. 6).


What is Educational Research?

Education, technically, is the process of ensuring desirable

changes in human behaviour. To do a good job at it, we need,

first of all, to find out the truth about human behaviour in

order to understand that which we are trying to change. While

physical sciences look at and try to understand and explain the

physical or material world, educational science looks at and

tries to understand and explain the world of human behaviour in

order to enable education do a good job at changing it. There are

truths hidden in nature which science is to find out. Since human

beings are part of nature, there are "truths" hidden in each

individual which education is to "educeree" that is "lead forth"

or "bring out" and develop. In other words, there are some

truths, in terms of potentials, traits, or generally, behaviour,

latent or inherent in every human being whom the purpose of

education is to find out and then develop. Finding out the truth

about human behaviour is tantamount to creating knowledge of

human behaviour, and the process of creating knowledge has been

developed and validated through science (Nenty, 1997). To

Brubacher (1939), "like medicine, education science is based on

other sciences" (p.15), it does not have a science of its own.

Education science or educational research is therefore, the

application of scientific methodology in the search for truth

about human nature (Nenty, 1991/92). Thus it is an aspect of

behavioural science, involves inquiry into and the study of human

behaviours in order to understand, explain, predict, and to some

extent, control human behaviour. This will lead to the creation


of knowledge with which education can be made more effective.

Educational research is carried out as an attempt to

understand, explain, predict and to some extent control human

behaviour. This leads to the creation of valid knowledge; and the

results serve as input into the development of theories of human

behaviour, and provide valid guide and input into policy

formulation as well as the practices in the process of education.

In the practice of education, desirable results can only be

achieved if it is based on valid knowledge. The science of

education does not see experience and other sources of knowing as

sources of valid knowledge but as rich sources of speculations

which can be turned into valid knowledge through research (Nenty,

1997).

Over the last few decades, modern education has shown some

scientific spirit, but the science of human behaviour is an

extremely difficult one whose positive achievements do not match

the efforts expended on it. The science of education is

relatively new and has so far resulted in a very limited

understanding of human behaviour. Unlike physical science, it is

extremely difficult to establish quantitative laws of human

behaviour or reduce it to a mathematical equation with properties

that can be predicted (Best, 1979).

The attempt often made at comparing the behavioural science

with the physical science in terms of methods and achievement is

a healthy one because the results of such comparison invariably

sensitizes educational scientists to strive to reach the level of

physical science in method and achievement. But to judge


education sciences on the basis of such comparison is

unfortunate. Such judgment is uncalled for in view of the

relatively late emergence of education science; the extremely

complex nature of human behaviour; and the corresponding limited

level of our understanding of human phenomenon. Compare, for

example, the relative easiness involved in measuring the physical

length of a piece of copper wire in the laboratory with an

already-made, standard and highly reliable measurement instrument

with the difficulty involved in the attempt to measure the

intellectual “height” of a student in the face of (Isaac &

Michael, 1975):

a) lack of consensus on what intelligence itself is, and the

corresponding lack of consensus on which instrument should

be used to measure it; and

b) many extrinsic factors, including the reactive effect of

the instrument itself, affecting the result of such an

attempt.

Hence an achievement in the behavioural science of comparable

level of development and success as in the physical sciences has

so far proven impossible because of (Borg & Gall, 1979; Best,

1979):

complexity of human variables and behaviour;

lack of objectivity in psychological and educational

measurements and observations;

diversity and inconsistency of human subjects and their

idiosyncratic behaviour;

imprecise and inadequate operational definition of


behavioural variables;

lack of appropriate and precise statistical tools or

techniques to handle complex and confounding multivariate

behavioural variables;

inability to manipulate human beings which precludes

experimentation in most behavioural research;

lack of, or very thin theoretical or knowledge base to

support behavioural research;

lack of scientific orientation on the part of educators; and

ethical and moral considerations and constraints in dealing

with human subjects.

Research-Driven Teacher Education

The thrust of today’s global society is the generation,

exploitation, management and application of knowledge. In an

economy driven by knowledge, the process of teacher education can

only improve or reinvent itself through research. The business of

research is the fundamental business of every profession. This is

evidence in the tremendous increase in nursing research (Kenner,

& Wright, 2013). Knowledge seeking in no more a pastime but the

business of every bona fide member of the 21st century global

society neither is it anymore a ‘want’ but a ‘need’ for every

person that claims educated. The cry of learners now is ‘give me

the skill to create knowledge or give me death’. According to

Niemi (n.d.) “in knowledge-based societies, policy and practice

based on research and evidence have become an urgent requirement.

Decisions and developments should be underpinned by the best

available knowledge” (p. 1). Research-driven teacher education


is that which operates on the guidance of findings emanating from

valid scientific research in education and functions to build a

productive research culture among teachers. It operates with ‘the

best available knowledge,’ that is, knowledge from valid

scientific research provides input into its practices. It demands

research-based determination of the most effectiveness-enhancing

quantity and quality of inputs, quality of the processes and of

the outputs of the training programme; and the formative

monitoring of the input and processes as well as the evaluation

of the outputs. It evokes among teachers the appetite and

motivation to undertake, especially action research, and apply

their findings in and outside the classroom. Research-driven

teacher education is amenable to changes and never stagnant in

its content, pedagogy and professional human-relation skills as

it continuously evolves based on new findings from current

scientific research. Hence it is adaptable to training teachers

for the 21st century.

Research-based approach in teacher education is more than 30

years old in Finland, and “the high level of performance of

Finnish pupils in international examinations suggests that

teacher education in Finland has been on the right course” (Toom,

et al., 2010, p. 332). In the Finnish programme “becoming trained

in research-based thinking starts at the very beginning of

teacher education by reading research literature, writing essays

and portfolios and becoming familiar with research methods” (p.

334). The programme has four characteristics:


First, the study programme is structured according to the

systematic analysis of education. Secondary, all teaching is

based on research. Third, activities are organised in such a

way that students can practice argumentation, decision

making and justification while investigating and solving

pedagogical problems. Fourth, students learn academic

research skills . . . . In research-based teacher education,

learning research skills means that students start to learn

qualitative, quantitative and mixed research methods and

practice research through well-defined activities and

assignments from the beginning of their studies (p. 334).

Evidence-based policy formulation and professional practices

are those based on

findings from valid empirical, especially experimental studies

(Bullock, 2004). To Bullock, “one of the catch phrases around

policy-making circles is ‘evidence-based,’ applied to a host of

contents including education, policy, practice, medicine, even

architecture” (p. 1). Furthermore, it is clear that discussions

of definitions of evidence, distinctions among kinds of evidence

(including scientific data, expert judgment, observation, and

theory), and consensus on when to use what, will occupy us for

some time.” (p. 3). To be qualified as a research for evidence

based policy making and professional practices, the problem to

which the research intends to contribute solution must be an

evidence based problem. That is a validated problem, a problem

for which


evidence from related stakeholders, available theoretical

knowledge and findings from several related empirical experiences

have reached a consensus as to the status of the problem as a

problem. To meet this requirement a research problem must first

be identified, analyzed and validated before a topic emanates

from it (Nenty, 2009). Currently most academic research do not

meet this requirement as they are geared principally for

graduation or promotional demands.

Research on the Inputs into Teacher Education

Inputs into the process of teacher education (see Table 1 &

Fig. 1) are tangible and intangible material and human resources.

These involve quality and quantity of facilities as well as the

characteristics and qualities which the society, parents,

teachers and students bring with them to the education industry.

The research concern here is to determine the extent to which

these inputs are adequate in quantity and quality to ensure

maximum achievement of the goals of teacher education as expected

by the society. At the input level, research should determine the

sufficiency in quantity and quality of each input factor given

the number of learners and the objectives which education is

goaled to achieve. Hence research at the input level of teacher

education should determine the adequacy of and extent to which

the available human and material resources made available to

education is of enough quantity and quality to ensure the

achievement of national educational objectives. It should

therefore determine what should be made available to ensure that


the process of training teachers for the 21st Century learner

succeeds.

For example, according to Hanushek (2007), “commonly

purchased inputs to schools – class size, teacher experience, and

teacher education – bear little systematic relationship to

student outcomes, implying that conventional input policies are

unlikely to improve achievement” (p. 1). In a review of 109

empirical studies on input, process and learning in primary and

lower secondary schools in Nordic countries, Nordenbo, et al.

(2010) established that 11 school factors (some with

subcategories) are of importance for high pupil achievement.

The school factors and subcategories identified are the

following: Human Resources (Management and Leadership);

Educational Leadership (Management and Leadership); Opportunity

to Learn (Curriculum/ scheduling); Disciplinary Climate (School

Culture and School Climate); Achievement/progress Orientation

(School Culture and School Climate); Interrelational Climate

(School Culture and School Climate); Social norms and values

(School Culture and School Climate); Teacher behaviour (Teacher);

Teacher as an Organisational Actor

(Teacher); Pupil Composition of the School; and Parental

Relationship (p. 9). Research at this level includes, for

example, evaluation of teacher education curriculum and programme

with the needs of the society as the criteria, of text books

recommended for teacher education with the curriculum goals and

objectives as the criteria, etc.


Table 1

Input, Processes and Output of Teacher Education

Input Process Output ImpactResources: Human: e.g. qualification, experience, characteristics, skills and competencies - hard/soft skills of teachers, etc. Material: e.g.curriculum, textbook,facilities, etc.

Interactions among inputs;teaching and learning processes; teachers’ planning, administration, instructing, and assessing; Classroom interactions;lesson, instructional/teaching style, developing skills and understandings; teacher’s learning facilitating behaviour; learners’ effort at changing behaviour;

Immediate & tangible curriculum objective-based outputs:1. achievement inteaching practice,external/ internalexams; 2. content knowledge;3. pedagogy knowledge;3. professional skills including soft skills like professional attitudes, aspirations, motivation, awareness, emotions, human relationship skills, etc.;5. other performance behaviour (as specified by the objectives in the curriculum).

Enduring, demonstrable ultimate goal-of- education based outputs:1. Employment/professional/ economic skills,2. Citizenship skills,3. Health enhancing & maintenance skills, Including, for example, HIV/AID, ebola prevention skills;4. Family building& maintenance skills, 5.Happiness creation knowledge& skills,6. Human relationship knowledge & skills,7. Cultural skillsand values; 8. Environmental values and awareness skills

Quality and quantity of facilities as wellas the characteristics and qualities which the society, parents, teachers and studentsbring with them to the educational setting.These are qualities or characteristics ofteachers and studentsthat they brought with them to the classroom experienceTangible and intangible materials and human resources.

Research into the Process of Teacher Education


The process of teaching is the grass root operationalization of

the act of educating. It involves all actions taken or exhibited

by principally the teacher, the school including administration,

and the society including the parents to identify and develop the

latent potentials of the learners or to bring about desirable

changes in their human cognitive, affective and psychomotor

behaviour (see Fig. 1). In teacher education this involves all

actions put in place to evoke and develop a teacher trainee’s

content and pedagogy knowledge and professional human-relation

skills.

From a national survey of New Zealand teachers, Dalli (2008)

identified three key themes as their perspective of

professionalism. These were: a distinct pedagogical style;

specialist knowledge and practices; and collaborative

relationships skills. These involve both the hard and soft skills

needed to be developed in a teacher trainee. It is all about

creating and providing conducive intellectual and physical

environments in and outside the classroom to enhance the

development of the professional potential of the learner, that

is, the teacher trainee.

PROCESSInteraction among inputs, teaching,

methods, facilitating learning, planning, assessing,

administrating, to evoke

understanding, skill development & evaluating.

INPUTTangible &

intangible human & material

resources. Quality and quantity of

facilities as well as the

characteristics which the society, parents, teachers & students bring with them to the education setting.

CONTEXT Favourable research culture. Research-conducive environment

RESEARCHQuantitative, Qualitative & Mixed Model Research


Figure 1. Research-driven teacher education: Implication to

policy and practices.

Research into the process of teacher education involves

determining the effectiveness and efficiency of every process

factor using either internal or external criterion. In one hand

teaching is an action word that has a causal consequence –

learning; while on the other hand teaching is carrying out a set

PROCESSInteraction among inputs, teaching,

methods, facilitating learning, planning, assessing,

administrating, to evoke

understanding, skill development & evaluating.

INPUTTangible &

intangible human & material

resources. Quality and quantity of

facilities as well as the

characteristics which the society, parents, teachers & students bring with them to the education setting.

OUTPUTSImmediate and tangible curriculum

objective-based outputs:Achievement during teaching practice, exams; content & pedagogy knowledge;

professional & human relation skills, like attitude, motivation, etc. and other performance behaviour as specified by

teacher education objectives. POLICY

Formulation and implementation of teacher education

policy

PRACTICEExhibit knowledge and skills, necessary to practice as

teacher-researcher

RESEARCHQuantitative, Qualitative & Mixed Model Research


of activities that are valid indicators of and hence validly

define the word teaching. With the external criterion, the

consequence of teaching is learning, that is, teaching is assumed

to imply learning, so the amount of learning brought about by

teaching serves as the criterion of determining the success of

teaching. On the other hand one can exhibit the behaviour imply

by these indicator words and actions to varying degrees, thus

teaching does not necessarily imply learning but could be

determined by observing the extent to which one exhibits each of

such bit and pieces of behaviour. Westwood (2004, p. 80) review

of several research studies on these behaviour yielded the

following which are considered as skills that should be developed

in student teachers. They should:

• have well-managed classrooms

• provide students with the maximum opportunity to learn

• maintain an academic focus

• have high, rather than low, expectations of what students can

achieve

• are business-like and work-oriented

• show enthusiasm

• use strategies to keep students on task, motivated, and

productive

• impose structure on the content to be covered

• present new material in a step-by-step manner

• employ direct (explicit) teaching procedures

• use clear instructions and explanations

• use a variety of teaching styles and resources


• frequently demonstrate appropriate task-approach strategies

• monitor closely what students are doing

• adjust instruction to individual needs, and re-teach where

necessary

• provide frequent feedback to students

• use high rates of questioning to involve students and to check

for understanding

• spend significant amounts of time in interactive whole-class

teaching, but also use group work and partner activities when

appropriate.

Research into the process of teacher education is necessary

to establish the extent to which these behaviours define teaching

for the African teacher trainees.

Research on the Outputs of Teacher Education

Within the teacher training environment, the most important

immediate product of a teacher education programme is an

effective teacher as determined during the final teaching

practice exercise (see Fig. 1). This is a result of the

interaction among the trainees’ content and pedagogy knowledge as

well as professional and human relationship skills including

soft skills like professional attitudes, aspirations, motivation,

awareness, emotions, human relationship skills, etc.; other

performance behaviour (as specified by the objectives in the

curriculum).

The efficiency with which the school operates to maximize

desirable changes of human behavior among learners depends much

on the application by teachers of the findings of research.


Whether we are talking about knowledge of pedagogy, content

knowledge or professional human-relation skills, research is the

source of new knowledge supply for improvement and innovation. To

succeed in an economy driven by knowledge, administrative and

operational decisions must be based on findings from empirical

research.

Implications for Policy and Practice

Education is fundamentally an applied discipline so any

educational research is useful to the extent that it contributes

solution to a real life problem and hence its findings are valid

and useful as inputs into policy and practices. In other words,

the quality of research-based evidence is a critical factor in

decision-making and effective practices. The success of evidence-

based decision-making in policy and practices in medicine has

provoked the envy of other professions including education

(Lomas, 2000). Evidence is generated through the scientific

process of searching for truth about a phenomenon. In a

scientific research setting, participants sampled scientifically

to represent a population of stakeholders provide input into

policy making and practices by serving as subjects in a related

research study. Hence, according to Ozga (2004),

policy-makers are steering research towards problem-solving

and consolidating knowledge about ‘what works’ . . . .

Policy for the development of the teaching profession is

intended to support more research-informed practice, (and

hence) the critical role of practitioners in the process of


knowledge transfer in education needs to be recognized and

developed (p. 1).

Research in Teacher Education and Policy Formulation

Through an earlier communication with (Dr. K. H. Bility,

June 13, 2012, Liberian Deputy Chief of Party) the author

indicated that it is his belief that the implementation of most

educational policies in African countries fail to solve the

intended problems because the information based on which such

policies are developed were invalid. Most researches carried out

in African universities are purely ‘academic’ for graduation and

promotional purposes and are not designed to contribute solution

to specific and real life problems in the society, hence the

findings are invalid as contribution to the solution of a

specific real life problem. While the author is not belittling

the importance of pure research, education is basically an

applied area with several human problems steering with big

eyeballs at us in the face. The thrust of the author is to make a

difference in this direction, and especially so in a Africa which

is trying to improve her education system and its effectiveness.

Such effort is more likely to succeed if it is guided by valid

research findings.

The problem in teacher education to which a policy would

seek solution must be identified (see Figure 2) and validated.

That is, a problem under study in teacher education is often

first identified, analyzed and validated. Though the problem may

initially be identified by the researcher it must be validated by


ascertaining the level to which stakeholders, that is those who

share the problem to which the researcher is trying to contribute

solution, see it as a problem.

This should include policy-makers and practitioners. It

should not be a problem in the eyes or thinking of the researcher

only. They must see and validate it as an important problem whose

solution would bring one relief or the other. The problem is also

theoretically and empirically validated through a review and

analysis of related theories and empirical experiences of

previous researchers on same, similar or related problems.

Most educational studies are based on surveys of population

of stakeholders using instruments that have been developed and

validated for such studies. For valid findings, all sampling for

the study must be done so that the populations of stakeholders,

as well as the universe of indicators used to develop the study

instrument scientifically represent the population of all

stakeholders and definitions of concepts involved. Scientific

representation is fundamental for valid research findings.

According to Keeter (2012) in survey studies, “the idea that

every object in the population would have a known chance of being

included, and thus, at least in the final analysis, an equal

chance of being included . . . is highly desirable. In a

democracy, this is

absolutely essential” (p. 6). A research whose findings are going

to provide input into any policy making must be based on a

representative data/information. To the extent that research

findings which serve as input into policy formulation are valid,


it is only to that extent is the implementation of the policy so

formed is likely to lead to the solution of the problem under

consideration.

Figure 2: Summary of Steps in the Process of Policy

Formulation

Problem identification, analysis, and validation

Validated findings of research studies undertaken to find

solution to problem

Policy formulation – interaction among: 1. policy objectives (determined by desired changes that signify solution to problem); 2. Policy making team3. meta-analysis of findings from studies undertaken to find solution to the problem4. Policy-making strategy5. Political validation of new policy

Monitoring, evaluation of policy implementation and policy

validation research

Implementation of new policy


Research, using evaluation research design, also provides a

means of monitoring the

policy implementation process as well as in determining the level

to which the policy has attained its objectives. At the

monitoring level research plays the role of a evaluating the

implementation process formatively. It tries to ascertain the

efficiency with which each of the implementation procedures is

carried out, and provides information for the improvement of the

implementation process. The evaluation research at the monitoring

stage determines the likelihood of the implementation processes

leading to the achievement of the curriculum objectives. The

findings from the monitoring research are fed back to improve the

implementation process as well used to redefine the problem under

consideration.

The final evaluation of the policy involves a summative

comparison of the final results observed from the implementation

of the policy that is the output to the objectives of the policy.

That is, to what extent does the implementation of the policy

alleviated the problem which the policy was formulated to solve?

Similarly, the findings from the evaluation research are also fed

back into the implementation process as well used to redefine the

problem under consideration.

Research in Teacher Education and Professional Practices

Research in teacher education is a means through which

knowledge about teacher education is created. Research creates

and updates content and pedagogy knowledge and professional

human-relation skills. Learning as desirable changes in behaviour


has three components: the content on which the change in

behaviour is observed, the arts and science of ensuring desirable

changes in behaviour, and characteristics that prompt and

maximize the change in behaviour. These are reflected in content

knowledge, pedagogy skills and professional human relationship

skills. Findings from research on professional human relation

skills provide information on the type and nature of soft skills

that should be exhibited by teacher trainers, teacher trainees

and learners to maximize learning.

Just like one cannot imagine successful medical practices

without the application of findings from valid scientific

research in medicine, effective professional practices in

education are far-fetched without the application of educational

research results. The failure of our efforts as educators in

Africa to achieve the objectives of education is as result of our

lack of application of scientific research findings in our

professional practices.

Research-Based Policy Considerations

A scientific research study incorporates UK Department for

Environment Food and Rural Affairs’ (DEFRA’s) (1999) three

components of evidence for policy: hard data, analytical

reasoning, and stakeholder opinion. In a scientific research,

evidence for policy is statistically distilled from hard data

collected from a scientific sample of stakeholders and logically

analysed and presented as research finding. The DEFRA document

also indicated that a 1999 modernizing government white paper

noted that “government must produce policies that really deal


with problems, that are forward-looking and shaped by evidence

rather than a response to short-term pressures; that tackle

causes not symptoms” (p.1).

According to Harmmersley (2005) “powerful voices are

currently insisting that policy and practice must be based on

research evidence and that social science inquiry should be

reformed to serve this need more effectively” (p. 1). The current

emphasis on evidence-based decision making emanates from the

success of its application in medical sciences (Smith, 1996). In

the health sciences, “a defining feature of the evidence-based

approach is the use of scientifically rigorous studies and

statistical analysis, . . , to identify interventions and

practices capable of improving policy-relevant outcomes”

(Chalmers, 1995, p. 1).

Experience, background knowledge and observation as the

bases of policy and practice are subsumed under evidence from

research because research findings emanate from the analysis for

consensus or convergence of several experiences, background

knowledge and observations. Everybody in a research population

brings with him/her his/her relevant experiences, views,

background knowledge and observations and a good sampling from

such population gives a scientific representation of all these

research ingredients. Meta-analysis or review of findings of

several related studies conducted to contribute solution to the

problem for which the policy is developed yield more reliable

information upon which to base policy making than that from only

one study. Citing Hammersley (2002), Hammersley (2005) indicated


that results of meta-analysis or reviews of findings of relative

studies are an essential bridge between the world of research and

those of policy making and practice. The larger the sample size

from a population of such experience bearers or from related

studies surveyed or reviewed, the more valid the research input

into policy formulation and practice.

Research-Based Practice Considerations

‘Backwardness’ in African education is easily ascribable to

the continuous and intense reliance on tradition, experience,

prejudice, dogma, and ideology as the basis for practice

(Hammersley, 2001). For example, our curriculum is not reflective

of the knowledge and skill needs of the 21st century global

village for which our children are being educated. According to

Wikipedia (2012)

The notion of evidence based practice has also had an

influence in the field of education. Here, some commentators

have suggested that the putative lack of any conspicuous

progress is attributable to practice resting in the

unconnected and noncumulative experience of thousands of

individual teachers, each re-inventing the wheel and failing

to learn from hard scientific evidence about 'what works'

(par. 7).

Our methods of teaching and assessment are still very close to

those we passed through. In teacher education, evidence based

practice (EBP) demands that all professional practices and

operational decisions in and out of the classroom should be based

on findings of empirical research studies. For example, evidence-


based guidance in the most effective ways of classroom

management; and in performing assessment for learning in addition

to assessment of learning towards which we are currently more

disposed. The assumption is that what persistently works for a

large number of learners would work for similar and new learners.

The content and pedagogy knowledge and professional human

relation skills that have been determined empirically to ensure

maximum desirable changes of learners’ behaviour are put into

practice. Evidence comprises of the results of the review of

several related research findings of empirical studies derived

from the systematic collection and analysis of data through

measurement, observation and experimentation based on which

answers are found to research questions and/or hypotheses are

tested.

Research in teacher education should determine:

the quality and sufficiency of resources, including the

curriculum, appropriate for the achievement through

education of societal needs in manpower development;

the best processes through which education can be operated

to achieve effectively the objectives of the curriculum;

and

the quality and adequacy of the products and outcomes of

teacher education and its impact on the individual and

society;

Ways to Improve Utilization of Research Results in Policy and

Practice


The big question now is: how do we make sure that the

findings of our research find their way into the formulation of

related policy and practices? This should be a legitimate

research concern especially of any applied research. Policy and

practice here involve all decisions and practices from the

classroom to the government level and hence policy-makers include

classroom teachers, parents, school-level to ministry-level

administrators to members of parliament. Just ensuring a wide

dissemination of the findings of such studies is not enough.

The first and the most important means of enhancing the

applicability of our research findings is making policy-makers

and practitioners stakeholders in the research study from the

beginning. From the point of identification, definition and

validation of the research problem, policy-makers and relevant

practitioners should be involved as stakeholders. A strong

relationship should be built with all stakeholder groups

including policy-makers and practitioners. The problem should not

be a problem in the views or perception of the researchers only,

but effort should be made to validate the problem with inputs

from related stakeholders. The interest of the stakeholders in

the study must be provoked and their participation conscripted to

make them joint owners of the study. For large research study

like for a dissertation, or contracted research stakeholders’

consultative seminar should be held to sought policy-makers and

practitioners input and whet their appetite for the study. Close

engagement of policymakers and practitioners must be developed

and maintained throughout the research process.


Besides, at the problem-validation stage, policy-makers

should be involved as members of the population for the study for

sampling and data collection. In an ideal situation, another

stakeholders’ seminar should be arranged mid-way in the research

process where their input would be solicited in the area of

sampling, instrumentation and data collection. Finally, there

must be a final stakeholders’ seminar at the final stage of the

research process, based on a draft research report. All these

seminars are intended to involve stakeholders, including a

representative of policymakers and practitioners. Their input at

each stage of the study helps to enhance the validity of the

study, as well as increase the probability of its application in

policy-making and practices.

The likelihood of involving findings from a research study

in policy-making is enhanced by the quality of the research

study. Empirical research has some good qualities of the

democratic process. Though in education, the possibility of pure

experimental studies is rare, quasi-experimental, ex-post facto

and survey research opportunity abound. The findings from such

studies represent the convergence of or consensus among the

experiences, views, observations and knowledge of a sample that

scientifically represent the population of all those for whom the

problem of the research pertains. The level to which a survey

research study is valid depends on how well such sampling is done

as well as how well the universe of measures used to develop the

study instrument scientifically represent the population of all

possible definitions of concepts involved. Scientific


representation is fundamental for valid research findings. Such

representation is also necessary when sampling from all possible

research reports on the problem under consideration for review or

meta-analysis. This is the second level of knowledge distillation

from reports of primary studies and its output provides a valid

input into policy and practice. To ensure quality, research

results should pass through strict scrutiny by members of the

scientific community through peer-review process.

Another factor that influences application of research

findings in policy formulation and practice is the method and

quality of dissemination of the research findings. According to

Frontiers (n.d.) “underlying all research utilization is

communication of information generated by those who produce it to

those who can use it for making decisions” (p. 2). How well

research findings are packaged and presented influence the

application and the use of such findings in policy and practice.

In the first place research should be reported in as clear and

simple a manner as possible. Lack of clarity is likely to imbue

research findings with several misunderstanding and hence misuse.

Recommendations must follow directly from the findings of the

study and must be directed to a specific stakeholder.

The researcher should invest as much resources into the

dissemination and ensuring the application of knowledge as into

generating the knowledge. According to Louis Pasteur

To him who devotes his life to science, nothing can give

more happiness than increasing the number of discoveries,

but his cup of joy is full when the results of his studies

http://www.google.co.bw/search?hl=en&rlz=1W1ADFA_enBW469&biw=592&bih=221&sa=X&ei=14UJUIfwD864hAeFqcT5CQ&ved=0CE4QBSgA&q=%E2%80%9CTo+him+who+devotes+his+life+to+science,+nothing+can+give+more+happiness+than+increasing+the+number+of+discoveries,+but+his+cup+of+joy+is+full+when+the+results+of+his+studies+immediately+find+practical+applications.%E2%80%9D+Louis+Pasteur&spell=1



immediately find practical applications ( Brownson, Kreuter,

Arrington, & True, 2006, p. 1.) Research problem should have strong connection to community

needs, realistic and economic-feasible intervention options; “our

goal is to turn knowledge into applications that benefit people.”

Research output is translatable into tangible application if it

provides the basis for practice and policy development. Policy

development process is non-linear, complex and multifactor

exercise. According to Young (n.d.)

Researchers wishing to maximise the impact of their work

have to attract the interest of policy-makers and

practitioners and then convince them that a new policy or

different approach is valuable, and foster the behavioral

changes necessary to put them into practice (p. 1).

Hence the research-driven practice in teacher education

should ensure an adequate involvement of all stakeholders, from

the identification and validation of the problem to serving as

study sample and data generation, the researchers would find it

easier to disseminate the research findings, especially to policy

makers. Practitioners should access and use research findings.

They have little incentives to access and apply research

findings.

The dissemination of research findings must relate closely

to the needs of practitioners and policy makers [this idea

encourages my insistence that the identification of the problem

of the study should be based on needs of the practitioners and

policy makers]. The problem of dissemination is lighter if the




practitioners and stakeholders were involved as stakeholders from

the beginning of the problem identification. Marketing, in

research context, means anticipating and identifying the needs of

the users (practitioners and policy-makers), meetings those needs

through participative research activities and effectively

disseminating research findings.

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Research- and Evidence-based Teacher Education: Implications for Policy and Practice

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