Pottery Technology and Chronology at the Fox Lake Sanctuary, Area Six, Brevard County, Florida

The Florida Anthropologist

Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 3479 Faner Hall, Carbondale, Illinois 62901E-mail: [email protected]

Vol. 68 (1-2) March-June 2015

David J. Birnbaum

POTTERY TECHNOLOGY AND CHRONOLOGY AT THE FOX LAKE SANCTUARY, AREA SIX, BREVARD COUNTY, FLORIDA

This paper examines the prehistoric ceramics from the Fox Lake Sanctuary, an archaeological locale associated with the Malabar Tradition (ca. 500 B.C.—A.D. 1565) of the Indian River Region of east-central Florida (Figure 1). The pottery assemblages associated with the Fox Lake Sanctuary primarily include sherds of the St. Johns series, a pottery type characterized by a ceramic paste containing freshwater sponge spicules and varying amounts of fine-to-medium sand as temper. At the Fox Lake Sanctuary, plain wares comprise the majority of the assemblages and decorated sherds are rare. However, radiometric assays from one site in the Sanctuary (Table 1) indicate a Late Prehistoric occupation dating to the

Malabar II Period (ca. A.D. 750-1565). Traditionally, St. Johns Check Stamped pottery is thought to be temporally diagnostic of Late Prehistoric (St. Johns II or Malabar II Period) sites in this region, and sherds of this type would comprise a greater quantity of the assemblage; nevertheless, the ceramics from the Fox Lake Sanctuary exemplify the ubiquity of plain pottery at many Malabar II Period sites, illustrating a trend that is becoming recognized as characteristic of archaeological sites associated with the Malabar Tradition within the Indian River Region (Penders 2012b).

The pottery assemblages from three sites within the Fox Lake Sanctuary are analyzed to assess typological variation in

Figure 1. Map of St. Johns Culture Area, shaded in gray, with Indian River Region encircled. Adapted from Milanich 1994

The Florida Anthropologist34 2015 68 (1-2)

assemblage composition, as well as formal and morphological variation in the technological attributes of rim sherds. The analysis is framed within the orientation of practice theory advocated by previous research on technological style (Cordell and Habicht-Mauche 2012; Dobres 2000; Stark 1999), and aims to identify technological variation in accordance (or discordance) with temporal boundaries and the social affiliations of potters. As an analytical focus in this case study, technological style is conceptualized as observable variation in attributes related to the technical aspects of pottery manufacture (e.g., paste composition, temper constituents, rim shape, and vessel form) rather than aesthetic aspects such as surface decoration (Stark 1998). This method of characterizing variability in prehistoric ceramic technology will assist ongoing efforts to refine the regional Malabar Period chronology of the Indian River Region, in addition to having the potential to elucidate differences in communities of potters from varying social backgrounds and cultural affiliations. Furthermore, this analysis provides a means for

archaeologists to investigate prehistoric craft production and the social identities of potters by analyzing morphological and technological variation in terms of communities of practice (Bowser and Patton 2008; Dobres 2010; Stark 2006), or the social networks in which potters learn and hone their craft. By framing craft production as a technological behavior that is both socially and historically situated (Lave and Wenger 1991; Minar and Crown 2001), the analysis of ceramics offers the capability to extract social dimensions related to craft production from their material traces, such as networks of social learning and practice that formed the core facets of the identities and cultural affiliations of potters. Thus, this research agenda represents an effort to refine the temporality of the Malabar Tradition, to reconstruct communities of potters and characteristic production techniques, and to contribute to the identification of networks of common social identity among prehistoric populations in an often overlooked region of Florida’s archaeological record.

UGAMS #

Material Provenience Measured 14C Age (BP)

13C/12C Ratio

Calibrated 2 Sigma (BC/AD)

Temporal Period

9317a Bone TU-C, LV 2 (10-20 cmbd) PTN25/PTE70, 18 cmbd

490±20 - AD 1413-1443 Malabar II

11583 Bone TU-A, LV 4 (30-40 cmbd) 30 cmbd

880±20 -21.7 AD 1049-10841123-11371151-1217

Malabar II

9318ch Shell TU-C, LV 4 (30-40 cmbd) 1130±20 - AD 880-981 Malabar II

11581 Charcoal TU-G, LV 4 (30-40 cmbd)SE ¼ of Unit, 33 cmbd

1220±25 -26.0 AD 694-700708-747765-886

Malabar Ib-Malabar IIa

11582 Charcoal TU-G, LV 8 (70-80 cmbd) Feature G-2

1310±25 -25.4 AD 657-724739-771

Malabar Ib-Malabar IIa

11585 Bone TU-D, LV 4 (30-40 cmbd) PTN 52/PTE 43, 33 cmbd

1400±20 -21.3 AD 611-661 Malabar Ib-Malabar IIa

11584 Bone TU-B, LV 5 (40-50 cmbd) 45 cmbd

1630±25 -19.1 AD 351-367381-469477-534

Malabar Ia-Ib

11587 Bone TU-H, LV 5 (40-50 cmbd) 1790±20 -9.1 AD 137-259284-289291-323

Malabar Ia-Ib

11586 Bone TU-E, LV 3 (20-30 cmbd) PTN50/PTE90, 25 cmbd

1850±20 -12.2 AD 87-104121-233

Malabar Ia-Ib

11579 Fiber-tempered Sherd

TU-A, LV 8 (70-80 cmbd) 3720±25 -20.8 BC 2198-21622152-2035

Orange

Table 1. AMS Radiocarbon Assays from Xavier’s Knoll (8BR2510)

Pottery at the Fox Lake SanctuaryBirnbaum 35

Background

Throughout the history of Florida archaeology much research has been conducted within a culture-historical framework that focused the efforts of archaeologists toward establishing and organizing social entities such as archaeological cultures, traditions, and culture areas (Goggin 1949; Milanich and Fairbanks 1980; Milanich 1994; Webster 2008). The remarks of the early literature (e.g., Goggin 1952; Rouse 1951; Willey 1949) referring to the Indian River area as “culturally stunted,” “backward,” or “transitional” have fostered a rather short-sighted view of the research potential for this region. Over the years, the conventional nomenclature favored by this approach has perpetuated an inconsistency in the literature when referring to the prehistoric groups who once lived in the Indian River Region, specifically with regard to the spatial, temporal, material, and social boundaries of prehistoric populations occupying the area. Moreover, there is a distinct incongruence between this archaeological interpretation and the historical record. Hann’s (1996, 2003) analyses of the historic records of early Spanish explorers provide insights regarding the many differences between the Ais who occupied the Indian River Region and the tribes of the St. Johns River Valley and northeastern Florida. He notes that the St. Johns ceramic tradition transcends the social, linguistic, and political boundaries between these tribes (Hann 2003:65). So whereas historians interpret the written documentation of distinct languages, political affiliations, domestic organization, and subsistence methods among the indigenous groups of this area of Florida, archaeologists are left with the widespread deposition of a single diagnostic ceramic type, St. Johns pottery (Goggin 1949; Milanich 1994; Milanich and Fairbanks 1980; Rouse 1951). However, the assignment of diagnostic artifact types to particular cultural units rests on the “assumption that formal stylistic variability follows normative principles,” which poses a number of methodological issues including difficulties interpreting transitional, overlapping, or intermediate types and their distributions throughout space and time (Webster 2008:20-21). Taking this into consideration, this paper contends that the equation of the St. Johns ceramic type with a singular cultural entity is an oversimplification of prehistoric social realities and strives to eschew the reductionism of strict culture-historical models of Florida prehistory (sensu Ashley 2001; Eckert 2008; Minar 2001; Russo 1992; Stark et al. 2008; Wallis 2011).

Penders (2012b) provided a synthesis of archaeological research in the Indian River Region including an overview of environmental characteristics of site locations, burial customs, subsistence strategies, regional chronology, and material culture. Penders (2012b) interprets the material culture of the Malabar Tradition as exhibiting persistence through time. Plain wares are pervasive in prehistoric ceramic assemblages from the Malabar I Period until the historic period, despite the ceramic hallmark of the St. Johns II/Malabar II Period being the introduction of St. Johns Check Stamped pottery (Goggin 1952:180; Rouse 1951). This interpretation brings to light a

core issue regarding the direct application of the conventional St. Johns regional chronology to the Indian River Region (Rouse 1951). Within the St. Johns region, the advent of check stamped pottery is traditionally placed at around A.D. 750-800 (Milanich 1994:247), although some researchers suggest it does not enter the ceramic repertoire of St. Johns assemblages until around A.D. 900 or later (Ashley 2008, 2012; Penders 2012b). Regardless, the lack of radiocarbon dates from discrete temporal contexts at Malabar II Period sites leads to a degree of uncertainty as to whether the temporal periods of the St. Johns area are applicable to archaeological sites of the Malabar Tradition, and “the emerging consensus argues against direct use of the St. Johns ceramic chronology for the Indian River Region” (Penders 2012b:85).

Furthermore, the prevalence of St. Johns Check Stamped pottery in archaeological assemblages declines as one moves south through the Upper St. Johns and Indian River areas (Penders 2012b). While check stamped pottery typically comprises a majority of St. Johns II period assemblages in the Lower and Middle St. Johns River area, Cordell’s analysis of pottery from a survey of sites within the Upper St. Johns River Basin suggested that check stamped wares could be expected to comprise a mere 8-20 percent of Malabar II period assemblages (Cordell 1985:127). This trend is of importance to the case study presented in this paper as St. Johns Check Stamped pottery comprises just 1.5 percent of the total weight of the ceramic assemblage from the Fox Lake Sanctuary. Currently there is a need for additional research on variation in ceramic technology in Malabar Period assemblages in order to illuminate the differential identities of prehistoric potters and to evaluate the applicability of the St. Johns chronology to archaeological sites in the Indian River area.

Case Study: Fox Lake Sanctuary “Area 6”

Fox Lake Sanctuary is a nature preserve located in northern Brevard County, Florida that is owned and managed by the Brevard County Environmentally Endangered Lands (EEL) Program (Figure 2). This locale serves as a viable case study for analyzing St. Johns pottery in the Indian River Region for many reasons, namely its proximity to the customary northern boundary of the Indian River Region/Upper St. Johns area and the abundance of St. Johns wares in the ceramic assemblage. The Sanctuary was purchased in 2007 and encompasses approximately 2,568 acres west of Interstate 95 in Titusville, Brevard County, Florida (de Seguin des Hons 2013). South Lake is the predominant permanent freshwater source within the property, but the Sanctuary is also situated near the headwaters of St. Johns River, approximately 6 km to the west. The areas surrounding Fox Lake Sanctuary may have been accessible prehistorically by canoe from the Upper St. Johns River, as historic maps indicate that South Lake was once indirectly connected to the St. Johns River via Salt Lake (Penders 2009). Nearly 8 km to the east are the brackish waters of the Indian River. The Atlantic Ocean is 28 km directly east of the Fox Lake Sanctuary if one crosses the Indian River and


Figure 2. General location of the Fox Lake Sanctuary, Brevard County, Florida.

treks over Merritt Island, although taking a northeast route by canoe across the Indian River and Mosquito Lagoon reduces the distance.

Fox Lake Sanctuary is composed of nine different natural communities, although it consists primarily of wet prairie, floodplain swamp, mesic flatwoods, and scrubby flatwoods habitats (de Seguin des Hons 2013). Penders formulated a predictive model based on “high, medium, and low areas of archaeological potential” for prehistoric archaeological sites within the sanctuary (Penders 2009:29), with areas of high archaeological potential characterized by “rises in the natural topography which are covered with palm and hardwood hammock vegetation adjacent to ponds or seasonal ponds” (Penders 2009:64). A preliminary reconnaissance survey of the sanctuary found that, contrary to the USGS topographic maps, Fox Lake Sanctuary “Area 6” (hereafter referred to as FLS Area 6) located to the southwest of South Lake is actually comprised of three linear relict dune ridges composed of elevated, well-drained, sandy soil. Each of these three “dome-shaped” ridges contains a prehistoric archaeological

site (Penders 2013:6) and the archaeological investigations at these three sites (8BR2509, 8BR2510, and 8BR2512) serve as the case study presented in this paper (Figure 3).

The Fox Lake Sanctuary Archaeological Project was initiated by Tom Penders in 2010 as both a research and public archaeology program after consultation with the Brevard County EEL Program. Penders conducted the project with support from a field crew consisting primarily of undergraduate anthropology students from the University of Central Florida and avocational volunteers from the Indian River Anthropological Society, as well as student volunteers from the University of Florida and the University of South Florida. A Phase I survey consisting of subsurface shovel testing was conducted to locate sites, determine site boundaries, and identify concentrations of archaeological material warranting further investigation. Subsequent Phase II archaeological testing was oriented toward the recovery of prehistoric materials from areas where higher densities of cultural material were located, including pottery (Birnbaum 2013), lithic flakes and debitage (O’Neal 2013), and faunal remains (Lucas 2013). The investigations also aimed to document prehistoric features, and field methods included the collection of bulk column samples for flotation of botanical remains and collection of special samples to be submitted for radiometric dating (Penders 2013). Field investigations at the Fox Lake Sanctuary are ongoing, and remain the principal focus of Penders’ Space Coast

Archaeological Research Foundation (SCARF).

Methods

This study focuses on the pottery recovered from the three sites in FLS Area 6 that were investigated over three field seasons from 2011-2013: Palm Hammock (8BR2509), Xavier’s Knoll (8BR2510), and Knight’s Rise (8BR2512). The combined pottery assemblages from these small occupation sites yield a total of 5,543 sherds weighing 15,285.5 g. The results of a preliminary-stage ceramics analysis indicated that each of the three prehistoric sites located in FLS Area 6 contained multicomponent prehistoric occupations spanning the Orange Period to the Malabar Period, and at least one site, Xavier’s Knoll, contained a stratified midden deposit representing an episodic occupation of the site (Birnbaum 2013).

Utilizing the lab space and instruments in the Center for Archaeological Investigations and the Department of Anthropology at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, all


2013). Very few sherds with surface decoration are present in each of the assemblages, though St. Johns Incised and St. Johns Check Stamped varieties are accounted for at each site. Sand-tempered pottery included in the three assemblages consists exclusively of plain wares. Excluding fiber-tempered pottery, the five primary types identified in each assemblage include St. Johns Plain, St. Johns Check Stamped, St. Johns Incised, Sandy St. Johns, and Sand-tempered Plain. Examples of a St. Johns Plain rim sherd from Xavier’s Knoll and St. Johns Check Stamped body sherds from Palm Hammock are shown in Figure 4.

While sorting and cataloging the materials, all sherds were counted, weighed, and identified as rim, body, or base

sherds were sorted into recognizable types based on microscopic paste identification and observable surface treatments (Cordell 1985, 2007). Both plain and incised varieties of fiber-tempered pottery are present at Palm Hammock and Xavier’s Knoll, whereas the Knight’s Rise assemblage only includes small fragments of fiber-tempered sherds. The St. Johns series is represented predominantly by plain wares including St. Johns Plain and Sandy St. Johns varieties. Generally, St. Johns paste would be described as having abundant (>30 percent) sponge spicules with occasional-to-common quartz sand of very fine to fine grain size, whereas sherds bearing common-to-abundant sand with frequent-to-common sponge spicules are classified as Sandy St. Johns (Ann Cordell, personal communication

Figure 3. Locations of archaeological sites in FLS Area 6 discussed in the text.


elements of a vessel. Rim sherds subsequently received more analytical scrutiny. Measurements were taken for orifice diameter using a radius chart and for rim thickness using a digital caliper. Lip morphology was classified along two criteria of lip shape (round or flat) and lip orientation (everted, inverted, or vertical). Vessel form (Simple, Globular, Open, or Unidentifiable) was inferred from the horizontal angle of the rim using a conservative approach that left many vessels classified as unidentifiable due to the fragmentary nature of the ceramics (Ann Cordell, personal communication 2013; see Rolland 2004; Willey 1949:496-497).

Variation in the attributes of rim sherds was quantitatively assessed between type and form categories at the intra-site and inter-site levels. The principal statistical test used to compare ratio-scale attribute measurements (rim diameter and rim thickness) for more than two samples is the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Whereas the t-test compares the difference of two group means, ANOVA is capable of handling multiple comparisons dealing with more than two samples, yielding the F-statistic. Using the Welch version of ANOVA, the F-statistic is calculated without assuming equal variances between samples, then the Games-Howell post-hoc test adjusts the criteria for significance for multiple comparisons without assuming equality of variances. The Games-Howell test is included as an alternative to the more common Bonferroni adjustment, which assumes equal variances. For cases where

insufficient sample size prevents the calculation of Welch’s ANOVA, the ratio-scale data are converted to ranks and the Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance for ranks is performed.

Ceramic attributes that comprise categorical data (lip shape and lip orientation) were evaluated for association with ceramic types, vessel forms, or site assemblages using the Chi-Square statistic. Each of these tests were performed at the 95 percent confidence level, requiring a p-value of less than 0.05 to achieve statistical significance. Thus, when the ANOVA test comparing multiple samples yields a p-value greater than 0.05, there is no statistically significant difference among the samples and the samples are interpreted as being similar; conversely, when the ANOVA or post-hoc test yields a p-value that is less than 0.05, there is a statistically significant difference between the samples.

Site Summaries and Laboratory Results

Palm Hammock (8BR2509)

Located on the bank of South Lake, Palm Hammock is the southernmost site within FLS Area 6. A total of 64 shovel tests were excavated at Palm Hammock of which 29 contained cultural material. Phase I subsurface shovel testing was completed during the 2011

field season and field crews returned to the site in 2013 to excavate a total of five 2 x 2 meter test units. The site measures approximately 50 x 50 m in size. There are no radiometric dates for this site at this time (Penders 2013).

Two features containing ceramic artifacts were documented at Palm Hammock. Feature A-1 was a sherd concentration located at a depth of 66-76 centimeters below datum. This feature contained many small fragments of fiber-tempered pottery and a few identifiable Orange Plain sherds, as well as one small St. Johns Plain sherd and a small unidentifiable sherd fragment. Feature C-2 was characterized as a seed concentration (Thomas Penders, personal communication 2013), though the matrix contained high amounts of St. Johns Plain pottery. Perhaps this particular vessel was used for storage.

The pottery assemblage from Palm Hammock includes a total of 2,449 sherds weighing 6,144.6 g (Table 2). Separated into primary ceramic series delineated by paste characterization, the assemblage includes spiculate St. Johns wares (n=1,257), Sand-tempered pottery (n=11), and fiber-tempered Orange series pottery (n=267). All sherds measuring less than 0.5-inch were classified as unidentifiable (n=904). Fired clay nodules (n=10) were also present in the recovered material. St. Johns Plain comprises an overwhelming majority of the spiculate-paste category (n=1,172), while Sandy St. Johns sherds comprise a small portion of the plain wares

Figure 4. Examples of (A) St. Johns Plain pottery from Xavier’s Knoll (8BR2510) and (B) St. Johns Check Stamped Pottery from Palm Hammock (8BR2509).


(n=68). Further sub-dividing the primary paste categories by decorative mode demonstrates the predominance of plain wares in this assemblage.

Decorative modes found on the exterior surfaces of St. Johns sherds in this assemblage include the temporally diagnostic check stamping (n=13) as well as linear incising (n=3). A single fabric marked St. Johns sherd was recorded as well, but this was only inferred after making a negative impression into a piece of clay from the eroded surface of the sherd. Sand-tempered pottery is exclusively plain, and will be referred to hereafter as Sand-tempered Plain. Lastly, the fiber-tempered portion of the assemblage is represented by Orange Plain (n=265) and Orange Incised (n=2) types.

Type distribution percentages are calculated from total weight in order to curtail issues related to the differential fragmentation of ceramic vessels (Orton 2000:52). By

weight, St. Johns Plain pottery comprises over 79 percent of the assemblage, and plain Sandy St. Johns sherds make up 6 percent of the total weight, while St. Johns Check Stamped and Incised varieties each comprise less than 1 percent of the total weight of the assemblage.

The Malabar Period portion of the assemblage, characterized by excluding unidentifiable sherd fragments, fiber tempered pottery, and ceramic artifacts classified as “Other” (e.g., fired clay nodules that were not considered pottery) consists of 1,268 sherds weighing 5,414.1 g. This assemblage is overwhelmingly comprised of plain pottery. Of the Malabar Period sherds, 98.5 percent are plain wares (St. Johns Plain, Sandy St. Johns, and Sand-tempered Plain), while just 1.5 percent of this portion of the assemblage bears surface decorations including check stamping and incising.

Site Type Count % Weight (g) %Palm Hammock St. Johns Plain 1172 47.86 4883.1 79.47

(8BR2509) Sandy St. Johns 68 2.78 372.3 6.06 St. Johns Check Stamped 13 0.53 51.8 0.84 St. Johns Incised 3 0.12 26.3 0.43 Sand Tempered Plain 11 0.45 77.4 1.26 Orange Plain 265 10.82 258.5 4.21 Orange Incised 2 0.08 30.3 0.49 UID 904 36.91 354.4 5.77 Other 11 0.45 90.5 1.47

TOTAL 2449 6144.6

Xavier’s Knoll St. Johns Plain 1103 40.42 4530.8 56.36 (8BR2510) Sandy St. Johns 311 11.40 1721.1 21.41

St. Johns Check Stamped 10 0.37 134.5 1.67 St. Johns Incised 7 0.26 71.6 0.89 Sand Tempered Plain 46 1.69 186.9 2.33 Orange Plain 304 11.14 768.4 9.56 Orange Incised 5 0.18 94.4 1.17 UID 905 33.16 395.2 4.92 Other 38 1.39 135.7 1.69

TOTAL 2729 8038.6

Knight’s Rise St. Johns Plain 124 33.97 500.3 45.39 (8BR2512) Sandy St. Johns 53 14.52 386.9 35.10

St. Johns Check Stamped 11 3.01 46.0 4.17 St. Johns Incised 6 1.64 19.3 1.75 Sand Tempered Plain 10 2.74 88.2 8.00 Orange Plain 15 4.11 19.1 1.73 UID 146 40.00 42.5 3.86

TOTAL 365 1102.3

Table 2. Ceramic Assemblage Composition


Table 3. Rim Sherds by Type.

Sorting of rim sherds indicates that the Palm Hammock sample is mainly comprised of St. Johns Plain vessels (Table 3). Laboratory analyses show that St. Johns Plain vessels exhibit the widest range of orifice diameter measurements, but St. Johns Incised vessels are the largest on average (Table 4). St. Johns Plain rims also demonstrate the widest range of rim thickness measurements (Table 5). Round lip shapes outnumber flat lipped rims by a 5:1 ratio, and there are nearly 50 percent less everted lip profiles than either inverted or vertical lip orientations (Table 6).

A minimum vessel count of 84 was determined for this site (Table 7). Excluding the two Orange Period vessels, this leaves a minimum number of 82 vessels in the Malabar Period portion of the assemblage. As previously noted, estimated vessel forms in this study are described as simple, globular, or open (see Willey 1949:497), with 67 percent of the identifiable vessel forms estimated as simple bowl shapes.

Xavier’s Knoll (8BR2510)

Surrounded by wetlands, Xavier’s Knoll is located at the north end of the ridge in FLS Area 6. During the 2011 field season, a total of 73 shovel tests were completed at the site of

which 43 contained cultural material. Test excavations at this site began in 2011, and were completed in the 2012 season. A total of eight 1 x 2 meter units and one 1 x 1 meter unit were excavated at Xavier’s Knoll. The site measures approximately 50 x 50 meters in size (Penders 2013).

Three features containing ceramic artifacts were identified at Xavier’s Knoll. Features B-1, F-1, and G-1 were concentrations of potsherds. Features B-1 and F-1 contained small amounts of St. Johns Plain and Sandy St. Johns ceramics, while Feature G-1 contained a denser concentration of fiber-tempered sherds (n=63). Additionally, Feature G-2 appears to have been a possible hearth located adjacent to Feature G-1 (Penders 2013).

Ten samples were submitted for radiometric dating to the Center for Applied Isotopic Studies at the University of Georgia (see Table 1), and consisted of six faunal bone elements, two charcoal samples, one shell sample, and intact fibers recovered from an Orange Plain sherd. Except for the single date associated with the Orange Period (3720 ± 25 BP) the remaining assays fall within the Malabar Period (490 ± 20 BP to 1850 ± 20 BP; Calibrated 2-Sigma range of A.D. 87-1443).

Site Type Count % Weight %Palm Hammock St. Johns Plain 73 83.9 425.3 72.7

(8BR2509) Sandy St. Johns 5 5.7 34.1 5.8St. Johns Check Stamped 2 2.3 39.4 6.7St. Johns Incised 2 2.3 26.3 4.5Sand Tempered Plain 3 3.4 33.4 5.7Orange Plain 1 1.1 10.8 1.9Orange Incised 1 1.1 15.7 2.7

TOTAL 87 623.1

Xavier’s Knoll St. Johns Plain 92 60.5 618.4 51.3(8BR2510) Sandy St. Johns 38 25.0 297.4 24.7

St. Johns Check Stamped 3 2.0 70.7 5.9St. Johns Incised 4 2.6 39.4 3.3Sand Tempered Plain 2 1.3 18.1 1.5Orange Plain 12 7.9 158.2 13.1Orange Incised 1 0.7 3.9 0.3

TOTAL 152 1206.1

Knight’s Rise St. Johns Plain 7 50.0 65.3 50.7(8BR2512) Sandy St. Johns 4 28.6 50.7 39.4

St. Johns Check Stamped 1 7.1 9.4 7.3St. Johns Incised 1 7.1 2.5 1.9Sand Tempered Plain 1 7.1 0.8 0.6

TOTAL 14 122.9


Table 4. Rim Diameter (cm) by Type.Site Type Minimum Maximum Mean Median

Palm Hammock St. Johns Plain 4 32 22.4 28(8BR2509) Sandy St. Johns 12 28 22.7 28

St. Johns Check Stamped 16 28 22 22St. Johns Incised 28 32 30 30Sand Tempered Plain 18 18 18 18Orange Plain - - - -Orange Incised - - - -

Xavier’s Knoll St. Johns Plain 14 42 25 23(8BR2510) Sandy St. Johns 8 48 24 22

St. Johns Check Stamped 16 38 26 24St. Johns Incised 20 36 27 25Sand Tempered Plain 24 24 24 24Orange Plain 18 38 28 30Orange Incised - - - -

Knight’s Rise St. Johns Plain 16 36 28 30(8BR2512) Sandy St. Johns 16 18 17 17

St. Johns Check Stamped 8 8 8 8St. Johns Incised - - - -Sand Tempered Plain - - - -

The pottery assemblage from Xavier’s Knoll includes a total of 2,729 sherds weighing 8,038.6 g (see Table 2). Separated into primary ceramic series delineated by paste characterization, the assemblage includes spiculate St. Johns wares (n=1,431), Sand-tempered pottery (n=46), and fiber-tempered Orange series pottery (n=309). All sherds measuring less than 0.5-inch were classified as unidentifiable (n=905). Fired clay nodules (n=36) were also present in the recovered material, as well as a fired clay object bearing incised marks. Further sub-dividing the primary paste categories by decorative mode demonstrates the predominance of plain wares in this assemblage. St. Johns Plain comprises an overwhelming majority of the spiculate-paste category (n=1,103), although Sandy St. Johns sherds comprise a sizeable portion of the plain wares (n=311).

Decorative modes found on the exterior surfaces of St. Johns sherds in this assemblage include the temporally diagnostic check stamping (n=10) and linear incising (n=7). Again, Sand-tempered pottery is exclusively plain. Lastly, the fiber-tempered portion of the assemblage is represented by Orange Plain (n=304) and Orange Incised (n=5) types.

The Malabar Period portion of the assemblage from Xavier’s Knoll consists of 1,477 sherds weighing 6,644.9 g. Type distributions by weight indicate that St. Johns Plain pottery comprises over 56 percent of the assemblage, and plain Sandy St. Johns sherds make up 21 percent of the total

weight. In contrast, St. Johns Incised sherds comprise less than 1 percent of the total weight of the assemblage, while St. Johns Check Stamped sherds comprise less than two percent.

Five sherds from Xavier’s Knoll exhibit secondary use-wear. A large Sandy St. Johns sherd recovered from Test Unit H at 38 cm below surface was used as an abrader, possibly for a bone awl (Thomas Penders, personal communication 2013). The St. Johns Plain (n=1), Sandy St. Johns (n=1), St. Johns Check Stamped (n=1), and Sand Tempered Plain (n=1) utilized sherds have ground edges that were could have been used for scraping or chopping functions in either food preparation or clay modeling during pottery production. An anomalous incised fired clay object was also recovered in Test Unit D between 40 and 50 cm below surface, perhaps indicating pottery manufacturing activity at this location.

Sorting of rim sherds indicates that the St. Johns Plain type comprises the majority of the Xavier’s Knoll sample (see Table 3). Laboratory analyses show that Sandy St. Johns rims exhibit the widest range of diameter measurements (see Table 4), though fiber-tempered sherds have the largest average and median diameter. St. Johns Plain rims exhibit the widest range of thickness measurements, but fiber-tempered rims are the thickest overall (see Table 5). This perhaps indicates a trend toward thinner vessel rims through time, though the Incised and Check Stamped vessels at this site tend to have relatively thick rims. Again, round lip shapes outnumber flat lipped rims


approximately by a 5:1 ratio, but the ratio of everted, inverted, and vertical lip orientations is approximately 10:2:1 (see Table 6). A minimum vessel count of 147 was determined for the whole site, though excluding the Orange Period vessels, the MNV is reduced to 134 for the Malabar Period portion of the assemblage (see Table 7).

Knight’s Rise (8BR2512)

Knight’s Rise is located between Palm Hammock and Xavier’s Knoll in FLS Area 6. To the north, east and west are wetlands and 50 meters to the south is the Palm Hammock Site. Phase I testing began in 2013, with plans in place to return in 2015 in order to complete the survey and determine the site boundaries. At this time, a total of 58 shovel tests have been excavated of which 26 contain cultural material (Penders 2013).

Since Knight’s Rise has only been subjected to Phase I surveying, the site assemblage is significantly smaller than the two sites previously discussed. The pottery assemblage from Knight’s Rise includes a total of 365 sherds weighing 1,102.3 g (see Table 2). Excluding fiber-tempered pottery, the Malabar Period assemblage from Knight’s Rise consists of 204 sherds weighing 1,040.7 g including the same five primary types mentioned above. Sherd counts, total weights, and assemblage

percentages as available at this time are provided in Table 2. Only 14 rim sherds were recovered from Phase I subsurface survey work done at this site (see Table 3), but the ratio of St. Johns Plain to Sandy St. Johns vessels is much closer than the other sites in FLS Area 6.

Statistical Results

Intra-Site Variation

Concerning ceramic type categories, Welch’s one-way ANOVA performed at the 0.05 significance level did not reveal significant intra-site variability for rim diameter between ceramic types for the three sites located in FLS Area 6. Similarly, no significant intra-site variability for rim thickness measurements between types were found for the three sites. When testing for variation in these attributes between vessel forms, however, Welch’s one-way ANOVA revealed significant intra-site variation for rim diameter between vessel forms at Xavier’s Knoll (F=9.294; p=.002). Multiple comparisons performed at the 0.05 significance level using the Games-Howell adjustment (Table 8) indicate significant differences in rim diameter between globular and simple vessels (p=.001) as well as between globular and open vessels (p=.024). In both cases, globular vessels are shown to have significantly smaller

Site Type Minimum Maximum Mean MedianPalm Hammock St. Johns Plain 3.6 13.9 5.9 5.7

(8BR2509) Sandy St. Johns 5.2 8.9 6.9 7.6St. Johns Check Stamped 3.9 5.7 4.8 4.8St. Johns Incised 5.8 6.9 6.4 6.4Sand Tempered Plain 6.2 7.2 6.7 6.6Orange Plain 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0Orange Incised 13.9 13.9 13.9 13.9

Xavier’s Knoll St. Johns Plain 2.4 11.4 5.9 5.5(8BR2510) Sandy St. Johns 3.3 9.3 5.9 6.2

St. Johns Check Stamped 5.1 8.2 6.9 7.7St. Johns Incised 5.9 10.2 7.2 6.3Sand Tempered Plain 7.3 7.7 7.5 7.5Orange Plain 5.2 12.1 8.1 7.8Orange Incised 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5

Knight’s Rise St. Johns Plain 4.3 6.5 5.5 5.7(8BR2512) Sandy St. Johns 2.8 7.5 5.5 6.0

St. Johns Check Stamped 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2St. Johns Incised 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4Sand Tempered Plain - - - -

Table 5. Rim Thickness (mm) by Type.


Site Ceramic Type Lip

ShapeLip Orientation TOTAL

Everted Inverted VerticalPalm Hammock St. Johns Plain Round 9 24 25 58

Flat 6 4 2 12Sandy St. Johns Round 3 0 1 4

Flat 0 1 0 1St. Johns Check Round 0 0 1 1

Flat 1 0 0 1St. Johns Incised Round 1 1 0 2

Flat 0 0 0 0Sand Tempered Round 2 0 1 3

Flat 0 0 0 0Orange Plain Round 0 1 0 1

Flat 0 0 0 0Orange Incised Round 0 0 1 1

Flat 0 0 0 0

Xavier’s Knoll St. Johns Plain Round 46 18 9 73Flat 7 4 2 13

Sandy St. Johns Round 13 11 8 32Flat 3 1 1 5

St. Johns Check Round 1 1 0 2Flat 1 0 0 1

St. Johns Incised Round 1 0 1 2Flat 0 0 2 2

Sand Tempered Round 0 0 1 1Flat 0 0 1 1

Orange Plain Round 1 6 3 10Flat 0 1 0 1

Orange Incised N/A 1 0 0 1

Knight’s Rise St. Johns Plain Round 5 1 0 6Flat 0 0 0 0

Sandy St. Johns Round 3 0 0 3Flat 1 0 0 1

St. Johns Check Round 0 0 0 0Flat 0 1 0 1

St. Johns Incised Round 0 0 1 1Flat 0 0 0 0

Sand Tempered Round 0 0 1 1Flat 0 0 0 0

Table 6. Lip Morphology by Ceramic Type.


Site Type Simple Globular Open UID TOTAL %Palm St. Johns Plain 30 10 6 24 70 83.3

Hammock Sandy St. Johns 3 0 1 1 5 5.9 (8BR2509) St. Johns Check St. 2 0 0 0 2 2.4

St. Johns Incised 0 1 0 1 2 2.4 Sand Tempered Plain 2 0 0 1 3 3.6 Orange Plain 0 0 0 1 1 1.2 Orange Incised 0 0 0 1 1 1.2

TOTAL 37 11 7 29 84% 44.1 13.1 8.3 34.5

Xavier’s St. Johns Plain 51 11 6 24 92 62.6 Knoll Sandy St. Johns 19 6 4 4 33 22.4

(8BR2510) St. Johns Check St. 2 1 0 0 3 2.0 St. Johns Incised 4 0 0 0 4 2.7 Sand Tempered Plain 1 0 0 1 2 1.4 Orange Plain 11 1 0 0 12 8.2 Orange Incised 0 0 0 1 1 0.7

TOTAL 88 19 10 30 147% 59.9 12.9 6.8 20.4

Knight’s St. Johns Plain 1 3 2 1 7 50.0 Rise Sandy St. Johns 1 1 0 2 4 28.6

(8BR2512) St. Johns Check St. 1 0 0 0 1 7.1 St. Johns Incised 0 0 0 1 1 7.1 Sand Tempered Plain 0 0 0 1 1 7.1

TOTAL 3 4 2 5 14% 21.4 28.6 14.3 35.7

Table 7. Vessel Count by Form and Type.

Vessel Form Mean Difference Std. Error Sig.Simple Globular 7.021 1.753 .001*

Open -2.407 2.882 .691

Globular Simple -7.021 1.753 .001*Open -9.429 3.009 .024*

Open Simple 2.407 2.882 .691Globular 9.429 3.009 .024*

Table 8. Games-Howell Adjusted Comparisons of Rim Diameter by Vessel Form at Xavier’s Knoll (8BR2510)

*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level using the Games-Howell adjustment.


rim diameters, a trend that is to be expected for vessels with incurving walls or restricted orifices. Thus, this statistic does not contribute to our understanding of how ceramic technology relates to identity, and is not anthropologically relevant to the argument. Aside from Xavier’s Knoll, the other sites did not demonstrate significant variation in this attribute among vessel forms. No significant intra-site variation for rim thickness between vessel forms was found at any site in FLS Area 6.

Within each site assemblage, associations between lip morphology and ceramic type are evaluated by performing non-directional Chi-Square tests at the 0.05 significance level. No significant associations between lip shape and ceramic type were identified for any of the sites in FLS Area 6. However, significant associations between lip orientation and ceramic type are identified at Xavier’s Knoll (χ2=22.057; p=.005) and Knight’s Rise (χ2=19.380; p=.013). Regarding vessel forms, Chi-Square tests on the Palm Hammock assemblage revealed significant associations between lip shape and vessel form (χ2=7.486; p=.024) as well as lip orientation and vessel form (χ2=15.931; p=.003). It should be noted, however, that the samples from these sites do not yield evenly distributed contingency tables for either morphological attribute (e.g., cell values less than 5 are common), and therefore should be interpreted cautiously.

Inter-Site Variation

Welch’s one-way ANOVA performed at the 0.05 significance level does not identify significant inter-site variation for rim diameter between types among the three sites in FLS Area 6. Similarly, no significant inter-site variation was found for rim thickness between types, nor was there significant inter-site variation in rim diameter between vessel forms. The ANOVA does indicate a significant difference in the rim thickness measurement of open-form vessels between the three sites (F=4.245; p=.044); however, converting rim thickness measurements to ranks and performing the Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance for ranks reverses the decision (p=.268). In this case, the Games-Howell post hoc test also yields a decision to retain the null hypothesis (p=.066),

indicating there is no significant difference in the rim diameters of open vessels at FLS Area 6 (Table 9).

When comparing lip morphology within ceramic types across the three site assemblages using the Chi-Square test, no sites are found to have a significant association between type and lip shape. However, there is a significant association between site assemblage and lip orientation of St. Johns Plain vessels (χ2=29.083; p<.001). When comparing lip morphology within vessel forms across the three site assemblages, there are significant associations between site assemblages and both lip shape (χ2=8.340; p=.015) and lip orientation (χ2=19.678; p=.001) of simple-shaped vessels.

Following the above evaluations of inter-site variation, if the individual site assemblages are then aggregated into one larger composite sample representing FLS Area 6 as a whole, analysis of variance can be conducted to assess “intra-locale” variation. While the ANOVA performed at the 0.05 confidence level for rim diameter measurements between ceramic types does not yield a significant result, the test indicates a significant difference in orifice diameter between forms (F=7.020; p=.004). The Games-Howell post hoc test indicates that the rim diameters of globular vessels are significantly smaller than both simple (p=.012) and open (p=.005) vessels. Once again, this is a result that should be expected as globular vessels have restricted orifices or incurving walls, whereas simple and open vessels do not have restricted mouths and will have either vertical or outslanted or outcurved walls.

For rim thickness measurement, the ANOVA does not find a significant difference between vessel forms. However, a significant difference in thickness between ceramic types is shown (F=3.465; p=.035), and the Games-Howell adjusted comparisons indicate a significant difference in rim thickness between the St. Johns Plain and Sand Tempered Plain types (p=.045), with Sand-tempered rims averaging 1.1 mm thicker than St. Johns Plain rims. It is dubious that such a minute difference in thickness is a result of a conscious differentiation in the manual skills of potters from different cultural backgrounds. This result is likely a factor of unequal sample sizes between type categories.

Form F-statistic Sig.Entire Assemblages F2, 32.067= 1.590 .220

Simple F2, 5.355= .011 .989

Globular F2, 11.474= 1.091 .368

Open F2, 10.584= 4.245 .044*Kruskal-Wallis Rank .268

Games-Howell Post Hoc .066

Table 9. Inter-Site Variation within Fox Lake Sanctuary, Rim Thickness by Form.

*The result is significant at the 0.05 level.


vertical walls are shown to have, more often than not, this similar lip orientation while globular vessels with incurving walls are shown to have an inverted lip orientation. However, the fact that this association was not deemed significant at any other site assemblage leads to an interpretation that intended vessel form does not render an exclusive lip orientation. The result suggests that rounded lip morphology is associated with the simple bowl shaped vessel, but the counts for other vessel forms are so low that it renders the Chi-Square statistic suspicious in this case. Unfortunately, the small sample size and uneven distribution of cell counts in the Chi-Square contingency table prevents the calculation of the Fischer’s Exact Test, which would be the preferable option.

Inter-site comparisons of numerical attribute measurements between Palm Hammock, Xavier’s Knoll, and Knight’s Rise provide a straightforward picture where each site assemblage can be said to belong to the same population. The “intra-locale” analysis of the collective FLS Area 6 assemblage, however, discerns a difference in rim thickness between St. Johns Plain and Sand Tempered Plain vessels, which could indicate a relationship between the tempering agents used in the ceramic paste with this aspect of vessel construction. It remains unclear whether this evidences two communities of practice (one using sand as temper and one harvesting sponge spicules), or if the same community of potters simply executed wall and rim formation differently based on the choice of temper.

The categorical data analysis indicates an association of site, ceramic type, and lip orientation such that the lip orientation of St. Johns Plain vessels is nonrandom depending on the site location. This result is likely attributed to the small sample size of potsherds from Knight’s Rise, as this site was only investigated through shovel testing whereas the other sites underwent Phase I survey and subsequent Phase II test excavations. The extant zero-values of many cells in the Chi-Square contingency table for Knight’s Rise skew the results of the test. Similarly, the lip morphology of simple vessels is found to differ from expected depending on the site location, which may simply be an artifact of there being more identifiable simple vessels than other forms in each assemblage. This is also the case with the analysis of the combined FLS Area 6 assemblage as a collective sample.

Perhaps the most noteworthy difference is between Xavier’s Knoll and Palm Hammock, where the Xavier’s Knoll assemblage exhibits a prevalence of everted lip orientation, whereas the majority of vessels from Palm Hammock have inverted and vertical lip profiles. The difference in this secondary morphological attribute can be interpreted as being related to the habitual technological practices of ceramic producers at these sites. Conversely, perhaps lip morphology is more readily related to vessel function, and represents a conscious manipulation of forming and finishing techniques during vessel manufacture. This second interpretation cannot be tested without a thorough investigation of vessel function, which may require residue analysis as complete cross-sections of pots are absent from the assemblage. If associations between lip morphology and vessel form could be related to intended

Non-directional Chi-Square tests were performed at the 0.05 significance level to evaluate associations between lip morphology and ceramic type, as well as between lip morphology and vessel form for the collective FLS Area 6 assemblage. The only significant association identified is between vessel form and lip orientation (χ2=21.371; p<.001), an association that could be related to consideration of intended vessel function during production, or a product of differential sample sizes.

Discussion

The ANOVA results cumulatively suggest an internal consistency in ceramic technology at the three sites in FLS Area 6. Because the significant differences in rim diameter between vessel forms reflect an expected result related to vessel function, and the single attribute difference between ceramic types may be ascribed to the small sample size of Sand-tempered Plain rims, it is reasonable to presume the assemblages from Palm Hammock, Xavier’s Knoll, and Knight’s Rise belong to the same population. In other words, I suggest that the ceramic assemblages at the three sites in FLS Area 6 were produced by potters of the same community of practice. Overall, there appears to be no association between vessel size or thickness and choice of temper or surface decoration within each site assemblage. The FLS Area 6 assemblages are both individually and collectively consistent in terms of the orifice size and rim thickness of vessels when compared between the various ceramic types and vessel forms.

The Chi-Square tests indicating associations between site assemblage and lip morphology do not necessarily agree with the data pertaining to numerical variables (rim diameter and rim thickness); however, the associations of certain lip morphologies with site assemblages may be attributed to varying sample sizes. Chi-Square associations between lip orientation and ceramic type were found at Xavier’s Knoll and Knight’s Rise. For Xavier’s Knoll, uneven sample sizes between types with categorized lip orientations probably account for the significant result. St. Johns Plain is the dominant type in the assemblage, and over 60 percent of individuals with categorized lip orientations were of the St. Johns Plain type. Knight’s Rise has an unusually small sample size compared with the other assemblages due to the extent of survey coverage, so this result should be interpreted with caution.

Significant associations between both lip morphology variables and vessel form were identified at Palm Hammock. The Palm Hammock assemblage has a distinct disparity between the number of rounded (n=48) and flat (n=3) lips for identifiable vessel forms, and over 60 percent of the identifiable vessels with categorized lip morphology are simple-shaped. Therefore, the significant Chi Square result may be triggered by the small sample size. The majority of simple vessels have vertical lip orientation (approximately 56 percent) while the majority of globular vessels have inverted lip orientation (approximately 82 percent). This association is somewhat of an expected result, as simple vessels with


function, the morphological attributes could be categorized as an intentionally manipulated attribute of pottery manufacture rather than a manifestation of the routinized material habitus of a community of practice (Cordell and Habicht-Mauche 2012; Dobres 2000; Meskell 2005; Minar and Crown 2001).

Future Directions

Expansion of the dataset will augment the research potential for studies of ceramic technology and the regional chronology in the Indian River Region. By integrating materials from sites throughout the Indian River and the Upper and Middle St. Johns River Basins, far more ceramic data can be introduced to the quantitative analysis. The inclusion of additional sites will allow for comparisons of assemblages among sites with similar functions as well as between contrasting site types. Alternative approaches to attribute analyses could also provide complementary results. This study separated attribute analyses by ceramic type and vessel form. Vessel orifice measurement as an attribute was not found to vary significantly in most cases, so perhaps if this field were converted to a category alongside type and form, comparisons could be performed to evaluate variation in secondary morphological rim characteristics by vessel size. It is likely that additional patterns in variability could be discerned between small and large vessels.

Mineralogical and trace elemental characterizations would serve as supplemental lines of evidence to the morphological data analyzed in this study. Either of these methods would allow for the quantitative assessment of variation between samples. Thin section petrography would be the preferred method for the analysis of mineralogical constituents in ceramics (Cordell 2007; Stoltman 1991). The chemical composition of raw materials used in ceramic manufacture could be analyzed by a variety of archaeometric techniques designed to identify and quantify the elemental constituents of a sample. A pilot study is currently being conducted using a portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) spectrometer to quantify trace elemental variation in a sample of the Fox Lake pottery assemblage; however, this non-destructive method of analysis may compromise the level of detail offered by techniques in which the samples are homogenized (see Shugar 2013; Speakman et al. 2011). To complement the data yielded by this nondestructive method, future research may include other bulk sample analysis through instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA), or point-specific analysis of freshly broken sherd cross sections using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Since the geographic scale of the Fox Lake Sanctuary is rather finite, a regional comparative database will eventually have to be established to delineate various clay sources by their elemental signatures.

Conclusion

I have intentionally used a conservative approach in interpreting the statistical results of this study by offering counter-arguments to the anthropological interpretation of some of the significant results, and by emphasizing issues with

the quantitative mechanics of the tests, small sample sizes, and unevenly distributed pottery types within and between site assemblages. However, some of the results may highlight differences in vessel function rather than communities of potters. These data could provide meaningful insights into the variety of site functions in FLS Area 6. Overall, it seems that these sites functioned as temporary, seasonal camps that were periodically reoccupied by Malabar Period populations through the Late Prehistoric Period, continuing the pattern of settlement and landscape use practiced by their Orange Period predecessors. The variation in lip morphology and vessel forms between the Palm Hammock and Xavier’s Knoll sites may indicate slightly different uses of these neighboring sites. The predominance of simple vessels with everted lip profiles at Xavier’s Knoll could indicate that this site was a primary habitation area where people prepared and consumed food, while the greater number of restricted vessels and inverted lip profiles at Palm Hammock might mean this site functioned as a temporary camp where foraged resources were stored and transported in ceramic vessels.

As mentioned above, the prevalence of plain pottery in the FLS Area 6 assemblages is characteristic of Malabar Period sites. Moreover, the rarity of decorated St. Johns sherds brings the diagnostic nature of the St. Johns Check Stamped variety into question for this area. Networks of exchange involving check stamped pottery could have developed later in time in the Indian River Region than in the province of the Timucuan-speaking tribes to the north. This would have a direct effect on our conceptualization of the Malabar regional chronology, as the introduction of St. Johns Check Stamped wares would indicate a much later date in the Indian River Region than previously understood. Within a midden context at Xavier’s Knoll (Test Unit C), St. Johns Check Stamped pottery occurs exclusively in the uppermost stratum, which is stratigraphically superimposed over a level containing only plain pottery. An AMS assay from the layer containing plain pottery yielded a calibrated calendar date range of A.D. 880-981, whereas the AMS assay from the upper layer containing check stamped pottery yielded a calibrated calendar date range of A.D. 1413-1443 (see Table 1). If these dates are taken as representative of the introduction of St. Johns Check Stamped pottery in the northernmost Malabar assemblages, then an adjustment of the chronology should be considered in which the date range for the Malabar II Period post-dates A.D. 1000 (see also Penders et al. 2009:524, 2012a:232). Of course, additional radiometric dates—preferably those obtained from reliable, discrete feature contexts—for Malabar II Period sites throughout the region are necessary in order to further support this notion.

Furthermore, the dearth of check stamped wares could mean that Malabar potters resisted the influx of technological change that occurred during the St. Johns II Period to the north, and asserted their “way of doing” (Dobres 2000) by exercising conservatism in ceramic production through time. Pauketat (2001:13) and others (Scarry 2001, 2010; Wagner 2010) describe resistance as the implementation of “contrary practices,” including persistent methods of


subsistence, community organization, and material forms, despite having knowledge of alternatives. The collective resistance of groups of people represents the “establishment and negotiation of traditions…of noncompliance” (Sassaman 2001:219). In contexts of indigenous cultural resistance, behaviors and material culture that were seen as crucial to identity were reproduced through daily practice (Wagner 2010:109). The resistance of practices involved in the spheres of craft production would have served as an affirmation of the identity of Malabar populations in relation (or opposition) to the traditions and practices of encroaching neighbors to the north. By framing the technological and compositional variation in pottery assemblages as an index of cultural resistance, this research supports the idea that although the prehistoric populations of the Indian River Region shared in the production of St. Johns pottery, St. Johns and Malabar assemblages do not represent the same culture (Ashley and White 2012:24; Penders 2012b).

Acknowledgements

Completion of this study would not have been possible without the support of Tom Penders (Space Coast Archaeological Research Foundation) who supervised fieldwork and provided the materials from FLS for analysis; Ann Cordell (Florida Museum of Natural History, Ceramic Technology Laboratory) who generously donated her time to train me in paste identification using the binocular microscope; and Paul Welch (Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale) for stimulating my thinking and providing guidance for all things related to statistics. Thanks to Alice Muntz for helping refine the aesthetics of the figures used in this paper. Lastly, many thanks to the editors of The Florida Anthropologist and the reviewers of this manuscript for their insightful comments.

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Pottery Technology and Chronology at the Fox Lake Sanctuary, Area Six, Brevard County, Florida

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