Prof. Tutun Mukherjee, University of Hyderabad Paper 11: Indian
-
Upload
khangminh22 -
Category
Documents
-
view
0 -
download
0
Transcript of Prof. Tutun Mukherjee, University of Hyderabad Paper 11: Indian
MHRD UGC ePG Pathshala
Subject: English
Principal Investigator: Prof. Tutun Mukherjee, University of Hyderabad
Paper 11: Indian Literary Criticism and Theory
Paper Coordinator: Dr. Bhandaram Vani, S. N. Vanita Mahavidyalaya, Hyderabad
Module No. 06: Tholkappiyar: Tholkappiyam
Content Writer: Ms. Nisha Kutty, Independent Researcher
Content Reviewer: Dr. Bhandaram Vani, S. N. Vanita Mahavidalaya, Hyderabad
Language Editor: Dr. Mrinmoy Pramanick, University of Calcutta
What is this Module About?
This module elaborates on the earliest known work of grammar in Tamil Literature. Due to
the elaborate explanations of a wide range of semantics discussed through the course of the
text, The Tolkappiyam remains one of the most crucial textbooks in Ancient Indian Literary
history. Through the course of this module, the intricate details of linguistics and other
literary devices discussed in The Tolkappiyam would be explained at length.
Introduction
Tolkappiyam is considered to be one of the earliest known texts from Ancient India. As a text
that largely concerns itself with the descriptive linguistics of the Tamil language,
Tolkappiyam has remained available to scholars who are fluent in Tamil. Translations of the
texts, although attempted, have been largely unsuccessful or incomplete.
Tolkappiyam as a text can be roughly divided into three major sections – the first two deals
with the linguistic intricacies of the Tamil language while the third section deals with ideas
referred to in Tamil Literature. Each of these major sections has further been divided into
nine chapters.
As 21st century scholars, today we can understand that Tolkappiyam deals with crucial factors
pertaining to linguistics like, morphology, phonology, orthography, semantics and ideas vital
to the composition of Tamil Literature.
The Tolkappiyam was also the first text to classify the Tamil language into two halves –
sentamil (classical Tamil used in works of Literature) and koduntamil (Tamil dialects spoken
by people of various regions of Tamil Nadu then). The text further categorizes Tamil
alphabets into vowels and consonants followed by a thorough analysis of every alphabet.
Compared to other Indian languages, Tamil has fewer numbers of alphabets and to make it
easier for the reader there is a section devoted to grammaticization associated with the use of
certain words and syntaxes.
There has been an ongoing debate regarding when the Tolkappiyam had originally been
written. Though it is still imprecise, a large number of scholars believe the text has been
written between the 5th century BCE and the 3rd century CE.
While commenting on the debate dating Tolkappiyam, in his text Indian Literary Criticism :
Theory and Interpretation, literary critic Ganesh Devy has stated how S. Ilakkuvanar
believed the text to be written somewhere between 6th century BCE and 10th century BCE. At
the same time, Devy states how Indologist Kamil Zvelebil believes Tolkappiyam to be a
gradually growing body that took about eight centuries to acquire it’s final shape. Zvelebil’s
theory also states that the sections dealing with prosody and diction in Tamil literature should
belong to the 4th or 5th century AD. Devy completes his argument by stating how Zvelebil’s
theory of dating Tolkappiyam seems most probable.
Apart from the controversy regarding the dating of the text, a complete understanding of the
Tolkappiyam is possible only by analyzing the historical literary era of which Tolkappiyam
remains an integral part.
This historical period is termed as the “Sangam Period” in ancient South India. The period is
believed to have spanned from 300 BCE to 300 CE. Over 2381 poems are believed to have
been composed during this period. Sangam literature itself can be categorized into two major
topics – Akattiyam and Tolkappiyam.
The Tolkappiyam and Sangam Literature
Renowned scholar A.K Ramanujan wrote two books titled The Interior Landscape and
Poems of Love and War on the beautiful poems from the Sangam Period.
Writing about these, he states, “Tamil, one of the two classical languages of India, is the only
language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past.
“These poem are ‘classical,’ i.e., early, ancient; they are also ‘classics,’ i.e., works that have
stood the test of time, the founding works of a whole tradition. Not to know them is not to
know a unique and major poetic achievement of Indian civilization.
In their antiquity and in their contemporaneity, there is not much else in any Indian literature
equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil poems. In their values and stances, they represent a
mature classical poetry: passion is balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances
of design, impersonality by vivid detail and leanness of line by richness of implication. These
poems are not just the earliest evidence of Tamil genius. The Tamils, in their 2,000 years of
literary effort, wrote nothing better”. (Ramanujan: Prologue)
The rich literary history of Classical Tamil Language is a fascinating one. Tamil is the
earliest Dravidian language and is often considered to be one of the most creative of the
regional literatures in India.
Sangam Poetry, which existed in written form, is considered to be the most important portion
of works within Sangam Literature. The core idea of Sangam Poetry lies in the different types
of literary works and the feelings transpired through them.
The early stage of Tamil poetry is often referred to as the “Sangam Age” after three
legendary “Sangams” or academies of literary excellence that are said to have supervised
works of the classical poets and scholars. Indeed, one of the great legacies of the period is a
body of poetic works dated roughly between 1st and 4th centuries Christian era, devoted to the
subject of love (Akam) and the heroic themes of battle and the panegyric (Puram).
Thus, it is important to note that Classical poetry from the Sangam Period can be majorly
divided into two types –
● Akam
● Puram
According to Tamil tradition, there were three Sangams from mythological times.
The first owes its origin to Agathiar (Agasthya) who came from North India and stayed at
Madurai, Tamil Nadu. This academy consisted of 549 members, patronized by 89 Pandyas
and lasted for 4,440 years.
Once Madurai was submerged in the sea, it led to the emergence of the 2nd Sangam.
Agasthya established the 2nd Sangam. The Sangam consisted of 3,700 poets, patronized by 59
Panyas and lasted for 3,700 years. The last Sangam lasted for 1850 years and was patronized
by 49 Pandyas. The date of the last Sangam is the early centuries of the Christian era. This is
probably the only historically validated Sangam, located in Madurai, on the banks of the
River Vaigayi.
Sangam Poetry concerns itself with four major goals, namely–
● Aram (Righteousness/virtue)
● Porul (Worldly success)
● Ridu (Release)
● Imbam (Pleasure)
While the first three goals are conveyed through “Puram Poetry”, the last one is best
conveyed through “Akam Poetry”.
Akam
Akam poetry usually deals with feelings of love and affection. They speak of family and
relationships as the central themes through which the experiences of life are best developed.
“Akam” deals with two kinds of love:-
1) Mutual Love
2) One-sided love
Sangam Landscapes, into which each of these works of poetry is categorized, has been
classified into ‘thinais’ based on the mood of the poem, season and land type.
Mutual love itself was reflected through a description of landscape where the poetry takes
place.
Poems on love are named based on the differentiation of the landscapes they are situated in:-
● Kurinchi (mountains)
● Neytal (Sea shore )
● Palai (Wasteland)
● Mullai (Forest / Pasture)
● Marutani (Agricultural lowland)
No matter what kind, Akam poetry always showcases a conscious relationship between
theme and genre. These poems deal with the relationship between man and woman and the
various stages of love between them, Puram deals with works of heroism, war and ethics.
Coming to the role of gender in these poems, the role of women are practically negligible.
However, a lot of importance is given to the chastity of women in these poems. There are
several Akam poems where the woman (the heroine) relates the depth of her love for the hero
by revealing details about her chastity. Interior landscapes convey the feelings and emotions
involved. These poems speak of how a feeling of possession is vital in love. In Akam poetry,
there would always be a speaker and a listener. Poetry unfolds through a conversation which
is almost like a dramatic monologue between two people.
In case of one-sided love poems, underlying tension is an almost palpable feeling. The
feelings of love and desires being unfulfilled along with a possibility of separation are
predominant in these poems.
Akam speaks of the interior landscape of one’s own heart and Puram speaks of the external.
Sangam poetry is essentially court poetry of an age which often spoke of Heroism. While
Akam poetry deals with private emotions, Puram deals with public domains and public
feelings.
There are several examples of famous akam poems that have been translated in English by
AK Ramanujan. One such example has been illustrated below. The poem was originally
composed by Poet Uraiyur Mutukotra and written in Mullai thinai, titled “What she said”;
“My lover has not come back:
the jasmine has bloomed.
A goat-herd comes into town
with goats and milk
to take some rice to others
waiting outside,
palmyra rain-guards in their hands,
herds of young ones in their care:
in his hair
nothing but buds of tiny jasmine.”
Tolkappiyam demonstrates the use of these words and their relation to a particular thinai,
landscape or emotion. The use of syntax and choice of words have been described at length
through the course of the Tolkappiyam, helping us deconstruct how ancient Tamil poetry and
its subsequent followers followed a particular thematic structure.
Puram
Puram poems are always situated in public domains. These poems often speak of war,
bloodshed, love for the one’s own people and politics.
These poems are classified according to the core idea transpired through the poem:-
● Vetci (Cattle Raid)
● Vanci (Preparation for War, Invasion)
● Ulinnai (Siege)
● Tumpai (Battle)
● Vakai (Victory)
● Kanchi (Tragedy & Instability of the world)
● Patan (Elegy and Praise)
These poems often speak of betrayal, separation and tragedy with relation to war and politics.
Puram poems often showcase love that ends in bloodshed. Prosaic tears of love and
associating love with sacrifice displays how a certain kind of violence plays part in this kind
of love. The hero’s self-rebellion when it comes to love has been a recurrent idea conveyed
through these poems. Confluence of love and war together has been found in several Puram
poems from the Sangam age.
Textual Example
கககககககககக 105, கககககககககக கககககககக, கககககககக கககக –
ககககக ககககககக
பபபபபப பபபபபபப பபபபபபபப பபபபபபபபபப
பபபபபபப பபபபபப பபபபப பபபபபபபபபபப
பபபபபபபபபப பபபபப பபபபபபப
பபபபபபபப பபபபபபபப பபபபபபபபபப பபபபபபபபப
பபபபபபப பபபபப பபபபபப
பபபபபபப பபபபபபப பபபபபபபபபபபபபப.
I get teary eyed when I think of my friendship
with the man from the mountain filled with gods.
I shiver with pain like the innocent peacock
that panics
after it eats the golden tiny millet
left as offering to the gods in the mountain kuravars’ fields,
and trembles like a beautiful veriyāttam dancer in a ritual.
Main Ideas Transpired Through Sangam Poetry
In their antiquity and their contemporary outlook, there is not much else in any Indian
literature that equals to the quiet and dramatic Akam poems. In their values and stands, these
poems represent a mature creativity. Passion is balanced through the use of dramatic poetic
measures while impersonality by vivid details remains a classic feature of Puram poems.
Keeping these in mind, there are some major ideas transpired through Sangam Poetry.
These are:-
1) Secularism
2) Different descriptions of Private and Public worlds where questions of personal
emotions and desires hold importance.
3) Greater good of the Tamil community
4) Heroism
5) Metaphors and Imagery
6) Use of realism through descriptions of mundane (daily) activities
7) The importance of “Karma” (Action) over “Dharma” (Duty)
8) The emergence of a non-Sanskritic tradition irrespective of the fact that Sangam
poetry is a tradition as ancient as Sanskrit literature
9) Focus on the use of dramatic dialogue where a certain degree of democratic language
is involved
10) Emergence of social reality; in instances where the woman in the poem speaks to the
mother of the man, implicating a certain kind of social relationship between the two.
11) Sangam poetry as a form of court poetry, where specific methods of writing poetry
are employed through generic decisions and linking natural landscapes to feelings of
love.
12) The existence of a certain amount of orality involved in poetic writing. This was an
important feature of Sangam poetry.
Tolkappiyam – The Text
Tolkappiyam derives its name from the confluence of two words - “Tonmai” (ancient) and
“Kappiam” (literature). It is an extensive work on the grammar of the Tamil language and is
the earliest extant work on Tamil Literature. The text itself comprises of three books or
‘atikarams’ that have been written in the form of short formulaic compositions or ‘noorpas’.
These three books are, namely:-
❖ Ezhuttadikaram – Deals with the formation of words and combination of words in
Tamil Language
❖ Solladikaram – Deals with Syntax in Tamil
❖ Poruladikaram – Deals with the tools used to convey thoughts and emotions in Tamil
Literature
Each of these three books has been further divided into nine chapters each.
Tolkappiyam formulated thirty phonemes and three dependent sounds for the Tamil language.
i. Ezhuttadikaram
The first book of Tolkappiyam deals with the formation of words and combination of
words in Tamil Language. This book has nine subsections that focus on the linguistic
aspect of the Tamil language in totality. These nine subsections are:-
1. Nuul Marabu – Focuses on Tamil language itself and organises them into
consonants, vowels and diacritic symbols.
2. Mozhi Marabu – The second sub section focuses on a well-defined classification of
phonemes and elision. These classifications are unambiguous and follow a thorough
enlisting of linguistic measurements by focusing on the use of vowels and their
consequent sounds.
3. PiRappiyal – The third sub section focuses completely on the use of articulatory
phonetics in Tamil, followed by the explanation of visual representation of each
alphabet.
4. PuNaRiyal- The fourth sub section speaks about words that have come into
existence through the combination of two or more words in Tamil.
5. Thokai Marabu – The fifth sub section is often considered a continuation of the
fourth section as it focuses on explanations regarding combination of words based on
their meaning in Tamil.
6. Urubiyal – This sub section focuses on word modifiers that are added to the end of
a noun or pronouns to create a new meaning.
7. Uyir Mayangial – This sub-section focuses on the combination of words that
contain a vowel at the beginning and end with a vowel as well.
8. Pulli – Pulli placement is one of the most distinguishing factor associated with
characters in the Tamil language. Often found in the Brahmi script, the pulli is
distinguished by its placement. The sub-section focuses on the combination of words
with a consonant upon consonant ending.
9. KutriyalukarappunaRiyal – The last sub-section explores the words created by
combining initial vowel-phonetic upon the shortened 'u' vowel-ending.
ii. Solladikaram
The second book of Tolkappiyam completely deals with the words and parts of speech in
Tamil language. This book classifies Tamil words into four broad categories:-
*Iyar chor (Tamil words in common usage)
*Thiri chor (Tamil words used in literature)
*Vada chor (Tamil words that have been borrowed from Sanskrit)
*Thisai chor (Tamil words that have been borrowed from other languages)
Each of these four books contains nine subsections that concentrate on the formation and
usage of syntax, adjectives, nouns, verbs, suffix-prefix and adverbs in the Tamil language.
These nine subsections are:-
▪ KiLaviyaakkam – Deals with gender, number, person etc.
▪ VEtRumaiyiyal – Deals with how case works in syntax.
▪ VEtrumaimayangial – Deals with case and their correlation with suffix.
▪ ViLimarabu – Deals with how vocative cases are formed in Tamil language.
▪ Peyariyal – Deals with nouns.
▪ Vinaiyiyal – Deals with verbs.
▪ Idaiyiyal – Deals with suffix and prefix formations in Tamil.
▪ Uriyiyal – Deals with nature of qualifiers with reference to the use of adjectives and
adverbs.
▪ Echchaviyal – Deals with miscellaneous ideas associated with syntax formations in
Tamil.
iii. Poruladikaram
Poruladikaram contains the most significant set of information in the Tolkappiyam when it
comes to Tamil literature. Poruladikaram in totality speaks about the descriptive use of
natural landscape with relation to human emotions in Sangam literature.
The third book provides classifications of different landscapes, seasons and religious deities
and speaks about different modes of life attributed to each of the combinations of landscapes
and seasons, for different types of people. This book also discusses the Phonemic Deviations
prevalent in Sangam poetry.
Poruladikaram contains 9 subsections, which are:-
▪ AkaththiNaiyiyal – Deals the life of couples
▪ PuRaththiNaiyiyal – Deals with the different aspects in the public life of people
▪ KaLaviyal – Literature where secretive love is exposed through someone and how
they expose it is well described.
▪ KaRpiyal – Deals with the lives of couples in love
▪ PoruLiyal – Deals with how couples inform their families and friends about their
relationship and how they react to this.
▪ Meyppaattiyal – Deals with how feelings are expressed.
▪ Uvamayiyal – Deals with natural landscapes and metaphors related to them.
▪ SeyyuLiyal – Deals with grammar in Tamil poetry
▪ Marabiyal – Deals with the chronology of Tamil language
Authorship
As previously mentioned, attributing the authorship of Tolkappiyam to a single author has
been a controversy for centuries. However, vast amount of historical and linguistic evidence
the authorship of the Tolkappiyam has been attributed to a Tamil Sangam poet named
Tholkappiyar. Though several critics have stated that Tholkappiyar’s name is derived from
the text itself, there is no clear indication as to when Tholkappiyar existed. According to
sources, Tholkappiyar is believed to have been the disciple of Agathiar (Agasthya) and was
born in the Tamil month of Chitirai around 865 BC. Tholkappiyar is believed to have been
born in the Adankodu village in Vilavankodu taluq situated in modern-day Kanyakumari
district of Tamil Nadu. References point to this fact in his work Tolkappiyam. There have
been assumptions about why Tolkappiyam was compiled in the first place. Sources within the
state believe that Tholkappiyar was asked to compile the great text on Tamil grammar after
“Agathiar”, a text on Tamil grammar composed by his guru Agathiar, disappeared.
After the Tolkappiyam, another text on Tamil grammar Nannul had been composed by
Pavananthi Munivar around the 13th century AD and it serves as a commentary on older
works like Tolkappiyam itself.
Religion and Tolkappiyam
Tolkappiyam along with other ancient Tamil texts like Pattupattu (10 songs) and Ettutokai (8
Anthologies) shed light on the early religious beliefs of the Tamil people from the bygone
era.
From ancient times to the modern-day Tamil Nadu, Murugan is a chief deity in the Hindu
spectrum. Murugan or “Karthik” as he is known in other Indian cultures is the son of Lord
Shiva. He is described and illustrated as one of the most beautiful gods seated on a blue
peacock – an ever-young, ever resplendent figure of divinity among the Tamil people. In the
third book of Tolkappiyam, we are introduced to the idea of Sangam landscapes and how they
can be related to the descriptions in the poems. These attributions help us understand which
Hindu deities were worshipped during the Sangam Period. These “thinais” are attributed to a
specific religious figure as well as the season and the flora/fauna associated with it. Murugan
was considered as the patron deity of the “Kurinchi” ‘thinai’, situated in the Blue Mountains
(Nilgiris). “Kurinchi” – the ‘thinai’, is named so after a flower of the same name which is
believed to bloom only in the mist engulfed greenery of the Nilgiris. “Kurinchi” is a ‘thinai’
which deals with the meeting and union of two lovers.
The Tolkappiyam states that the next thinai, “Mullai” or forests have Lord Vishnu or
Tirumaal as the patron deity. “Mullai” is a thinai where poems glorify lovers’ spat and their
eventual reunion. The other patron deities for the other three ‘thinais’ include: - Goddess
Durga or Kottravai for “Palai” or wasteland/desert, showcasing lovers’ separation and hero’s
journey through a dangerous territory; Lord Indra or Vendan for “Marutham” or agricultural
lowlands, where lovers elope to hide their love away from others; Lord Varuna or Kadalon
for “Neythal” or sea coast, where lovers experience the longest separation from each other.
Below is a table which tabulates these attributions more closely.
Classification
s
Kurinchi Mullai Palai Marutham Neythal
Climate/Seaso
n
Cold and Moist Cloudy Summer Late Spring Windy
Landscape Moutain Forest Wasteland
/Desert
Agricultural
Land
Sea Coast
Patron Deity Murugan Tirumaal(Vishnu
)
Kottravai(Durga
)
Vendan(Indra) Kadalon(Varuna
)
Flora Kurinchi flower Jasmine flower Paalai flower,
Cactus
Marudam flower Water Lily
Soil Red/Black Soil Red Soil Marshy ground Alluvial Soil Sand
The Tolkappiyam and Its Contribution to the Indian Literary Tradition
Not only did The Tolkappiyam throw light on the culture and life of people in Tamil Nadu
from the ancient age, but also contributed to the Indian linguistic study as we know it today.
Without the Tolkappiyam, a major part of India’s linguistic history would have been void. As
a country which has been constantly overshadowed by Postcolonial sentiments, Tolkappiyam
towers as a text which showcases Indian literary brilliance. As a text written in Pre-Christian
era, Tolkappiyam exhibits a linguistic and literary precision that is much beyond its time.
Beginning from the deconstruction of constants, vowels and use of syntax, Tolkappiyam is
the first text of grammar steeped completely in Indian linguistic understanding. It is one of
the first books in the world to have decoded literary tools with such precision, given the time
period it is a part of. Tolkappiyam also gave shape to Indian poetic traditions for centuries to
come. The relation to Sangam Literature holds true not just for works from the ancient age
but also today. The intricacies with which each of these ‘thinais’ attribute their relation to a
season, a religious deity and flora/fauna is the earliest known example of literary metaphors
in Tamil literature.
Even today, the attributions given to each of these ‘thinai’ remain valid in modern-day Indian
theatre or films. Separation between lovers is often showcased through deserts in celluloid,
union of lovers is shown is a beautiful landscape, mostly having mountains have a backdrop
and lastly, sea coast is used to depict ‘viraha-gatha’ or long periods of separation between
lovers.
Thus showing the relevance of how Tolkappiyam shaped the landscape of Indian poetic
imagination for centuries that followed.
To Conclude
Tolkappiyam shaped up the history of poetic tradition in India for centuries to come. As a
country constantly struggling with the colonial ideas instilled in our history, Tolkappiyam as a
pre-colonial text outshines the binding shackles of literary conflicts. It exhibits the rich and
vibrant culture existent in ancient India and the deep rooted understanding of grammaticism.
Tolkappiyam helped in shaping the face of Indian poetic thought for centuries that followed,
by detailing factors that contributed to the existence of Indian poetry as we know it today.
The residual reflections of the intricacies within Sangam poetry can still be seen in
contemporary Indian poetry where characters follow similar modes of expression as seen
within Sangam literature. Irrespective of various controversies which surround its dating and
authorship, the Tolkappiyam continues to remain an anchoring precursor in the history of
Indian literary tradition.
Works Cited
● Dev, Amiya, and Sisir Kumar Das. Comparative Literature: Theory and Practice.
Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study in Association with Allied, New Delhi,
1989. Print.
● Devy, G. N. Indian Literary Criticism: Theory and Interpretation. New Delhi: Orient
Blackswan, 2011. Print.
● PILLAI, S. VAIYAPURI. History of Tamil Language and Literature. Beginning to
1000 A.D. Pp. Xvi. 206. New Century Book House: Madras, 1956. Print.
● Ramanujan, A. K. The Interior Landscape. Delhi: Oxford UP, 1994. Print.
● Tholkalppiyar, and Subrahmanya Sastri P. S. Tolkappiyam: The Earliest Extant Tamil
Grammar: With a Short Commentary in English. Chennai: Kuppuswami Sastri
Research Institute, 1999. Print.
Summary of the Module
This module traces the origin and evolution of Tolkappiyam – the earliest extant text of
grammar in India. We discuss the various intricacies associated with Tolkappiyam and its
major contribution in deconstructing Sangam poetry for scholars of centuries that followed.
The Tolkappiyam is a text which is steeped in the rich study of ancient Tamil grammar, its
syntax and other various components of grammar. It also helps us understand the slow
evolution of ancient Tamil language. It is also interesting to see how translation plays an
important role in bringing Tolkappiyam to a wider range of audience. Though the number of
translations is sparse, Tolkappiyam and its literary brilliance has reached far and wide, much
beyond the periphery of Indian literature.