Question 36) Discuss the relationship between Environment and Free Trade?

The relationship between trade and environment is a complex and highly debated issue. Addressing this relationship is fundamentalin order to achieve sustainable development. As a result of increasing global economic inter-dependence and further trade liberalization as well as growing pressure on the environment andthe use of natural resources, there is an ever growing inter-facebetween trade and environment.

The Commission Communication on Trade and Environment, adopted in1996, underlined that a mutually supportive relationship between trade and environment can occur. In fact, trade liberalization and trade policy have positive and negative impacts on the environment.

But in this relationship between Trade and Environment there is aproblem:

When we talk about Environment: It is the surrounding in which the organization operates including air and water. Land and natural resources, flora and fauna, human and their interactions.

Trade: It involves the transfer of the ownership of good or services from one person or entity to another in exchange for theother goods or services or for money.

Problem: Adverse impact of trade on environment and in return environments negative impacts on trade.

For eg.

1. US Marine mammal act prohibited tuna fishing method that killed large number of dolphins and banned tuna imports fromthe countries that used such fishing methods. Free trade rules has led to fiercely contested disputes among countries. For example, European nations have refused to allow imports of US beef produced with hormone supplement. GATT article xx states that, countries are allowed to restrict trade in order to “conserve exhaustible natural resources” or to protect “human, plant or animal health and life.”

2. US argued there is no proven harm to human health from the use of hormones, this is an illegal barrier to trade. The Europeans however, cite the precautionary principle: since they fear the possible effect of hormone. Europeans reason For trade restriction Not valid under Article XX of GATT. Asproduct itself has No proven harm. How it is prepared Shouldn’t be the Basis for trade Restriction. if pesticides residues at dangerous levels are detected on fruit or vegetables, import of those products can be banned. But if the overuse of pesticides is causing environmental damage inthe producing areas, the importing nation has no right to act. Similar issue has arisen over the issue of genetically engineered crops. while unlabelled genetically engineered foods are allowed in the US, they are widely opposed in Europe. Pollen from such crops can easily spread into the environment, disrupting fragile ecosystem and possibly creating “superweeds” resistant to pesticides.

3. The Canadian asbestos industry sought to remove U.S restrictions On the scale of cancer-causing asbestos products. NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) has produced cases in which corporations have challenged environmental regulations as barriers to trade. While US pesticide industry challenged strong Canadian pesticide

regulation. In one case, the US based Ethyl Corporation successfully overturned a Canadian ban On the importation and sale of the gasoline additive MDMA, a chemical suspectedTo cause never damage. Canada was required not only to eliminate the ban, but also To pay $10 million compensation to Ethyl Corporation for legal costs and lost sale.

4. U.S.-based Harken Energy Company wanted to exploit oil off the coast of Costa Rica, a country known for its long history of democracy as well as its pristine natural parks and natural resources. But the Costa Rican government deniedthe permit because the oil exploration would negatively impact Costa Rica’s environment. Harken attempted to sue thegovernment for $57 billion – more than the country’s entire GDP. The case was eventually settled in local courts. But ifCAFTA is approved, Harken would have the right to sue the Costa Rican government for expropriation. Then the Costa Rican people would be left with two options: let Harken drill for oil and damage the environment, or pay them potential lost future profits

One essential condition for making sure that trade and environment are mutually supportive is to ensure that the trade liberalisation process is paralleled with the development and strengthening of effective and non-protectionist environmental legislation, at national, regional and international levels. Environmental policies could, in turn, provide an incentive for technological innovations, promote economic efficiency and, consequently, improve productivity. Having recognised the need for such policies, one should also ensure that trade rules do notunnecessarily constrain but rather support and promote the ability of countries to develop and implement adequate and non-protectionist environmental measures, at both national and international levels.

Trade policy as such has also a role to play in actively supporting sustainable trade flows and, in particular, environmentally friendly trade. Trade policy and traderelated instruments should be further encouraged to act as a sustainable driver by providing incentives for more sustainable trade flows

CONCLUSION: TRADE do not have just adverse impacts on environment!! According to theory of Comparative advantage Trade causes countries To become more efficient In their use of resources, There by conserving Resources and avoiding waste Encourages the Environmentally Friendly techno- -logy Trade can replace old, inefficient high polluting power plants with new modern, highly efficient combined cycle facility.

. 

[U.S.-Dominican Republic-Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA),]

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Question 37) Discuss the role of Environmental Engineers?Using the principles of biology and chemistry, environmental engineers develop solutions to environmental problems. They are involved in water and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, and public health issues. Environmental engineers conduct hazardous-waste management studies in which they evaluatethe significance of the hazard, offer analysis on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps.

They design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems.

They conduct research on proposed environmental projects, analyzescientific data, and perform quality control checks.

They provide legal and financial consulting on matters related tothe environment. Environmental engineers are concerned with localand worldwide environmental issues.

They study and attempt to minimize the effects of acid rain, global warming, automobile emissions, and ozone depletion.

They also are involved in the protection of wildlife. Many environmental engineers work as consultants, helping their clients to comply with regulations and to clean up hazardous sites.

Essential Duties and Responsibilities:

• Abilities to solve environmental problems such as water and air pollution, waste disposal, and public health issues

• Knowledge of advanced principles of biology, chemistry, and environmental science to protect wildlife and natural resources as well as human life

• May be required to inspect and evaluate industrial and municipal facilities and programs to assess their compliance with environmental regulations

• Work with environmental scientists, planners, hazardous waste technicians, engineers, and other specialists to address environmentalproblems

• Prepare, review, and revise environmental regulations and recommendation reports and monitor the progress of certain environmental programs

• May be required to travel to project locations.

Question 38) Discuss the fundamentals of environmental justice?

Environmental justice emerged as a concept in the United States in the early 1980s. The term has two distinct uses. The first andmore common usage describes a social movement in the United States whose focus is on the fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens. Second, it is an interdisciplinary body of social science literature that includes (but is not limited to) theories of the environment, theories of justice, environmental law and governance, environmental policy and planning, development, sustainability, and political ecology

Definition:

Environmental justice has been defined as the pursuit of equal justice and equal protection under the law for all environmental statutes and regulations without discrimination based on race, ethnicity, and /or socioeconomic status. This concept applies to governmental actions at all levels -- local, state and federal --as well as private industry activities. There are actually three categories of environmental equity issues. Providing environmental justice goes beyond the stated definition and includes a guarantee of equal access to relief and meaningful community participation with government and industry decision-makers.

The United States   Environmental Protection Agency   defines environmental justice as follows:

Environmental justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development,

implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. EPA has this goal for all communities and persons across this Nation. It will be achieved when everyoneenjoys the same degree of protection from environmental and health hazards and equal access to the decision-making process tohave a healthy environment in which to live, learn, and work

OR

It include equitable distribution of environmental risks and benefits; fair and meaningful participation in environmental decision-making; recognition of community ways of life, local knowledge, and cultural difference; and the capability of communities and individuals to function and flourish in society.

Principles of Environmenatl justice :1) Environmental Justice affirms the sacredness of Mother Earth, ecological unity and the interdependence of all species, and the right to be free from ecological destruction.

2) Environmental Justice demands that public policy be based on mutual respect and justice for all peoples, free from any form ofdiscrimination or bias.

3) Environmental Justice mandates the right to ethical, balanced and responsible uses of land and renewable resources in the interest of a sustainable planet for humans and other living things.

4) Environmental Justice calls for universal protection from nuclear testing, extraction, production and disposal of toxic/hazardous wastes and poisons and nuclear testing that threaten the fundamental right to clean air, land, water, and food.

5) Environmental Justice affirms the fundamental right to political, economic, cultural and environmental self-determination of all peoples.

6) Environmental Justice demands the cessation of the production of all toxins, hazardous wastes, and radioactive materials, and that all past and current producers be held strictly accountable to the people for detoxification and the containment at the pointof production.

7) Environmental Justice demands the right to participate as equal partners at every level of decision-making, including needsassessment, planning, implementation, enforcement and evaluation.

8) Environmental Justice affirms the right of all workers to a safe and healthy work environment without being forced to choose between an unsafe livelihood and unemployment. It also affirms the right of those who work at home to be free from environmentalhazards.

9) Environmental Justice protects the right of victims of environmental injustice to receive full compensation and reparations for damages as well as quality health care.

10) Environmental Justice considers governmental acts of environmental injustice a violation of international law, the Universal Declaration On Human Rights, and the United Nations Convention on Genocide.

11) Environmental Justice must recognize a special legal and natural relationship of Native Peoples to the U.S. government through treaties, agreements, compacts, and covenants affirming sovereignty and self-determination.

12) Environmental Justice affirms the need for urban and rural ecological policies to clean up and rebuild our cities and rural areas in balance with nature, honoring the cultural integrity of all our communities, and provided fair access for all to the fullrange of resources.

13) Environmental Justice calls for the strict enforcement of principles of informed consent, and a halt to the testing of experimental reproductive and medical procedures and vaccinationson people of color.

14) Environmental Justice opposes the destructive operations of multi-national corporations.

15) Environmental Justice opposes military occupation, repressionand exploitation of lands, peoples and cultures, and other life forms.

16) Environmental Justice calls for the education of present and future generations which emphasizes social and environmental issues, based on our experience and an appreciation of our diverse cultural perspectives.

17) Environmental Justice requires that we, as individuals, make personal and consumer choices to consume as little of Mother Earth's resources and to produce as little waste as possible; andmake the conscious decision to challenge and reprioritize our lifestyles to ensure the health of the natural world for present and future generations.

Question 39) Discuss the history of Environmental Law in India ?

The evolution of environment Law in India can be divided into three phases.

The first phase

The first phase can be dated back to pre Vedic age, when the Manusmriti is supposed to be created. The society at that time respected and even prayed the environment, as the components of environment, like animals, trees had considerable importance in our ancient texts. Examples of this are, the concept of Panchvati and the fact that Manusmriti punishes for causing injury to plants. Kautilya, described penal actions against a person hurting a tree on the basis of the sanctity adorned to thetree.

SECOND PHASE

The nature of the duty of individual to protect the environment was not only to punish the culprit but also to balance the eco system. The concept of Sustainable Development as defined by the Bruntland Commission was the essence of duty imposed upon an individual to protect the environment by the ancient manuscripts in India. These manuscripts had the force of law, so these can besaid to be the first phase of Environment Legislation in India.ost of the laws were codified by the British in the second half of the 19th century. . Similarly many environment protectionoriented legislation like- The Shore Nuisance Act, 1853, Indian Forests Act, 1865, Wild Birds and Animals protection Act, 1912 -Explosive Substance Act, 1908 , The Poison Act, 1919. The objective of these laws was to protect the environment by preventing discharge of polluting substances, by limiting or banning their discharge, and the objective was also to prevent hunting, poaching and tree felling.

 In the Constitution of India, all natural resources except forests were given to states for management and forests were keptin the concurrent list. Many legislations like Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution Act), 1974, Environment Protection Act, 1986, Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution Act), 1981. The Article 48 and 51, Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Duties of every citizen of India, envisage to rotect the environment. These are some laws by which the Parliament began its legislations on Environment.

The Third Phase

The third phase of environment legislations began in India, when the Supreme Court over ruled the principle of Strict Liability

(Rylands v Fletcher) and formulated the principle of Strict Liability in the case of MC Mehta v Union of India in 1987, whichsays that for every non natural use of land, by bringing a hazardous thing on that land, and if that escapes even without fault of defendant, the defendant is absolutely liable for its escape and defenses are very less. During this phase, the conceptof filing a public interest litigation for environment related causes, where anyone could approach the courts to stop an activity causing environmental degradation. Also there are parameters like Environment Impact Assessment, Environment Management Plan which every industry have to make and follow.

Question 40) Discuss the impact of Global Warming?

1. Accelerating sea level rise and   increased coastal flooding : Average global sea level has increased eight inches since 1880, but is rising much faster on the U.S. East Coast and Gulf of Mexico. Global warming is now accelerating the rate of sea level rise, increasing flooding risks to low-lying communities and high-risk coastal properties whose development has been encouraged by today's flood insurance system.

2. Longer and more damaging wildfire seasons Wildfires are increasing and wildfire season is getting longerin the Western U.S. as temperatures rise. Higher spring and summer temperatures and earlier spring snow-melt result in forests that are hotter and drier for longer periods of time, priming conditions for wildfires to ignite and spread.3. More frequent and intense heat waves Dangerously hot weather is already occuring more frequently than it did 60 years ago—and scientists expect heat

waves to become more frequent and severe as global warming intensifies. This increase in heat waves creates serious health risks, and can lead to heat exhaustion, heat stroke, and aggravate existing medical conditions.4. National landmarks at risk The growing consequences of climate change are putting many ofthe country's most iconic and historic sites at risk, from Ellis Island to the Everglades, Cape Canaveral to California'sCésar Chávez National Monument.5. Widespread forest death   in the Rocky Mountains Tens of millions of trees have died in the Rocky Mountains over the past 15 years, victims of a climate-driven triple assault of tree-killing insects, wildfires, and stress from heat and drought.6. Costly and growing health impacts Climate change has significant implications for our health. Rising temperatures will likely lead to increased air pollution, a longer and more intense allergy season, the spread of insect-borne diseases, more frequent and dangerous heat waves, and heavier rainstorms and flooding. Allof these changes pose serious, and costly, risks to public health.7. An increase in extreme weather events Strong scientific evidence shows that global warming is increasing certain types of extreme weather events, including heat waves, coastal flooding, extreme precipitation events, and more severe droughts. Global warming also creates conditions that can lead to more powerful hurricanes.8. Heavier precipitation and flooding As temperatures increase, more rain falls during the heaviest downpours, increasing the risk of flooding events. Very heavy precipitation events, defined as the heaviest one percent of storms, now drop 67 percent more precipitation in the Northeast, 31 percent more in the Midwest and 15 percent more in the Great Plains than they did 50 years ago.

9. More severe droughts in some areas Climate change affects a variety of factors associated with drought and is likely to increase drought risk in certain regions. As temperatures have warmed, the prevalence and duration of drought has increased in the western U.S. and climate models unanimously project increased drought in the American Southwest.10. Increased pressure on groundwater supplies As the climate changes in response to global warming, longer and more severe droughts are projected for the western U.S.  The resulting dry conditions will increase the pressure on groundwater supplies as more is pumped to meet demand even as less precipitation falls to replenish it.11. Growing risks to our electricity supply Our aging electricity infrastructure is increasingly vulnerable to the growing consequences of global warming, including sea level rise, extreme heat, heightened wildfire risk, and drought and other water supply issues.12. Changing seasons Spring arrives much earlier than it used to — 10 days earlier on average in the northern hemisphere. Snow melts earlier. Reservoirs fill too early and water needs to be released for flood control. Vegetation and soils dry out earlier, setting the stage for longer and more damaging wildfire seasons.13. Melting ice Temperatures are rising in the planet's polar regions, especially in the Arctic, and the vast majority of the world'sglaciers are melting faster than new snow and ice can replenish them. Scientists expect the rate of melting to accelerate, with serious implications for future sea level rise14. Disruptions to food supplies Rising temperatures and the accompanying impacts of global warming — including more frequent heat waves, heavier precipitation in some regions, and more severe droughts in

others — has significant implications for crop and meat production. Global warming has the potential to seriously disrupt our food supply, drive costs upward, and affect everything fromcoffee to cattle, from staple food crops to the garden in your backyard.15. Destruction of coral reefs As global temperatures rise, so too do average sea surface temperatures. These elevated temperatures cause long-term damage to coral reefs. Scientists have documented that sustained water temperatures of as little as one degree Celsius above normal summer maxima can cause irreversible damage.16. Plant and animal range shifts A changing climate affects the range of plants and animals, changing their behavior and causing disruptions up and down the food chain. The range of some warm-weather species will expand, while those that depend on cooler environments will face shrinking habitats and potential extinction.17. The potential for abrupt climate change Scientists know that Earth's climate has changed abruptly in the past. Even though it is unlikely to occur in the near future, global warming may increase the risk of such events. One of the most significant potential mechanisms is a shift inan ocean circulation pattern known as thermohaline circulation, which would have widespread consequences for Europe and the U.S. East Coast.

Question 41) Discuss the function played by NCEPC/NCEP?

1. The importance of environmental planning and of its integration with economic policies and programmes, is being increasingly recognized all over the world—particularly in the wake of the U.N. Conference on the Human Environment, which was held in Stockholm in the summer of 1972. Yet already in February of that year, recognizing the need to

provide a sharper focus on environmental considerations in the development process, the Government of India establishedthe National Com- mitee on Environmental Planning and Coordination (NCEPC).

2. In the year 1976 the Constitutional Forty-Second Amendment Act came into force .This amendment incorporated article 48-A and 51-A (g) in the body of constitution .In pursuance of this constitution mandate the Government of India appointed a high powered committee under the chairmanship of Shri N.D.Tiwari to recommend legislative measure and the necessary administrative machinery for ensuring ecological balance andenvironmental protection. On the recommendation of this committee Government established a separate department of Environment in November 1980 .It was to serve as a nodal agency for environmental protection and eco development besides carrying out environmental appraisal of development projects .

3. On the recommendation of the Tiwari committee the NCEPC was replaced by National Committee on Environmental planning in April 1981 with the function similar to its predecessor .TheNCEPC was formed with the authority to prepare an annual state of environment report to arrange public hearing and conferences on significant environmental issues.

4.The Committee—comprising experts, senior officials of Government Departments, and representatives of citi- zen groups and voluntary agencies—is a top-level advi- sory bodyfor review, formulation, and promotion, of policies and programmes covering development projects, physical planning,legislation, administrative procedures, education, and research, relating to the protection and improvement of environmental quality.

5.The Committee, in its multifaceted tasks, is assisted by sub-committees in different subject areas; these include

Human Settlements, Rural Environment, Industry and Environment, Nature and Resource Conservation, and Environmental Educa- tion.

6.Promotion of environmental research is one of the major activities of NCEPC. So far, more than 70 pro- jects have been initiated in different fields, such as moni- toring of water and air quality, pollution and its effects, and waste treatment and recycling

7.In order to systematize environmental impact studies, NCEPC has drawn up questionnaires and guidelines rele- vant to particular sectors—such as heavy industry, ther- mal and hydroelectric-power generation, roads and rail- ways, and mining, etc. All thermal, hydroelectric-power, and irrigation, projects are referred to NCEPC for scru- tiny from the environmental aspect. Special Committees and Task Forces have been constituted by NCEPC to attend to such asssignments.

8.NCEPC strongly felt the need for setting up nodal agencies at the level of State and Union Territory administrations, in order to ensure adequate environmental consideration in development planning for different regions. Most of the States and Union Ter- ritories have since constituted Environment Committees which will work in close collaboration with the local planning bodies and developmentorganizations. NCEPC has also played an important role in the formulation of various legislative measures, such as theWildlife Protec- tion Act of 1972, the Water (Prevention andControl of Pollution) Act of 1974, and the Air Pollution Control Bill which is now under active consideration by the Government.

9.NCEPC has placed particular emphasis on programmes for the stimulation of environmental awareness. News- paper and magazine articles, as well as radio and TV pro- grammes, areused to highlight the importance of envi- ronmental concern at all levels of society. For curriculum development on environmental subjects at the school and college level, NCEPC interacts with the various edu- cational institutes, including the University Grants Com- mission and the National Council for Educational Re- search and Training.

10. NCEPC organizes Seminars and Workshops on subjects of environmental concern. One such Seminar was held in April 1978 on Resources, De- velopment, and Environment, in the Himalayan Region, which resulted in a number of important recommenda- tions relating to plant and animal resources, agriculture, soil and water management, forestry and human settle- ments, industry, tourism, and communication facilities, in this vitally important region

11. NCEPC, with the support of the Department of Science and Technology, also advises the Government on programmes for cooperation with international agencies such as UNEP, UNESCO, and UNIDO, as well as on bi- lateral and multilateral agreements involving environ- mental matters.

Question 42) Discuss the evolution of the legal framework on Environment, in India?

Over the years, together with a spreading of environmental consciousness, there has been a change in the traditionally-held perception that there is a trade-off between environmental quality and economic growth as people have come to believe that the two are necessarily complementary. The current focus on environment is not new—environmental considerations have been an

integral part of the Indian culture. The need for conservation and sustainable use of natural resources has been expressed in Indian scriptures, more than three thousand years old and is reflected in the constitutional, legislative and policy frameworkas also in the international commitments of the country.

Even before India’s independence in 1947, several environmental legislation existed but the real impetus for bringing about a well-developed framework came only after the UN Conference on theHuman Environment (Stockholm, 1972). Under the influence of this declaration, the National Council for Environmental Policy and Planning within the Department of Science and Technology was set up in 1972. This Council later evolved into a full-fledged Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) in 1985 which today isthe apex administrative body in the country for regulating and ensuring environmental protection.

After the Stockholm Conference, in 1976, constitutional sanctionwas given to environmental concerns through the 42nd Amendment, which incorporated them into the Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Rights and Duties. Since the 1970s an extensive network of environmental legislation has grown in the country. The MoEF and the pollution control boards (CPCB i.e. Central Pollution Control Board and SPCBs i.e. State Pollution Control Boards) together form the regulatory and administrative core of the sector.

A policy framework has also been developed to complement the legislative provisions. The Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution and the National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development were brought out by the MoEF in 1992, to develop and promote initiatives for the protection and improvement of the environment. The

EAP (Environmental 2 Legal and regulatory framework 24 Action Programme) was formulated in 1993 with the objective of improvingenvironmental services and integrating environmental considerations in to development programmes.

Other measures have also been taken by the government to protectand preserve the environment. After that several sector-specific policies have evolved.

[The content in grey is the Assesment of the legal and regulatoryframework for environmental protection in India ] and after that there is a list of Act which is not very important to read in details just the names are enough]

Assessment of evolution of Environmental framework:

The extent of the environmental legislation network is evident from the above discussion but the enforcement of the laws has been a matter of concern. One commonly cited reason is the prevailing command and control nature of the environmental regime. Coupled with this is the prevalence of the all-or–nothingapproach of the law; they do not consider the extent of violation. Fines are levied on a flat basis and in addition, there are no incentives to lower the discharges below prescribed levels.Some initiatives have addressed these issues in the recent past. The Government of India came out with a Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution in 1992, before the Rio conference, which declared that market-based approaches would be considered in controlling pollution. It stated that economic instruments will be investigated to encourage the shift from curative to preventive measures, internalize the costs of pollution and conserve resources, particularly water. In 1995, the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) constituted a task force to evaluate market-based instruments, which strongly advocated theiruse for the abatement of industrial pollution. Various economic incentives have been used to supplement the command-and-control policies. Depreciation allowances, exemptions from excise or customs duty payment, and arrangement of soft loans for the adoption of clean technologies are instances of such incentives. Another aspect that is evident is the shift in the focus from end-of-pipe treatment of pollution to treatment at source. The role of remote sensing and geographical information systems in

natural resource management and environmental protection has alsogained importance over time . An important recent development is the rise of judicial activism in the enforcement of environmentallegislation. This is reflected in the growth of environment-related public litigation cases that have led the courts to take major steps such as ordering the shut-down of polluting factories. These very principles were fundamental to guiding environmental protection in the country well before Rio and will be reinforced, drawing on India’s own experiences and those of other countries

Below are the list of Legislation related to Water, Air, Forest and Wild Life and general:

Water: Water quality standards especially those for drinking water are set by the Indian Council of Medical Research. These bear close resemblance to WHO standards. The discharge of industrial effluents is regulated by the Indian Standard Codes and recently, water quality standards for coastal water marine outfalls have also been specified. In addition to the general standards, certain specific standards have been developed for effluent discharges from industries such as, iron and steel, aluminium, pulp and paper, oil refineries, petrochemicals and thermal power plants. Legislation to control water pollution are listed below

1. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 This Act represented India’s first attempts to comprehensively deal with environmental issues. The Act prohibits the discharge of pollutants into water bodies beyond a given standard, and lays down penalties for non-compliance

2. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 This Act provides for a levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by industries and local authorities. It aims at augmenting the resources of the central and state boards for prevention and control of water pollution

AIR :

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981The Act provides means for the control and abatement of air pollution. The Act seeks to combat air pollution by prohibiting the use of polluting fuels and substances, as well as by regulating appliances that give rise to air pollution. Under the Act establishing or operating of any industrial plant in the pollution control area requires consent from state boards. The boards are also expected to test the air in air pollution control areas, inspect pollution control equipment, and manufacturing processes.

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act, 1987,The boards were authorized to take immediate measures to tackle such emergencies and recover the expenses incurred from the offenders. The power to cancel consent for non-fulfilment of the conditions prescribed has also been emphasized in the Air Act Amendment

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules formulated in 1982the procedures for conducting meetings of the boards, the powers of the presiding officers, decision-making, the quorum; manner in which the records of the meeting were to be set etc. They also prescribed the manner and the purpose of seeking assistance from specialists and the fee to be paid to them

Atomic Energy Act of 1982:Introduced to deal with radioactive waste

In 1988, the Motor Vehicles Act, It was enacted to regulate vehicular traffic, besides ensuring proper packaging, labelling and transportation of the hazardous wastes. Various aspects of vehicular pollutionhave also been notified under the EPA of 1986

Forest and Wild Life:The WPA (Wildlife Protection Act), 1972,

provides for protection to listed species of flora and fauna and establishes a network of ecologically-important protected areas. The WPA empowers the central and state governments to declare anyarea a wildlife sanctuary, national park or closed area. There isa blanket ban on carrying out any industrial activity inside these protected areas. It provides for authorities to administer and implement the Act; regulate the hunting of wild animals; protect specified plants, sanctuaries, national parks and closed areas; restrict trade or commerce in wild animals or animal articles; and miscellaneous matters. The Act prohibits hunting ofanimals except with permission of authorized officer when an animal has become dangerous to human life or property or so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery (WWF-India, 1999). The near-total prohibition on hunting was made more effective by the Amendment Act of 1991.

The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 This Act was adopted to protect and conserve forests. The Act restricts the powers of the state in respect of de-reservation offorests and use of forestland for non-forest purposes (the term ‘non-forest purpose’ includes clearing any forestland for cultivation of cash crops, plantation crops, horticulture or any purpose other than re-afforestation).

List of few general Environmental Act :

1. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (EPA)2. The Environment (Protection) Rules, 19863. Factories Act, 1948 and its Amendment in 19874. Public Liability Insurance Act (PLIA), 1991

International agreements on environmental issues

India is signatory to a number of multilateral environment agreements (MEA) and conventions. An overview of some of the major MEAs and India’s obligations under these is listed below :

1. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES), 1973

2. Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone Layer (to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer), 1987

3. Basel Convention on Trans boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes, 1989

4. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 19925. Convention on Biological Diversity, 19926. UN Convention on Desertification, 1994

Question 43) Discuss the concept, types and importance of Seismic Zonation

Seismic Zonation may be termed as the geographic delineation of areas having different potentials for hazardous effects from future earthquakes. Seismic zonation can be done at any scale, national, regional, local, or site. Or we can say A seismic zone is a region in which the rate of seismic activity remains fairly consistent. This may mean that seismic activity isincredibly rare, or that it is extremely common. Some people often use the term “seismic zone” to talk about an area with an increased risk of seismic activity, while others prefer to talk about “seismic hazard zones” when discussing areas where seismic activity is more frequent.

The term Zoning implies that the parameter or parameters that characterize the hazard have a constant value in each zone. If, for example, for practical reasons, the number of zones is reduced (from five as is the case in large majority of national

codes), we obtain a rather simplified representation of the hazard, which in reality has continuous variation.

Many nations have government agencies concerned with seismic activity. These agencies use the data they collect about seismic activity to divide the nation into various seismic zones. A number of different zoning systems are used, from numerical zonesto colored zones, with each number or color representing a different level of seismic activity

A seismic zoning map for engineering use is a map that specifies the levels of force or ground motions for earthquake-resistant design, and thus it differs from a seismicity map, which providesonly the occurrence of earthquake information. The task of seismic zoning is multidisciplinary and involves the best of input from geologist, seismologist, geotechnical, earthquake and structural engineers.

By breaking a country up into different seismic zones, a nation can identify areas which are at increased risk. These areas may have more stringent building codes which are designed to make them safer in the event of an earthquake, and emergency services in a high riskseismic zone may be required to have special earthquake training andfrequent drills to practice responding to an earthquake. Insurance companies usually also increase their rates in a high-activity seismic zone.

One of the biggest hazards beyond the basic shaking of an earthquakefor people in a high-activity seismic zone is liquefaction. Soil liquefaction occurs when loose sediments become suspended in water as a result of seismic activity which pushes the water table upward.When soil liquefaction occurs, the ground is no longer able to support the weight of buildings, highways, and other structures, causing collapses to occur. Underground utility lines may be severedin the process, resulting in potentially explosive leaks of gas along with widespread contamination with sewage. In high-activity zones which are also subject to liquefaction, an earthquake can be extremely dangerous.

Types of Zonation

Macro zonation – It is consists of dividing a national territory into several areas indicating progressive levels of expected seismic intensity for different return periods. These zones can be described in terms of expected intensity,peak ground accelerations, or any other strong motion parameter. The number of zones into which a country is divided is fairly arbitrary.

It is based on an empirical correlation between the seismic impedance ratio and the variation of macro seismic intensity.

For larger area like, zonation of country or continent macrolevel is adopted. Macro zonation are carried out consideringthe seismicity, geology in lager scales without considering geotechnical aspects.

Micro zonation – is a process that involves incorporation of geologic, seismologic and geotechnical concerns into economically, sociologically and politically justifiable anddefensible land-use planning for earthquake effects so that architects and engineers can site and design structures thatwill be less susceptible to damage during major earthquakes

Microzonation should provide general guidelines for the types of new structures that are most suited to an area, andit should also provide information on the relative damage potential of the existing structures in a region.

It consists of mapping in detail all possible earthquake andearthquake induced hazards. Microzonation is subdivision of a region into zones that have relatively similar exposure tovarious earthquake related effects.

Nano zonation – this map provides dominant period at any site within the city. The design spectrum at each site is constructed using five parameters, all of which are derived from the dominant period value.

This has been possible by two factors. The first is that local amplification is strongly governed by the very large impedance contrast between a soft surficial layer and its substratum. The second is the large number of strong motion stations that were installed after the disastrous 1985 earthquake. When the records are analyzed using spectral ratios, and the resulting transfer functions interpreted in terms of a 1D model, it becomes possible to interpolate siteeffects and predict the response everywhere

Appealing as the “Nano zonation” is, this approach is currently not feasible at most cities. In addition, this approach cannot be envisaged when more than one factor contributes significantly to site amplification.

Need and Importance for Seismic Zonation

These maps identify the regions of a country or province in which various intensities of ground shaking may have occurred or may be anticipated.

Maps of probabilistic hazard give an idea of the underlying statistical uncertainty, as is done in calculating insurancerates. These maps give, for example, the odds at which specified earthquake intensity would be exceeded at a site of interest within a given time span.

Seismic zoning is used to reduce the human and economic losses caused by earthquakes, thereby enhancing Economic development and Political stability.

New probabilistic maps have been developed as the basis of seismic design provisions for building practice. These

usually give the expected intensity of ground shaking in terms of peak acceleration. The peak acceleration can be thought of as the maximum acceleration in earthquakes on firm ground at the frequencies that affect sizable structures.

The losses due to damaging earthquakes can be mitigated through a comprehensive assessment of seismic hazard and risk. Seismic zonation of vulnerable areas for bedrock motion thus becomes important so that the planners and administrators can make use of it after applying appropriateamplification factors to take into account the local soil conditions, for better land use planning and safe development.