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Prehistoric Shell Middens on the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua:

Food Production, Structures and Site Formation

Ignacio Clemente-Conte¹, Ermengol Gassiot Ballbè², Virginia García Díaz³

¹AGREST, Departament Arqueologia i Antropologia, Institut Mila i Fontanels-CSIC. C/Egipcíaques,

15, Barcelona, E-08001, España.

Email:ignacio@imf.csic.es

²Departament de Prehistòria, Facultat de Filosofia i Lletres, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona,

08193 Bellaterra, España

Email: ermengol.gassiot@uab.es

³Departament de Prehistòria, Facultat de Filosofia i Lletres, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona,

08193 Bellaterra, España.

Email: visi21@hotmail.com

Abstract Ten years of archaeological research on Nicaragua’s southern Caribbean coast has resulted in the

discovery of dozens of artificial mounds mainly composed of bivalve shells. This paper summarizes

the archaeological and ecological data from these sites and examines their distribution and their

variability both in terms of composition and structure. The taxonomic composition of the shell

middens is discussed, as are the stratigraphic sequences, the size distribution of the shell samples and

their weight relative to the vertebrate fauna. An extensive excavation of a domestic area near the

Karoline shell midden (450 cal BC– cal AD 400) is also discussed. Based on the archaeological sites

and current environmental deposits, the authors were able to estimate the economic importance of

shells and were also able to offer new perspectives on environmental changes in the coastal zone

over the last two thousand years.

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Introduction Intensive exploitation of molluscs in the past has led to a particular type of archaeological deposit,

known universally as the ‘shell midden’. Shell middens are unlike other archaeological sites; they

exist because large quantities of shellfish, both gastropods and bivalves, were exploited at times in

the past. As the largest part of these animals is their inedible shell, these are discarded and often

survive in great numbers to create large mounds.

Shell middens can create highly visible archaeological sites of great significance. The shells

are not only waste material; they also serve as raw material for the production of tools and jewellery.

The physical and chemical characteristics of many shells, as well as their quantity, can influence the

nature of archaeological sites, as calcium carbonate released from the shells can preserve other

archaeological remains. Equally, the pattern of refuse build up, (where, how and when this happened

within the food production process) is directly related to exploitation patterns and shell fish yield.

The visibility and preserving effects of many shell middens, together with the fact that they

survive in many geographical and historical contexts, has meant that they have been studied for

many decades. Many methods for studying shell middens have been developed; these have focused

primarily on their economic, cultural and adaptive significance as well as their geographical and

temporal contexts (e.g. Uhle, 1907; Willey and McGimsey, 1954; McGimsey, 1956; Meehan, 1982;

Stein, 1982; Mellars, 1987; Mason, et al., 1998; Sanoja and Vargas, 1995; Glassow, 2000).

The stratigraphic accumulations of thousands or millions of shells on archaeological sites has

greatly contributed to interpretations of archaeological and historical contexts particularly with

respect to the wide variety of formation processes, all of which themselves are products of diverse

economic and social circumstances.

Much archaeological study of shell middens has focused on methodology, specifically to create

guidelines within which to make empirical observations which can in turn be used to explore the

wide range of historical and social realities which can occur at this kind of site.

For example, in Tierra del Fuego an excavation methodology has been developed which takes

into account the small stratigraphic units or mini-middens in order to identify individual occupations,

from both chronological and spatial perspectives (Orquera and Piana, 1992; 1996; Orquera, 1996;

Estévez and Vila, 1996; 2000; 2007; Estévez and Clemente, in press; Vila, et al., 2009; Estevez et al.,

this volume). This has demonstrated that shell middens are more than mere rubbish dumps. In many

of the Tierra del Fuego middens such as Túnel VII, the distribution of rubbish was focused on

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supporting hut walls, and in this way build-up of the middens became part of the construction

processes.

The many types of shell midden formation processes are not only the result of the shell types or

collection, processing and consumption methods, other activities took place on shell middens also.

For example in the Saloum Delta Senegal, living sites continue to be constructed on middens. Here

the dwellings are located on top of the shell mounds and these serve to isolate the houses from the

dampness of the mangrove swamps (Sall, this volume); this may also be the case with the sambaquis

of Brazil. Sometimes middens were also used as locations for burial (McGimsey, 1956; Veloz, 1991;

Cybulski, 1992; Morey et al., 2002; Piana et al., 2006) and/or as production zones (Clemente et al.,

2008; 2009; Clemente and Gassiot, in press; Gassiot et al., 2005).

The excavation and recording of shell middens need to take into account their complexity.

Middens can be highly complex both stratigraphically and spatially with regards to activity areas and

the variety of archaeological deposits that may be found. In this respect, they acquire value as a

source of information on social realities of past societies. The present article illustrates the wide

variety of activities that were identified as part of our study of the people who lived on the Atlantic

coast of Nicaragua between 450 cal BC and cal AD 350.

The Shell middens of Nicaragua’s Caribbean coast Nicaragua’s Caribbean coast is a largely undeveloped area of swamps and humid tropical forest.

Perhaps because of this, it is unsurprising that many of the identified archaeological sites are shell

middens as these are more readily visible. Prior to 1998, the archaeology of the region was studied

using small trenches following arbitrary horizontal levels (Magnus, 1974; 1975; 1976; 1978;

Espinosa, in Veloz, 1991; Matilló, 1993). This was the methodology followed in much of America

and in particular Central America at the time (Magnus, 1974; Stark and Voorhies, 1978; Linares and

Ranere, 1980). Use of this method corresponded well with the aims of the time, which were based

around reconstruction of chronological sequences based on ceramic typology. Archaeological levels

were identified and recorded using ceramic seriation, though with the emergence of cultural ecology,

faunal remains also became relevant. The nature of these early studies, including use of arbitrary

levels and the small scale areas of excavation did not permit detailed interpretation of these beyond

the general understanding that they were rubbish dumps.

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Since 1998, excavation methods employed here have substantially altered (e.g. Gassiot, 2005;

Gassiot, et al., 2005; Gassiot and Palomar, 2006; Clemente and Gassiot, in press). Over several

seasons, small test trenches were combined with cleaning of old profiles where these were exposed,

in order to obtain material suitable for radiocarbon dating. This has resulted in the identification of

almost 80 shell middens, representing 20 independent archaeological sites, and in the radiocarbon

dating of 13 of these. These dates (Table 7.1) represent a first preliminary chronology for this region.

In those shell middens in which two or more dates were taken, information on the internal structure

and sequence of the middens was also obtained. At shell midden number 4, at the site of Karoline, an

extensive area was then opened for excavation. This has enabled a clearer picture of the internal

structure and a better understanding of the contexts which were radiocarbon dated.

Karoline consists of around 20 recorded shell midden sites which lie on the edge of a large

coastal plain around 60 km long. It is located between Bahía de Bluefields and the northern half of

Laguna de Perlas, in the southern part of Nicaragua’s Atlantic Coast (Figure 7.1). Most sites,

including Karoline, are found in areas that lie above the inland edge of the estuaries/lagoons which

comprise a large part of the coastlines in this region (Gassiot, 2005; Gassiot and Palomar, 2006).

Though today Karoline is surrounded by marshes and sandy areas and lies four kilometres from the

sea, during its prehistoric occupation it lay on the edge of Laguna de Perlas, which is now filled in

with alluvium. A preference for interior lagoon shorelines, which continues today among the

indigenous communities, may be due to the need for protection from the tropical storms and

hurricanes which periodically hit the region.

The chronological sequence for the region is now based on a series of absolute dates taken on

samples from test trenches and cleaned profiles as well as the extensive excavations which were

carried out in Karoline and El Cascal de Flor de Pino, a very large inland site with monumental

architecture (Gassiot 2005; Gassiot et al., 2005; Gassiot and Palomar, 2006). Four dates obtained by

Magnus (1974) are also included (Table 7.1). Four broad prehistoric periods covering a period of

around 3300 years were identified.

Period I (1500–900/800 cal BC). This period is identified at the shell middens of Long

Mangrove and Coconut Beach; this is the oldest occupation phase currently known. Both sites are

low lying and are situated on the same shore of Laguna de Perlas. The predominant shell is

Polymesoda solida, a bivalve which is found in estuarine environments and soft ground. These shell

middens have no internal stratigraphy; this pattern is repeated elsewhere where Polymesoda is the

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predominant shell and where the matrix of the middens is fine grained organic soil which appears to

be the result of inundation. No artefacts or faunal remains were found in any of the middens. This,

together with the very difficult environment here, suggest that these are processing sites near

collection locations, and that the meat was transported to other locations further inland, for

consumption.

Period II (800/700 cal BC–cal AD 400/500). Many of the identified shell middens, particularly

from Laguna de Perlas, date to this lengthy time period. At the time of occupation, the shell middens

were located on small hills near estuarine coastlines. They are clustered in groups and sometimes

reach over two metres high. Sites including Sitetaia, Brown Bank and Karoline have a similar age

range (Table 7.1). All these middens are linked to domestic sites and suggest small, independent

communities, something that contrasts with the interior at El Cascal de Flor de Pino (Clemente and

Gassiot 2004/2005), where 18 mounds and 3 large platforms surround a central square. Lithic and

ceramic sites are found here, and the presence of fauna in the shell middens which are constructed

predominantly of Donax striatus and D. denticulatus (Karoline) is a notable contrast to the

unstratified Polymesoda middens (Brown Bank and Sitetaia). A shared ceramic tradition, which

includes the occasional presence of polychrome, and the presence of marine fish suggests a

relationship between coastal and inland sites (Ph. Béarez pers. comm.). The excavations at Karoline

and El Cascal de Flor de Pino have contributed to a more detailed understanding of the chronology

of this long period.

Period 3 (cal AD 500–800). No coastal sites were found for this period. Soil mounds continued

to be constructed in the interior and used as a base for the construction of dwellings; new structures

were occasionally placed on the foundations of older ones, notably at El Cascal de Flor de Pino

where the intensity and size reduces over time. A change in pottery style coincides with levels of

burning and abandonment (Gassiot and Palomar, 2006).

Period 4 (cal AD 800–1500). Shell middens once again appear in this period, though mainly in

the Bahía de Bluefields. These middens consist almost exclusively of Polymesoda and, unlike the

middens from the previous period, are low lying but cover extensive areas; indeed they are hardly

visible as mounds. Although to the south of Bluefields there is evidence of some clustering, in at

least one case the middens do not appear to be contemporaneous and instead appear to be the result

of repeated occupations. With the exception of Rocky Point in Laguna de Perlas, the middens from

this period contain practically no vertebrate fauna.

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Excavation of shell midden number 4 at Karoline

Initial problems and methodological approaches The archaeological excavation of shell midden 4 at Karoline has led to significant developments in

the understanding of this prehistoric site, which contains at least 12 shell middens distributed around

a central space which contains an artificial mound of soil and stone (Figure 7.2). Walk-over and

topographic surveys provided information on the extent of the site, including the number and

distribution of shell middens, and the overall size of the site. Small test pits in some of the middens

have provided some information on how they developed and permitted a preliminary chronological

sequence to be constructed for some of the shell middens. However, some key aspects remained

unclear.

The first focus of the work conducted here was to understand the relationship between the shell

midden as a waste deposit, and the assumed location where food and shellfish processing, food

consumption and other production processes took place. An extended area was opened for

excavation; this permitted detailed investigation of the stratigraphic sequence. Time constraints

limited detailed investigation to the upper levels of the shell midden and its immediate surroundings,

and the survey focused on locations where most of the activities linked to the shell midden were

thought to have taken place. This was identified as the upper part of the shell midden, which leaned

against a slope. The related domestic space was located on the upper, south side of the slope, where

the gradient decreased considerably. The excavation excluded the edges of the midden as it was clear

that these had been substantially eroded and degraded, with stratigraphic gaps and inversions.

Another major question was how to detect the relative ages of the different stratigraphic levels

in the shell midden and, to a certain extent, the activities that went on in these. An attempt was made

to establish the length of time each stratigraphic level represented, in order to create an approximate

chronology. This was achieved through a programme of intensive trenching in different shell

middens. Evidence for patterns of food preparation were also examined in the midden and correlated

with variations on the site. Once the activities that contributed to creating the midden were

established, aspects of these, such as seasonality, were investigated and correlated with the presence

or absence of continuity evident in the midden. Examination of the internal changes in the midden

was undertaken to identify any interruptions that may have occurred, or any other alterations in the

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formation processes or build-up of the midden deposits that could contribute a better understanding

of the different occupation phases. Though the initial intention was to excavate a wider area of the

midden, this had to be abandoned after two seasons as it proved to be too slow. Instead, a trench was

opened which cut right through the midden to its base and which enabled a clear understanding of

the stratigraphy. This trench also permitted study and characterization of the deposits (Figure 7.3).

Although the trench followed arbitrary levels, notable stratigraphic discontinuities in the structure of

the midden were followed.

Spatial study of the final occupation of the midden The broad are of the excavation of shell midden 4 at Karoline permitted a detailed reconstruction of

the final occupation phase of the midden as well as the abandonment of the previous phase beyond

the limits of the midden. No link between the midden and its immediate surroundings was found. In

the first phase the build-up of the midden was continuous, while in the second phase the same area

and artefact deposition patterns were used for a period of time before the site was abandoned. This

final phase of the midden occurs between cal AD 242–382 (KIA-17978: 1735±25 BP) and 110 cal

BC– 51 cal AD (KIA-17649: 2030±25 BP) (Clemente et al., 2008; Clemente and Gassiot, in press;

Clemente et al., 2009).

One feature of the excavation was the identification of three post holes which lay outside the

midden. The post holes continued into the midden area, and created an alignment which crossed the

excavation grid in a southeast–northwest direction (Figure 7.4). This was the only evidence for

architecture found in this area of the excavation (Clemente and Gassiot, in press). The holes all had

diameters of 9–13 cm. Some of these post holes contained small pebbles which may have served to

cradle the base of the post. Their dimensions suggest a light structure, possibly a roof cover, though

this is not certain as the excavation only revealed one side of the possible structure. Even so, the way

the posts were aligned does suggest a single structure of some sort. Although there was no evidence

for the cave-in of a wall for example, it is possible that the posts represent some sort of spatial

organization, either as roof supports or as part of some sort of enclosure. Further analysis of the

excavated material will help resolve this issue. Paradoxically, the excavation of what is normally

considered exclusively a waste area has provided new information on another structure that extends

beyond it. This consists both of holes and small openings as well as cuts into the midden itself,

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apparently with the aim of reaching a flat surface below the midden. The post holes are the most

common architectural feature, a total of 14 holes were found altogether in the midden. The holes tend

to be circular and half of these have a diameter of 13 cm, while three have diameters of 9 cm. The

rest have a more irregular outline with diameters of around 20–25 cm, though this larger size may be

a result of taphonomic processes. The fills of the holes vary according to the level they are found in

the midden. Holes in the upper levels were filled with a peaty soil which may represent post decay.

In other cases, the fill consists of shells lying vertically, soil found in the holes suggests that the posts

were pulled out and the holes gradually filled in as material was added to the midden. The location of

the holes is also interesting. Eleven holes are located at least 1 m from the two hearths which are

situated in the central part of the midden. In general terms, the holes form an arc and it is possible

that they represent some form of roof which was linked to the location of the hearths. There was also

a stratigraphic link between the holes, the midden layers and other features. This suggests that the

structures were rebuilt several times during the life cycle of this particular occupation phase.

The second type of architectural feature consists of several cuts which were marked into the

surface of the midden and which were found throughout the stratigraphy. These cuts are different

sizes, and lie largely at the edge of the midden. Taken together, they form angular shapes, which

noticeably alter the morphology of the midden and other remains. They are shallow, and are only

ever a few centimetres deep. Some localized evidence for fires occurs on the inside, lying directly on

earlier layers of shell. These ephemeral architectural traces can be understood given the large

amounts of rain and the very permeable nature of the midden, which consists largely of whole and

fragmented shell. The clearest evidence for fireplaces both with regards to size, internal

characteristics and links to other remains, is in two areas in the central part of the midden edge in

what would have been an open area. In each of these, a number of hearths, in one case 12, were

identified.

One useful piece of information regarding the internal structure of the midden is that one of the

post holes described above was covered by what appears to be the most recent of the central hearths.

Though the locations of the hearths were found to vary only slightly throughout the occupation of the

site, they remained consistent with the space defined by the midden to the north and the domestic

space to the south. The slight alteration in at least one of the hearths in the sequence may be linked to

a slight change in location of some of the post holes which created an arc around it. Though the

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function of these post holes is still not certain, one idea is that they could represent hanging lines for

smoking fish; this is still current practice in parts of the Caribbean region of Nicaragua.

This study of the archaeological remains, the stratigraphy and spatial distribution of features

has permitted a preliminary picture of the final phase of occupation of shell midden 4 at Karoline. As

expected, most of the fauna was found in or near the midden (Figure 7.5). This may be due to

taphonomy and the protective environment created by the release of carbonates from the shells;

alternatively it may be linked to the differential use of space, at least in the final moment of

occupation. This is consistent with the many remains found outside the midden, which lay to the

right of the line of post holes. This distribution may be related to an area of meat processing and/or

consumption. The hearth areas contained no faunal remains (there was very little evidence in general

of carbonized faunal remains) though these were found in an area nearby.

Outside the midden, the line of post holes may suggest some sort of enclosed space towards the

east, presumably with no type of door or closure. This is reinforced by the spatial distribution of the

objects excavated here, where a clear differentiation is marked by the line of post holes. Most of the

activities documented on the site were located outside this space, this is confirmed by both

typological and use-wear analyses (Clemente et al., 2008; Clemente and Gassiot, in press) (Figure

7.4). Outside this ‘living area’ to the side away from the midden, plant materials were processed and

ground up, ornamental items were manufactured, other hard mineral and bone materials were

processed, and lithic working was carried out. Equally, most artefacts used in pottery production

(polishers, flakes for cutting and smoothing fresh clay, spatulas), lay outside this line of posts. There

is not a great deal of evidence for activities in what may have been the interior of the space except

with regards to food processing and consumption. Other activities, such as wood and clay working

are present but much less so than in other areas of the excavation.

Based on the evidence from the excavations, occupation areas of some sort were present

adjacent to the midden at least in the case of the last phase of occupation at the shell midden 4 at

Karoline. Structures appear to have been light and constructed of wood and may have been relatively

open. A wide range of activities were carried out adjacent to these structures, both with regards to

production of lithics, pottery and ornaments as well as food processing. Although the production of

food was probably only for domestic purposes, it is possible that it represented some form of

exchange. However exploration of this idea is beyond the scope of the present paper.

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Study of change through the middens The initial aim at shell midden 4 at Karoline was to understand spatial distribution in the final

occupation level. During the final field season, the focus was on understanding the occupation

sequence. A 3.5 x 1 m trench was laid out to cut through the whole length of the midden. This

eventually reached 1.4 m deep. This permitted documentation of the midden stratigraphy and

permitted correlation with the external sedimentary sequences (Figure 7.6). Samples of

archaeological material including soil samples, faunal remains and lithic and ceramic artefacts, were

collected through the sequence and are currently being studied.

The midden has a deep stratigraphic sequence; the post holes and hearths which represent some

form of structure inside the midden were tied into the sequence through the profiles (Figure 7.6);

post holes are found repeatedly in the same place, which suggests re-use of space in the midden.

The stratigraphy of the midden can be closely linked to the rhythms of collection and

consumption of Donax sp. which is the predominant taxon and which is seasonally available on

Nicaragua’s Caribbean coastline (Gassiot, 2005; Gassiot and Palomar, 2006). By contrast, there is an

absence of internal stratigraphic structure in the Polymesoda solida middens; this is an estuarine

species and is available all year round.

The stratigraphy of the midden is made up of thick, relatively homogeneous layers (up to 16

cm thick). These all have similar density, taxonomy, nature and extent of shell fragmentation and

clayey colour which indicates the amount of charcoal and ash. However, many thin layers were

detected on the basis of alterations in the sediment within these thick layers and these may represent

tip events. This suggests a relatively lengthy build-up of the layers (although it is not clear whether

the length of time between events represents weeks or years). The layering in the midden follows the

ground surface and the midden becomes much thicker as the ground slopes downwards. The

stratigraphic complexity of the midden lends weight to the idea that for shell middens as large as

these, small scale excavation in arbitrary layers is not a viable solution.

The numerous layers that are present in the shell midden are in sharp contrast with the

uniformity of the natural clayey sediment surrounding it and which formed the base for the many

activities that took place immediately beyond the edge of the midden and which contributed to its

build up. The edges of the midden and the way these lie on the clayey sediment permit certain

stratigraphic subdivisions to be identified, both in the midden and in the external space beyond.

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For example, in two places, sedimentary intrusions reach into the midden. These provide

information on some small discontinuities in the midden formation processes. This could either be

the result of an interruption in the deposition of shells (which could also equate with a general gap in

occupation of the site, though absence of shells does not necessarily equal absence of occupation) or

it could simply signify that shells were being deposited elsewhere on the midden. This has not yet

been resolved, but meanwhile the midden sequence has been divided into three phases based on these

stratigraphic discontinuities. The most recent phase ends with abandonment of the whole site

somewhere between cal AD 242–382 (Phase 3). The chronology of the second phase is linked to the

date of 110 cal BC– cal AD 51 which is close to the date of abandonment. This date is from the base

of the intrusive clayey lens which marks a discontinuity. The only date known from the earliest

phase of the midden is between 350–300/227–224/210–91/71–60 cal BC (probably between 210–90

cal BC) (KIA-17650: 2140±25). This date was obtained from a piece of charcoal taken from an ashy

layer which lay in the earliest stratigraphic discontinuity of the site.

The variability in the composition of the different layers within the shell midden is notable in

relation to the amount of faunal remains, the proportion of shells, the wide range of vertebrate fauna,

the amount of charcoal, and the evidence for intrusions that disturbed parts of the sediments in some

cases. Despite these disturbances and some variation in the pottery, the sedimentary process in the

shell midden and some built structures both inside the midden and in its immediate surroundings is

consistent throughout the sequence. This suggests that the overall spatial distribution was maintained

throughout the build-up of Karoline.

Conclusion As a result of our excavation of shell midden 4 at Karoline, we are now able to offer a series of ideas

and methodological suggestions that could be considered for future excavations. We feel that it was

necessary to conduct large scale excavations in order to correlate the excavated material with the

structures. However, and because of the stratigraphic complexity of shell middens, the difficulty in

identifying accumulations inside the middens and the need to follow the horizontal levels, it is

necessary to open a trench in order to first identify the natural stratigraphy. This enables a better

understanding of the layers once a larger area has been opened for excavation.

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We have also identified the need for great care when selecting material for radiocarbon dating.

The lie of the layers and the continuing restructuring of the space inside the midden can lead to errors

in chronology. For example, when the occupants of dwellings dug a hole to build a hearth or for a

wooden post, they removed earlier material which was then placed on top of the more recent midden

material. By the same token, and due to the way in which the layers were laid down, it is possible to

find more modern material in deeper areas.

By opening a large area of shell midden 4 at Karoline for excavation, we have been able to

identify the location of hearths, and related structures (e.g. post holes) on the surface of the midden.

We have also been able to identify the layers of soil between the different levels and this has allowed

us to explore formation processes. We were also able to identify a line of post holes, probably

forming part of a dwelling of some sort, in the south part of the site; this represents the clayey area

with no shell midden.

Analysis of the spatial distribution of bones and lithic and ceramic material across the

excavated area, allowed us to explore some ideas regarding the social use of space, at least during the

final phases of occupation. Specifically we have been able to observe the following:

a) Certain activities related to space management; for example, the bones of animals that had

been eaten were thrown away in the area of the shell midden, as were the sediments cleared

out of hearths, and in general the shell midden was a repository for food remains.

b) The area immediately beyond the shell midden, near the hearths, contained fragments of

burnt pottery. These pots were larger than those from the areas located further south and

consisted of cooking pots and pans (comales) etc. In the south area the pottery consisted

largely of plates and bowls. Tortoise shells were also found here which suggests that these

may also have been used as containers.

c) The functional analysis of lithic artefacts (Clemente et al., 2008), allowed us to identify

different areas of production. Most of these are located in the area farthest away from the

midden, while in the midden itself, grinding stone fragments and exhausted cores were found.

The excavation techniques that we employed in our excavation of shell midden 4 at Karoline have

enabled us to obtain a wide range of social and stratigraphic information. The large area excavated,

together with our analyses have allowed us to identify social perspectives on the use of the space.

The trench through the midden allowed us to connect the two types of sediment (soil and shell

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midden) and permitted study of site formation processes as well as allowing us to extract samples for

radiocarbon dating. These have enabled us to correlate all the remains from the different sedimentary

contexts in the shell midden with the different occupation levels outside the midden even though

these represent long time scales.

Acknowledgements The archaeological fieldwork conducted on the Atlantic coast of Nicaragua would not have been

possible without the aid of the Ministry of Culture (MCU) -(IPHE/AMN/cmm /Arqueología exterior,

Spain 2006 and 2007), the State Agency for International Cooperation (Agencia Estatal de

Cooperación Internacional) (AECI – A/2437/05), and the I+D research project (HUM2005-

02268/HIST): Economy and Environment on the Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua, Diversity, Correlation

and Change in Prehistory, which was funded by the Ministry of Education and Science (Ministerio de

Educación y Ciencia) (MEC), as well as the hard work of the students and staff of the UNAN-

Managua, Nicaragua.

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Figure captions Figure 7.1. Map of the study zone: southern Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua, between Bahia de Bluefields and Laguna de Perlas. Figure 7.2. Plan of Karoline with shell midden locations and the ‘central mound’ marked. Figure 7.3. View of northern part of the excavation, containing the shell midden and the trench, prior to excavation. Figure 7.4. Plan of the excavation of shell midden 4 at Karoline, showing structures, post holes, hearths, and the location of activity areas as identified by the results of functional analysis of lithic and other materials. The post holes are situated in the clayey part of the site. Figure 7.5. Example of the preservation of materials in sedimentary contexts; small spotted dogfish vertebrae from an area near the shell midden. Figure 7.6. Trench profiles, shell midden 4 at Karoline, showing details of the formation processes of the three shell middens, location of post holes, and location of samples taken for radiocarbon dating.

Table caption Table 7.1. Absolute dates of archaeological sites on the Costa Atlántica of Nicaragua. The dates on shell were take on samples from Polymesoda solida. The exception is samples dated by R. Magnus, I-7450 e I-7451, in which P. solida shell is mixed with Donax sp. P. solida is an estuarine species living principally in fresh water with δC13/C12 values close to atmospheric values. For this reason, the calibration of these samples uses the INTCAL04 curve, even though they may contain a small amount of marine carbon, which would increase the dates by several decades. The dates were obtained by Clemente and Gassiot (2004–2005), Gassiot (2005) and Magnus (1974).

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Figure 7.1. Map of the study zone: southern Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua, between Bahia de Bluefields and Laguna de Perlas.

18

Figure 7.2. Plan of Karoline with shell midden locations and the ‘central mound’ marked.

19

Figure 7.3. View of northern part of the excavation, containing the shell midden and the trench, prior to excavation.

20

Figure 7.4. Plan of the excavation of shell midden 4 at Karoline, showing structures, post holes, hearths, and the location of activity areas as identified by the results of functional analysis of lithic and other materials. The post holes are situated in the clayey part of the site.

21

Figure 7.5. Example of the preservation of materials in sedimentary contexts; small spotted dogfish vertebrae from an area near the shell midden.

22

Figure 7.6. Trench profiles, shell midden 4 at Karoline, showing details of the formation processes of the three shell middens, location of post holes, and location of samples taken for radiocarbon dating.

Table 7.1. Absolute dates of archaeological sites on the Costa Atlántica of Nicaragua. The dates on shell were take on samples from Polymesoda solida. The exception is samples dated by R. Magnus, I-7450 e I-7451, in which P. solida shell is mixed with Donax sp. P. solida is an estuarine species living principally in fresh water with δC13/C12 values close to atmospheric values. For this reason, the calibration of these samples uses the INTCAL04 curve, even though they may contain a small amount of marine carbon, which would increase the dates by several decades. The dates were obtained by Clemente and Gassiot (2004–2005), Gassiot (2005) and Magnus (1974).

Lab. No. Site Material Context Date BP 2σ Calibrated date (95.4% probability)

Beta-143966 Coconut's Beach (LP-12) Shell Shell dump 3070±60 1488–1482/1454–1188/1181–1156/1145–1130 BC

Beta-143965 Long Mangrove (LP-7) Shell Shell dump 2860±80 1266–836 BC

Beta-176242 El Cascal de Flor de Pino (P-1) Charcoal Shell collapse 2520±40 796–517 BC

Beta-137649 Karoline (KH-5) Shell Shell dump 2330±50 728–692/658–654/542–350/306–208 BC

KIA-17648 Karoline (KH-4) Charcoal Hearth in midden 2195±25 366–191 BC

Beta-143962 Karoline (KH-5) Shell Shell dump 2190±70 389–86/78–54 BC

Beta-137648 Karoline (KH-5) Charcoal Shell dump 2170±40 371–106 BC

KIA-17650 Karoline (KH-4) Charcoal Shell dump 2140±25 350–300/227–224/210–91/71–60 BC

Beta-143967 Sitetaia (LP-13) Shell Shell dump 2120±70 366 BC–AD 4

Beta-140707 Sitetaia (LP-8) Shell Shell dump 2120±60 360–274/262 BC–AD 2

Beta-143963 Cox Site (LP-2) Shell Shell dump 2090±60 354–290/232 BC–AD30/38–50

Beta-143964 Sand Bank (LP-5) Shell Shell dump 2090±70 358–281/258–244/235 BC–AD 55

KIA-17649 Karoline (KH-4) Charcoal Hearth in midden 2030±25 152–150/110 BC–AD 30/38–51

KIA-34156 Karoline (KH-1) Bird bone Shell dump 2015±25 90–72/58 BC–AD 56

KIA-33839 Karoline (KH-1) Charcoal Shell dump 1990±30 49 BC–AD 74

I-7100 Sitetaia (possibly LP-8) Charcoal Shell dump 1975±85 191 BC–AD 230

Beta-143968 Sitetaia (LP-18) Shell Shell dump 1900±70 50 BC–AD 258/298–320

KIA-33840 El Cascal de Flor de Pino (M-8) Charcoal Occupation floor 1900±30 AD 28–40/49–180/188–214

KIA-27140 El Cascal de Flor de Pino (Plaza) Charcoal Activity area 1885±30 AD 60–220

I-7450 Sitetaia (possibly LP-8) Shell Shell dump 1870±80 AD 42–339

KIA-33605 El Cascal de Flor de Pino (M-8) Charcoal Occupation floor 1860±25 AD 82–227

KIA-17978 Karoline (KH-4) Deer bone Occupation floor 1735±25 AD 242–382

Beta-173457 El Cascal de Flor de Pino (P-1) Charcoal Hearth 1640±40 AD 263–277/330–537

I-7099 Caña Jarquin Charcoal Hearth? On mound 1460±85 AD 408–694/700–707/748–765

KIA-27163 El Cascal de Flor de Pino (P-1) Charcoal Post hole 1275±45 AD 658–869

Beta-143969 Rocky Point (LP-20) Shell Shell dump 1160±70 AD 690–750/762–1014

Beta-143960 Cukra Point (B-5) Shell Shell dump 1130±80 AD 688–754/758–1028

KIA-33841 El Cascal de Flor de Pino (M-8) Charcoal Abandoned floor 1120±25 AD 878–990

I-7451 Cukra Point Shell Shell dump 765±80 AD 1044–1102/1118–1324/1346–1393

KIA-33604 El Cascal de Flor de Pino (M-8) Charcoal Occupation floor 460±25 AD 1415–1458

Beta-143961 Red Bend I/Cukra Point (B-48) Shell Shell dump 121±0.77

% modern

AD1689–1700/1722–1730/1807–1818/1831–

1880/1916–1928