BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

2020

Compiled by:

Recycling Behavior Literature Review

CMI x H+K BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE RECYLING BEHAVIOR LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

The Can Manufacturers Institute (CMI) commissioned this literature review for a greater understanding of how to change recycling behavior. CMI hopes the public release of this literature review leads to informed, effective activities to increase recycling.

CMI is a trade association representing U.S. metal can manufacturers and their suppliers. The can industry is committed to building on its leading recycling rates among food and beverage containers, which would generate additional environmental and economic impact. Metal cans are unique in that recycling them has a significant environmental and economic impact that occurs today at scale and that impact can happen over and over again because metal recycles forever.

Hill + Knowlton (H+K) complied the literature review to inform a consumer behavior change program that has the goal of transforming inconsistent aluminum beverage can recyclers into consistent recyclers.

To learn more about CMI’s recycling and sustainability initiatives, please visit www.cancentral.com/sustainability.

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Table of Contents Aluminum Recycling: Figures & Rates ……………………………………………………………………………2 - 3

Socially Responsible Consumption…………………………………………………………………………………4 - 5

Decision-Making, Attitudes and Habits………………………………………………………….………………6

Recycling Behaviors – Who / When? ……………………………………………………………..………………7 - 8

Stimulating Recycling …………………………………………………………………………………….………………9 - 20

Beverage Industry Recycling and Can Buzz………………………………………………………….………..21 - 23

Ideas ………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………….......24

Appendix: Reference Literature: Choice and Behavioral Design……………………..………………25

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Aluminum Recycling: Figures & Rates Advancing Sustainable Materials Management: Facts and Figures Fact Sheet

KEY FINDINGS:

• This is an official 2017 report from The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which has collected and reported data on the generation and disposition of municipal solid waste (MSW) in the United States for more than 30 years.

• This does not have insight into recycling behaviors, but offers a number of useful statistics on recycling statistics in the U.S.

• This information is used to measure the success of materials management programs across the country and to characterize the national waste stream. These facts and figures are based on the most recent information, which is from calendar year 2017.

• Solid information about the value of aluminum recycling and its capacity to be recirculated.

The Aluminum Can Advantage Key Sustainability Performance Indicators September 2019

KEY FINDINGS:

• A comprehensive report on key sustainability performance indicators (KPI) for one of our best-known and widely used consumer products – the aluminum can.

• Aluminum can scrap is a vital input for the industry and allows can manufacturers to make beverage containers in the most environmentally friendly and economical way possible.

• Recycling aluminum saves more than 90 percent of the energy needed to produce new, or primary, aluminum. In addition, aluminum’s recycling profile and the high value of the material means that, unlike competing packages like glass and plastic bottles, the aluminum used beverage container (UBC) is most often recycled directly back into itself.

• Consumer Recycling Rate: Measures the amount of aluminum can scrap recycled domestically as a percentage of cans available for recycling in the U.S.

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Facts and Figures about Materials, Waste and Recycling: Aluminum

KEY FINDINGS:

• The total amount of aluminum combusted in 2017 was roughly 0.6 million tons. This number was 1.7 percent of all MSW combusted with energy recovery in 2017.

• In 2017, landfills received approximately 2.7 million tons of aluminum. This was 1.7 percent of all MSW landfilled that year.

Recycling Rates of Aluminum in the United States

KEY FINDINGS:

• Recycling rates of aluminum are defined in different (sometimes inconsistent) ways and poorly quantified. To address this situation, the definitions and calculation methods of four groups of indicators are specified for the United States:

• I find that the central estimate of EOL CR varies between 38% and 65% in the United States from 1980 to 2009 and shares a relatively similar historical trend with the primary aluminum price.

• In 2003, a time when approximately 73% of all of the aluminum produced globally since 1950 was considered to still be “in service,” approximately 68% to 69% of all metallic aluminum that had entered the U.S. anthroposphere since 1900 was still in use: 67% in domestic in-use stock and 1% to 2% exported as scrap.

• Only 6% to 7% was definitely lost to the environment, although the destination of 25% of the aluminum was unknown. It was either exported as EOL products, was currently hibernating, or was lost during collection.

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Socially Responsible Consumption Explaining socially responsible consumption

KEY FINDINGS:

• The purpose of this paper is to explain the various categories of socially responsible consumption. • The findings indicate that attitude towards the behavior, subjective norms and perceived behavioral

control are all significant predictors of three categories of SRC (i.e. intention to purchase from firms based on their CSR performance, intention to practice recycling and intention to try to avoid or minimize their use of products based on their environmental impact).

• Consumers are becoming increasingly socially conscious when making their purchasing decisions, which in turn is providing an incentive for firms to integrate social responsibility considerations into their product offerings.

The importance of corporate social responsibility for responsible consumption: Exploring moral motivations of consumers

KEY FINDINGS:

• Using a survey of 462 consumers, we examined the relationships between values (self-transcendent and self-enhancement), an individual's view on the importance of corporate social responsibility (CSR), awareness of negative societal consequences, ascribed responsibility for prosocial behaviour, personal norms, social norms, and CnSR.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: The motivations and actions of socially responsible consumers are important for the success of corporate social responsibility (CSR). The issues of responsible consumption or consumer social responsibility (CnSR) nevertheless continues to receive insufficient research attention. To remedy this shortcoming, we built on the value-belief-norm theory (VBN) and propose that normative factors induce consumers to enact CnSR in their buying behaviour. The findings indicate that CnSR can indeed be comprehensively explained with the variables included in VBN. Moreover, social norms also tend to significantly shape CnSR. The theoretical and practical implications of our results are discussed.

When moral identity symbolization motivates prosocial behavior: The role of recognition and moral identity internalization.

KEY FINDINGS:

• We propose a 3-way interaction of moral identity symbolization, internalization, and recognition to predict prosocial behavior.

• Our results provide a framework for predicting prosocial behavior by combining the 2 dimensions of moral identity with the situational factor of recognition.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: This article examines the role of moral identity symbolization in motivating prosocial behaviors. When moral identity internalization is low, we hypothesize that high moral identity symbolization motivates recognized prosocial behavior due to the opportunity to present one’s moral characteristics to others. In contrast, when moral identity internalization is high, prosocial behavior is motivated irrespective of the level of symbolization and recognition. Two studies provide support for this pattern examining volunteering of time.

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New insights into socially responsible consumers: The role of personal values

KEY FINDINGS:

• Given increasing interest in both socially responsible consumption behavior (SRCB) and socially responsible corporate practices in marketing, this study addressed the effects of several personal traits on SRCB (i.e., personal values, collectivism, age and gender). Findings from an online survey revealed that consumers who:

• Valued self-transcendence (e.g., benevolence and universalism) were more likely to engage in socially responsible consumption (e.g., recycling, avoiding, or reducing usage of products that do long-term damage to the environment) than those who valued:

o Social status and prestige o Social power o Authority and wealth.

• Furthermore, the findings show that: o Older adults and women tended to engage in more SRCB than younger adults and men. o Findings also indicate that age and gender were antecedents to the values of self-

transcendence and self-enhancement.

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Decision-Making, Attitudes and Habits University Students and Sustainability. Part 1: Attitudes, Perceptions, and Habits

KEY FINDINGS:

• We undertook this study to understand attitudes, perceptions, and habits of the student body at Iowa State University, with a focus on environmental knowledge and behaviors.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: Increased understanding amongst scientists and the general public about anthropogenic impacts in general, and climate change in particular, behooves us as educators to adjust our courses and curricula. “Sustainability” and “green” topics are increasingly being discussed and incorporated, but this should be done with deliberation. Overall, we found that, regardless of demographic, students appear to be interested in environmental topics, reducing their footprint, and improving the environment overall. But, they did not necessarily want to pay more, nor did they fully embrace personal responsibility.

Keywords: education, knowledge, behavior, responsibility, sustainability, sustainable thinking

Teaching Students to Make Better Decisions About the Environment: Lessons From the Decision Sciences

KEY FINDINGS:

• This article provides an overview of findings from the decision sciences and behavioral decision research to highlight some of the most common impediments to high-quality decision making.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: One of the fundamental goals of environmental education (EE) is to equip students with the skills to make more thoughtful decisions about environmental issues. Many examples of environmental and science education curricula work to address this goal by providing students with up-to-date information about a myriad of environmental issues from a variety of scientific disciplines. As noted by previous researchers in EE, an emphasis on scientific information, however, does not help to overcome many of the barriers to improved decision making. To help students become better environmental decision makers, educators must also work to incorporate lessons about decision making in conventional EE curricula. The authors end with suggestions for curriculum development that might help to improve students’ decision-making skills regarding environmental issues

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Recycling Behaviors – Who / When?

Who Recycles and When? a Review of Personal and Situational Factors

KEY FINDINGS:

• This paper reviews the empirical studies of recycling, summarizes research findings, and identifies areas for future research.

• Results indicate that high income is a good predictor of recycling, whereas gender and age are not. • The seven situational variables reviewed (prompts, public commitment, normative influence, goal

setting, removing barriers, providing rewards, and feedback) all produce significant increases in recycling behavior.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: Despite the societal importance of reusing waste materials, few empirical studies have specifically examined recycling behaviors as differentiated from attitudes and intentions. The effects on recycling behavior of both personal variables (personality, demographics, and attitudes of environmental concern) and manipulable situational variables are reviewed. General environmental concern appears to be related to recycling only when recycling requires a high degree of effort. However, relevant specific attitudes have consistently been found to correlate with recycling behavior. The seven situational variables reviewed (prompts, public commitment, normative influence, goal setting, removing barriers, providing rewards, and feedback) all produce significant increases in recycling behavior. However, there are several major limitations to the research. Results are based largely on single-variable assessments of recycling and fail to consider interactions with characteristics of the environment, or the population involved.

What makes a recycler? A comparison of recyclers and nonrecyclers.

KEY FINDINGS:

• While both recyclers (RCs) and nonrecyclers (NRCs) were motivated by concerns for the environment, NRCs were more concerned with financial incentives to recycle, rewards for recycling, and matters of personal convenience.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: Investigated differences between 110 recyclers (RCs) and 87 nonrecyclers (NRCs) in 2 areas: (1) recycling knowledge and motives and (2) demographic characteristics. RCs in general were more aware of publicity about recycling and more knowledgeable about materials that were recyclable in the local area and the means for recycling these materials than were NRCs. Few demographic characteristics distinguished RCs from NRS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)

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How San Francisco sends less trash to the landfill than any other major U.S. city KEY FINDINGS:

• San Francisco recycles significantly more than other cities, due to a mix of sanctions, banned materials, education initiatives, etc.

• The city bans some materials and charges a fee for others (eg single-use paper bags) to influence both producers and users

• Standard residential services include a 64-gallon blue recycling bin, a 32-gallon green composting bin, and 16-gallon black trash bin.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: The average American produces about 4.4 pounds of waste per day. Roughly 1.5 pounds of that is composted or recycled, meaning the U.S. avoids sending just 34 percent of its waste to landfills, according to the EPA. San Francisco provides a much different narrative. Thanks to bold public policy and educational initiatives, the city diverts about 80 percent of its waste from landfills, or more than 1.5 million tons every year.

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Stimulating Recycling Social Psychology and the Stimulation of Recycling Behaviors: The Block Leader Approach

KEY FINDINGS:

• Results indicated that the curbside recycling of the two experimental groups differed significantly from one another (with the block leader group recycling more), and both differed significantly from a control group receiving no treatment.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: Recycling has been touted as an important part of the solution to solid waste problems, yet most citizens still do not recycle, even when recycling is made easy by curbside pickups. This field experiment was designed to increase participation in a city sponsored curbside recycling program. Citizens who consistently recycled with the city program were approached and asked to be "recycling block leaders." Those who agreed were instructed to give approximately 10 nonrecycling neighbors a persuasive communication advocating recycling and special recycling bags. A second treatment group (of nonrecycling households) had bags and the communication left at their door. Results indicated that the curbside recycling of the two experimental groups differed significantly from one another (with the block leader group recycling more), and both differed significantly from a control group receiving no treatment. A discussion of past recycling intervention research and its feasibility for community application is included.

Knowing What It Makes: How Product Transformation Salience Increases Recycling

KEY FINDINGS:

• This research proposes that product transformation salience (thinking about recyclables turning into new products) increases recycling.

• Giving consumers an idea of what a can or glass might be transformed into makes them far more likely to recycle it.

• Product transformation information, regardless of whether the recycling transformation produces the same or different products than the recycled material, increases recycling compared with a control recycling message that does not make transformation salient.

o 1) college students - given paper to doodle on, given one of 3 ads about recycling (recyclables going into recycling bin, recyclables going into bins and same products coming out, recyclables going into bins and different products coming out), dispose of paper at end - DV = trash or recycle doodle paper

o The effect of transformation salience does not depend on the specific product outcome or perceived novelty of the transformation message.

• Predict viewing advertisements for products made from recycled plastic will increase recycling behavior more than viewing advertisements for products across media made by companies that engage in recycling practices.

o 2) college students - given paper to doodle on, shown 2 ads (toy + phone case): 2 conditions: one both ads emphasizing made of unused plastic (one ad says company recycles plastic, but not that the product is explicitly made from a recycled object) and one both ads emphasizing product made of recycled plastic; dispose of paper at end - DV = trash or recycle doodle paper

o Despite transformation only being made salient through advertisements for products made from recycled plastic, transformation salience influenced recycling of a piece of paper used in an unrelated task.

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o Significantly more participants recycled with product specifically stated to be made of recycled plastic.

• Transformation salience increases recycling intentions even when no product outcome is specified, suggesting that the effect occurs due to inspiration from thinking about the possibility of transformation, rather than by considering a specific product as an outcome of recycling.

o 3) Prolific study – participants shown 1 of 3 ads: control (recycling conserves resources), product transformation (recycling makes new plastic bottles), general transformation (recycling gives recyclables new life). Then participants indicated recycling intentions, inspiration, measures to assess related constructs

• Transformation salience increases recycling in disposal decisions, also increases the likelihood that consumers will be inspired to get more information to recycle old jeans.

o 4) Google ads - Madewell. Give jeans to be recycled + Recycle jeans you don't use vs Transform jeans to insulation + Recycle jeans you don't use - DV = clicks

o Transformation salience increases consumers’ recycling information seeking provides evidence of the potential long-lasting impact that providing product transformation information can have on recycling attitudes and behaviors

• Making product transformation salient to consumers in a natural consumption environment increases recycling.

o 5) field study - tailgating; 2 conditions: liaisons shared information about proper recycling at tailgates, 1) no additional information dispersed; 2) liaisons also informed tailgaters about transformation of each type of recyclable into new product when informing what to put in recycling bags, also laminated visual aids to support this - DV = weight of waste remaining

o Tailgating study: # bags (trash and recycling) similar across conditions. 58% recycling in transformation condition (told that recycled materials turned into new products) vs 19% recycling in non-transformation condition (not told anything).

• more waste in wrong container on non-transformation salience floors o 6) university dorm - poster at waste disposal showing "save trash for last" + waste categories for

each bin. 2 conditions: 1 showing product transformation, 1 just showing regular recycling - DV = fraction of recoverable landfill trash

• In an early study on the psychology of recycling, Lord (1994) found that a message emphasizing the negative outcomes that can be avoided by recycling (e.g., saving trees, using less landfill space, conserving energy) is more effective than one emphasizing the negative outcomes that would be incurred by not recycling (e.g., exceeding the capacity of landfills, damaging the beauty of our surroundings and the health of our families).

• Change the question from ‘Where does this go?' to 'What does this create?' to increase recycling rates. • Behavioral science concept: construal

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: Recycling campaigns abound, but do consumers think about what becomes of those recyclables? This research proposes that product transformation salience (thinking about recyclables turning into new products) increases recycling. The authors theorize that consumers are inspired by the transformation of recyclables into new products and that this inspiration motivates them to recycle. The authors demonstrate the effect of product transformation messages on recycling behavior using a recycling campaign (Study 1) and advertisements for products made from recycled plastic (Study 2). Study 3 demonstrates the mediating role of inspiration. Then, three field studies provide robust support for the transformation salience effect through click-through rates for recycling advertisements (Study 4), recycling rates during pre–football game tailgating (Study 5), and a reduction in the amount of recyclable materials incorrectly placed in the landfill bin by students in a university residence hall (Study 6). The authors discuss implications for the design of recycling campaigns and positioning of recycled products in the marketplace as well as theoretical contributions regarding the roles of transformation salience and inspiration in encouraging recycling and other sustainable behaviors.

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Method and system for improving recycling through the use of financial incentives

KEY FINDINGS:

• Methods and systems are provided for improving recycling and participation rates by providing financial incentives to households engaged in recycling.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: Methods and systems are provided for improving recycling and participation rates by providing financial incentives to households engaged in recycling. Certain embodiments of the invention relate to reduction of costs associated with waste collection and the enhancement of collection efficiency. Other embodiments of the invention relate to opening a marketing channel for participating retailers to build value from responsible corporate citizenship.

Recycling on vacation: Does pro-environmental behavior change when consumers travel?

KEY FINDINGS:

• People who recycle at home may abandon recycling practices on vacation, even if they believe they can make a difference and have strong environment attitudes. The article concludes with suggestions to improve recycling behaviors for consumers when they are at home and when they are tourists.

• The existing literature on recycling behavior suggests social and convenience factors are positively associated with recycling behavior.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: The existing literature on recycling behavior suggests social and convenience factors are positively associated with recycling behavior. Less is known about how environmental values, environmental self-efficacy, attitudes toward recycling, and attitudes toward recycling effort affect recycling frequency and behavior. Further, recycling behavior is often studied when consumers are at home; behavior may change when consumers are on vacation. Therefore, this article examines understudied attitudinal variables that may be related to recycling behavior using self-report data about recycling from both residents and people on vacation. The study suggests attitudinal variables affect recycling behaviors and replicates previous findings that people are less likely to recycle when they are on vacation. People who recycle at home may abandon recycling practices on vacation, even if they believe they can make a difference and have strong environment attitudes. The article concludes with suggestions to improve recycling behaviors for consumers when they are at home and when they are tourists.

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Pro-Environmental Behavior and Bioeconomy: Reflections on Single-Bottled Water Consumption

KEY FINDINGS:

• The model encompassed the following factors which would influence the bottled water consumption: safety and hygiene, personal benefit, locus of control, personal responsibility, health benefits, environmental concerns, knowledge of action strategies and intention to adopt a pro-environmental behavior.

• The findings revealed that the primary motivation of the respondents to use bottled water was safety and hygiene and they would engage in a pro-environmental behavior in using refillable bottles for drinking water.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: Nowadays, many global challenges such as climate change, food security, health, industrial restructuring, and energy conservation may be solved by applying the principles of bioeconomy. Adequately implementing the principles of Bioeconomy ensures a transition from a fossil-based economy to a bio-based economy. Although in most European countries, there is clean, safe and reliable drinking water, the bottled water industry has the fastest growing rate with severe consequences for the environment. This research assesses the intentions of Romanian university students regarding single-bottled water usage by implementing a pro-environmental behavior model. As such, this study extends the existing literature on pro-environmental behavior by identifying the factors specific to the single bottled water consumption. The model encompassed the following factors which would influence the bottled water consumption: safety and hygiene, personal benefit, locus of control, personal responsibility, health benefits, environmental concerns, knowledge of action strategies and intention to adopt a pro-environmental behavior. Using Structural Equation Modeling, we validated the pro-environmental single-bottled water consumption model on a sample of 283 university students, with the mean age of 20. The non-probabilistic sampling method was homogenous convenience type, nonrepresentative but with the possibility to determine an ideal defined group. The findings revealed that the primary motivation of the respondents to use bottled water was safety and hygiene and they would engage in a pro-environmental behavior in using refillable bottles for drinking water.

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The Recycled Self: Consumers’ Disposal Decisions of Identity-Linked Products

KEY FINDINGS:

• People are more likely to recycle (vs trash) something linked by identity. • People were significantly more likely to recycle a cup when their name was spelled correctly on the cup:

48% did, as opposed to 26% of those who had no name written on the cup at all and a paltry 24% of those who had a misspell.

• People were significantly more likely to recycle a piece of paper on which they wrote their own name rather than a generic name under the guise of testing a pen: 36% who wrote their own name recycled, while only 23% of those who wrote a generic name did.

• Online participants (MTurk, US) were more likely to recycle a cup branded with their own national flag (80% recycled) than either one branded with another national flag (UK; 62.5% recycled) or a non-branded one (blank; 60% recycled)

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: It has been known for some time that consumers’ identities influence purchasing decisions and people form strong identity connections, or “links,” with products and brands. However, research has yet to determine whether identity-linked products are differentially treated at disposal in comparison to products that are not identity linked. Across seven studies, the current research shows that when an everyday product (e.g., paper, cups, aluminum cans) is linked to a consumer’s identity, it is less likely to be trashed and more likely to be recycled. Further, the tendency to recycle an identity-linked product increases with the strength and positivity of the connection between the consumer and product (or brand). Finally, the disposal behavior can be explained by consumers’ motivation to avoid trashing a product that is linked to the self because it is viewed as an identity threat. In sum, consumers will be more likely to recycle (rather than trash) a product if the product is linked to a consumer’s identity. This occurs because placing an identity-linked product in the trash is symbolically similar to trashing a part of the self, a situation consumers are motivated to avoid.

The Effect of Product Size and Form Distortion on Consumer Recycling Behavior

KEY FINDINGS:

• Cans that were either smaller (7.5 oz) or dented were less likely to be recycled than cans of a standard 12 oz size or which maintained their intact form. The cans were recycled at rates of: small, dented: 23%; small, intact: 47%; regular size, dented: 16%; regular size, intact: 83%

• Cans that were not dented were perceived to be more useful, cleaner, and purer than dented cans. • Behavioral science concept: loss aversion (usefulness); horns effect

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: The present research examines conditions under which consumers dispose of recyclable products in the garbage. Results from a field study and four laboratory studies demonstrate that a consumer's decision to recycle a product or throw it in the trash can be determined by the extent to which the product has been distorted during the consumption process. Specifically, if the consumption process distorts a product sufficiently from its original form (i.e., changes in size or form), consumers perceive it as less useful and in turn are more likely to throw it in the garbage (as opposed to recycle it). These findings point to important outcomes of the consumption process that have largely been ignored and provide initial insight into the psychological processes influencing recycling behavior.

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Can psychology influence the way we recycle?

KEY FINDINGS:

• People were more likely to litter when an environment is already trashed (54% littered in an already littered environment vs 6% littered in a clean environment).

• Recycling in a community increased 25% after TV ads conveying positive attitudes toward recycling while condemning a single individual who did not recycle.

• Hotel towel reuse increased 26% when patrons told that most guests in the hotel reused towels and 33% when told that previous patrons of the same room reused towels.

• Simple things like the shape of a lid can affect recycling behaviors, which is why bins tend to have differently shaped holes for different items such as bottles, cans or paper.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: In a 2008 study titled "It matters a hole lot," two sets of three bins where placed throughout an academic building. One set had no lids, while the other had a flap lid for trash, a lid with a 6-inch hole for recyclables and a lid with a narrow slit for paper. The results were astonishing: Not only did the shaped lids increase correct recycling by 34%, but the amount of contaminants, such as food, in the recycling stream collapsed by 95%.

Recycling Gone Bad: When the Option to Recycle Increases Resource Consumption

KEY FINDINGS:

• Consumers feel comfortable using a larger amount of a resource when recycling is an option. Essentially, people who know they are going to recycle after completing a task that generates waste use far more resources than they otherwise would have.

o Note: This finding supports the entire campaign and the reason for the brief – if we encourage people to recycle cans, they will drink more cans.

• Participants completed a paper-cutting study in which the trash can was inside the test room and the recycling bin outside the test room. Participants paid a fixed wage for the study were more likely to recycle than participants paid hourly for the task.

o Putting a price tag on time leaves individuals to focus on their own needs and goals, as opposed to the needs and goals of others, including the environment.

• "We think this happens because people think about recycling in terms of its environmental benefits, with less awareness that there are also environmental costs," said Jesse R. Catlin of Sacramento State University, one of the authors of the study.

• Findings suggest that the positive emotions associated with recycling can overpower the negative emotions, like guilt, associated with wasting.

• Conserving resources in one domain may lead you to waste resources in another—in effect, giving yourself a pass because of your prior good behavior – a phenomenon known in social science as “moral licensing.”

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: In this study, we propose that the ability to recycle may lead to increased resource usage compared to when a recycling option is not available. Supporting this hypothesis, our first experiment shows that consumers used more paper while evaluating a pair of scissors when the option to recycle was provided (vs. not provided). In a follow-up field experiment, we find that the per person restroom paper hand towel usage increased after the introduction of a recycling bin compared to when a recycling option was not available. We conclude by discussing implications for research and policy.

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When less is more: Consumer aversion to unused utility

KEY FINDINGS:

• consumers averse to waste arising from unused utility • waste consideration occurs at time of purchase (vs disposal) • wisdom rated much lower when unused utility; participants thought it unreasonable to

purchase something with unused utility but NOT something that implicitly is purchased for a specific occasion

o staff and students at university given one of 2 prompts about $250 fondue set: either unused utility or no unused utility "Anne has a dinner party for some friends. She buys a fondue set and

ingredients for a fondue dinner. The dinner party costs her $250. Her friends enjoy the meal and have a good time. She never uses the fondue set again. [unused utility condition].

Jane has a dinner party for some friends. She reserves dinner at a fondue restaurant. The dinner party costs her $250. Her friends enjoy the meal and have a good time. [no unused utility condition]."

Participants then asked what they thought about Anne/Jane intelligence, wastefulness, generosity, etc.

• Behavioral science concepts: loss aversion; framing effect

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE:

A series of experiments demonstrates that consumers exhibit aversion to waste during forward-looking purchase. These experiments further reveal that such behavior is driven by distaste for unused utility, a reaction that is shown to be distinct from an aversion to squandering money. Waste aversion is especially pronounced when consumers anticipate future consequences and deprivation is salient. In addition to demonstrating robustness across consumers and marketing contexts, the results also demonstrate how waste aversion can lead to self-defeating behavior in which consumers forego desired utility. Finally, the present research demonstrates and discusses the implications of waste aversion for a variety of marketing issues, including buy-rent markets, bundling, and the fundamental distinction between goods and services.

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Consumer recycling: Role of incentives, information, and social class

KEY FINDINGS:

• We conclude that either intervention program is effective, although informational programs appear to have more long-term effects than incentive programs. We also create a new measure of social class, one that includes other influential actors’ characteristics, and show its relationship to recycling attitudes and behaviors.

• Both sites had dramatic increase in recycling during intervention period, with information condition at a higher increase level. After end of intervention period, both sites had recycling decrease, although 15% drop at Information vs 26% drop at Incentive

o 2 undergrad residence hall clusters chosen to be test sites: one deployed incentive campaign ( publicly announced plan to sponsor party for res. hall with highest recycling rate over 4 months), other deployed information campaign (3x weekly demo of recycling; 1x weekly mailbox inserts on how and why to recycle)

• Increase in recycled paper was almost 150 per cent over baseline at the Information site and 118 per cent at the Incentive site. Increase in recycled glass was over 19 per cent at the Information site, but actually dropped by 42 per cent relative to baseline at the Incentive site

o Distributed surveys to measure social class, environmental attitude/behavior, recycling attitude/behavior

• Implies that information campaigns more effective than incentive campaigns as add-ons (assumes world in which cans already may have some financial incentive to recycle)

• Lower and middle class students more likely to recycle than upper class peers; women had more favorable attitudes toward environment, recycling, more likely to engage in environmentally friendly and recycling behaviors; WEAK effect on recycling attitude

• Behavioral science concepts: social norms; incentives

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: More and more communities have instituted recycling programs and consumer recycling is no longer a new fad; it is here to stay. However, consumer commitment to recycling and participation rates have leveled off. Whereas lack of access to recycling facilities was cited as a key inhibitor to participation in the early days of recycling, that is generally not the case anymore. Thus there is an imperative to revisit consumer recycling by focusing on behavioral issues that reflect today's context. In this study we review the past literature and propose a comprehensive model of consumer recycling. We identify two intervention mechanisms – incentives or information – that are believed to increase recycling participation. We, then, describe a longitudinal field experiment to evaluate the relative merits of these intervention programs. We conclude that either intervention program is effective, although informational programs appear to have more long-term effects than incentive programs. We also create a new measure of social class, one that includes other influential actors' characteristics, and show its relationship to recycling attitudes and behaviors.

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Motivations and behaviors that support recycling

KEY FINDINGS:

• People who make a valued but uninteresting task more phenomenally interesting and more manageable are more likely to continue at the task.

• First, we asked peoples’ attitudes towards recycling to gauge their reasons for persisting. We also asked them open-ended questions to allow them to describe how they made recycling interesting or what satisfactions it provided. i.e. how they redefined the task, what interfered with recycling, whether they emphasized or de-emphasized problems., and how they made it easier, i.e. whether they had made the task manageable. Used self-report and observations to determine whether they actually recycled.

• Examined two reasons to persist in recycling: 1) simply holding favorable attitudes towards recycling, 2) social orientation. (extent to which people are proud that they recycle, promote recycling among others, and have friends, neighbors or relatives who encourage them to recycle)

• Questionnaires: two indices of how regularly people recycled: a self-report index and observations of their curbside recycling. Used to determine recycling frequency across 6 types of recyclables. Also asked questions about attitude toward recycling.

• Demographics weren't predictive of recycling behavior. • Less than half respondents enjoyed recycling. Those who did had positive cognition toward recycling

(enjoying colored or shaped bottles, the satisfaction of seeing garbage reduced, fun moments with children). The study probed mechanisms that made recycling easier or reduced interference.

• Respondents with strong personal and social attitudes and positive phenomenal experiences were most likely to describe multiple ways of organizing recycling and to report fewer interferences to recycling.

• Attitudes, interest, organizing, low interference predicted short-term recycling. Attitudes, organizing, low interference predicted long-term recycling. People with high interest continued to recycle, but the presence of new recyclers reduced the correlation at Time 2.

• Suggests that if people have a singular definition of a task, it is important to work with that definition rather than introducing rewards or feedback about a different definition. For example, if one is trying to increase recycling in a neighborhood, children might respond better to an appeal stressing socializing fun to get together with friends and recycle and their parents might respond better to competency feedback on the amount of recycling accomplished.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: This paper proposes that recycling researchers should pay attention to both attitudes towards recycling and the processes involved in recycling recyclers’ phenomenal experiences and organizing strategies. As predicted by Sansone and colleagues’ model of how people induce themselves to engage in necessary but boring tasks, people who had reasons to persist at recycling that is, who held strong prorecycling attitudes or had a social orientation towards recycling. were more likely to redefine recycling so as to emphasize its pleasures or the sense of satisfaction they gained from contributing to the environment. These people were also more likely to have developed a way of organizing recycling in their homes, to report few interferences with recycling, and most important}to recycle on both short- and long-term bases. In accord with the model, people who became better recyclers by Time 2 had had stronger prorecycling attitudes at Time 1 than people who remained poor recyclers. Our results are consistent with the view that people who make a valued but uninteresting task more phenomenally interesting and more manageable are more likely to continue at the task. Sansone and colleagues’ model provides a useful way to look at recycling and also suggests a new way that attitudes may be linked to behavior via cognitive transformation of behavior.

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It's the Mind-Set That Matters: The Role of Construal Level and Message Framing in Influencing Consumer Efficacy and Conservation Behaviors

KEY FINDINGS:

• a match of loss (gain) frames with concrete (abstract) mind-sets leads to greater fluency and perceived efficacy, which ultimately leads to positive recycling outcome

• low-level construals can lead to greater self-control (in the form of recycling now to achieve greater collective outcomes in the future) when they are paired with loss-oriented frames

• people in loss/how condition and gain/why condition significantly greater participation in recycling than people in baseline conditions

o marketing materials about recycling (2-sided door hanger) distributed. One side of the hanger presented the construal manipulation, which highlighted "the ways (reasons) to make a difference" to vary a focus on how (why) people might recycle. On the reverse side of the hanger was the frame manipulation, which delivered either a loss-framed or gain-framed message (Appendix A)

• temporal aspect has effect - "Recycle for a better Calgary Today," group had higher recycling intention than "Recycle for a better Calgary Tomorrow" condition

o gave staff/students at university one of 2 messages to see which had higher recycling intention after temporal manipulation

• Behavioral science concept: temporal construal

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE:

Across three studies, this research elucidates when loss- versus gain framed messages are most effective in influencing consumer recycling by examining the moderating role of whether a more concrete or abstract mind-set is activated. First, in a field study, the authors demonstrate that loss frames are more efficacious when paired with low-level, concrete mind-sets, whereas gain frames are more effective when paired with high-level, abstract mind-sets. this is an important, substantive finding that persisted over a significant time span. in addition, in two additional laboratory studies, they find further evidence for this matching hypothesis, in which a pairing of loss- (gain-) framed messages that activates more concrete (abstract) mind-sets leads to enhanced processing fluency, increased efficacy, and, as a result, more positive recycling intentions. the findings have implications for marketers, consumers, and society as a whole.

Do plastic bag taxes or bans curb waste? 400 cities and states tried it out.

KEY FINDINGS:

• According to research in both Chicago and Montgomery County, Maryland around fees for use of single-use plastic bags at grocery retailers, “very small financial incentives can lead to big behavioral change.”

• Where banning thin plastic bags led to reliance on thick plastic bags, charging a small fee for all checkout bags led to a nearly 50% drop in single-use bag demand in Chicago

• The fact that small fees, 5 or 7 cents, can lead to a big reduction in disposable bag use suggests that a sizable portion of the population is perfectly happy to use a reusable bag or not use a bag at all, and need just the smallest push to get there.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: While a straightforward ban may seem like the most effective way to stop people from using plastic, researchers and consultants suggest another strategy is working better: a tax on all non-reusable bags, which may or may not be combined with an outright ban on some plastic.

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What’s the best way to get Americans to actually recycle?

KEY FINDINGS:

• In Germany, 98% of plastic bottles are recycled. The reason why most bottles and cans in Germany are recycled is straightforward, advocates say: Like a handful of U.S. states, the governments require bottle deposits.

• When you buy a six-pack of beer or a can of Spezi in Berlin, you pay a little extra for the containers, and if you bring them back to the store–feeding them into a machine that automatically recognizes what kind of bottle or can you’ve pushed inside–you get the deposit back.

• In Oregon, where an existing deposit law was updated in April 2017 to increase the deposit from the original 1970s-era rate of 5¢ to 10¢, the redemption rate increased as well in the following months, from 64% to 82%. States that have deposit laws, such as Michigan, have higher recycling rates than those that don’t have the laws, such as Alabama.

• It’s “blatantly obvious,” says Susan Collins, president of the nonprofit Container Recycling Institute, that this type of deposit scheme leads to higher recycling rates.

o Note: This notion seems to work better in terms of a fee or financial cost/penalty versus a reward. i.e. turning in cans for money (unless you’ve already paid a ‘deposit’ on them and are trying to get that back)

Nudging waste diversion at Western State Colorado University: Application of behavioral insights

KEY FINDINGS:

• When faced with a situation that calls for the expenditure of behavioral resources (time or energy), an individual will evaluate the courses of action available and will typically decide upon the course of action that appears most "rational" to them ( Best and Kneip, 2011; Diekmann and Preisendörfer, 1998).

• The actions required to recycle a waste product are often more labor intensive than alternative actions (e.g. throwing recycling in the nearest waste container), thus construing recycling behavior as "irrational."

• Hypothesis: As convenience becomes less of an obstacle to basic recycling behaviors, there will be an increase in recycling compliance rates.

• Make recycling more convenient – in all spaces with trash cans, add recycling bin nearby. • Recycling receptacles moved away from points of purchase (eg vending machines in hall) to classrooms

next to trash cans. Additional recycling bins (same size as trash bins) added for large events. • At large events, prevent contamination by fitting recycling bins with lids for bottle/can recycling - waste

receptacle locations recorded. Baseline recyclables in trash measured by weighing trash before and after removing recyclables.

• Behavioral science concepts: focusing/ present bias / intention - to -action gap

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE:

This research aims to test a nudge, or intervention, designed through behavioral insights at a University campus to discover cost effective means for increasing recycling participation and discover methods for estimating waste removal cost savings.

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Improving Aluminum Can Recycling Rates: A Six Sigma Study in Kentucky

KEY FINDINGS:

• This is a detailed case study into the recycling flows in Kentucky using Six Sigma framework. • Six Sigma uses data and statistical analysis to improve processes by focusing on input variables. The

methodology identifies sources of variability in the work process that result in “defects,” defined as anything outside of customer specifications.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: The aluminum can industry is facing a new challenge in declining recycling rates in the United States. The economic benefits of aluminum recycling are widespread and important not only to the U.S. aluminum industry, but to the economy in general. With an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation grant, Secat Inc. and the University of Kentucky, through the Center for a Sustainable Aluminum Industry, are conducting a project in Fayette County, Kentucky, to understand and improve recycling rates using Six Sigma methodology. This application of Six Sigma is the first methodological attempt at improving the recycling rate. To date, the preliminary process map has been identified and an initial estimate of the true recycling rate has been developed. The information gathered during this project and described in this article is expected to serve as a steppingstone to a national effort to increase U.S. recycling rates. The result, it is anticipated, will be increased economic development opportunities.

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Beverage Industry Recycling and Can Buzz

Would You Drink Water Out of a Can? Pepsi Wants to Find Out

KEY FINDINGS:

• Stat from article: Across the world, only 9 percent of all the plastic ever made has been recycled; by contrast, 67 percent of the aluminum bought by consumers every year is reused.

• Consumer quotes suggest unease at lack of transparent container: “I need to see the contents of the water,” he said. “I need to see there’s nothing inside.”

• “Consumers are clearly interested in the convenience of bottled water, the affordability,” said Duane Stanford, the executive editor of the trade publication Beverage Digest.

• Seems to be a difference in consumer expectation for can in terms of carbonated vs still beverages

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE:

Pepsi said Thursday that starting early next year (2020), its Aquafina brand of water would be test-marketed in aluminum cans at some retailers and food-service providers.

PepsiCo Plans Recycling Initiative

KEY FINDINGS:

• The Dream Machine recycling program is an attempt to be all things to all people: o "Dark green" environmentalists can carry key fobs that track and reward their personal

recycling efforts, and link them to a social network with regular news feeds. o People who recycle at home but not on the go would get an incentive such as a chance to win a

baseball cap. o Those cool to environmental causes might be interested in the sponsors' promise of a per-

bottle donation to the Entrepreneurship Bootcamp for Veterans, a business training program for disabled veterans.

Note: They successfully catered incentives to match all audiences.

ABSTRACT FOR REFERENCE: Worried that most of its bottles and cans are going into the trash instead of the recycling bin, PepsiCo placed thousands of new recycling kiosks at concert venues, in grocery stores and along city sidewalks in partnership with Waste Management, via a program called The Dream Machine.

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These Coke Billboards Point You to the Newest Recycling Bin

KEY TAKEAWAYS:

• Coke deployed billboards pointing consumers to the nearest recycling bin (see above; May 2019) • The campaign ran in Central and Eastern Europe, and is also making a stop at Bulgarian music fest the

Happy Energy Tour, which had more than 200,000 attendees last year. • Results of the campaign so far show that 85% of cans used have been collected, which the agency says is

a big jump compared to last year.

‘Don’t Buy Coca-Cola If You’re Not Going to Help Us Recycle!’ Coca-Cola Launches Recycling Campaign

KEY TAKEAWAYS:

• June 2019 campaign in Netherlands and Belgium where 85% of Coca-Cola packaging is already being recycled

• Includes TV advertisements and activations in towns and at festivals • Might be too bold for U.S., but it plays on Groupthink/you can’t sit with us – make recycling

elite/exclusive

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Coca-Cola promised to help fix recycling. Here's how it plans to deliver

KEY TAKEAWAYS:

• Coke embarked on a "feet on the street" campaign in Atlanta deploying city employees and temporary workers to check curb-side household recycling bins for contaminating items like plastic bags, food, liquids or electronics, and leave a tag explaining what's wrong on the bins where those items are found to educate consumers about recycling contamination.

o Workers note the violation in an app to help keep track of changes in recycling habits over time. The recycling isn't collected until people fish out the offending items.

o Atlanta citizens will also get mailers, and the city will educate the public on proper recycling through its social media channels. Money from the grant will help fund recycling programs for multi-family residences and college campuses in the city, as well.

• Coke also has a recycling bin grant in partnership with Keep America Beautiful, wherein it funds the placement of recycling containers in public spaces: https://www.kab.org/coca-cola-public-spaces-recycling-bin-grant-program

o The Coca Cola Foundation is giving $5.4 million in grants to a number of environmental organizations, including GreenBlue for recycling efforts in Orlando, Keep Houston Beautiful and the Boston Parks and Recreation Foundation.

• Coke also partners with Circulate Capital to address ocean plastic in South Asia and Southeast Asia, as well as Ioniqa to fund PET upcycling technology: https://www.coca-colacompany.com/stories/coca-cola-announces-new-investments-in-enhanced-recycling-as-par

Why a World Without Waste is Possible

KEY TAKEAWAYS:

• CEO of Coke wrote an Op-Ed on Sustainability Coupled with Pledge to Recycle/Collect Equivalent of bottles/cans sold

• Frames increase in use of natural resources as both danger for the earth and opportunity for rethinking packaging and the economy

• Emphasizes donation efforts of Coca-Cola during natural disasters (bottled water in “modern” plastic bottles)

• That’s why we’ve announced a bold, ambitious goal: to help collect and recycle a bottle or can for every one we sell by 2030. Regardless of where it comes from, we want every package to have more than one life.

• Highlights past work to clean coastline, invest in plastic plants that produce recyclable plastic, and help make recycling more accessible in areas that don’t have an at-home pickup infrastructure already in place

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Ideas

What Retailers Can Learn from Lush’s Packaging-Free Stores

KEY TAKEAWAYS: • An advantage of Lush’s packaging-free store, Naked, is that the products are cheaper as a result of no

packaging and reformulation in some cases, for which the production process is more cost effective.

IDEA:

• How can we tell the beer drinking dads that recycling will offset cost inflation?

How big brands are trying to pull off a recycling revolution

KEY TAKEAWAYS: • Coca-Cola partnering with Closed Loop Fund to recycle one bottle or can for each one it sells • Recycled materials aren't always cheaper than raw materials, but their prices are consistent.

IDEA:

• Consider playing off the Chinese tariffs war – the beer drinking dad in particular wants to know he’s supporting America and a consistent market that supports our country, versus fueling a reliance on foreign pricing.

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Appendix

REFERENCE LITERATURE: Choice and Behavioral Design

• A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality. • A New Model for Integrating Behavioral Science and Design • Aluminum Recycling in the Circular Economy • Knowing what it makes: How product transformation salience increases recycling: Web

Appendix