Racial Figleaves and the Shifting Boundaries of the Permissible
-
Upload
khangminh22 -
Category
Documents
-
view
1 -
download
0
Transcript of Racial Figleaves and the Shifting Boundaries of the Permissible
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
1
RacialFigleavesandtheShiftingBoundariesofthePermissible
JenniferSaul
Weliveinatimewhen‘racist’isoneoftheworstinsultsaround.Veryfew
peopleopenlyprofessaviewthattheylabel‘racism’,andthosethatdoarevery
muchmarginalized.(Evendenizensofthealt-rightwilloftencalltheirviews
‘racialist’ratherthan‘racist’.)Andyet,asweallwellknow,wearedevastatingly
farfromeradicatingracism.Buteventhosewellawareofracism’spowerhave
beensurprisedbytheovertracismoftheRepublicanPresidentialPrimaryin
2016.Despite,orperhapsbecauseofthis,Trumphastriumphedtobecomethe
Republicanpresidentialcandidate.Whatdoesthismean?Isitbecoming
acceptabletobeopenlyracist?Howmuchworse,onefindsoneselfthinking,will
thingsbecome?
Thispaperisanexaminationofhowthispoliticalmomentcouldcometobe:how
ashiftcantakeplaceinwhichonceunutterablesentimentsbecomeincreasingly
utterable.Inparticular,it’sanexaminationofaparticulardevicethat,Iwill
suggest,facilitatesit—onethateasilygoesunremarked,butthatinfactvery
muchdeservesscrutiny.Icallthisa‘figleaf’,andthevarietythatismyfocushere
a‘racialfigleaf’.Aracialfigleafisanutterance1madeinadditiontoanotherwise
overtlyracistone,thatservesthefunctionofcallingintoquestiontheracismof
thespeakerandtheutterance.Iusetheterm‘figleaf’becauseitisanutterance
thatprovidesasmallbitofcoverforsomethingthatisunacceptabletodisplayin
public.2Inwhatfollows,Ifirstoutlinethestateofaffairsthatmakesracial
figleavesanappealingandusefultechniquetodeploy;thenIturntoadiscussion
ofhowthesefigleavesfunctioninthechangingofourconversationalstandards.
1Sometimesafigleafmightalsobesomethingotherthananutterance,likeasymbolorevenaperson:arguably,non-whiteUKIPspokespeopleserveashumanfigleaves.2Oneconsequenceofthisisthatwhichthingsfigleaveswillbeusedforwillvaryfromculturetocultureandtimetotime,dependingonwhichthingsareconsideredunacceptabletoshowinpublic.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
2
ButbeforeIgoanyfurther,aterminologicalnoteisinorder.Iamcastingthis
discussionintermsof‘racism’.Imeanthisinabroadsense,encompassing
prejudicesofnationalityorofreligionaswellasprejudicesthatmapmore
clearlyontotraditionalconceptionsofrace.Thisisabitofanoversimplification,
asIthinkthereareimportantdifferencesbetweenthesesortsofprejudice.3
However,Idon’tthinkanythingturnsonitforthepurposesofthepresentpaper.
1. Background:Norms,Resentments,andProcessesofChange
1.1 Mendelberg,ImplicitandExplicitAppeals
Althoughtherehavebeensomerecentshifts(moreonthissoon),itstillseems
correcttosaythattheoverwhelmingmajorityofwhiteAmericansdonot
currentlyself-identifyasracists,andtheywouldbehorrifiedbythethoughtthat
theyareguiltyofracism.AsTaliMendelberg(2001)notes,itwasnotalways
thus:PriortotheCivilRightsMovement,onecouldrunandwinatanational
levelonaplatformthatincludedclaimsofwhitesupremacyandpoliciesoflegal
segregationoftheraces.However,Mendelberg,argues,thingschanged.Atthe
timeofherwriting(2001,2008a,b),Americanpoliticaldiscoursewasgoverned
bywhatshecallstheNormofRacialEquality.Andyet,shenoted,themajorityof
whiteAmericansshowedremarkablyhighlevelsofwhatpsychologistscall
“racialresentment”,measuredbylevelofagreementwithclaimslike“Irish,
Italian,Jewishandmanyotherminoritiesovercameprejudiceandworkedtheir
wayup.Blacksshoulddothesamewithoutanyspecialfavors.”(Teslerand
Sears2010:19)
Mendelbergarguedthatthissituationgaverisetoaveryspecificsortofpolitical
messaging.Shedrewacontrastbetweenexplicitracialappeals—definedas
thosewhichuseexplicitracialvocabulary;andimplicitracialappeals—ones
whichwerefarsubtler,alludingtoraceeitherviaimages(mostfamously,the
WillieHortonaddiscussedinher2001)orcodewordslike“innercity”or
3Idiscusstheseissuesinmoredetailinmy(inprogress)paper“‘Immigration’intheBrexitCampaign:Dogwhistletermsincomplexcontexts”.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
3
“welfare”(HorwitzandPeffley2005).Implicitappeals—whatIelsewherecall
‘covertdogwhistles’—veryeffectivelyactivateracialattitudeswithoutavoter’s
awareness,whileexplicitappealstriggerself-monitoringandarethereforeless
effective.ThisiswhytheWillieHortonadvertisement—animplicitappeal—
causedraciallyresentfulvoterstosupportGeorgeHWBush.Anditisalsowhy,
Mendelbergargues,JesseJackson’scriticismofthisadasracistcausedthiseffect
todissipate(eventhoughhiscriticismwastreatedasutterlymisguidedby
mainstreammedia).4Atthispoint,theappealceasedtobeimplicitandbecame
explicit,whichrendereditineffective.Throughthe1990sandearly2000s
substantialevidenceaccumulatedforMendelberg’scontrastbetweenthe
workingsofimplicitandexplicitappeals.
Recently,thestarkcontrastbetweenimplicitandexplicitappealsseemstohave
dissipated.TherewereinitialindicationsofthisinworkbyHuberandLapinski
(2006,2008).ButMendelbergresponded,pointingtopotentialdesignflawsin
theirexperiments.Morerecently,however,Valentinoet.al.(2016)appearto
havedemonstrated,inexperimentalworkconducted2010-2012,thatexplicit
andimplicitracialappealscanbeequallysuccessful.Theirworkisnot
susceptibletoMendelberg’scriticism,andiftheyarerightitisnowclearthatan
explicitracialappealcanworkjustassuccessfullyonraciallyresentfulsubjects
asanimplicitracialappeal.Theyconcludethat“thepowerofracialattitudesin
mainstreamAmericanpoliticsisnolongerdependentuponthewaysinwhich
raceisdiscussed”(2016:6).Thischangeislargelyattributedtotheelectionof
BarackObama,andthesubsequentwidespreadbeliefthatracismisnolongeran
issue.
1.2 TheNormofRacialEgalitarianism
OnemightthinkthismeansthattheNormofRacialEgalitarianismisnolonger.
Certainly,theriseofDonaldTrumphasledtomuchspeculationalongthese
lines.ButIthinkthatthisispremature,andthatthereisevidenceofthisinthe4Idiscussthesefurtherinmyforthcoming“Dogwhistles,PoliticalManipulation,andPhilosophyofLanguage”.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
4
detailsofTrump’sutterances.First,IthinkitisworthnotingthatValentinoet.
al.havenotdemonstratedaconclusionquiteasstrongasthatwhichtheyassert
inthequoteabove.Theyhavedemonstratedthatmakingraceexplicitnolonger
nullifiestheimpactofracialresentmentoncandidateandpolicypreferences,a
deeplyimportantfinding.However,it’safurtherstepfromthistotheideathat
anythinggoes—that“thepowerofracialattitudesinmainstreamAmerican
politicsisnolongerdependentuponthewaysinwhichraceisdiscussed”(2016:
6).AndIdon’tthinkweshouldmakethisstep.Infact,itseemsquitelikelyto
methattheNormofRacialEgalitarianismisstillinforce.
Toseethis,let’sthinkalittlemoreabouttheformthattheNormofRacial
Equalityneedstotake.ThemajorityofwhiteAmericanswere,afterall,saidto
accepttheNormofRacialEqualitywhiledisplayinghighlevelsofRacial
Resentment.AnyremotelydemandingNormofRacialEqualitywouldprevent
onefromendorsingitemslike“Irish,Italian,Jewishandmanyotherminorities
overcameprejudiceandworkedtheirwayup.Blacksshoulddothesame
withoutanyspecialfavors.”(TeslerandSears2010:19).ThefactthattheNorm
iscompatiblewiththeendorsementofstatementslikethesemeansthatthe
normmustbearatherthinone.Mendelbergnevergivesusastatementofthe
norm,butshedoesstatethatitinvolves“thenotionthatracialinequalitywasan
immoralprinciple”;“oppositionto[whitesupremacy]andtothelegal
segregationitdefended”;anddiscreditingof“theideaofbiologicalinferiority”.
ShenotesthatundertheNorm,“neithercitizensnorpoliticianswanttobe
perceivedortoperceivethemselvesasracist”(18).Myworkinghypothesisis
thattheNormcanbeunderstoodastakingtheverysimpleform“Don’tbe
racist”.Adherentsthenapplytheirownunderstandingsofwhatisrequiredto
notberacist—andinmanycases,thisisnotverymuch.
Here,itisusefultolookattheworkofJaneHill,whodescribesthatshecallsthe
“folktheory”ofwhiteracism.AccordingtoHill,akeycomponentofthisisthe
IdeologyofPersonalism,whichholdsthat:“racismisentirelyamatterof
individualbeliefs,intentions,andactions”(2008:6).IfweformulatetheNormof
RacialEqualityas“don’tberacist”,andwerealizethattheIdeologyof
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
5
Personalismiswidespread,webegintoseehowitisthatonewhoacceptsthe
NormofRacialEqualitymightalsoassenttotheitemsontheRacialResentment
test:aslongastheydon’tclassifythoseitemsasracist,theywilltakethemselves
tobeadheringtotheNormofRacialEquality.
ItisalsoworthnotingthattheNormofRacialEqualityisnot,andhasnever
been,inforceforeveryoneintheUnitedStates.MendelbergspeaksoftheNorm
ofRacialEqualityaseitherbeinginoperationornot:itwasnotinforceforthe
UnitedStatesin1900,anditwasinforcefortheUnitedStatesin1988.Andfor
herpurposesthismakessense.Thevotersthatareherfocusarethosewho
politiciansseektoswayviasubtleracistmanipulations—peoplewithhighlevels
ofRacialResentment,butwhononethelessadheretotheNormofRacial
Equality.Butitisofcourseanoversimplification,forthenormmaybeinforce
foronegroupandnotforanother.SomeAmericans,thosewhoidentifyaswhite
supremacists,thinkitisperfectlyacceptabletobeopenlyracist;othersdonot.
Valentinoet.al.’s2016papershowsthatexplicitracialappealsdonotalwaysfall
fouloftheNormofRacialEqualityinsuchawayastoblocktheirinfluenceon
raciallyresentfulvoters.Thissuggeststhateitherthenormisnotinforce,oritis
nolongerrighttotakeittoprecludeallexplicitracialappeals.Thelatteris
possibleifexplicitracialappealsarenowseenascompatiblewithnotbeinga
racist.Mysuggestioninthispaperisthatthisisnowthecase,atleastforsome
explicitracialappeals.Inthefollowingsections,Isketchwhatseemstobeone
commontechniqueformakinganexplicitracialstatement,indeedoftenan
explicitlyraciststatement,withoutbeingseenasracist:thefigleaf.First,
however,weneedsomemorebackgroundinplaceonchangesofattitudesand
norms.
1.3 ChangesinAttitudes,Norms,Permissibility
RaeLangton(2012)andMaryKateMcGowan(2012)tellacompellingstoryof
howcertainsortsofshiftsinacceptabilitycantakeplace.Theybeginfromthe
waythatwhatLewis(1979)calls“conversationalscore”canshift.Acrucial
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
6
notionhereisthatofaccommodation:ifaspeakersayssomethingwhich,for
example,carriesapresupposition,then—providednobodyobjects—that
presuppositionistakenonboard.When,forexample,Isay“myhusbandmight
besurprisedbythethoughtthatallfeministshatemen”,thisintroducesthe
presuppositionthatIhaveahusband,whichcannowbetakenforgrantedfor
therestoftheconversation.
McGowandrawsattentiontotheubiquityofchangesinconversational
acceptability,arguingthateveryutterancechanges—atleastinasmallway—
whatisacceptableforthatconversation.Someofthesechangeswillbesmall
ones,liketheneedtotakeintoaccountwhatwaspreviouslyuttered.Butothers
willbemuchlarger—likeashiftintheacceptabilityofracistutterances.Langton
tellsasimilarstoryaboutconversationalaccommodation(thoughwithagreater
focusontheroleofauthority),arguingthatthatthiscanthenbringabout
psychologicalchangesinspeakers,causingthemtohaveattitudesandemotions
thatareappropriatetotheracismnowbeingtakenforgranted.Langton’sand
McGowan’sdiscussionsareespeciallyfocusedonthewaythatopenlyracist
utteranceseffectsignificantchangestostandardsofconversationalacceptability.
Ifthesearemadeandnotchallenged,theymaintain,theconversationalscore
shiftssoastoaccommodatethemasacceptable.
McGowanalsonotesthatracistbehaviormaybecomepermissibledueto
utterancesthataremade.Andofcourse,thismayleadtoquitedevastating
consequences.LynneTirrell(2012),forexample,hasshownhowthe
legitimationofhatefulspeechhelpedtogiverisetotheRwandangenocide.
Assofartold,however,thisstoryisincomplete.Toseethis,considerwhat
happenswhenawhitesupremacistmakesanopenlyracistutterance—thesort
ofcasethatisMcGowan’sfocus.Ifsheistalkingtoanotherwhitesupremacist,
theremarkwillnotbeobjectedto.Butthiswon’tleadtoanychangeinattitudes.
Themeetingofmindsoftwopeoplewithrepugnantsentimentsisobviouslyno
goodthing,butthereisnoreasontothinkthatitwillmoveothersinamore
racistdirection.Now,considerwhathappenswhenawhitesupremacistmakes
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
7
anopenlyracistremarktosomeonewhoadherestotheNormofRacialEquality.
LangtonandMcGowansuggestthatifnobodyobjects,theracistpresuppositions
willgenerallybetakenonboardandbegintoaffectboththepsychologicalstates
ofconversationalparticipantsandpermissibilityfactsmorebroadly.
Buthowlikelyisitthatnobodywillobject?Tomakethisquestionvivid,let’s
turntotheactualexampleMcGowanuses(2012:121).
ImaginethatanAfricanAmericanmanboardsapublicbusonwhichall
theotherpassengersarewhite.Unhappywiththenewcomer,anelderly
whitemanturnstotheAfricanAmericanmanandsays,“Justsoyou
know,becauseIrealizethatyourkindarenotverybright,wedon’tlike
niggersaroundhere…boy.So,gobacktoAfrica…soyoucanstopkilling
eachother…anddotheworldafavor!
Itmaywellbethatpeoplewillnotopenlyobject:confrontationisdifficult,and
peopletrytoavoidit,evenmoresowhenraceisatissue.Mendelberg’s(2001,
2008a,b)viewwasthatopenmentionofracecandisarmwhatwouldotherwise
beaneffectiveimplicitappeal/covertdogwhistle:adherentstotheNormof
RacialEqualityself-monitor,andwillrejectwhattheycannotavoidseeingas
racist.Asnoted,Valentinoet.al.’s(2016)workhascomplicatedthispicture,
meaningthatopenmentionsofracemaynotblocktheeffectivenessofanappeal.
However,itdoesnotbyanymeansfollowfromtheirworkthatpeoplewillbe
untroubledbyaggressivehatespeechcontainingatabooracialepithet,directed
atanelderlyman.5If,asIhavehypothesized,evenathinnormofRacial
Egalitarianismisstillinforce,thiswillbeseenasunacceptablyracist.Itwon’t
simplybeseamlesslyassimilated,butinstead—insomeway—rejectedbythose
whoadheretothisnorm,eveniftheyareraciallyresentful.Thisrejectionmight
consistofmentaldistancing,changingthetopic,orendingtheconversationas
5Theirresearchisonadifferenttopic—explicitVSimplicitracialpoliticalappeals,andtheireffectsonthecorrelationbetweenracialresentmentandpolicypreference.Theydonotdiscussanaggressiveutteranceofthissort(whichisnotinanywayapoliticalappeal),noraretheyconcernedwithconversationalnormsandaccommodation.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
8
quicklyaspossible.ButanadherenttotheNormisveryunlikelytosmoothly
assimilatetheracistassumptions,oncetheyareseenasclearlyracist.How,then,
donormsshift?Istheresomethingwhichallowsthesortofassimilationthat
LangtonandMcGowanposit?
Whatismissingfromtheirpicture,itseemstome,isrecognitionofafurther
conversationalphenomenon:thefigleaf.Afigleafgivesanopenlyracist
utterancejustenoughcoverthatanadherenttotheNormofRacialEqualitycan
reassurethemselfofthespeaker’s,andtheirown,non-racism.Thisisnecessary
tomakeanopenlyracistutteranceseemlikesomethingthatanon-racistmight
conceivablysayandthereforecrucialtothesortofconversational
accommodationthatLangtonandMcGowandrawourattentionto.Withoutit,
thepsychologyofspeakersandthepermissibilityfactswillnotchange.Itis
thereforevitallyimportantforustoattendtofigleavesandhowtheyworkin
conversation6.
2. Figleaves
Aracialfigleafisanutterancemadeinadditiontoonethatwouldotherwisebe
seenasracist.Unlikeinthecaseofanimplicitappeal/covertdogwhistle,race
hasbeenexplicitlymentioned.Thefigleafprovidescoverforwhatwould
otherwisehavetoomuchpotentialtobelabeledasracist.Sometimesthefigleaf
isutteredatthesametimeastheracistutterance.However,aswe’llsee,
figleavescansometimesbeprovidedaspartofanother,laterconversation(they
canevenbeprovidedinadvance).Theideaisthatthefigleafofferssomewayof
avoidingaconfrontationwiththepossibilitythatsomethingracistisgoingon.
Howwellthisworksvariesagreatdealfromcontexttocontextandaudienceto
audience.
6IconsiderfigleavestobeafriendlyadditiontoMcGowan’sandLangton’saccounts,whichiswhollycompatiblewithwhattheysay.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
9
Thispaperbeginstheprojectofexploringkindsoffigleavesandtheirfunction.
Wewillnamesomeofthemostcommonformsoffigleaves,butwewillalso
discusssomethataremorecomplexandlesseasilylabelled.
2.1 SynchronicFigleaves
Asynchronicfigleafisoneprovidedatroughlythesametimeastheutterancefor
whichitisafigleaf.Probablythemosteasilyrecognizablefigleafistheclassic
“I’mnotaracistbut…”,followedbysomethingexplicitlyracialandquitepossibly
explicitlyracist.VanDijk(1993:102-103)referstothisasan“apparentdenial”
ofracism,andHill(2008:120)actuallytreatsitsintelligibilityasatestofovert
racism,notingthatitonlymakessensetousethisphrasealongsidesomething
overtlyracist.7We’llcallitaDenialFigleaf.
TheclassicDenialfigleafattemptstododgeaccusationsofracismbysimply
assertingthattheyarenottrue.Itisoneofthemoststraightforwardandcrude
offigleaves.Figleaveslikethisonearesowell-knownthatthereareentireblogs
devotedtomockingthem8.Theyarewellknownaroundtheworld.Totakejust
oneexample,VanDijk(82),writingin1993,citesJean-MarieLePen,then-leader
oftheFrontNational:
(3)Weareneitherracistnorxenophobic.Ouraimisonlythat,quite
naturally,therebeahierarchy,becausewearedealingwithFrance,and
FranceistheCountryoftheFrench.
AcloselyrelatedfigleafistheFriendshipAssertionfigleaf,whichoften
accompaniesit.Itsclassicformis(2)
7I’mactuallynotsosureaboutthis.Ithinkitdoesmakesensetosay“I’mnotracist,butIdislikeObama’sforeignpolicy.Whilethismayarousesuspicionthatthespeakerisracist—whyelsedotheyfeeltheneedtoasserttheirnon-racism?—Idon’tthinkitindicatesthatdislikeofObama’sforeignpolicyisaracistview,orthatthosewhodislikeObama’sforeignpolicymustberacist.8http://imnotracistbut.tumblr.com;https://twitter.com/imnotsexistbut.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
10
(2)Someofmybestfriendsareblack,but…[racistutterance].
Itakeanotherformofthistobetobetheassertionofafondnessforthegroup
attacked—asin“I’vealwayshadagreatrelationshipwiththeblacks”.9Theyare
easilyrecognizableasweakattemptstodeflectaccusationsofracism,andare
generallynotgivenmuchcredence.Forthisreason,theyaregenerallynotvery
effective.10Thisiswhymorecomplexsynchronicfigleavesarealsoused,as
discussedbelow.
Ihavedefinedfigleavesintermsoftheirfunctions—theyareadditional
utterancesthatservetounderminetheclaimthatanapparentlyracistutterance
isracist.ASimpleDenialfigleafwillveryoftenfailtodothis.Technically,then,
itwillinthesecasesbeamerelyattemptedfigleaf.
2.1.1 TrumponMexicans
DonaldTrump’sremarksaboutMexicansincludeasynchronicfigleaf:
WhenMexicosendsitspeople,they'renotsendingtheirbest.They'renot
sendingyou.They'renotsendingyou.They'resendingpeoplethathave
lotsofproblems,andthey'rebringingthoseproblemswith
[them]…They'rerapists.Andsome,Iassume,aregoodpeople.11
9http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/04/29/donald-trump-blacks-lawsuit_n_855553.html10This,ofcourse,variessubstantiallyfromsubculturetosubculture.Itisalsoworthnotingthattherearegenerationalaspectstothis—olderpeoplemayfinditmuchmorenaturaltoinsertSimpleDenialorFriendshipassertionfigleaves,andmaydosooutofanabundanceofcaution.Forexample,non-racistmembersofcertainsubcultures/generationsmightquitesincerelyutter“I’mnotaracist,but...”beforeanycommentremotelyrelatedtoblackpeople.Itisentirelypossiblethatonewhoassertsthisisnotintheslightestmotivatedbyracism.Arathertragicconsequence,however,willbethatsomeonefromoutsidethespeaker’ssubculturemightwellattributeracismonthebasisofthefigleaf(wherethecommentonitsownwouldnothavetriggeredthisattribution).IthankDanEgonssonforpressingmeonthispoint.11https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2015/06/16/full-text-donald-trump-announces-a-presidential-bid/
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
11
Thefirstthingtonoteisthatthequotationdoesnotexplicitlyclaimthatall
Mexicansarerapists.Instead,itexplicitlyassociatesMexicanimmigrantswith
rapists,whileatthesametimeputtinginplacefigleaves.Itfocusesnoton
Mexicans,butontheMexicanswhoaresent.ThisallowsforbothTrumpandhis
supporterstoinsistthattheyarenotprejudicedagainstMexicans.Instead,they
havemuchmorespecificnegativebeliefsaboutsomeMexicans.Andthere’sa
furtherfigleafattheend:“some,Iassume,aregoodpeople”.Thisisacaveat
addedon,toallowadenialthatthespeakerismakingsweepinggeneralisations
evenaboutthoseMexicanswhoare“sent”.
Theadditionofthefigleavestowhatwouldotherwisebeveryclearlyracist
generalisationsleavesuswithtwoclaims:
(4)They(theMexicanswhocometotheUS)arerapists.
(5)Someofthem(theMexicanswhocometotheUS)are,Iassume,good
people.
(4)isagenericclaimaboutMexicanswhocometotheUS.Genericclaimshave
notoriouslyslipperyandconfusingandcontroversialtruthconditions,andthose
aboutsocialgroupshavebeenrecentlyarguedtohaveacrucialroleinfomenting
andperpetuatingsocialprejudice.12Butit’sworthcallingattentiontotwo
important(andwidelyaccepted)factsaboutgenerics.First,theyarenot
universalgeneralisations,butcanbetrueevenifthereareexception.(“Cats
havefourlegs”istrueeventhoughtherearethreeleggedcats.)Thismeanswe
canmakesenseof(4)and(5)beingbothtruewithouttakingitthatsomerapists
aregoodpeople.Second,theyarenonethelesswidelymisunderstoodas
universalgeneralisations.(Weseethiseverytimeageneralizationabout,say,
therelativeincomesofblackandwhitepeopleismetwiththeobjectionthat
therearesomerichblackpeople.)
12See,forexample,Leslieforthcoming;Rhodes,LeslieandTworek2012;Wodak,LeslieandRhodes2015;Haslanger2011.ButforopposingviewsseeSterken2015aand2015b;Saulforthcoming.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
12
Thisleavestheaudiencewithaninterpretationthatcan,onaveryweakversion
oftheNormofRacialEquality,beunderstoodasnotracist.Becausetheclaimis
notaboutallMexicans,andbecausethere’sanexplicitrecognitionthateven
someofthosewhocometotheUSare(orareassumedtobe13)goodpeople,
thosewhofeeldrawntosomehowassociateMexicansandrapecannodalong
whilenothavingtoseethemselvesasracist.
Andthisfigleafservesitspurpose.Trump’sdefenderscitethesepointsinorder
toarguethathiscommentsaboutMexicanswerenotracist.
IthinkTrumpisattackingthembasedontheiractions,nottheirethnicity.
Heisaddressingtheillegalimmigrantgroup,nottheracegroupthey
belongto.(https://www.quora.com/Did-Trump-really-make-racist-
comments)
Ididn'thearhimsayanythingracistagainstanyrace.WhatIdidhearhim
sayis,"IllegalMexicansbringdrugs,crime,andarerapists,butI'msure
somearegoodpeople."Seriously,whatsracistaboutthat?(Dirk,
https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20150728210521AAWJ
Qfa)
Trumpisnotracist…Trumpisnotagainstallmexicansjusttheillegals.
(JuliusGranstrom,
https://twitter.com/juliusgranstrom/status/675231238366625792)
2.1.2 GlennBeckonMuslims
SabaFatima(2013:341)discussesanutteranceofGlennBeck’sthatisalsoa
synchronicfigleaf.BeckisinterviewingMuslimcongressmanKeithEllison.
13It’sworthnotingthattheadditionof‘Iassume’weakenstheclaim,bysuggestingthatTrumpisgivingthemthebenefitofthedoubtwithoutsufficientevidence.Still,thegivingofthisbenefitofthedoubtcanbereadasanindicationofnon-racismbyonewithasufficientlynarrowunderstandingofracism.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
13
OK.Nooffense,andIknowMuslims.IlikeMuslims.I’vebeento
mosques.Ireallydon’tbelievethatIslamisareligionofevil.I—you
know,Ithinkit’sbeinghijacked,quitefrankly.Withthatbeingsaid,
youareaDemocrat.Youaresaying,“Let’scutandrun.”AndIhave
totellyou,Ihavebeennervousaboutthisinterviewwithyou,
becausewhatIfeellikesayingis,“Sir,provetomethatyouarenot
workingwithourenemies.”AndIknowyou’renot.I’mnotaccusing
youofbeinganenemy,butthat’sthewayIfeel,andIthinkalotof
Americanswillfeelthatway.
ApartofBeck’sutterance,(6),wouldseemquiteclearlyIslamophobicifuttered
onitsowntoEllison.
(6)“Sir,provetomethatyouarenotworkingwithourenemies.”
OnewaythatBeckavoidsthisisbyusingagroup-basedversionofthe
FriendshipAssertionFigleaf,(7).
(7) IlikeMuslims.
Butthat’snotallthathedoes.Crucially,hedoesn’tutter(6)onitsown.He
imbedsitinaruminationaboutwhathefeelslikesaying,mentioningitrather
thanusingit.
(6*)AndIhavetotellyou,Ihavebeennervousaboutthisinterviewwith
you,becausewhatIfeellikesayingis,“Sir,provetomethatyouarenot
workingwithourenemies.”
ThiswewillcallaMentionFigleaf.ItallowsBeck(andhissupporters)to
truthfullyinsistthathedidnotactuallydemandthatEllisonprovethatheisnot
workingwiththeenemy.Heavoidsthisspeechactbymentioningratherthan
usingthewordsthatwould,ifutteredontheirown,constitutetheactofmaking
suchademand.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
14
Andthenhemakesafurthermove.Hecontinueswith(8).
(8)AndIknowyou’renot.I’mnotaccusingyouofbeinganenemy,but
that’sthewayIfeel,andIthinkalotofAmericanswillfeelthatway.
HereheexplicitlystatesthatheknowsEllisonisnotworkingwiththeenemy,
whichmakesitratherpuzzlingthathealsoadmitstofeelinglikesaying“proveto
methatyouarenotworkingwiththeenemy”.Creatingsuchpuzzlesisoften
crucialtotheworkingofafigleaf,somethingwe’lldiscussmorelaterinthe
paper.Finally,Beckfinisheswithanexplicitdenialthathisutteranceisan
accusation.Wesee,then,atleastthreekindsoffigleavesatworkinBeck’s
utterance:FriendshipAssertion,Mention,andamorecomplexfurthermove
with(8).
2.2 DiachronicFigleaf
Adiachronicfigleafisoneappliedsubstantiallylaterthantheproblematic
utterance.Sometimesthisisbecauseattentionhasbeendrawntotheoriginal
utterance,andaresponseisdemanded.Oncemore,themostobviousandcrude
versionsareDenialandFriendshipAssertion.HerewehaveTrump,being
interviewedaftermakingseveralutterancesthatwerewidelytakentoshow
anti-blackracism,suchtweetingasfalsestatisticsaboutblackcrimetakenfroma
whitesupremacistwebsiteandanexpressionofsupportfortheassaultofa
blackprotestoratoneofhisrallies.
(9)IhavegreatAfrican-Americanfriendships.Ihavejustamazing
relationships,andsomanypositivethingshavehappened.
Onitsown,thismightnotbeterriblyeffective—itissoveryclosetotheclassic
claimofablackbestfriend.ButTrumpalsousedamuchmoresophisticated
dischronicfigleaf.Thiswasanutterancedesignedtodemonstratealackof
prejudice,ratherthanmerelydeclaringitasadenialfigleaf.Inadditiontohis
group-basedFriendshipAssertionFigleaf,Trumpweighedinonthetopicof
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
15
SupremeCourtJusticeAntoninScalia’srecentcommentsaboutaffirmative
action.Scaliahadrecentlysaid“Therearethosewhocontendthatitdoesnot
benefitAfrican-AmericanstogetthemintotheUniversityofTexaswheretheydo
notdowell,asopposedtohavingthemgotoaless-advancedschool,aless--a
slower-trackschoolwheretheydowell,"14commentsmetwithwidespread
outrage.Trump’scommentsonthecontroversycameasasurprise:
(10)IthoughtitwasverytoughtotheAfrican-Americancommunity,
actually…Idon'tlikewhathesaid.No,Idon'tlikewhathesaid.Iheard
him,Iwaslike,'Letmereaditagain'becauseIactuallysawitinprint,and
I'mgoing--Ireadalotofstuff--andI'mgoing,'Whoa!'15
(10)usesamuchmoreeffectivemaneuverthantheDenialorFriendship
Affirmation.Itcriticizessomeoneelsefortheirracism,thusallowingthespeaker
totakethemoralhighgroundanddemonstratewhatappeartobesomeanti-
racistconvictions.Once(10)hasbeenuttered,Trumpsupporterscandefend
himagainstaccusationsofracismbynotingthathecriticizedScalia.16
3. HowFigleavesWork—AndDon’tWork
3.1 Inference-blocking
Aracialfigleafis,generallyspeaking,anattempttoblockaninferencefromthe
factthatthespeakerhasmadeanopenlyracistutteranceRtoaclaimlike(11):
14http://edition.cnn.com/2015/12/13/politics/donald-trump-antonin-scalia-affirmative-action/15http://edition.cnn.com/2015/12/13/politics/donald-trump-antonin-scalia-affirmative-action/16Althoughthecentralnotionoffigleafisthatofanutterance,itseemstomethatnot-utterancescanfunctionjustlikefigleaves.Forexample,itiscommonlybelievedthatnomemberofagroupcanbeprejudicedagainsttheirowngroup.AracistutteranceR,then,utteredbyamemberofthegroupthatRisabout,willgenerallybepuzzlingtotheaudience.Theywillhesitatetoinferthateitherthespeakerortheutteranceisracist.Insuchacase,Iamtemptedtosaythatapersonmayfunctionasakindofhumanfigleaf,butthisrequiresbroadeningthenotionofafigleafbeyondwhatIdiscusshere.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
16
(11)Thespeakerisracist.
Giventheideologyofpersonalism,thisblockingwillalsohavetheresultthatthe
utteranceRitselfisnolongerseenasracist.Blockingtheseinferenceshasa
tremendousfeltimportanceincontextswheretheNormofRacialEqualityisin
force.Thesearecontexts,I’vearguedabove,whereconversationalparticipants
feelboundbyarequirementtonotberacist—howevertheyinterpretthat.If
theyfindthemselvesinclinedtoagreewithaspeaker,theyarelikelytohesitate
ifthespeakerseemstohaveexplicitracistcommitments.Hillargues,rightly,
thattheideologyofpersonalismmakesspeakerintentionthenearly-exclusive
focusofanydiscussionsthattakeplaceregardingracistlanguage,allowinga
widerangeofdenialsbasedonideaslikemis-speaking,carelessness,oragood
heart.Myclaimhereisthatfigleavesareanimportantmechanismofteninvolved
indenialsofracism,duetotheirabilitytoblockinferencestoclaimslike(11).
ADenialfigleafattemptstodothisinthemostdirectway,bysimplyasserting
thedenialof(11).TheaudienceinsuchacaseisconfrontedwithanutteranceR
thatsoundsracist,accompaniedbytheassertionthatthespeakerisnotracist.
Onitsown,theutteranceofRmightlicenseaninferenceto(11)fairlyquickly.
ButtheDenialFigleafattemptstoblockthis.Howsuccessfulthisiswilldepend
onanumberofthings.
Iftheutteranceseemedclearlytobethekindofthingthatonlyaracistwouldsay,
thentheinferenceto(11)isverystrong,andtheaudiencewillprobablydoubt
thefigleafinstead.Andthiswilloftenbethecase.AsVanDijknotes,“denialsof
racismarethestockintradeofracistdiscourse”(81).Similarly,ifthereisa
greatdealofotherinformationpointingtothespeaker’sracism,theaudience
willprobablydoubtthefigleafinsteadof(11).Furtherevidencethatmightbe
usedtocastdoubtonthefigleafisknowledgethatassertionsofnon-racismare
verycommonamongracists,duetotheNormofRacialEquality.TheDenial
Figleafwillonlysucceedifnoneofthesefactorscausetheaudiencetorejectthe
figleaf,whichexplainswhyitisonlyrarelysuccessful(onitsown).
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
17
Otherfigleavesdothisinlessdirectways.TheFriendshipAffirmationfigleaf
worksbywayofaninferencefromaclaimlike“someofmybestfriendsare
black”tothedenialof(11).Thisismeanttobebased,itseems,onthe
(incorrect)thoughtthataracistwouldnothavecloseblackfriends.The
Mentionfigleafworksbyimbeddingtheutterancethatwouldhavelicensedthe
inferenceto(11)withinquotationmarks.Thismakesitsomewhattrickierto
infer(11).Obviously,it’snotthecasethateveryonewhomentionsaracist
utteranceisaracist.InacaselikeBeck’s,however,(11)willstillseema
reasonableinferencetomanyofus.Nonetheless,employingtheMentionfigleaf
renderstheinferenceto(11)debatableinawaythatitwouldnothavebeen
withoutit.Beck’sdefenderscaninsistthathedidnotdemandthatEllisonprove
thathewasnotworkingfortheenemy.
Onewaythatafigleafcanbeeffectiveissimplybycreatingastateofconfusion
onthepartoftheaudience.Trump’saudience,forexample,mightfeelthathis
utterancesseemedpotentiallyracistbutthathiscriticismofScaliacastsdoubt
onthis.Inordertoblocktheinferenceto(11),theyneednotactuallyreachany
conclusionabouthisracism.Astateofconfusionanduncertaintywillsufficeto
blockthecondemnationthatmayseemmandatoryundertheNormofRacial
Equalityif(11)isendorsed.
3.2 ShiftingPermissibility
DuetotheNormofRacialEquality,politiciansattemptingtoexploitracial
resentmentsneedtobeabletodenythatthisiswhattheyaredoing.Ofcourse,it
isfareasiertomakeaconvincingdenialifyouhaveavoidedmentioningrace.
Thisisasignificantadvantageofusinganimplicitappeal/covertdogwhistle.
However,figleavescanbeusedtoprovidedeniabilityevenwhenonehasbeen
moreexplicit.Indeed,aswehaveseen,thisdeniabilitymaycomeintheformof
simplydenyingracism,asinaDenialFigleaf.However,themoresubtlefigleaves
offermorepossibilities.GlennBeck,criticizedforhisinterviewwithEllison,has
amplepotentialtodenyanyracismbypointingoutthathewasveryexplicit
aboutnotaccusingEllisonofworkingwiththeenemy.DonaldTrumpcaninsist
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
18
thatheisnotracist,andpointtoevidenceofhisnon-racism,likehiscriticismof
Scalia’sremarksonaffirmativeaction.
Afigleafhasadramaticeffectonaconversation.Inmostsituations,openlyracist
utterancescreatesubstantialdiscomfort.Itisenormouslydifficult,socially,to
accusesomeoneelseofracism.But,foronewhosubscribestotheNormof
RacialEquality,itisalsoclearthatexplicitracismisnotacceptable.Afigleaf
providesawayoutofthismassivelydisquietingimpasse.Ifafigleafhasbeen
uttered,thereisroomfordoubtabouttheracismoftheutterance,which
removestheotherwiseuncomfortablypresentobligationtoobjecttoracism.
Andthisiswhatpotentiallyshiftstheboundariesofthepermissible.Ifnobody
objectstoaracistmove,McGowanargues,theracismbecomesacceptable.But,
aswesawearlier,manyexplicitlyracistutteranceswillnotnormallybe
smoothlyassimilatedwheretheNormofRacialEqualityisinforce.Afigleaf
altersthisdynamic.Aneffectivefigleafallowsexplicitlyracistutterancestobe
made,withoutobjection.Thismeansthattheprocessofconversational
accommodationisabletofunctioninitsnormalsmoothmanner,adaptingtothe
realitythatR,theracistutterance,hasbeenmadeandnotmetwithany
objections.
Figleaves(whentheywork)havetheeffectofdefusingworriesaboutracism.
Onceafigleafhasbeeneffectivelydeployed,standardsforwhatonecansay
withoutbeingracistshift.Andthisispowerfullyworrying.Iftheaudience
acceptsthatthefigleafblockstheconcernaboutracismarisingfromthe
utteranceofracistsentenceR,thenRbecomessseenassomethingonecansay
withoutbeingracist.AndthiswillmakeitfareasiertosayR,andeventodoso
withoutfigleaves.Nowwehaveouranswertohowtheboundariesofthe
permissiblecanshift.AmongadherentstotheNormofRacialEquality,the
crucialthingistorejectwhatisobviouslyracist.Thisallowsanadherentto
believethattheyarefollowingtheverythinnorm“Don’tberacist!”Andwhat
countsasobviouslyracistcan,anddoes,change.Pairsomethingobviouslyracist
withaneffectivefigleafenoughtimes,anditsracismisnolongerobvious.At
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
19
thatpoint,thefigleafmaywellbegintodropoff.
Afurthereffectisonhowotherutterancesareperceived.AsR+Figleafmakesits
wayintoourdiscourse,slightlylessracistutterancesthanRbecomeunshocking.
So,forexample,DonaldTrump’scalltobanMuslims(accompaniedbythefigleaf
“untilourcountry'srepresentativescanfigureoutwhatisgoingon”17)was
initiallyshocking.Asitwasreplayedonthenewsoverandover,itbecameless
shocking.And,crucially,theonlyslightlylessracistcalltobanallSyrianscame
tobeseenasthemoderatepositionintheRepublicanprimary.
4. Problems/Complexities
4.1 HowEffectiveAreFigleaves?
Whileitmaysometimeshappenthatafigleafis100%effectiveandconvincing
forallaudiences,thiswillberare.Audienceswilldifferintheextenttowhich
theyacceptafigleafascastingintodoubttheracismofanutterance.First,most
obviously,thegrouptargetedbytheutteranceisfarlesslikelytoacceptthe
figleaf.Therearesurelyvery,veryfewMexicanswhodoubtDonaldTrump’s
bigotrytowardthem.ButthereceptionofTrump’scommentsalsoshowsus
othercomplexities.Whilehehasmanyadmirerswhodenythatheisracist,
manyothershavecondemnedhisutterancesasracist.Thefigleavesworked
wellwithonegroup,butnotwithanother.Itisoverlysimple,then,totalkabout
afigleafsimplyworkingornotworking.Evenahighlyeffectivefigleafwillbe
effectivewithaparticulargroupandineffectivewithothers.Shiftsinthe
boundariesofthepermissiblewillalsobecircumscribedinthisway:what
becomespermissiblewithinonecommunitywillnotbepermissibleinanother.
17http://www.npr.org/2015/12/08/458875362/trump-on-his-plan-to-ban-muslims-not-politically-correct-but-i-don-t-care.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
20
4.2 ConfusedFigleaves
Self-knowledgeisadifficultthing,andself-knowledgeaboutracialattitudesis
especiallydifficult,givenwidespreadracialresentmentcombinedwithanorm
demandingthatonenotberacist.Moreover,peoplehaveconflictingattitudes–
famously,explicitcommitmentstoanti-racismmaycoexistwithimplicitracist
biases(seee.g.Brownstein2016).Thismeansthatutterersoffigleavesmaynot
bedeliberatelyengaginginmanipulation.Theymaygenuinelybelieveallthe
partsoftheirfigleaf,andtheymaygenuinelybelievethatthefigleafmakestheir
utterancenon-racist,oreventhatitdemonstratestheirlackofracism.Oneeffect
ofthiswillbeablockingofself-understanding.Makingaracistutterance,and
havingthisbenoticedandremarkedon,canbeavaluableturningpoint,which
allowsonetolearnandchange.Figleavesmayblockthisfromhappening.
Itmayalsobeusefultothinkaboutfigleavesatthelevelofbelief,ratherthan
utterance.TheNormofRacialEqualityisnotjustanormthatcausesoneto
worryaboutothersconsideringonetoberacist.Itisalsoonethatmakespeople
notwanttoseethemselvesasracist.Aftersaying(oreventhinking)something
racist,manypeoplewillfindthemselvesworried—atleastbriefly—thatthey
mightberacist.Attimeslikethis,itisalmostirresistibletoseekreassuranceby
reachingforevidencethatoneisnotracist.Onekindofevidencecanbeafigleaf
atthelevelofbelief.Onemightthinktooneselfoneoftheobviousfigleaves:butI
haveablackbestfriend;orbutI’mnotracist.Or,perhaps,onemightmoveonto
othertopicsthatallowonetodemonstrateone’slackofracism—quickly
followingaracistthoughtwithacondemnationofsomeoneelse’sracism.
4.3 FigleavesandIntention
Itisimportanttonotethatafigleafisdefinedintermsofitsfunction,notthe
intentionbehindit.Afigleafisanutterancemadeinadditiontoanexplicitly
racistone,whichprovidescoverbyintroducingdoubtabouttheracismofthe
utterer,andthereforeoftheutterance.Sometimes,aswitharacistbutclever
politician,thisisintentional.However,asnotedabove,sometimesitisdueto
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
21
confusionandconcernoverone’sownpossibleracism—inacaselikethisit
seemswrongtodescribeitasintentional.
Ihavemostlyfocusedthusfaronnefarious,deliberatelydesignedfigleaves,
craftedtoconvinceanaudiencethatone’sracistutterancesarenotracist.ButI
thinkitisamistaketofocustoomuchonintention.Whatmattersmostabout
figleavesistheireffects.
ItisinfactactuallypossiblethatDonaldTrumpthinksboththattheMexicans
cometotheUSaregenerallyrapistsandmurderers,andthatsomeofthemare
goodpeople.Certainly,apersonwhobelievedthismightmakethesame
utterancesaboutMexicansthatTrumpmade,withnoefforttoconcealracism
fromeitherhimselforothers.Hemightsimplybelievebothofthesethings.
Thereneedbenodeliberateefforttomanipulate.Importantly,however,this
wouldmakenodifferencetotheclassificationof“someofthemaregoodpeople”
asafigleaf.Thisutterancestillhastheeffect(forsomeaudiences,anyway)of
blockinganinferencetotheclaimthatthespeakerisracist.Andthisiswhat
mattersfortheclassificationasafigleaf.
Tofocusattentionontheintentionsbehindafigleafistobuyintothefolktheory
ofracismthatgivesacentralroletotheIdeologyofPersonalism.Theonly
differenceisthatthefocusnowisontheintentionbehindthefigleafratherthan
ontheintentionbehindtheapparentlyracistutterance.Ourattentionwillstill
be,wrongly,focusedonattemptingtodiscernthestateofmindofthespeaker,
andtherewillalwaysbewaystodoubtourjudgmentsabouttheintention
behindafigleaf.
Butevenwhereitisclearthatafigleafisanintentionalmanipulation,Ithinkitis
amistaketoengageinmuchdiscussionoverintentions.Why?Because,as
hintedearlierandarguedbelow,whatreallymattersaboutfigleavesistheir
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
22
abilitytochangewhatweseeaspermissiblediscourse,inextremelypernicious
ways.Andintentionhasnothingwhatsoevertodowiththat.18
4.4 TheImportanceofEffects
Afigleafprovidescoverforanutterancethatwouldotherwisebeseenasclearly
racist.Thismayinsomeinstancesbeadeliberatemanipulationoftheaudience
byafullyexplicitracist.Itmayinotherinstancesbeaback-pedallingbya
genuinelyconflictedperson.Itmayevenoccasionallybeanattempttocorrecta
genuineinstanceofmis-speaking.However,inallofthesecases,asuccessful
figleafmeansthattheinferencefromthisutterancetothethoughtthatthe
speakerisracistisblocked.AnutteranceofasentenceSthatwouldhavebeen
clearlyracistwithoutthefigleafnowcomestobeseenasthesortofthinganon-
racistmightsay.Andsinceintentionsandbeliefsofthespeakerarethemost
importantthingaccordingtotheIdeologyofPersonalism,thismeansthatS
comestoseemnot-racist,oratleastnot-clearly-racist.Crucially,thiseffecttakes
placenomatterwhatintentionsandbeliefsliebehindthefigleaf.
IffigleavesdoworkinthewaythatI’vesuggested,leadingustochangeour
viewsonwhetheranutteranceisclearlyracistornot,andfacilitatingthespread
ofracistspeech,weshouldbeveryworriedabouttheirfurthereffects.Lynne
Tirrell’s(2012)andDavidLivingstoneSmith’s(2012)workdevastatingly
demonstratesthewaysthathatespeechcanleadtoandbeapartofgenocidal
violence.Andtheyarenotaloneinthis.Indeed,theUnitedNationscondemns
hatespeech.Andcrucially,theUN’scondemnationfocusesnotonthespeech’s
intentions,butalmostentirelyonitseffects—onspeechthatinciteshatred:
18Definingfigleavesintermsofinference-blockingeffectshasanotherconsequence.Wehavesofarlookedatcaseswheretheinferencebeingblockedisonetoaplausiblytruebelief.However,itwillstillbeafigleafifthebeliefbeingblockedisafalseone.Forexample,considerthecaseofafeministwantingtoblocktheinferencetothebeliefthatshehatesmen.Shemightsay“Idon’thatemen,butIthinksocietyisstructuredinawaythatunfairlydisadvantageswomen.”“Idon’thatemen”isafigleaftoblocktheinferencetothebeliefthatthespeakerhatesmen.Thefactthatshedoesnotinfacthatemendoespreventthisfrombeingafigleaf.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
23
alldisseminationofideasbasedonracialsuperiorityorhatred,
incitementtoracialdiscrimination,aswellasallactsofviolenceor
incitementtosuchactsagainstanyraceorgroupofpersonsofanother
colourorethnicorigin
Let’slookagainatanutterance-figleafcombination,andthinkaboutwhatthe
figleafdoesanddoesn’tdo.
WhenMexicosendsitspeople,they'renotsendingtheirbest.They'renot
sendingyou.They'renotsendingyou.They'resendingpeoplethathave
lotsofproblems,andthey'rebringingthoseproblemswithus…They're
rapists.Andsome,Iassume,aregoodpeople.19
Withoutthefigleaf,thisisaclearcaseofincitementtohatredagainstMexicans.
Youcannotcallagroup‘rapists’withoutincitinghatredagainstthem.Dothe
figleavesmitigatethis?Well,theyallowforthepossibilityofgoodMexicanswho
stayedinMexico;andofanoccasionalgoodMexicanintheUS.Butifyouhave
cometobelievethat,otherthantheseexceptions,Mexicansaregenerallyrapists,
group-basedhatredhasclearlybeenincited.Thefigleavesdonothingto
mitigatethehatredagainstthegroup.Indeed,bymakingitmoresocially
acceptable—bycallingintoquestiontheinferencetothespeaker’sracism—they
mayincreasetheeffectivenessoftheincitement.
Andthisiswhyintentiondoesnotmatterverymuchinthebigpicture,atleast
whenwearediscussingthepublicutterancesofpublicfigures,especially
politicians.Whatismostworryingaboutthesefigleavesistheirabilitytomake
otherwiseracistutterancesseemacceptable,shiftingournormsinsuchaway
thatincreasinglyexplicitexpressionsofracialhatredbecomepermissible.This
19https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2015/06/16/full-text-donald-trump-announces-a-presidential-bid/
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
24
facilitatestheincitementofracialhatred,whichisanddeservestobeamatterof
theverygreatestconcern.20
5. Conclusion
Mechanismsthatchangeournormsaboutracistutterancesarevitallyimportant.
Thosemethodsthatallowpreviouslyunacceptableutterancestobecome
acceptablecanhavedevastatingeffectsintheworld.Rightnow,very
dramatically,oursocialworldisbeingalteredbythesemethods.Weneedto
noticeit,andfindawaytofightiteffectively.
20Itisfarmoreappropriatetofocusonintentionswhenconsideringutterancesthatdonothavesignificantpotentialtoreshapethenormsofourworld.Inparticular,whenweareconsideringtheutterancesofthosewithwhomwehavepersonalrelationships(e.g.familymembers),itmaybeespeciallyimportanttofocusonintentions.However,thefocusoneffectswillremainimportantforutterancesthatdohavesignificantpotentialtoshapeoursocialworld.Thiswillincludenotjustpublicfiguresbutotherswhohavetheabilitytoinfluencesignificantnumbersofotherpeople—teachers,journalists,lawyers,andsoon.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
25
Brownstein,Michael,"ImplicitBias",TheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy
(Spring2016Edition),EdwardN.Zalta(ed.),URL=
<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/implicit-bias/>.
Fatima,Saba.2013.“Muslim-AmericanScripts”,Hypatia28:2,341-359.
Haslanger,Sally.2011.“Ideology,Generics,andCommonGround”inWitt,Charlotte
(ed.),FeministMetaphysics.SpringerVerlag179-207.
Hill,Jane.2008.TheEverydayLanguageofWhiteRacism.Chichester:Wiley-
Blackwell.
Langton,Rae.2012.“BeyondBelief:PragmaticsinHateSpeechandPornography”,in
Maitra,I.andMcGowan,M.K.,SpeechandHarm:ControversiesOverFree
Speech,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,72-93.
Leslie,Sarah-Jane.Forthcoming.“TheOriginalSinofCognition:Fear,Prejudice,and
Generalization.”JournalofPhilosophy.
Lewis,David.1979.“ScorekeepinginaLanguageGame”,JournalofPhilosophical
Logic8:1,339-359.
McGowan,MaryKate.2012.“On‘WhitesOnly’SignsandRacistHateSpeech:Verbal
ActsofRacialDiscrimination”,inMaitra,I.andMcGowan,M.K.,Speechand
Harm:ControversiesOverFreeSpeech,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,121-
147.
Mendelberg,Tali.2008a."Racialprimingrevived."PerspectivesonPolitics6,1:109-
123.
Mendelberg,Tali.2008b."Racialpriming:Issuesinresearchdesignand
interpretation."PerspectivesonPolitics6,1:135-140.
Rhodes,Marjorie;Leslie,Sarah-Jane;andTworek,Christina.2012.“Cultural
TransmissionofSocialEssentialism.”PNAS109(34):13526-13531.
Smith,DavidLivingstone.2012LessThanHuman:WhyWeDemean,Enslaveand
ExterminateOthers.StMartinsPress.
Sterken,Rachel.2015a.“LeslieonGenerics”.PhilosophicalStudies172(9):2493-
2512.
Thisisadraft.Pleasedonotcitewithoutpermission.
26
Sterken,Rachel.2015b.“Generics,ContentandCognitiveBias”.AnalyticPhilosophy
56(1):75-93.
Tesler,M.andSears,D.O.2010.Obama’sRace:The2008ElectionandtheDreamofa
Post-RacialAmerica.(UniversityofChicagoPress.)
Tirrell,Lynn.2012.“GenocidalLanguageGames”,”,inMaitra,I.andMcGowan,M.K.,
SpeechandHarm:ControversiesOverFreeSpeech,Oxford:OxfordUniversity
Press,174-221.
VanDijk,Teun.1993.EliteDiscourseandRacism.NewburyPark:Sage.
Valentino,Nicholas;Neuner,Fabian;andVandenbroek,L.Matthew.2016.“The
ChangingNormsofRacialPoliticalRhetoricandtheEndofRacialPriming”,
paperdeliveredtoAPSA.
Wodak,Daniel;Leslie,Sarah-Jane;andRhodes,Marjorie.2015.“WhataLoaded
Generalization:GenericsandSocialCognition”.PhilosophyCompass10(9):
625-634.