Population Ecology of Moringa peregrina

Growing in Southern Sinai, Egypt

M.Sc. Thesis in Biology

(Environmental Sciences)

By

Mohamed A. Dadamouny

B.Sc. in Botany, (2002)

Botany Department,

Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University

Ismailia - Egypt

2009

Citation

This thesis is cited as:

Dadamouny, M.A. (2009). Population Ecology of Moringa peregrina

growing in Southern Sinai, Egypt. M.Sc. Thesis, Environmental Sciences,

Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt, 205 pp.

© Faculty of Science, SCU. 2009

Km 4.5, Ring Road,

41522 Ismailia, Egypt

http://fsc.scuegypt.edu.eg/

Dedication

I dedicate my thesis to my family:

to my father who spent all of what he has to see his son a

Scientific Researcher; to my mother who provided me with care

and love in all my life; to my wife (Mrs. Reham El Ghandour) who

supported and encouraged me throughout the editing of the

manuscript and pushed me to concentrate in Scientific field; to my

daughters (Sama & Hana) who own my heart; to my brothers and

sisters who wish me luck and happy life; to my Uncle (Eng.

Mohamed Ali El Ghandour) who didn't hesitate to give me his

advices and his encouragement; to Mrs. Afaf Ali Ragab who wish

me to be successful forever; and to the spirit of my Grandmother

who was supportive for me and asked Allah to help me.

M. Dadamouny

Acknowledgements

First of all, I would like to thank Allah, without his grace and his care I

could not achieve the present study. I would like to express my deep gratitude,

appreciation and many of thanks to my supervising committee; Prof. Dr. Abdel-

Raouf A. Moustafa, Professor of Plant Ecology, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal

University, and Dr. Mohamed Saad Zaghloul, Associate Professor of Plant

Ecology, Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, for their

keen supervision, advices, guidance, encouragement and support during the

course of this study.My appreciation extends to my professor Dr. Samira R.

Mansour, Professor of Microbiology, and Head of Botany Department, Faculty

of Science, Suez Canal University.My deepest thanks and great appreciation are

also extend to Dr. Raafat H. Abd El-Wahab, Associate Professor of Plant

Ecology, Botany Department, Faculty of Science, SCU, Dr. Ahmed El-Shreif,

and Dr. Ashraf S. Shehata, Agriculture Research Center, Ismailia, for helping

me in soil analysis. I could not put into words all what my Colleague Mr. Ayman

Abdel-Hamid, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University has done in field work

and computing. Special appreciation to my friend Mr. Hamada El-Sayed,

Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, my special appreciation extends to my

friend Mr. Hitham Galal, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University for his

help in field work.

M. Dadamouny

Ismailia, Egypt

14.03.2009

List of abbreviations

V

List of abbreviations

AD : Anderson-Darling normality test.

AA : Alpha Amylase.

AP : Available Phosphorus.

a.s.l : Above sea level.

ax : Number of individuals that survive to the age x.

C/H : Circumference/height ratio.

CAG : Circumference at ground level.

CC : Correlation coefficient.

Cum : Cumulative.

DBH : Diameter at breast height.

DF : Defatted flour.

dx : The number of individuals that die during stage x.

EC : Electrical conductivity.

EEAA : Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency.

ex : Probability of living 'x' number of years beyond a given

age.

FFA : Free Fatty Acids.

Frq : Frequency.

G : Gebel.

GEF : Global Environmental Facility.

GLC : Gas Liquid Chromatography.

GPS : Geographic position system.

IVPD : In vitro protein digestibility.

LOI : Loss on ignition

lx : Survivorship; proportion of original cohort surviving to age x.

Lx : Average proportion alive at the age x.

List of abbreviations

VI

MDF : Moringa Defatted flour.

meq/L : ml equivalent/Liter

Mt : Mountain.

NSS : Nature of soil surface.

Nx : Number of individuals living in age x.

PC : Protein concentration.

PER : Protein efficiency ratio.

PVA : Population viability analysis.

Qx : Age specific mortality rate (chance of death).

r2 : Proportion of variation in the responses of regression.

SCU : Suez Canal University

SOM : Soil organic matter

SPSS : Statistical Package for Social Sciences.

SD : Standard Deviation.

SE : Standard Error.

TA : Trypsin Amylase.

TN : Total Nitrogen.

TP : Total Phosphorous.

TSS : Total soluble salts.

Tx : Total number of living individuals at age class x and

beyond.

UNDP : United Nations Development Program.

UNESCO : United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization.

W : Wadi.

X : Age entered by time of census in life table.

List of species authors

VII

Species Author abbreviation Author Name

Acacia ehrenbergiana Hayne Friedrich Gottlob Hayne

Acacia nilotica subsp. indica (L.) Willd. ex Delile Carl Ludwig von Willdenow

Acacia raddiana (Miller) Savi (Philip Miller) Gaetano Savi

Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana (Frossk.) Savi (Peter Forsskål) Gaetano Savi

Acacia tortilis subsp. tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne (Peter Forsskål)

Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schult. (Nicolaas Laurens Burman)

Antoine Laurent de Jussieu,

Josef August Schultes

Aerva javanica v. bovei (Brum. f.) Juss. ex (Webb.) N.L. Burman, Philip Barker Webb

Amygdalus conumunis L. Carl Linnaeus

Anabasis articulata (Forssk.) Moq. (Peter Forsskål)

Anogeissus dhofarica Scott. Heinrich Wilhelm Schott

Anthemis psaudocotula Lam. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Artemisia judaica L. Carl Linnaeus

Blepharis persica (Brum. f.) Kuntze (Nicolaas Laurens Burman)

Blepharispermum hirtum Oliv. Daniel Oliver

Boscia senegalensis (Pers.) Lam. ex Poir. (Christiaan Hendrik Persoon)

Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait. f. William Aiton

Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. (Peter Forsskål) Michael

Pakenham Edgeworth

Capparis sinaica Veill. Dominique Villars

Capparis spinosa. L Carl Linnaeus

Ceratonia oreothauma subsp.

oreothauma

Hillc., Lewis & Verdc. John Hill, Meriwether Lewis,

Bernard Verdcourt

Chrozophora oblongifolia (Delile) Spring. (Alire Raffeneau Delile) Antoine

Frédéric Spring

Chrozophora plicata (Vahl) A. Juss. ex Spreng. (Martin Vahl)

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (C. Linnaeus) Heinrich Adolph

Schrader

Citrus aurantium L. Carl Linnaeus

List of species authors

List of species authors

VIII

Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. (Linnaeus) Nicolaas L. Burman

Citrus mobilis Lour. João de Loureiro

Cleome arabica L. Carl Linnaeus

Cleome droserifolia (Forssk.) Delile (Peter Forsskål)

Commiphora habessinica (O. Berg) Engl (Otto Karl Berg) Heinrich

Gustav Adolf Engler

Cucumis prophetarum L. Carl Linnaeus

Diplotaxis acris (Forssk.) Boiss. (P. Forsskål) Pierre E.Boissier

Fagonia arabica L. Carl Linnaeus

Fagonia mollis Del. Alire Raffeneau Delile

Farsetia aegyptia Turra. Dawson Turner

Ficus carica L. Carl Linnaeus

Ficus cordata subsp. salicifolia, Thunb. (Vahl) C.C. Berg. Carl Peter Thunberg (Martin

Vahl) Cornelis Christiaan Berg

Francoeuria crispa (Forssk., Cas) R.Br. (Forsskål) Alexandre Henri Gabriel

de Cassini, Robert Brown

Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.) Bunge ex Boiss. (Christian Horace Bénédict

Alfred Moquin-Tandon )

Alexander Andrejewitsch von

Bunge, Boissier

Hyoscymus muticus L. Carl Linnaeus

Iphiona scabra Dc. Augustin Pyramus de Candolle

Juniperus excelsa subsp. polycarpos M. Bieb. (K. Koch) Takht. Friedrich August Marschall

von Bieberstein , Takhtajan

Launaea spinosa (Forssk.) Sch. Bip ex Kuntze (P. Forsskål) Carl Ernst Otto Kuntze

Lavandula stricta Del. Alire Raffeneau Delile

Lawsonia inermis L. Carl Linnaeus

Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Frossk.) Deene (Peter Forsskål)

Lindenbergia sinaica (Decne.) Benth. George Bentham

Lycium arabicum schwieinf.ex Boiss Georg August Schweinfurth

lygos raetam Forssk., L. Peter Forsskål, Linnaeus

Maerua crassifolia Forssk. f. Peter Forsskål

List of species authors

IX

Mentha longifolia spp. typhoides (L.) Huds., (Briq.) Harley William Hudson, (John Isaac

Briquet)

Moricandia sinica (Boiss.) Boiss. Pierre Edmond Boissier

Moringa aptera ---> M. peregrina Gaertn ---> (Forssk.) Fior. Joseph Gaertner , Adriano Fiori

Moringa arborea Verdc. Bernard Verdcourt

Moringa borziana Matt. Johannes Mattfeld

Moringa concanensis Nim. ex Dalz. & Gibs. Nimmo, Nicol Alexander

Dalzell, Gibson

Moringa drouhardii Jum. Henri Lucien Jumelle

Moringa erecta ---> M. oleifera Salisb ---> Lam. Richard Anthony Salisbury,

J.B. Lamarck

Moringa hildebrandtii Engl. Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler

Moringa longituba Engl. Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler

Moringa moringa --> M. oleifera (L.) Small --> Lam. (Linnaeus) John Kunkel Small,

J.B. Lamarck

Moringa octogona --> M. oleifera Stokes --> Lam. Jonathan S. Stokes, J.B. Lamarck

Moringa oleifera Lam. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Moringa ovalifolia Dinter ex Berger Ernst Friedrich Berger

Moringa parvifolia --> M. oleifera Noronha --> Lam. J.B. Lamarck

Moringa peregrina Forssk. ex Fiori.

(Forssk.) Fiori.

(Peter Forsskål)

Adriano Fiori

Moringa polygona --> M. oleifera DC. --> Lam. A.P. de Candolle, J.B. Lamarck

Moringa pterygosperma --> M. oleifera Gaertn., nom. illeg --> Lam. Joseph Gaertner , J.B. Lamarck

Moringa pygmaea Verdc. Bernard Verdcourt

Moringa rivae subsp. longisiliqua Chiov. Emilio Chiovenda

Moringa rivae subsp. rivae Chiov. Emilio Chiovenda

Moringa ruspoliana Engl. Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler

Moringa stenopetala (Baker f.) Cufodontis (Edmund Gilbert Baker)

Moringa zeylanica --> M. oleifera Pers. --> Lam. (Christiaan Hendrik Persoon)

J.B. Lamarck

Ochradenus baccatus Del. Alire Raffeneau Delile

Olea europaea L. Carl Linnaeus

List of species authors

X

Otostegia fruticosa (Frossk.) Penz. (Peter Forsskål) Georg

Wolfgang Franz Panzer

Peganum harmala L. Carl Linnaeus

Periploca aphylla (Dcne.) Rech. f., (Joseph Decaisne) Karl Heinz

Rechinger

Pesidium guajava L. Carl Linnaeus

Phoenix dactylifera L. Carl Linnaeus

Pituranthos tortuosus Desf., René Louiche Desfontaines

Prumus domestica L. Carl Linnaeus

Prunus arabica (Oliv.) Meikle. Daniel Oliver Robert Desmond Meikle

Prunus armeniaca L. Carl Linnaeus

Prunus persica (L.) Batsch (C. Linnaeus) August Johann

Georg Karl Batsch

Pulicaria arabica (Forssk.) Oliv. (Peter Forsskål) Daniel Oliver

Punica granatum L. Carl Linnaeus

Pyrus conumunis L. Carl Linnaeus

Pyrus malus L. Carl Linnaeus

Reseda sp. L. Carl Linnaeus

Retama raetam (Frossk.) Webb & Berthel. Philip Barker Webb & Sabin

Berthelot

Rhus somalensis Engl. Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler

Senna italica Mill. Philip Miller

Sideroxylon mascatense (A. DC.) T.D. Penn. Leigh Humboldt Pennington

Solenostemma arghel (Delile) Hayne (Alire Raffeneau Delile) F. Hayne

Sorghum sp. L. Carl Linnaeus

Teucrium polium L. Carl Linnaeus

Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Carl Linnaeus

Vicia faba L. Carl Linnaeus

Vitis vinifera L. Carl Linnaeus

Zilla spinosa subsp.spinosa (L.) Prantl (Linnaeus) Karl Anton Eugen Prantl

Zygophyllum coccineum L. Carl Linnaeus

Zygophyllum simplex L. Carl Linnaeus

Table of contents

XI

Table of Contents

Subject

Page

Supervising Committee - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

I

Approval Sheet - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II

Dedication - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III

Acknowledgements - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV

List of abbreviations - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - V

List of species authors - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VII

Table of Contents - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - XI

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - XVII

List of Tables- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - XIX

List of Figures - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - XXI

I. Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1

II. Background - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5

1. Nomenclature - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5

2. Systematic position - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5

3. Morphology - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6

4. Anatomy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8

5. Chemistry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9

6. Medicinal Uses - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11

7. Other Uses - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12

7.1 As plant growth hormone - - - - - - - - - - - - 12

7.2 As green manure - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12

7.3 As a food - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12

7.4 As water purifier - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14

7.5 As a good source of oil - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14

8 Phenological aspects - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15

9 Distribution - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15

III. Review of Literature - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17

Table of contents

XII

IV. Study Area - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 31

1. Geology and Geomorphology of South Sinai - - - - 31

2. Climate - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 33

2.1. Rainfall - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 34

2.2. Temperature - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 38

2.3. Relative humidity and evaporation - - - - - - - - 41

2.4.Wind speed - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 41

3. Hydrological aspects - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 42

4. Vegetations - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 43

5. Locations - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 47

a. Wadi Agala - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 50

b. Wadi Feiran - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 50

c. Wadi Zaghra - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 54

d. Wadi Me'ir - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 55

6. History of land-use and human activity - - - - - - - - 57

V. Materials and Methods - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 61

I. Field Survey - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 61

II. Estimation of Age structure - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 64

a. Cutting cross sections - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 64

b. Age-radius relationship and age dating - - - - 64

c. Age structure and static life table - - - - - - - - 66

d. Survivorship curve - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 68

III. Determination of size structure - - - - - - - - - - - 69

a. Field measurements - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 69

b. Height, annual increment and circumference

/height ratio - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -

69

IV Soil characteristics - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70

1. Physical characteristics - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70

1.1. Soil texture - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70

1.2. Moisture content - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70

Table of contents

XIII

2. Chemical characteristics - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72

2.1. Soil Organic matter - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72

2.2. Soil pH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72

3. Slouble salts - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72

3.1. Soil EC and salinity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72

3.2. Water soluble anions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 73

3.3. Water soluble cations - - - - - - - - - - - - - 74

4. Total and available phosphorus - - - - - - - - 75

5. Total Nitrogen - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 75

V. Soil and relationship with tree age and size - - - 76

VI. Data treatment - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 76

VI. Results - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 77

I. Environmental parameters - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 77

II. Age structure of Moringa populations - - - - - - 80

a. Bark thickness, tree radius and number of

rings of cross sections - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

85

b. Bark, radius & no. of rings of sampled trees - 91

c. Static life table - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 94

d. Survivorship Curve - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 95

III. Size structure of Moringa populations - - - - - - 101

IV. Soil characteristic - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 101

1. Nature of soil surface - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 101

2. Physical characteristics - - - - - - - - - - - - - 101

2.1. Soil texture - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 101

2.2. Moisture content - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 106

3. Chemical characteristics - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 106

2.1. Soil Organic matter - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 106

2.2. Soil pH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 107

3. Slouble salts - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 107

4. Total, available phosphorus and total nitrogen 107

Table of contents

XIV

V. Soil and relationship with tree age and size - - - 111

IV. Associated species - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 113

VII. Discussion - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 115

Conclusion - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 147

Recommendations- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 149

VIII Summary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 151

IX References - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 155

X. Appendices - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 194

XI Arabic Summary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - أ

Abstract

XVII

Abstract

Several threats affect the existence of Moringa peregrina (Forssk.

ex Fiori) tree in South Sinai, such as over-cutting for different uses, over-

grazing, and extremes of drought. The unmanaged utilization of this

valuable tree is very short-sighted and lead to high mortality, low

recruitment, and poor survival of seedling. To conserve M. peregrina

populations, it is necessary to understand the tree dynamics. The present

work aims to study the population dynamics of M. peregrina tree during

estimating the age structures and to reveal the relationship between the

size and age structures of its populations, in them in response to birth,

aging and mortality rate.

The study was carried out in four wadis of South Sinai; W. Agala,

W. Feiran, W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir. Forty-one sites include 404 M.

peregrina trees were surveyed in these wadis; 4 sites in W. Agala (40

trees), 5 sites in W. Feiran (47 trees), 6 sites in W. Zaghra (82 trees) and

26 sites in W. Me'ir (235 trees). In each site some parameters were

determined as GPS, soil texture, soil analyses for twenty soil samples

around the trees. The linear regression between radius (excluding the

bark) and no. of growth annual rings in ninety-three cross-cuts was used

to estimate the age structure.

The estimated ages were used to determine the age distribution and

construct a static life table. The age distribution of the studied populations

was used as a predictive tool to determine if the M. peregrina populations

in Southern Sinai are healthy or not. The age structure of populations

consisting of multiple cohorts was used to estimate the survival patterns of

the various age groups in the static life table. In addition, vegetative

parameters were measured as tree height (m), crown cover area (m2),

Abstract

XVIII

trunk circumferences (cm), and circumference/height ratio to find out the

size structure and its relation with the age distribution.

The results of the linear regression showed a highly significant

relationship between the tree radius and growth rings which means that

the growth rings can be taken as regular time markers and could be used

for dating M. peregrina trees. Based on this regression equation, the

results suggest that M. peregrina in Southern Sinai grows very slowly and

that the estimated oldest tree is about 382 years old. The result of static

life table of M. peregrina in South Sinai revealed that M. peregrina trees

≥ 180 years old in W. Agala, ≥ 100 years old in W. Fieran, ≥ 260 years

old in W. Zaghra, and ≥ 240 years old in W. Me'ir have a 100% chance of

death (qx = 1.00).

The survivorship curve of M. peregrina populations in South Sinai

represents type III of survivorship curves due to the high rate of mortality

among the young and the old trees. The Pearson correlation and linear

regression analysis revealed that the size (especially height and

circumference/height ratio) can be used to expect the age class of M.

peregrina tree in the studied wadis. The age structure results showed

unhealthy shrinking populations of M. peregrina trees with sharp decline

in the last 20-40 years. The study came out with a conclusion that unless

conditions change, these populations will permanently disappear. Based

on these results and looking for the future of the M. peregrina populations

in the studied area, conservation of this tree is highly recommended.

Key words: South Sinai, Moringa peregrina, population dynamics, life

table, age structure, survivorship curve.

List of Tables

XIX

List of Tables

Table

Page

1 :

Nutritional Analysis of M. peregrina pods, fresh raw

leaves, and dried leaf powder per 100 grams of edible

portion.

13

2 :

Available meteorological data of St. Catherine and

El-Tor stations in Southern Sinai, Egypt, compiled

from different sources.

35

3 :

Mean rainfall (mm), relative humidity (%),

temperature (ºC), and wind speed (m/s) recorded in

Saint Catherine from 2004 to 2007.

36

4 :

Annual rainfall at some stations in South Sinai,

compiled from different sources (Abd El-Wahab,

1995 and 2003).

39

5 :

Four wadis of the study area in which M. peregrina

trees were recorded.

47

6 :

Minimum and Maximum temperature of Feiran Oasis

(Altitude 660m).

53

7 :

The slope degree and scale.

63

9 :

The percentage of soil constituents in soil surface

63

8 :

Parameters of a static life table used in estimation of

survival and mortality rate of M. peregrina tree.

64

10 : Summary table of environmental setting data for the

sites in which M. peregrina was recorded.

78

11 : Descriptive statistics of average radii, bark thickness

and no of rings for M. peregrina cross-section.

81

12 : Descriptive statistics of average radii, bark thickness

and no. of rings for all sampled M. peregrina trees.

87

13 : Age structure of M. peregrina populations in the

studied four wadis (W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra

and W. Me'ir) and pooled population.

89

14 : A static life table for M. peregrina populations at the

List of Tables

XX

four studied wadis (W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra

and W. Me'ir) and pooled population.

92

15 : The descriptive statistics of the vegetative parameters

of M. peregrina populations in South Sinai.

96

16 : Size structure of M. peregrina populations in the

studied four wadis (W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra

and W. Me'ir) and pooled population.

99

17 : Pearson correlation and linear regression between

size and age of M. peregrina tree.

100

18 : Descriptive data and analysis of variance (one-way

ANOVA) of nature of soil surface (N.S.S.) and soil

parameters

102

19 : Pearson correlation between age, size and soil

characteristics of M. peregrina tree.

112

20 : Alphabetical species list of associated species with

M. peregrina populations in South Sinai.

113

21 : Summary table of age and size structures of M.

peregrina growing in South Sinai.

127

List of Figures

XXI

List of Figures

Figure

Page

1 : Moringa peregrina tree growing in W. Zaghra S. Sinai. 7

2 : Morphology of Moringa peregrina tree. 7

3 : Annual rainfall of Saint Catherine and El-Tor (1971 -

2000) and the mean value.

39

4 : Climatic diagrams of Saint Catherine and El-Tor

stations in Southern Sinai.

40

5 : Location map of the four wadis of study area.

48

6

:

The sites map of Moringa peregrina populations at the

four studied wadis in South Sinai.

49

7 : M. peregrina tree and nature of soil surface in Wadi

Agala, South Sinai.

51

8 : Population of M. peregrina tree and nature of soil surface

in W. Feiran, South Sinai.

51

9 : Population of M. peregrina trees at W. Zaghra, S. Sinai. 56

10 : Population of M. peregrina trees at W. Me'ir, South Sinai. 56

11 : Photos of annual rings counting to estimate the age of M.

peregrina trees growing in South Sinai.

65

12 : Soil analysis, (a) sample collection under the crown cover

of M. peregrina tree. (b) on the depth 15 - 25 cm, (c) EC

meter, (d) Flame Photometer, and (e) Auto-analyzer

Spectrophotometer.

71

13 : The elevations of M. peregrina in the four studied wadis

represented in meter above sea level.

79

14 : The slope degree of the sites at the four studied wadis

represented in degree.

79

15 : The measurements of sampled M. peregrina cross-cuts. 82

16 : Normality test for (a) radius, (b) bark thickness (cm) and

number of rings in sampled M. peregrina cross-cuts.

83

List of Figures

XXII

17 : Linear regression equation (a) between bark thickness

(cm) and radius, and (b) between radius and number of

annual rings of sampled M. peregrina cross-cuts.

84

18 : Normality test of radii (a) and estimated age for 404 trees

of M. peregrina in the studied four wadis.

86

19 : Age structure of M. peregrina tree (a) in pooled

population and (b) in the studied four wadis.

90

20 : Survivorship curve of Moringa peregrina populations. 94

21 : Size structure of M. peregrina tree populations (a) tree

height (m) (b) crown cover (m2), and (c) circumf./height in

South Sinai.

97

22 : Size structure [height (m), crown cover area (m2),

circumference (cm), and tree volume (m3)] of pooled

population of M. peregrina trees in South Sinai.

98

23 : Variations of the mean values of nature of soil surface

(N.S.S.) of the four wadis of the study area.

104

24 : Variations of the mean values of soil texture (sieving

method) of the four wadis of the study area.

105

25 : Variations of the mean values of moisture and organic

matter content (%) in the four studied wadis.

106

26 : Variations of the mean values of soil pH (a) and electrical

conductivity (mS/cm) (b) per wadi.

108

27 : Variations of the mean values of water soluble anions in

the soil of the four studied wadis.

108

28 : Water soluble cations of the pooled studied soil samples

(a), and the mean values (±SE) per wadi (b).

109

29 : Variations of the mean values (±SE) of soil salinity and

available phosphorus (ppm) in the four studied wadis.

110

30 : Variation in the mean values (±SE) of total phosphorus

(TP) and total nitrogen (TN) in the soil of the four wadis

110

31-40 : Appendices photos 197

Introduction

1

I. Introduction

Moringa is the sole genus of Moringaceae, with thirteen

species distributed throughout the dry tropics of the world (Al

Kahtani and Abou-Arab, 1993). M. peregrina (Forssk. ex Fiori) in

Egypt and in Saudi Arabia called “Yassar” or "Al-Ban". It contains

seeds that considered as a good source of oil. The oil is extracted by

boiling seeds with water and collecting the oil from the surface of

the water. The extracted oil is called “Al-Yassar”. At present, the oil

is not popular (Migahid 1978; Somali et al., 1984).

M. peregrina is ،generally, one of the most endangered trees

in world due to: (1) over-cutting for different uses, however it is an

important source of browse, wood fuel and timber, and (2) Over-

grazing, where M. peregrina has high quality as an animal fodder.

In fact, grazing as well as unmanaged human activities represent a

great disturbance for natural vegetation and threatening some rare

species of extinction, disappearance of pastoral plant communities

(Moustafa, 2000a).

Threats affecting the existence of M. peregrina in Egypt,

especially in South Sinai includes: climatic aridity, especially in last

two decades, flower and seed-feeding insects, both are a dangerous

limiting factor in seed production and density of seedling of many

species such as Moringa tree grown in South Sinai (Abd El-Wahab,

1995), in addition to the infection of the old trunks. The fatal factor

Introduction

2

which leads to completely disappear of M. peregrina is the failure

of its regeneration and establishment as young trees or young

populations. It is very hard to find any seedling of Moringa, so the

study of its population dynamics is very important. Furthermore, it

has high mortality rate, and low establishment, therefore the present

study focus on the study of its population dynamics.

The current situation is that M. peregrina consider a

vulnerable species, occurs under several threats. The partial

conservation of this tree is apparently difficult, due to overriding in

its use, since it has variable values as palatable crop to livestock. In

addition, they are not hesitating to destroy the trees for fuel, as well

as over-consuming of Moringa seeds in the folk medicine.

The conservation of M. peregrina tree is very necessary, to

overcome its consuming by animals and Bedouins in South Sinai.

Zaghloul (1997) confirmed that measurements for protecting and

managing of the threatened species in South Sinai should be

preceded by intensive and extensive or long-term studies.

Moreover, over-grazing, over-cutting and all Bedouins activities in

South Sinai should be managed. Zaghloul (1997) also

recommended that restoration of the endangered, threatened species

by soil seed bank and transplanting should be studied.

Since the age and size of M. peregrina trees in a population

may influence the function of the species in the ecosystem (Milton

and Dean 1995, 1999), any decline in scattered mature trees may

Introduction

3

have serious implications for species diversity in the Southern Sinai.

In fact, there are no informations on the demography of the species

(Wiegand et al., 1999; and Moustafa et al., 2001). Therefore, a

better understanding of the tree dynamics is fundamental to

conserve it and enjoy the benefits of sustainable management of its

populations. Therefore, demographic studies have been shown to be

useful in understanding the regulation of population numbers

(Silvertown, 1982), But for the plant populations with overlapping

generations, mortality, survival and reproduction tend to vary with

age or size of the individual plants (Goldstein et al., 1985; Harper

and White, 1970; Harper, 1980).

Furthermore, the survivorship curves reflect the mortality rate

of flower buds, flowers, seeds, and juveniles (Deevey, 1947).

According to Zaghloul et al., (2008), such relationships enable

determination of the age class distribution of the population and

consequently the dating of successful regeneration events, which

can then be related to record of climate and/or anthropogenic

practices, especially the climatic variations, soil properties, natural

and human-induced disturbance, and biological interactions

determine the rates of establishment, growth and mortality of the

different species in the community (Van Valen, 1975 ; Archer,

1994).

As confirmed by Moustafa et al., (2001) and according to

Springuel & Mekki (1994), Egypt has many problems when its

resources are abused through mismanagement rather than nurtured

Introduction

4

through effective management. Effective and precise system of

management which can help to protect the left over of our natural

resources and let us have chance to find out the disappeared species

while they are being used, and consequently providing the

foundation for sustainable development.

The present study focuses on M. peregrina as one of the most

rarely species in South Sinai, which has high medicinal value and

biological importance as one of its biota. Why this species occurs

under threats? How to conserve it? What about its population

dynamics? What about the present status of M. peregrina

populations aging and sustainable use studies?

Therefore, the present work aims to study the population

dynamics of M. peregrina tree through:

1- Determining the actual demographic status by estimating the age

structures of M. peregrina populations in South Sinai.

2- Determining the size structures and reveal the relationship

between the size and age structures, along with the spatial and

temporal changes in them in response to birth, aging and

mortality rates.

3- Providing a static life table of M. peregrina populations in South

Sinai.

4- Investigating the distributional behavior of M. peregrina

populations in the study area.

5- Evaluating the threats which affect the establishment of M.

peregrina in its natural habitats.

Background

5

II. Background

1. Nomenclature

Moringa peregrina belongs to the phenotypically varied

groups of angiosperms due to its size. It is the sole genus of

Moringaceae with 13 species distributed throughout the dry tropics

of the World. Moringa spans a vast range of life forms (habit).

Moringa has different names; in Philippines, the leaves of Moringa

are cooked and fed to babies, it is called mother’s best friend and

"malunggay". Other names include the benzolive tree (Haiti),

horseradish tree (Florida) and drumstick tree (India) (Somali et al.,

1984). Its vernacular name (Arabic) is Habb El-Yassar (El-Hadidi et

al., 1991). According to Boulos (1999), the synonyms of Moringa

peregrina (Forssk. Fori) are Hyperanthera peregrina Forssk.,

Moringa aptera Gaertn., Fruct., and Moringa arabica (Lam.) Pers.

2. Systematic Position

According to Boulos (1999) and from the system by Melchior

(1964), adapted than system of Engler, Moringa is classified as

follow:

Division: Angiospermae

Subdivision: Dicotyledoneae

Class: Archiclamydeae

Order: Papavarales

Family: Moringaceae

Floristic category: Afro-oriental, S. Arabian domains of

Sudano-Zambezian region with extension to the middle and Saharo-

Sindian sub-regions (El-Hadidi et al., 1991).

Background

6

3. Morphology

Moringa peregrina (Forssk. Fori) is a medium sized tree, 5-15

m tall (Duke, 1983; Boulos, 1999). It is deciduous, perennial tree.

Its main root is thick. Its branches and stem are brittle with corky

bark, (Figure 1). Its trunk is erect, terete, branched, and branches is

divaricated or ascending, slender, forming avoid or abavoid crown,

green-glaucaus (El-Hadidi et al., 1991).

The leaves of M. peregrina are feathery, pale green,

compound tri-pinnate, 30-60 cm long with many small leaflets, 1.3-

2.5 cm and 0.3-0.6 cm wide (Boulos, 1999). The leaflets are early

decidous, simple, petiolate, glabrous on both surfaces, the blade is

ovate- oblanceolate, margin entire, and apex obtuse, sometimes

mucronate (Duke, 1983; El-Hadidi et al., 1991).

When M. peregrina seedlings start out, they have broad

leaflets and a large tuber. Through many dry seasons, the shoot dies

back below ground to the tuber. As the plant gets older, the leaves

get longer and longer, but the leaflets get smaller and smaller and

more widely spaced. Adult trees produce leaves with a full

complement of tiny leaflets, only to drop them as the leaf matures

(Olson, 1999).

Flowers of M. peregrina are fragrant, with white, creamy,

pinkish to pale, 2.5 cm in diameter, born in sprays, with five at the

top of the flower and stamens are yellow (Figure 2.a) (Duke, 1983).

Background

7

Figure (2): Morphology of M. peregrina (a) flowering buds and

flowers, (b) green fruits in W. Zaghra (South Sinai), (c)

dry pods and (d) seeds.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure (1): Moringa peregrina tree growing in Wadi Zaghra

(South Sinai).

Background

8

In addition, flowers are panicles or pedicellate. The sepals are

oblong-lnceolate, acuminate, whitish. The color of the petals is

white-pinkish to pale (El-Hadidi et al., 1991).

The fruits (Figure 2.b) or pods of M. peregrina are pendulous

ridged, brown, triangular. The pod (Figure 2.c) splitting lengthwise

into 3 parts containing about 20-25 tri-gonous seeds embedded in

the pith. Pods are tapering at both ends, 9-ribbed. The seeds of M.

peregrina are dark brown with 3 papery wings (Figure 2.e) (Duke,

1983). Zahran and Willis (2009) stated that the pendulous pods

ripen in October. The angled nut-like white seed [behen nut] are

bitter-sweet nauseous taste and rich in oil (ben-oil) (Täckholm,

1974).

4. Anatomy

Based on the gross appearance, the genus of Moringa is

divided into four classes; bottle trees, slender trees, sarcorhizal trees

and tuberous trees. In case of slender trees (e.g. M. peregrina), the

stem is characterized by a preponderance of libriform fibres that

show little seasonal variation in shape with little axial parenchyma.

This pattern does not show variation, but in favorable season, the

early wood libriform fibres are sometimes replaced by confluent

aliform paratracheal parenchyma (Carlquist, 1988).

As in the arboreal life forms, the slender trees shows

alternating bands of liberiforms fibres and paratracheal axial

parenechyma, However in this slender trees, the parenchyma bands

Background

9

are never wider than adjacent bands of fibres. This predomination

of liberform fibers makes the roots of the toughest in the genus. In

the trans- and radial sections, fibres of different shapes in slender

tree (e.g. M. peregrina) do not appear to occur in marked bands as

in most of other arboreal species. The fibres of M. peregrina may

occur in rings separated by aliform to the confluent aliform

parenchyma. Rays are differing through life forms mainly in size

and proportion of upright to square to procumbent cells. The

shortest multi-seriate rays were found in the slender trees (Olson

and Carlquist 2001). Tyloses were observed in all Moringa species.

Storing can be observed in all Moringa species but is most apparent

in area of extensive axial parenchyma or short libriforms fibres

(Olson and Carlquist 2001).

5. Chemistry

Moringa peregrina kernel (seed) contains 1.8% moisture,

54.3% oil, 22.1% protein, 3.6% fiber, 15.3% carbohydrate and 2.5%

ash. Moreover, the composition and characteristic of the extracted

oil were determined (Somali et al., 1984). Gas liquid

chromatography of methyl esters of the fatty acids showed the

presence of 14.7% saturated fatty acids and 84.7% unsaturated fatty

acids. The fatty acid composition explains as follows: Palmitic

(9.3%), Palmitoleic (2.4%), Stearic (3.5%), Oleic (78.0%), Linoleic

(0.6%), Araachidic (1.8%) and Behenic (2.6%). Moreover, M.

peregrina is the uppermost for antioxidant (Yang et al., 2006a and

b).

Background

10

6. Seed viability and germination

The soaking of M. peregrina seeds in diluted tetrazoluim salt

(0.007 gm/L) showed that all seeds are viable (Abd El-Wahab,

1995). Although M. peregrina has hard woody testa, the highest

percentage (92%) of germination was obtained when M. peregrina

seeds were pre-soaked in water up to 24 hours (Abd El-Wahab,

1995). The seeds of M. peregrina gave a rapid and high germination

percent in few days without any pretreatment. After ten days at

25ºC, 90 % of M. peregrina seeds were germinated. Thus, M.

peregrina is easy to propagate by seed (Abd El-Wahab, 1995).

7. Habitats

Ranging from subtropical dry to moist through tropical very

dry to moist forest life zones, Moringa is reported to tolerate annual

precipitation of 4.8 to 4.3 dm (mean of 53 cases =14.1) annual

temperature of 18.7 to 28.5˚С (mean of 48 cases = 25.4) and pH of

4.5 to 8.0 (mean of 12 cases = 6.5) thrives in subtropical and

tropical climates, flowering and fruiting freely and continuously.

Thus, M. pregrina trees grow best on a dry sandy soil (Duke, 1983).

Moringa is adapted to a wide range of soil types but it does best in

well-drained loam to clavoloam. It does not withstand prolonged

waterlogging. It is observed to prefer a neutral to slightly acidic soil

reaction, but it has recently been intrduced with temperature ranges

from 26 to 40c and annual rainfall at least at least 500 mm. It grows

well from sea level to 1000 m in elevation. (VonMaydeU, 1986;

and vonCarlowitz et al., 1991).

Background

11

8. Medicinal uses

The roots, leaves, flowers and seeds of M. peregrina are used

in folk remedies for tumors (Hartwell, 1967, 69, 70 and 71). Pods

act as a de-wormer and treat liver and spleen problems and pains of

the joints. Due to the high protein and fiber content of pods, they

can treat malnutrition and diarrhea. The root of M. peregrina is used

for dropsy, and its juice is applied externally as rubefacient or

counter-irritant. Moreover, roots are bitter as a tonic to the body and

lungs, and are emmenagogue, expectorant, mild diuretic and

stimulant in paralytic afflictions, epilepsy and hysteria (Duke,

1983).

The leaves of M. peregrina are applied as poultice to sores,

for headaches, and said to have purgative properties and stop

bleeding. There is an anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory effect

when applied to wounds or insect bites. Extracts can be used against

bacterial or fungal skin complaints. Leaf tea treats gastric ulcers and

diarrhea. Bark, leaves and roots are acrid, pungent, and are taken to

promote digestion (Duke, 1987; Freiberger et al., 1998).

The flower juice of M. peregrina is useful for urinary

problems. Moreover, it improves the quality and flow of mothers’

milk. The seed oil is used for diarrhea and conversely it has a

laxative effect. Reported from the African and Hindustani Centers

of Diversity, Moringa was reported to tolerate bacteria, drought,

fungus, laterite, and mycobacteria, (Duke, 1978; Ramachandran et

al., 1980).

Background

12

9. Other uses

9.1. M. peregrina as plant growth hormone

Juice from M. peregrina leaves can be used to produce an

effective plant growth hormone, increasing yield by 25-30% for

nearly any crop. One of the active substances in M. peregrina

leaves is Zeatin. It is a plant hormone related to the cytokinines.

This foliar spray should be used in addition to (and not in lieu of)

other fertilizers, watering and agricultural practices (Fuglie, 2001a).

9.2. M. peregrina as green manure

Using M. peregrina as a green manure can significantly

enrich agricultural land. In this process, the land is first tilled,

Moringa seed is then planted 1-2 cm deep at a spacing of 10x10 cm

(about one million seed per hectare). After 25 days, the seedlings

are plowed into the soil to a depth of 15 cm. The land is prepared

again for the crop desired. Seed can be done mechanically if the

seed is first de-hulled. Planting kernels will reduce germination time

by up to three days. A simple method of seedling is to firstotill the

soil to a depth of 10 cm, then scatters seed over the soil and rototills

again to a depth of 2-3 cm (Fuglie, 2001b).

9.3. M. peregrina as a food

Nutritional analysis indicates that the leaves and pods of M.

peregrina contain wealth of essential and disease preventing

nutrients, as well as, all essential amino acids (Verma et al., 1976;

Freiberger et al., 1998) (Table 1).

Background

13

Table (1): Nutritional Analysis of M. peregrina pods, fresh raw

leaves, and dried leaf powder per 100 grams of edible portion

(Price, 1985; Freiberger et al., 1998).

Nutritional Analysis Pods Fresh

Leaves

Dried

Leaf Powder

Moisture (%) 86.90% 75% 7.50%

Calories 26.0 92.0 205.0

Protein (g) 2.5 6.7 27.1

Fat (g) 0.1 1.7 2.3

Carbohydrate (g) 3.7 13.4 38.2

Fiber (g) 4.8 0.9 19.2

Minerals (g) 2.0 2.3 -

Calcium (mg) 30.0 440.0 2003.0

Magnesium (mg) 24.0 24.0 368.0

Phosphorous (mg) 110.0 70.0 204.0

Potassium (mg) 259.0 259.0 1324.0

Copper (mg) 3.1 1.1 0.6

Iron (mg) 5.3 0.7 28.2

Oxalic acid (mg) 10.0 101.0 0.0

Sulphur 137.0 137.0 870.0

VITAMINS CONTENTS

Vitamin A - B carotene (mg) 0.1 6.8 16.3

Vitamin B – Choline (mg) 423.0 423.0

Vitamin B1 – Thiamin (mg) 0.1 0.2 2.6

Vitamin B2 – Riboflavin (mg) 0.1 0.1 20.5

Vitamin B3 – Nicotinic Acid (mg) 0.2 0.8 8.2

Vitamin C – Ascorbic Acid (mg) 120.0 220.0 17.3

Vitamin E –Tocopherols Acetate (mg) - - 113

AMINO ACIDs CONTENTS

Arginine (mg) 360.0 406.6 1325

Histidine (mg) 110.0 149.8 613

Lysine (mg) 150.0 342.4 1325

Tryptophan (mg) 80.0 107.0 425

Phenylanaline (mg) 430.0 310.3 1388

Methionine (mg) 140.0 117.7 350

Threonine (mg) 390.0 117.7 1188

Leucine (mg) 650.0 492.2 1950

Isoleucine (mg) 440.0 299.6 825

Valine (mg) 540.0 374.5 1063

Background

14

9.4. M. peregrina as water purifier

Seed powder of M. peregrina can be used as a quick and

simple method for cleaning dirty river water. The powder joins with

the solids in the water and sinks to the bottom. This treatment also

removes 90-99% of bacteria contained in water. Using M. peregrina

to purify water replaces chemicals such as aluminum sulphate,

which has dangerous effects on people and the environment, and is

expensive (Jahn et al., 1986; VonMaydeU, 1986; and Fuglie, 1999).

9.5. M. peregrina as a good source of oil

Moringa oil deserves to be an important part in our diet. It is a

concentrated source of food energy and nutrients. The seeds of M.

peregrina were the source of "Bean oil" used by the Egyptians since

old and middle kingdoms (300-200B.C). The refined oil obtained

from Moringa seeds has a yellowish color, a sweet taste and

odorless, for this reason it was much estimated for preparing

cosmetics (Lucas, 1962). The bright yellow oil with a pleasant taste

has been compared in quality with olive oil. The kernel contains 35-

40% by weight of oil (Folkard & Sutherland, 2005).

Moringa seed has a fairly soft kernel, so the oil can be

extracted by hand using a screw press. The seed is first crushed,

10% by volume of water is added, followed by gentle heating over a

low fire for 10-15 minutes, taking care not to burn the seed. 11kg of

kernels yielded 2.6 liters of oil, or 52kg of seeds yielded 12.5 liters

of cold pressed oil using a motor-driven screw-type. In some

countries (e.g. Oman), they soak the seed overnight to allow the oil

Background

15

to separate from the water. After the oil is extracted, the rather bitter

tasting presscake still has all the properties of fresh seed in treating

and cleaning water. With 60% protein content, it may be used as a

soil fertilizer and further studies are looking at how it could be used

as part of animal and poultry feed, (VonMaydeU, 1986; Folkard &

Sutherland, 2005).

10. Phenological aspects

M. peregrina becomes flowering in March and April. Unripe

fruiting period occurs from April to June. Ripe pods can be

collected in the end of June and July. Mature tree produces about

150 pods of 10 to 15 seeds per each (1700 seeds/1 kg.), December

and January are the dry period of M. peregrina tree (Abd El-Wahab,

1995).

11. Distribution

M. peregrina is native to India, Arabian Peninsula, and

possibly Africa and as far north as the Dead Sea (Duke, 1983;

Fuglie, 1999). It is recorded from Ethiopia and Somalia, northwards

to the Sudan and eastwards to Arabia. It is also recorded in

Palestine and Jordan (Fuglie, 1999). Globally, it grows in Northeast

Africa and Southwest Asia (Boulos, 1999).

In Egypt, M. peregrina grows in to the Red Sea region,

according to Kassas and Zahran (1962), M.Peregrina is confined to

the feet of the mountains that are higher than 1300-1500m., it

Background

16

extending from Gebel Abou-Dukhan (lat. 27º 20′ N) to Gebel El-

Faryid (lat. 23º 30′ N) (El Hadidi et al., 1991). Zahran and Willis

(2009) stated that M. peregrina is confined to the upstream parts of

wadis draining the slopes of the higher mountains. Moreover, M.

peregrina scrub is represented by patches that cover limited areas of

the upstream runnels of the drainage systems. These are runnels

collecting water at the foot of the higher mountains. Thus M.

peregrina is a desert species; its occurrence in Egypt is restricted to

the mountains of the Red Sea and south Sinai. The ground where M.

peregrina grows is usually covered with coarse rock debris,

characterizes the upstream runnels at the mountain bases and slopes

(Kassas and Zahran, 1971).

Zahran and Willis (2009) stated that M. peregrina is present

on the higher zones of the north-facing slopes of the mountain of

the Red Sea coast, especially Gebel Shindodai, it is also present

within the mountains of Samiuki, Nugrus and Shayeb groups. The

ground where M. peregrina grows is usually covered with coarse

rock detritus. The restriction of M. peregrina to the foot of the

higher mountains indicates that the high altitude leads to greater

water resources. It is also recorded in South Sinai in limited area at

Feiran Oasis Mountains. It grows in crevices and rocky slopes of

mountains. Its wild populations have been reduced to a few

populations distributed in South Sinai, the Eastern Desert and Gebel

Elba in southeastern Egypt (Abd El-Wahab, 1995). Moreover, the

west-facing escarpments of Gebel Serbal are rich in M. peregrina

trees, which grow on rocky slopes near springs (Danin, 1999).

Review

17

III. Review of Literature

Kjaer et al., (1979). They studied the isothiocyanates in

myrosinase-treated seed extracts of Moringa peregrina. They

discovered that M. peregrina seeds treated with myrosinase produce

2-propyl, 2-butyl and 2-methylpropyl isothiocyanate, in addition to

5,5-dimethyl-oxazolidine-2-thione. All of these compounds are new

to the family, but known as natural derivatives from other sources.

On the other hand, 4-(4'-O-Acetyl-alpha-L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl

isothiocyanate together with substantial quantities of its non-

acetylated counterpart, earlier recognized as a component in

hydrolysed seeds of M. oleifera, constituted the additional mustard

oils observed in M. peregrina seeds (Kjaer et al., 1979).

In 1984, Somali et al., studied the chemical composition and

characteristics of M. peregrina seeds and seeds oil. They revealed

that the M. peregrina kernel contains 1.8% moisture, 54.3% oil,

22.1% protein, 3.6% fibres, 15.3% carbohydrate and 2.5% ash.

Composition and characteristics of the extracted oil were

determined. GLC of methyl esters of the fatty acids shows the

presence of 14.7% saturated fatty acids and 84.7% unsaturated fatty

acids. Fatty acid composition is as follows (%): palmitic 9.3,

palmitoleic 2.4, stearic 3.5, oleic 78.0, linoleic 0.6, linolenic 1.6,

arachidic 1.8 and behenic 2.6. M. peregrina therefore has potential

as a new source of fat and protein.

(e)

Review

18

The trail of find out M. peregrina seeds in a seed bank was

studied by Prendergast (1994a and b) during four expeditions to

Oman (two for the southern province of Dhofar and two for the

mountain ranges of Jebel Akhdar and Eastern Hajar). Seed samples

were collected of fifteen species (Acacia ehrenbergiana, A. nilotica

subsp. indica, A. tortilis subsp. tortilis, Anogeissus dhofarica,

Blepharispermum hirtum, Ceratonia oreothauma subsp.

oreothauma, Commiphora habessinica, Ficus cordata subsp.

salicifolia, Juniperus excelsa subsp. polycarpos, Lawsonia inermis,

Maerua crassifolia, Moringa peregrina, Prunus arabica, Rhus

somalensis and Sideroxylon mascatense) each of which is briefly

described, (Prendergast, 1994a and b). Moreover, seed germination

was studied by Moustafa et al. (1996). According to them, seeds of

M. peregrina and Salvadora persica showed rapid and high

germination. After ten days at 25º C, all seeds of Moringa were

germinated (Abel Wahab, 1995).

The role of seed as water purifier had been articulated by Jahn

(1981, 1984 & 1986) and Jahn et al. (1986), who described

Moringa as the tree that purifies water; cultivating multipurpose

Moringaceae in the Sudan. This article tabulates the uses and

locations for the most important six Moringa species (M. peregrina,

M. oleifera, M. stenopetala, M. longituba, M. drouhardii and M.

ovalifolia).

Jahn (1986), experimented water treatment with traditional

plant materials from Sudan including seeds of five Moringa species

Review

19

(M. peregrina, M. oleifera, M. stenopetala, M. longituba and M.

drouhardii), two bean species (Vicia faba and Faba fona) and

fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum); bark of the tree Boscia

senegalensis; and dried stalks and fruits of the herb Blepharis

persica. Three clays (or 'rauwaq' = clarifier) from different regions

in the Sudan, and alum, were also tested. The best

coagulants/clarifying agents were M. peregrina seeds and B.

senegalensis bark; these often had efficiency similar to alum.

Madsen et al. (1987) studied an effect of water coagulation by

seeds of Moringa on bacterial concentrations. Morover, Kalogo et

al. (2000) studied the effect of a water extract of Moringa seeds on

the hydrolytic microbial species diversity.

Moringa peregrina seed oil (53.9%) was investigated and

compared with crude soybean oil by Al-Kahtani (1993). Oils were

easily extracted by several solvents but the extraction rate of M.

peregrina oil with hexane was slightly faster than that of soybean

oil. All physico-chemical constants but free fatty acids (%FFA)

were lower in M. peregrina oil. The highest transmittance for calor

measurement was at 575 nm for M. peregrina oil and at 600 nm

forsoybean oil. Totallipids consistedof90.5% and 91.8%

neutrallipids (NL) , 7.9% and 5.5% glycolipids (GL), and 1.6% and

2.7% phospholipids (PL), for M. peregrina and soybean oils,

respectively, and their fatty acid composition was determined. NL

consisted mostly of triacylglycerols in both oill; with absence of

mono-and diacylglycerols in M. peregrina oil. Separation patterns

Review

20

of GL and PL were nearly identical and at least five phospholipids

were identified. Phosphorus levels by nephelometry (turbidimetry)

were 129.7 and 421.8 ppm for M. peregrina and soybean oils,

respectively. Much lower levels of alpha, gamma and delta

tocopherols were present in M. peregrina oil and consequently its

oxida-tive stability was lower during 30-day incubation period at

100ºC.

Anatomical studies are very few, it needs further

investigation. Al-Gohary & Hajar (1996) studied the stems and

leaves of M. peregrina at different levels of soil moisture content

within the range between permanent wilting percentage and

moisture equivalent. The diameter of stem gradually increased with

increase of water supply which generally led to progressive

formation of vascular elements as well as cortical and pith tissues.

Near the permanent wilting percentage, a condition of frequent

occurrence.

In arid region, M. peregrina showed tendencies towards

xerophytic adaptation. The leaves are covered with remarkedly

dense trichomes, relatively increased in the values of stomatal

frequency and index, and a reduction in the proportion of the air

spaces in Mesophyll tissue. Such decrease in coefficients of

mesophytic characteristic of the species gradually disappeared with

the increase of the soil moisture content. From the results of this

study, it was generally concluded that the variation in water supply

led only to quantitative changes of the micro-morphological

Review

21

attributes of the species but no qualitative modifications took place

(Al-Gohary & Hajar 1996).

Moreover, the epidermal cells of M. peregrina are

tangentially and radially elongated. Trichomes are eglandular and

unicellular. Mesophyll is a dorsoventral type. Palisade tissue of 1-2

layers which are discontinuous adaxially at the midrib region. Med-

vein is crescent-shape and surrounded by parechymatous sheath.

Mechanical tissue of collenchyma was recorded abaxial and adaxial

at the midrib region.

It is obvious that various anatomical changes were obtained in

stems and leaves of M. peregrina in response to variation of

available soil moisture content. The diameter of stem increased

gradually as water supply increased. Such factor is usually a feature

concomitant to increase of soil moisture (Al-Gohary & Hajar 1996).

During the course of their study, the number of parechymatous

layers of cortex progressively increased with increase in available

moisture from the lowest level (0-5%) to the highest (95-100%) also

gradually increased of scelerentymatous mass of pericycle, phloem,

xylem elements, as well as the diameter of pith was observed to

accompany the elevation in the soil moisture content. Furthermore,

xylem and phylum were in the form dicttyostele with much reduced

medullary rays in the stem of plants growing under low moisture

level (0-5%) (Al-Gohary and Hajar, 1996).

Review

22

Olson and Carlquist (2001) studied stem and root anatomical

correlations with life form diversity, ecology, and systematics in

Moringa. A study was conducted to examine the variation in stem

and root anatomy associated with habit in thirteen species of

Moringa to test the assumption that habitat differences are

associated with anatomical differences. Moringa species are

classified into four types according to the gross appearance; bottle

trees, sarcorhizal, slender trees, and tuberous shrubs (Olson and

Carlquist 2001). They revealed that the slender trees (such as M.

peregrina) have slender trunks at maturity and tough, fibrous roots

with smoother, spongier and more fragile bark than the stem.

Jahn (1986) studied the germination and cultivation

techniques of Moringa tree. She describes the uses of Moringa as a

multipurpose species. The status of Moringa in its country of origin

is outlined and an account given of its introduction to the Sudan.

Cultivation experiments on the species in Sudanese nurseries were

described in detail and include germination studies, the

development of seedlings to fruit-bearing trees (planting, tending,

flowering, fruiting), and vegetative propagation from cuttings and

air layering. The results of Sudanese experiments on the

propagation of M. peregrina and four wild species (M. oleifera, M.

stenopetala, M. drouhardii and M. longituba) are discussed. An

account is given of insect pests of Moringa in relation to

defoliation, damage to buds and fruit, damage to the trunk and to

cuttings.

Review

23

The seeds of M. peregrina require little or no pretreatment

prior to germination with viability rates for fresh seeds having been

reported to be up to 80% reducing to approximately 50% after 12

months storage. Seeds may be sown directly or in seed beds with

transplanting after two: three months. The best time of year for

sowing is reported to be at the beginning of the wet season. If

planted out during the dry season half-shade should be provided and

watering should be carried out regularly until the tree is established.

Watering every other day has been reported to increase the drought

tolerance of the tree, (Jahn et al., 1986).

M. peregrina is easy to propagate by seeds. Seedlings of M.

peregrina were transferred from Petri-dishes to seed bed containing

the mixture of equal volumes of sand and clay (Abd El-Wahab,

1995). Establishment of M. peregrina particularly showed a low

percent of success specially when the plants out of the nursery. Abd

El-Wahab (1995) confirmed that this problem needs further studies

and experiments.

Olson (2002) combined the data of DNA sequences and

morphology for a phylogeny of Moringaceae. He showed that with

just thirteen species, Moringa is for its size one of the most

phenotypically varied groups of angiosperms. It ranged from huge

"bottle trees" to tiny tuberous shrubs, and spanning the range from

radial to bilateral floral symmetry. Moringa is currently divided into

three sections, but because of the basal grade, it cannot be divided

into useful monophyletic infra-generic taxa. The phylogeny-based

Review

24

informal terms "bottle tree grade", "slender tree clade", and

"tuberous clade" are suggested as alternatives. Relationships within

Moringa species were found to be largely congruent with a previous

study of wood anatomy.

According to Duke (1983); the Moringa leaves contains 7.5

H2O, 6.7gm protein, 1.7gm fat, 1.3gm total carbohydrates, 0.9 gm

fiber, 2.3 gm ash, 440 mg Ca, 70 mg P, 7 mg Fe, 110 μg Cu, 5.1 μg

I, 11.300 IU vitamin A, 120 μg vitamin B. On the other hand, Das

(1965) showed that M. peregrina leaves on ethanolic extraction

yielded a number of amino acids viz., aspartic acid, glutamic acid,

serine, glycine, threonine, (alnnine, valine, lucine, isoleoucine,

histadine, lysine arginine, phenyl-alanine, tryptophan, cysteine and

metheonine. The later nine amino acids present in the flowers and in

the fruits. The flowers contained both Sucrose and D-glucose,

whereas the fruits showed the presence of sucrose only.

The leaves contain 0.8 mg nicotinc acid, 220 mg ascorbic

acid, and 7.4 mg tocopherol per 100 gm (Duke, 1983). Estroginc

substances, including the anti-tumor compound, β-sitosterol, and a

pectinesterase are also reported .and about the leaf amino acid;

according to Duke, (1983), it includes 6.0 gm arginine/16 gm N, 2.1

gm histidine, 4.3 gm lysine, 1.9 gm tryptophane, 6.4 gm

phenylalanine, 2.0 gm methionine, 3.9 gm threonine, 6.5 gm

leucine, 4.4 gm isoleucine, and 7.1 valine (Duke, 1983).

Review

25

Moreover, Duke (1983) studied the chemistry of the pods. It

can be summarized as follow: per 100 gm, the pod is reported to

contain 86.9 gm H2O, 2.5 gm protein, 0.1gm total carbohydrates,

4.8gm fiber, 2.0gm ash, 30 mg ca, 110 mg P, 5.3 mg Fe, 184 IU vit.

A, 0.2 mg niacin, and 120 mg ascorbic acids, 310 μg Cu, 1.8μg I.

And bout the amino acid of the pod; he was reported that it is

include 3.6 gm arginine/16 gm N, 1.1 gm hisidine, 1.5 gm lysine,

0.8 gm tryptophane, 4.3 gm phenylalanine, 1.4 gm methionine, 3.9

gm threonine, 6.5 gm leucine, 4.4 gm isoleucine, and 5.4 gm

valine.

In 1993, Al-Kahtani and Abou-Arab studied the physical,

chemical, and functional properties of M. peregrina and soybean

proteins. According to their study, the young seeds of M. peregrina

are eaten like peas and the mature seeds are fried or roasted like

groundnuts. Flours of M. peregrina and soyabeans were

individually defatted and fractionated into protein concentrate and

protein isolate. M. peregrina flour contained more oil than soyabean

flour but was lower in proteins, carbohydrates and ash.

Furthermore, M. peregrina protein concentrate also contained less

protein and more carbohydrate.

The protein isolate of M. peregrina had higher protein and

lower carbohydrate levels than the protein isolate of soyabeans.

Potassium and sodium were the predominant minerals in both M.

peregrina and soyabean flour. X-ray diffraction patterns (d spacings

and 2theta angle of crystallinity) could easily discriminate M.

peregrina products from soyabean products. M. peregrina flour and

Review

26

concentrate were significantly lower in bulk density than the

soyabean fractions (Al-Kahtani and Abou-Arab, 1993).

M. peregrina proteins were somewhat less soluble than

soyabean proteins, even at higher pH values. Emulsion capacity of

M. peregrina products was generally higher than that of soyabean

products at all pH values, while emulsion stability of soyabean

products was generally higher, particularly at pH 2 and 10.

Maximum increase in foam volume was observed at pH 2. At pH 4-

6, the foam stability of M. peregrina protein isolate was greater, but

the foam stability of its protein concentrate was lower than that of

soyabean proteins. Soyabean protein concentrate absorbed

significantly more water, while M. peregrina products absorbed

more oil (Al-Kahtani and Abou-Arab, 1993).

Al-Kahtani (1995) studied the antinutritional factors in M.

peregrina and soybean products. M. peregrina and soyabean

defatted flours, protein concentrates and isolates were assayed for

trypsin (TA) and alpha-amylase (AA) inhibitor activities, phytic

acid, tannin and chlorogenic acid contents, and in vitro protein

digestibility (IVPD). TA in M. peregrina defatted flour (MDF) was

lower (P<0.05) but more heat resistant than in soyabean. AIA in

MDF was lower than in soyabean and inhibited pancreatic amylase

more than bacterial amylase. Some M. peregrina products were

higher in phytic acid but lower in chlorogenic acid than soyabean.

Tannin was low in all samples. IVPD was slightly lower for M.

peregrina than for soyabean.

Review

27

Tsaknis (1998) studied the oil content of M. peregrina seeds

from Saudi Arabia which was 49.8%. Characteristics of the oil

included: density at 24°C 0.906; refractive index at 40°C 1.460;

smoke point 199°C; acidity (as oleic acid) 0.30%; saponification

value, 185 mg KOH/g oil; iodine value, 69.6 g iodine/100 g oil; and

peroxide value, 0.4 m-equivalent O2/kg oil.

The predominant unsaturated fatty acid was oleic acid

(70.52%) followed by gadoleic acid (1.5%). The predominant

saturated fatty acid was palmitic acid (8.90%) followed by stearic

acid (3.82%). The main sterols were beta-sitosterol (27.28%),

stigmasterol (26.79%), campesterol (25.47%) and Delta-5-

avenasterol (10.18%). Other sterols present included 24-methylene

cholesterol, brassicasterol, campestanol, Delta-7-campestanol,

clerosterol, Delta-5-, -2-4-stigmastadienol, Delta-7-stigmastanol &

Delta-7-avenasterol. The oil contained 145 mg alpha-tocopherol/kg,

58 mg gamma-tocopherol/kg and 66 mg delta-tocopherol/kg.

Induction period (at 120° C) of the oil was 10.2 h; this was reduced

to 8.1 h after degumming (Tsaknis, 1998).

Tsaknis (1998) revealed that the high resistance of M.

peregrina oil to oxidative rancidity is related to its high tocopherol

content. It is concluded that M. peregrina oil might be an

acceptable substitute for highly monounsaturated edible oils such as

olive oil.

Review

28

On the other hand, in 1998, Abu Tarboush investigated the

effects of gamma-irradiation (1.0-10 kGy) on trypsin, chymotrypsin

and alpha-amylase inhibitors of soyabean and M. peregrina seeds

on tannin of Sorghum, gossypol of cotton seed, and in vitro

digestibility of soyabean. A dose of 10.0 kGy caused decreases in

trypsin (by 34.9%) and chymotrypsin (by 71.4%) inhibitor activities

in soyabean defatted flour, whereas its in vitro digestibility

increased from 79.8 to 84.2%. The alpha-amylase inhibitor activity

of M. peregrina was decreased by 43.6 and 47.8% on treatment

with 7.0 and 10.0 kGy, respectively. Doses of 10.0 and 7.0 kGy

significantly reduced the tannin content in Shahlla sorghum but not

in Hemaira sorghum. Total and free gossypol contents were slightly

reduced by irradiation. Furthermore, Al-Othman et al (1998)

studied the effect of seed oils of M. peregrina on the plasma lipid of

Rates.

Al-Hussain and Al-Othman (2003) studied the amino acid

composition of Al-Ban (M. peregrina) seed products; also they

studied the effects of antinutritional factors and toxic elements on

biological evaluation of M. peregrina seed protein. The first study

detected on presence of anti-nutritional factors (e.g. proteinase

inhibitors, tannins and phytic acid) and toxic elements (e.g. lead,

mercury and arsenic) in M. peregrina seeds. It also aimed to

determine protein digestibility and protein efficiency ratio (PER) in

mice fed with these seeds and to evaluate the effect of feeding M.

peregrina seeds on the liver tissues of mice.

Review

29

Al-Hussain and Al-Othman (2003) also found that the protein

percentages in M. peregrina defatted flour (DF), protein concentrate

(PC) and protein isolate (PI) were 59.7, 67.3 and 80.0%,

respectively. The trypsin inhibitor activities of DF, PC and PI were

11.72, 9.74 and 6.85 inhibitor unit/mg protein, respectively. The

phytic acid levels were 1.90, 1.92 and 1.81%, respectively. Soaking

of Al-Ban seeds in water, followed by boiling, effectively reduced

trypsin inhibitor and phytic acid levels. The amounts of arsenic,

mercury and lead found in Al Ban seeds were < 0.30, < 89 and <

0.25 µg/g, respectively.

Five groups of mice received M. peregrina seed protein diets:

(A) heat-treated PI; (B) soaked, boiled (40 minutes) and defatted

seeds; (C) soaked, boiled (60 minutes) and defatted seeds; (D)

soaked, boiled (60 minutes) and defatted seeds 0.4% lysine; and (E)

whole egg (control group). Two mice in group A died during the

experiment. The PER and protein digestibility values obtained from

groups A, B, C, D and E were -0.1, 0.19, 0.57, 1.42 and 2.39, and

65.22, 68.22, 70.36, 72.36 and 80.96%, respectively. Liver sections

of mice in groups A, B, C and D showed the presence of

inflammatory cells, oedema, abscess and cirrhosis (group A). It is

concluded that all these negative effects observed in the studied

mice are due to the presence of toxic elements and antinutritional

factors in M. peregrina seeds (Al-Hussain and Al-Othman, 2003).

Specific studies related to conservation are carried out since

1995, starting with a reproductive ecology, studying of wild

Review

30

endangered trees and shrubs in South Sinai, studied by Abd El-

Wahab (1995). He aimed to help in regeneration and rehablilitation

of the destructive vegetation, soil protection, and reduction of

dangerous effects of floods throughout the area. The vegetation

potentially and the aspects of ecological destruction in Saint

Catherine mountains area was studied by Ramadan (1995). He

devoted a special emphasis to the endangered plant species, whether

as endemic and/or rare populations, (Zaghloul, 2003).

M. peregrina is one of seven species studied by Moustafa et

al., (1996). Their study aimed to investigate the relationships

between the distribution of the species and physical environmental

factors. They indicated that altitude, nature of soil surface and soil

texture, which all act on the amount of available moisture, and

salinity, were the main physical factors controlling the distribution

of woody plant communities.

Zahran and Willis (2009) stated that Moringa peregrina

community contains the following xerophytic associated species:

Acacia raddiana, Aerva javanica, Artemisia judaica, Capparis

cartilaginea, C. decidua, Chrozophora plicata, Cleome droserifolia,

Fagonia mollis, Francoeuria crispa, Hyoscyamus muticus, Launea

spinosa, Lavandula stricta, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Lindenbergia

sinaica, Lycium arabicum, Ochradenus baccatus, Periploca

aphylla, Zilla spinosa, and Zygophyllum coccineum.

Study Area

31

IV. The Study Area

1. Geology and Geomorphology of South Sinai

The southern part of Sinai is generally composed of a broad

belt of dark-colored purplish or reddish sandstones. To the south,

there is a triangular mass of mountains formed of igneous and

metamorphic rocks chiefly granites. This mass of mountains is

intensively rugged and dissected by a complicated system of deep

wadis with different landforms and irregular topography (Moustafa,

1990; and Said, 1990).

In addition, some of wadis in South Sinai reach a considerable

length e.g. Wadi Feiran (one of the studied wadis in this study area)

and some are shorter, narrow, steeper and represent tributaries of

the main wadis (e.g. Wadi Sa'al) (Shabana, 1988). Progressing

inland, the wadis become deeper and the igneous hills become

higher.

In the triangular southern mass of mountains, the igneous

complex has been relieved of its sandstone overburden and so

manifests the characteristics of a true mountain range (Said, 1990).

This range is divided into four clusters of peaks; Serbal Mount in

west (2070 m a.s.l.), Mousa Mount (2285 m a.s.l.), Catherine Mount

(2641 m a.s.l.) as a group in the center and Um Shomer Mount

(2586 m a.s.l.) in south. It represents a series of mountains at

different elevation with four large valleys (Said, 1990; Moustafa,

1990).

Study Area

32

Due to the Massif Mountains in the center, South Sinai has a

wide range of altitudinal variation. The altitudinal gradient

decreases from Saint Catherine area going eastward till Gulf of

Aqaba and westward till Gulf of Suez (Abd El-Wahab, 2003).

The geomorphology of Sinai was summarized as a plateau

tiling upwards the south (Zohary, 1973; Said, 1990). Hammad

(1980) divided Sinai into seven main geomorphologic districts; the

southern elevated mountains part, the central paleaux, the hilly area,

the north and north-most coastal plain, the marshy and sabakhas, the

alluvium coastal plains, and lakes. The geomorphology of the study

area forms a part of highly rugged mountains with acid plutonic and

volcanic rocks. These rocks belong to the Precambrian basement

complex of the southern part of Sinai which is dissected by a

numerous incised wadis that are everywhere showing signs of

down-cutting (Said, 1990). Due to the high altitude of Sinai

Mountains, the southern section receives ample rainfall which has

produced wadis (Zahran and Willis, 2009). For example, W. Fieran

and W. Me'ir are wide and relatively rich in vegetation.

The landscape of the study include many landform types;

slopes, gorges, and wadi-bed. Slopes comprise all land surfaces,

ranging from the horizontal to vertical (Holmes, 1984; Moustafa

and Klopatek, 1995). They originate by a combination of tectonic

and erosion activity, thus uplifting or faulting provides slopes.

Georges originate from joints or faults. Joints are fracture surfaces

along which there has been unpredicted movement, and along

adjacent slabs and masses of bedrock join (Davis, 1984). The term

Study Area

33

wadi designates a dried riverbed in a desert area (Kassas, 1954). A

wadi may be transformed into a temporary watercourse after heavy

rain (Kassas, 1954). Wadi bed is covered with alluvial deposits with

different thickness and structure from location to another. The soil

is usually composed of the same composition as the parent rocks

and varied in texture from fine silt or clay to gravels and boulder

(Kassas, 1952 and 1954; Kassem, 1981).

2. Climate

Generally, Sinai lies in the arid to extremely arid belt of North

Africa and belongs to the Saharan-Mediterranean climate area.

Moreover, Sinai (excluding the mountains) is marked as extremely

arid (P/EP< 0.03), where P is the annual precipitation and EP is the

potential evapotranspiration calculated according to Penman's

formula (Ayyad and Ghabbour, 1986). The mountains in Saint

Catherine area receive higher amounts of precipitation calculated

50mm or more a year as rain and snow.

The climate of study area is extremely arid, with a long hot

and rainless summer and mild winter (Migahid et al., 1959;

Batanouny, 1981; Zohary, 1973; Issar and Gilad, 1982; Danin, 1983

and 1986). The climate of South Sinai is influenced by the

orographic impact of the high mountains and the tropical influence

along the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba (Danin, 1986).

Orographic precipitation predominates in South Sinai and it felts on

the summits, cliffs and gorges of the mountains and is then

transposed to the upstream tributaries of the wadi system (Kassas

and Girgis, 1970).

Study Area

34

Available meteorological data (rainfall, temperature, relative

humidity, and evaporation) of South Sinai collected from the

Egyptian Meteorological Authority, Water Research Center, and

Saint Catherina Research Center are summarized in tables 2 and 3.

According to UNEP (1992), arid and semi-arid environments

occupy around 37 % of the land on the earth. Sixty-four percent of

the global dry lands and 97 % of hyper arid deserts are concentrated

in Africa and Asia.

2.1. Rainfall

Most of the precipitation in South Sinai occurs during winter

and spring. Considerable precipitation occurs as a result of

convective rains that are very local in extent and irregular in

occurrence. The number of convective rains per season is

unpredictable. Only rare and heavy showers cause floods, which

contribute effective moisture for the vegetation in the wadis. The

maximum amount of rainfall during one day was 76.2 mm in

November 1937 (Dames and Moore, 1982; Abd El-Wahab, 2003).

Precipitation may occur as snow on the high peaks of South

Sinai Mountains. Winter snow lasting two to four weeks has been

observed on the northern slopes of Gebel Catherine. In some years

more than one snowfall may occur, while in others snow may be

absent. Precipitation, which falls as rain in the valleys of South

Sinai, may occur as hail on the high peaks. Water derived from

melting snow or hail is likely to infiltrate the desert soil.

Study Area

35

Table (2): Available meteorological data of St. Catherine and El-Tor stations in Southern Sinai, Egypt, compiled from

different sources (Abd El-Wahab, 2003).

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mean

Saint Catherine (1934 - 1937)

Rainfall (mm) 1.5 1.4 10.0 7.9 6.0 trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.6 22.0 7.0 5.5

Relative Humidity (%) 28.0 30.0 20.0 17.0 23.0 18.0 23.0 22.0 17.0 30.0 40.0 36.0 25.3

Mean Max. Temp. (oC) -11.7 12.3 20.6 23.1 24.6 24.8 24.7 25.8 25.8 21.9 17.2 12.4 18.5

Mean Min. Temp. (oC) -15.0 14.7 -5.3 -4.6 -0.3 3.9 7.9 6.6 5.3 1.9 -0.2 -8.9 0.5

Saint Catherine (1979 - 1992) Rainfall (mm) 5.9 1.9 6.0 0.5 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.7 0.9 2.7 1.6

Relative Humidity (%) 49.8 43.3 39.4 28.6 24.9 27.2 28.8 30.1 28.1 31.9 34.2 42.7 34.1

Mean Max. Temp. (oC) 14.3 15.1 17.7 24.4 28.3 30.8 31.8 28.7 27.7 26.1 20 16.3 23.4

Mean Min. Temp. (oC) 1.4 1.4 4.6 9.0 12.5 16.3 17.5 16.2 13.6 11.5 6.8 4.3 9.6

Evap. (mm/day) 5.7 7.2 9.3 12.6 15.2 17.7 16.2 13.7 11.7 10.4 7.2 6.1 11.1

El-Tor (1919 - 1967) Rainfall (mm) 1.5 1.3 1.2 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 1.7 3.6 0.9

Relative Humidity (%) 57.0 55.0 53.0 56.0 85.0 59.0 60.0 61.0 63.0 58.0 58.0 56.0 60.1

Mean Max. Temp. (oC) 21.1 21.7 24.2 27.9 30.7 33.5 34.6 34.8 32.6 29.6 26.6 22.5 28.3

Mean Min. Temp. (oC) 9.0 9.7 12.6 16.5 20.5 23.3 24.5 23.8 22.8 18.5 14.7 10.8 17.2

Evap. (mm/day) 7.0 7.8 9.2 10.2 11.1 12.5 11.9 11.8 10.4 8.0 7.4 7.0 9.5

El-Tor (1984 - 1988)

Rainfall (mm) 0.0 0.5 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.7 3.8 0.5

Relative Humidity (%) 56.1 54.4 53.4 58.9 59.1 60.7 60.8 64.3 67.9 61.6 57.1 55.2 59.1

Mean Max. Temp. (oC) 21.6 23.9 24.5 27.7 31.4 32.4 33.2 33.4 31.2 28.1 25.0 21.9 27.9

Mean Min. Temp. (oC) 10.2 11.0 13.9 17.1 20.2 23.1 23.8 24.7 23.3 19.1 14.4 11.5 17.7

Evap. (mm/day) 7.7 9.7 10.7 12.0 12.5 13.4 11.4 11.9 10.1 8.6 8.7 7.4 10.3

Study Area

36

Table (3): Mean rainfall (mm), relative humidity (%), temperature (ºC), and wind speed (m/s) recorded in Saint Catherine

from 2004 to 2007 (Ali, 2009).

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mean

(2004)

Rainfall (mm) 2.4 9.0 10.6 4.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.3

Relative Humidity (%) 45.0 44.0 39.0 53.0 57.0 67.0 60.0 44.0 38.0 40.0 52.0 51.0 49.2

Mean Temp. (oC) 9.0 10.0 13.8 19.7 19.9 24.0 24.7 24.0 23.6 20.3 13.2 8.7 17.6

Wind speed (m/s) 7.3 14.0 11.2 10.4 9.3 9.6 8.1 7.2 7.6 6.8 8.1 6.3 8.8

(2005)

Rainfall (mm) 1.0 9.0 10.6 4.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.1

Relative Humidity (%) 50.0 62.0 60.0 42.0 32.0 36.0 48.0 58.0 48.0 38.0 34.0 38.0 45.5

Mean Temp. (oC) 10.0 10.7 14.7 18.9 19.4 23.0 24.6 26.1 22.7 16.9 12.5 17.2 18.1

Wind speed (m/s) 9.7 11.1 12.4 9.9 9.5 9.0 7.8 7.8 8.1 0.0 5.5 7.7 8.2

(2006)

Rainfall (mm) 0.0 6.0 1.2 1.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7

Relative Humidity (%) 51.0 56.0 48.0 54.0 39.0 50.0 51.0 54.0 44.0 45.0 50.0 40.0 48.5

Mean Temp. (oC) 7.5 9.2 12.4 16.2 20.4 24.4 22.9 25.4 22.7 18.8 11.2 7.4 16.5

Wind speed (m/s) 7.8 9.1 9.6 10.8 8.1 7.5 8.6 6.5 6.5 9.6 5.5 8.3 8.2

(2007) Rainfall (mm) 2.6 8.0 1.0 5.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5

Relative Humidity (%) 47.0 53.0 50.0 48.0 44.0 51.0 54.0 51.0 43.0 39.0 43.0 44.0 47.3

Mean Temp. (oC) 6.8 9.3 11.7 16.4 22.8 23.8 24.3 24.5 21.6 20.1 13.9 10.4 17.1

Wind speed (m/s) 7.5 13.7 9.2 11.4 9.0 7.6 8.7 7.2 6.4 6.6 5.5 5.5 8.2

Study Area

37

The mean annual rainfall during the period (1934 - 1937) was

5.5 mm at Saint Catherine. It was 0.9 mm at El-Tor (Table 2).

Moreover, during the period (1979 - 1992) in Saint Catherine and

(1984 - 1988) in El-Tor, the mean annual rainfall decreased into 1.6

mm and 0.5 mm respectively (Table 3). On the other hand, the

mean annual rainfall during the period (1971- 2000) was 38.9 mm

at Saint Catherine, 6.42 mm at El-Tor (Figure 3). During the periods

(1970 - 1980), it was 9.95 mm at Dahab (Table 4).

Although rainfall is low in the study area, the topographic

irregularities play a great role in the collection and redistribution of

the runoff water. Low areas as regards the local topography receive

much more resources than the measured rainfall (Ramadan, 1988).

The rainfall curve in the climatic diagrams underlies the

temperature curve throughout the year. In Saint Catherine, the

humid period is decreased in period (2004 - 2005) than the previous

period (1979 - 1992) (Figure 4a and b). In El-Tor, the humid period

almost disappeared in the climatic diagram (1984 - 1988) (Figure,

4c).

Rainfall of South Sinai is characterized by extreme variability

in both time and space. The rainfall data have revealed the

occurrence in the historical past and recently of climatic cycles

manifested by periods of rainy years alternating with droughty ones,

with a general trend toward more aridity (Figure 3).

The spatial variability is prominent in that one locality may

have amount of rainfall that resulted in floods, and at the same time

Study Area

38

there is no rainfall in another locality distance few kilometers.

Rainfall data recorded from two different stations at Saint Catherine

demonstrates this variability. The first station (1550 m a.s.l.)

recorded 72.6 and 119 mm for year 1993 and 1994 respectively,

while the other station (1350 m a.s.l) recorded 47.2, and 48.1 mm

for those years respectively (Abd El-Wahab, 2003). In Saint

Catherine area the temperature ranges is 11 to 13°C and the rainfall

ranges is 70 to 100 mm (Danin, 1978a).

2.2. Temperature

Due to the wide range of altitude, South Sinai is characterized

by a wide range of variation in air temperature. During the period

(1979 - 1992), the lowest monthly mean minimum temperature

ranges from 1.4 to 17.5°C at Saint Catherine and from 9.0 to 24.5°C

at El-Tor. On the other hand, the highest monthly mean maximum

temperature varies from 14.3 to 31.8°C at Saint Catherine, and from

9.0 to 24.5°C at El-Tor (Table 2). Moreover, the mean annual

temperature in Saint Catherine during the period (2004 - 2007)

ranges from 16.5 to 18.1°C (Table 3).

In fact, Saint Catherine is the coolest area in Sinai and Egypt

as a whole due to its high elevation (1500 - 2641 m a.s.l.). The

lowest mean minimum temperature is recorded in January and

February (1- 4°C), while the highest mean maximum temperature in

June and July (30.8 - 31.8°C, respectively) (Abd El-Wahab, 2003).

Study Area

39

Table (4): Annual rainfall at some stations in South Sinai, compiled

from different sources (Abd El-Wahab, 1995 and 2003).

Station

Period

No. of years

Annual rainfall (mm)

St. Catherine 1934-1937 4 60.4

St. Catherine 1971-1997 27 42.6

St. Catherine 1934-1997 31 44.9

El-Tor 1920-1966 42 11.4

El-Tor 1971-1993 18 9.7

El-Tor 1920-1993 60 10.9

Dahab 1970-1980 11 10.0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

1301

97

1

19

72

19

73

19

74

19

75

19

76

19

77

19

78

19

79

19

80

19

81

19

82

19

83

19

84

19

85

19

86

19

87

19

88

19

89

19

90

19

91

19

92

19

93

19

94

19

95

19

96

19

97

19

98

19

99

20

00

Mea

n

Ra

infa

ll (

mm

)

St. Catherine El-Tor

Figure (3): Annual rainfall of Saint Catherine and El-Tor (1971 - 2000)

and the mean value.

Study Area

40

Saint Catherine (1979 - 1992)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

Mean

Tem

pera

ture

( C

)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Mo

nth

ly R

ain

fall

(m

m)

º

Saint Catherine (2004 - 2007)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

Mean

Tem

pera

ture

( C

)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Mo

nth

ly R

ain

fall

(m

m)

º

El-Tor (1984 - 1988)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

Mean

Tem

pera

ture

( C

)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Mo

nth

ly R

ain

fall

(m

m)

Monthly Mean Temperature (oC) Monthly Rainfall (mm)

º

(ºC)

Figure (4): Climatic diagrams of Saint Catherine and El-Tor stations in

Southern Sinai, (a) St. Catherine (1979 - 1992), (b) St.

Catherine (2004 - 2007), and (c) El-Tor (1984 - 1988).

(a)

(b)

(c)

Study Area

41

On the other hand, the low elevation wadis are warmer. The lowest

mean minimum temperature recorded at El-Tor was 9.0°C in the

period 1919-1967 (in January). On contrast, the highest mean

maximum temperature in El-Tor in the period 1919-1967 (in

August) was 34.8°C. Moreover, the coastal strip along the Gulf of

Aqaba is much warmer than that along of Gulf of Suez (Abd El-

Wahab, 2003).

2.3. Relative humidity and evaporation

The relative humidity in Saint Catherine area ranges between

24.9 % in May and 49.8 % in January, while in El-Tor is 53 % in

March and 85 % in May. The evaporation is greater during summer

than winter, with maximum of 17.7 mm in Saint Catherine and 13.5

mm in El-Tor in June, and minimum of 5.7 mm in January in Saint

Catherine and 7.4 mm in December and 7.7 mm in January in El-

Tor (Table 2).

2.4. Wind speed

The wind is another factor affect the existence of plants as it

plays an important role in seed dispersal or as it destroys or uproots

the plant individuals. The mean values of wind speed in Saint

Catherine ranges from 8.2 to 8.8 m/s. The winds reach the

maximum speed in February. It was 14 m/s in the year of 2004 and

13.7 m/s in 2007 (Table 3).

Study Area

42

3. Hydrological aspects

In Sinai, there are three indigenous water sources; rainfall,

surface and ground water (Anonymous, 1985; Zahran and Willis,

2009). Therefore, the water resources in South Sinai are the

function of rainfall, springs, and ground water supplies. In Sinai, the

amount of ground water decreases southward (25mm/year)

(Hammad, 1980). The ground water bearing formations in South

Sinai include: a) the basement complex, b) the Nubian sandstone

exposed on the surface overlying the basement rock, c) the

limestone of Mesozoic and Tertiary, d) the Miocene formation, and

e) the alluvial deposits (Quaternary) that occupy the alluvial plains,

which are parallel to the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba

(Hammad, 1980).

The southern part of Sinai is occupied by basement complex

which is composed of highly fissured igneous and metamorphic

rocks. As these rocks are highly elevated, their water forms a

considerable pressure feeding the northern water bearing formations

(Hammad, 1980; El-Rayes, 1992).

The hydrologic system of the basement rocks of South Sinai

has three hydrologic systems: a) the main aquifer units have high

joint density and good hydraulic prosperities; b) the leaky aquitard

unit has low joint density and is underlying the main aquifer unit. It

acts as a basal semi-barrier restricting the fast vertical of the stored

water in the upper main aquifer unit, and c) the local aquifers

represent by the fault zones, alluvial deposits and by the jointed

areas adjacent to basic dykes (El-Rayes, 1992). The ground water in

Study Area

43

the basement rocks of South Sinai is mainly controlled by the

amount of rainfall and evaporation rate, the prevailing topographic

parameters and the geologic structures (El-Rayes, 1998).

Most water sources in the study area appear on the fissured

rocks due to the free passage of ground water through the

interconnected open fissures in the granitic rocks giving rise to

many small springs (El-Rayes, 1992; Ghodeif, 1995). The water

courses issuing from the mountains excavate deep ravines with

steep gradients. Their floor consists of bare rock, and their path is

frequently obstructed by falls or cataracts. The beds seem to have

originated in lakes, which were formed as a result of the damming

of these watercourses by resistant porphyry dykes. The dikes acted

as barriers to the ground water flow and helped from the ground

water body of the famous oasis of Feiran. Generally, the mountains

dissected by faults and joints play an important role in the

movement of ground water (Kassem, 1981).

4. Vegetation

Floristically, Sinai may be distinguished into five

phytogeographical territories mainly determined by climate,

geomorphological formation and nature of soil surface (Danin,

1978a; and Moustafa & Klopatek, 1995). Three of these

phytogeographical territories are Saharo-Arabian complex ones,

where Saharo-Arabian species dominate the list of species in all of

them (Danin and Plitman, 1987). The first one is that of the

Mediterranean in the northern strip of Sinai Peninsula where the

Mediterranean species represent the 2nd

highest frequency.

Study Area

44

The second includes the Irano-Turanian chorotype and found

in limestone and chalk anticlines of north Sinai and Gebel El-Igma.

On the other hand, the third is the Irano-Turanian region and

mainly represented at the cool and relatively wet high altitudinal

upper Sinai massif including Saint Catherine area.

The fourth is the Sudanian chorotype and confined along the

warm Gulf of Aqaba and Snafir islands (Danin, 1986; Shabana,

1988). Prominent Sudanian species such as Acacia tortilis subsp.

raddiana occurs in the magmatic massif of southern Sinai even at

high elevations.

The fifth region (rest of Sinai) belongs to the Saharo-Sinidian

(Shabana, 1988). The Saharo-Sinidian flora has been derived from

the Mediterranean, the Sudanian, and to lesser extent from the

Irano-Turanian stock (Eig, 1931 and 1932; Zohary, 1962, and Davis

& Hedge, 1971).

Zahran and Willis (2009) stated that vegetation of Sinai, being

a bridge between Africa and Asia, reflects the influence of three

phytogeographical regions; Saharan type, Irano-Turanian, and

Mediterranean. The estimated number of species in different

habitats of Sinai ranges between 942 (Zohary, 1935), 1247

(Täckholm, 1974), 687 (Abdullah et al., 1984), 886 (Danin, 1972;

Danin et al., 1985), 984 (El-Hadidi et al., 1991), and 1262 (Bouos,

1995). Notaby, the high mountains in the Southern subregion and

praticulary the central subregion support a richer flora than the

northern subregion, particulary the rock types.

Study Area

45

In general, South Sinai has exceptionally rich flora (Danin,

1986). The edaphic factors that are assumed to be related to the

floristic richness of these districts seem to be more important than

the climatic ones (Danin, 1978b; Abd El-Wahab, 2003).

The southern part of Sinai Peninsula is characterized by

triangular mass of mountains, 7500 m2 in surface area; these

mountains are highly rich in their flora. The flora of Southern Sinai

comprises nearly 900 species in 250-300 associations (Danin, 1983

and 1986). The vegetation of South Sinai is characterized by

dominance of four families; Compositae (Asteraceae), Labiatae

(Lamiaceae or Minit family), Leguminosae (Fabaceae), and

Cruciferae (Brassicaceae). The vegetation is also characterized by

sparseness of plant cover of semi-shrubs, restricted to wadis or

growing on slopes of rocky hills and in sand fields and paucity of

trees (Danin, 1986).

South Sinai Mountains represent a great harbor of endemism

(Moustafa, 1990) where the area has wetter climate than most of

Sinai and characterized by having large outcrops of smooth-faced

rocks which support rare species (Danin, 1972, 1978a, 1983 and

1986). Moreover, Hassib (1951) recognized that the total number of

species in the flora of Sinai was 532, as follows: 38

nanophanerophytes, one stem succulent, 95 chamaephytes, 142

hemicryptophytes, 27 geophytes, 10 hydrophytes and halophytes,

216 therophytes and 3 parasites (Zaghloul, 1997; Zahran and Willis,

2009)..

Study Area

46

El-Hadidi (1969) stated that in Sinai, there are about 36

endemic species, most of which are confined to the mountain region

and belong to Irano-Turanian element. Only a few endemics belong

to the Sahro-Scindian element. On the other hand, more than 65 %

of the endemic species in Egypt (41) occur in Sinai; 25 species in

Sinai only and 16 species in Sinai and other region of Egypt. Most

of endemic species in Sinai (> 70 %) are recorded in the southern

mountains (Boulos, 2002; Zahran and Willis, 2009).

Boulos (1995, 1999, 2000, 2002, and 2005) states that the

total number of endemic species in the tree subregions of Sinai is 41

species. Most of these endemics (about 65 %) are present in the

Southern montane country; the other two subregions contain 35 %

of the endemics of Sinai; 32 % in the central subregion and 3 % in

the northern subregion. more than 65 % of the endemic species in

Egypt occur in Sinai. Most of endemic species in Sinai (> 70 %) are

recorded in the southern mountains (Zahran and Willis, 2009).

Thus, South Sinai is characterized by arid climatic variation,

sparseness of vegetation, and paucity of tree. Meanwhile, this sparse

vegetation is subjected to depletion by overgrazing, over-cutting

and uprooting for fuel and medicinal uses. These severe impacts

lead to great environmental deterioration including disappearance of

pastoral plant communities, dominance of un-grazed (unpalatable)

communities, lack of vegetation cover and soil erosion, (Abd El-

Wahab 1995). Therefore, more studies should be focus on the

regeneration of destructed vegetation; soil protection and how to

Study Area

47

overcome the risks affect the establishment of its vegetation in

future.

5. Locations

The study area is located between 33o 30' to 34

o 26' E, and 28

o

23' to 28o 47' N (Figure 5). During these geographical boundaries, it

is described as predominantly smooth-faced granite outcrops

forming mountains such as Gebel Serbal, Gabel Catherine and

Gabel Mousa. These mountains may affect the distribution of M.

peregrina in South Sinai (Zahran and Willis, 2009).

The present study is carried out in four main localities of

South Sinai; (1) Wadi Agala, (2) Wadi Feiran, (3) Wadi Zaghra and

(4) Wadi Me'ir (Table 5). During the course of this study (2003-

2008), M. peregrina tree was recorded in forty-one sites (Figure 6).

Each site was separated than another one by a distance (about 5-10

m) or according to change of landform type (George, slope, etc).

The maximum elevation above sea level at which M. peregrina tree

is recorded was 800 m. a.s.l in W. Feiran.

Table (5): Four wadis of the study area in which M. peregrina trees

were recorded.

No.

Wadis of

Study Area

Max. Elevation

m. a.s.l.

Sites

No. of

trees

No.

From

To

1

W. Agala

764

4

1

4

40

2 W. Feiran 800 5 5 9 47

3 W. Zaghra 642 6 9 15 82

4 W. Me'ir 728 26 16 41 235

Study Area

48

d

Figure (5): The location map of the four wadis of study area of South

Sinai.

W. Zaghra

Dahab

El-Tor

W. Feiran

St. Catherine

Sharm El-Sheikh

Suez

Nakhel

Nuweiba

W.

Agala

W. Me'ir

Taba

Study Area

49

10 20 30 40 Km

33º30' E

33º30' E

N

W. Zaghra

W. Me'ir

W. Feiran

Dahab

W. Agala

1 2 3

4

5 6

7 8 9

11 10

12 13 14 15

El-Tor

16 17

18 19 20 21

22 23 24

25 27 26 28

29 30 31 32

34 33

39 40 41

35 36 38

28º40' N

28º15' N 28º15'

Mediterranean Sea

EGYPT

Eastern Desert

25ºN

30ºN

26ºE

36ºE

31ºE

Sinai

Red Sea

34º30' E

Figure (6): The sites map

of Moringa peregrina

populations at the four

studied wadis in South

Sinai.

34º30' E

2285 m G. Mousa 2641 m

G. Katherine

2070 m G. Serbal

Study Area

50

I. Wadi Agala

Wadi Agala runs parallel to W. Aliyat and drains into W.

Feiran. Wadi bed here is narrow (about 40 m width, and 4 Km

long), however the water channel is only 10 m width. Its surface

consists of rocky substrate near the edges and gravel in the main

water channel (Abdel-Hamid, 2009). M. peregrina in this wadi

grows on foot-hills and at the both sides of water stream, and it is

highly affected with over-collection and over-grazing (Figure 7).

II. Wadi Feiran

Wadi Feiran represents one of the longest broadest wadi in

South Sinai. It is bounded by igneous and metamorphic mountains

with different varieties of dykes. M. peregrina grow in-between the

rock cervies at high elvation. It has three main tributaries (W. El-

Sheikh, W. Solaf and W. EL-Akhdar) at cultivated Feiran Oasis

tending west till it pours into the Gulf of Suez (Kassem, 1981).

The surface of Feiran basin (1675 km2) is occupied by high

mountains and a widely distributed drainage system. The high

mountains and hills form great catchment areas receiving high

quantities of precipitation in the form of rainfall, and on the highest

peaks, some storms of snow (Kassem, 1981). The igneous and

metamorphic mountains are formed in the Precambrian era. Both

types are invaded by a wide range of varieties of dykes with various

trends and ages. The sedimentary rocks belong to the Paleozoic-

Cenozoic eras (Said, 1962). These sediments include Nubian

sandstones, lacustrine deposits, some limestone and Gypsum

(Figure 8).

Study Area

51

Figure (7): M. peregrina tree and nature of soil surface in Wadi

Agala, South Sinai.

Figure (8): Population of M. peregrina tree and nature of soil surface

in W. Feiran, South Sinai.

Study Area

52

W. Feiran rises from the high mountains surrounding the

monastery of Saint Cathriene at 2500 m above sea. It descends

steeply to the north, then turns to the west until it terminates in the

suez gulf about 165 km south of El-Shatt (Zahran and Willis, 2009).

The downstream part of W. Feiran extends for about 20 km,

covered by sediments of rock, boulders and fragments in a sandy-

clay matrix, Hammada elegans dominates in this habitat, growing

in distantly spaced patches forming huge hummocks. In addition

trees of Acacia raddiana are widly spaced on gullies and rocky

slopes. Common associates include Anthemis psaudocotula,

Artimisea judaica, Cleome arabica, Diplotaxis acris, Fagonia

arabica, Farsetia aegyptia, lygos raetam, Mentha longifolia spp.

typhoides, Pituranthos tortuosus, Zilla spinosa, and Zygophyllum

simplex, Moricandia sinica is rare in this xeric habitat. About 22 km

east of the wadi mouth, fine sandy-clay soil constituents increase.

Here, Aerva javanica v. bovei, appears in addition to the above-

mention common associates.

Feiran oasis is about 43 km east of the mouth of W. feiran and

appeared as a deep, fertile extension of the wadi surrounded by high

red mountains crowded with trees (Acacia radiana, phoenix

dactylifera, Tamarix aphylla). The oasis extends over a distance of

10 km. Abundant ground water and deep sandy-clay deposits (wadi

terraces), as well as the natural protection of the locality against

wind, favour the utilization of the oasis as a productive area, e.g. to

cultivate fruit trees (Zahran and Willis, 2009).

Study Area

53

In W. Feiran, along the main wadi from Oasis to the Gulf,

there are tributaries including Wadi Nesrin, Wadi Tarr and Wadi

Mekatab. The nature of the main wadi and their tributaries are

rocky, broad with a range of width between 200 and 400m (Abd El-

Wahab, 1995).

The annual rainfall in Wadi Feiran is around 50mm till the

end of 1970. From 1980 till now, it has been subjected to hard

aridity and the annual rainfall decreased. The cumulative rainfall in

the top of mountain that comes from the drainage of Feiran

tributaries causes the most famous floods in Sinai, (Abd El-Wahab,

1995). The floods of Wadi Feiran usually come and carry down

stones, cobbles and gravel causing strong damages and carry and

may change a dry valley into a mighty river for sometime. Wadi

Feiran is the hottest wadis in Southern Sinai especially in the period

between June and August (Table 6). Ramadan (1988) recorded that

the minimum temperature in Feiran Oasis keeps above zero in

winter (7 oC and the maximum is 42

oC in June).

Table (6): Minimum and Maximum temperature of Feiran Oasis

(Altitude 660m) (Ramadan, 1988, Abd El-Wahab,

1995).

Month

Max. Temp.

Min Temp. (oC)

Sep – Oct 1983 39 20

Oct – Nov 36 13

Nov – Dec 28 9

Dec – Feb 1984 28 7

Feb – June 42 23.5

June – July 38 25

Study Area

54

III. Wadi Zaghra

This wadi is located as north-east of Saint Catherine at 28°39'

45"N and 34°19'44"E, as revealed in location map. It is about (100

m) width and (65 km) long. Its surface consists of stones and rocky

substrates. The mountains of this wadi are dark color. M. peregrina

trees grow on the foot-hills of mountains. Wadi Zaghra is rich in

Capparis spp. and Citrullus colocynthesis in association with Moringa

trees.

Total plant cover ranges between 1-5% in the main wadi-bed

while at foothills it reaches 5-10% where Acacia sp. and M.

peregrina are found. Recorded species in Wadi Zaghra include 9

threaten species, only one of them is endemic; Origanum syriacum.

These threatened species include Solenostemma arghel, Capparis

spinosa, Cleome droserifolia, Moringa peregrina (Figure 9),

Pulicaria arabica, Zygophyllum coccineum, Artemisia judaica,

Senna italica, Cucumis prophetarum, Citrullus colocynthis, and

Hyoscyamus muticus (Moustafa, 1999).

In Wadi Zaghra, although there is low density of Bedouin

families, the plants are subjected to a number of threats, for instance

over-collection for medicinal uses. The medicinal and economic

plants such as Solenostemma arghel and Cleome droserifolia are

suffer from over-collection for trade and exported abroad. Signs of

over-collection of Moringa and Acacia for fuel wood and

construction were noticed during the visits of households. The other

species are also subjected to high over-collection such as Haloxylon

Study Area

55

salicornicum, Artemisia judaica, and Ochradenus baccatus.

Overgrazing were recognized in many species specially Crotalaria

aegyptiaca, Ochradenus baccatus, and Panicum turgidum

(Moustafa, 1999).

IV. Wadi Me'ir

Wadi bed of W. Me'ir is about (140 m width, and 30 Km

long), it is located as north-east of El-Tor. Wadi Me'ir is rich in

Moringa trees, grow on foot-hills and at the edges of water stream in

wadi bed (Figure 10). It has a large wadibed surrounded with series

of mountains. Its surface also consists of stones and rocky

substrates.

Generally, in W. Me'ir, the total plant cover ranges between 1-

5% all-over the wadi and 20-30% at some tributaries at the middle

of the wadi. This area is characterised by 50 plant species including

one endemic and 26 medicinal species. The 11 threatened species

range between endangered and rare species. The associated plants

species recorded with M. peregrina in W. Me’ir include

Hyoscyamus muticus, Cleome droserifolia, Capparis sinaica,

Capparis spinosa, Acacia tortilis, Acacia negavensis, Ochradenus

baccatus, Fagonia mollis, Retama raetam, Artemisia judaica,

Pulicaria arabica, Citrullus colocynthis and Cucumis prophetarum

(Moustafa, 1999).

Study Area

56

Figure (10): Population of M. peregrina trees at W. Me'ir, South

Sinai.

.

Figure (9): Population of M. peregrina trees at W. Zaghra, South

Sinai.

Study Area

57

6. History of land-use and human activity

The oldest rocks in Egypt are Archaean, covering at present

about 10% (about 93 000 km2) of the area of Egypt. They constitute

the most rugged section of the country, including the highest peaks

in the Red Sea Mountains, and mountains of South Sinai (Zahran

and Willis, 2009).

The history of land-use in Sinai could be differentiated into

distinctive periods (Zohary, 1973 & Danin, 1983). From lower

Paleolithic period, at least 300,000 years ago, until the Neolithic

period, communities of hunters and gatherers lived in Sinai

(Zaghloul, 1997).

The Epipaleolithic and Neolithic periods (15th

to 4th

millennia

B.C.E.) witnessed a major change in human culture and land use in

the Middle East area. Agriculture was developed in the region as

documented by the remains of domesticated cereals and legumes.

Agriculture developed rather with the establishment of large

permanent forming communities and domestication of many fruit

trees during the Chalcolithic period (4000 - 3100 B.C.E.) and

through the Bronze period (3100 - 2200 B.C.E.).

In the Chacolithic, the nomads exerted considerable pressure

on the vegetation through grazing and by cutting woody plants for

fuel, while in the Iron age and up to the end of the Byzantine

periods (1200 B.C.E.- 640 C.E.) sophisticated techniques for the

diversion and control of run-off water from winter rains was used to

cultivate the valleys.

Study Area

58

By beginning of the 20th

century, a simple permanent

agriculture among the Bedouins was developed with a destructive

impact on the natural vegetation. The Bedouins burned (and still

burning) lignified plants for heating and as cocking fuel, a practice

that led to the decline of woody plants in the vicinity of their

encampments. Also, the Bedouins had large herds of goats that

grazed the diffuse vegetation in the high mountains and in Feiran

Oasis.

Nowadays, the Bedouins in Southern Sinai largely practice

dry farming on loess soils. Shallow plowing disturbs only the

surface crust, thereby increasing the roughness of the soil surface,

and reducing run-off by building terraces. Wells water falls, and

pools are common throughout the area to provide water for

agriculture.

The war of 1973 and the peace agreement of 1979 were

landmark points that changed the way of life in Sinai. Before 1973,

the human settlements were few and their life was mainly of a rural

characters. The main activity of Bedouins was, and still is, to take

care of grazing animals (camel, sheep, goats and donkey), as shown

in photo (16, 17, 18, 19), on all wadis of study area. They also

gather plants for firewood (Ramadan, 1988; & Abd El-Wahab,

1995).

After the year 1973, many attempts of modern urbanization

were made. Also projects for land reclamation and settlement of

Study Area

59

Bedouins have been started in different parts of Sinai to establish

more people in places of available fresh water resources. Opening

of schools, construction of roads, and availing public traffic,

resulted in a close contact between Sinai and the rest of Egypt and

made many sites and localities in Sinai more easily accessible. This

urbanization movement has mixed edges; the bad one is the

destruction of natural ecosystems.

Utilization of the relatively sparse vegetation of the desert in

Sinai is one of the more impressive aspects of Bedouins adaptation

to environmental conditions there. Bailey and Danin (1981)

encountered no plant that was not useful to the Bedouins in one way

or another. Some plants provide them with medicine for the illness

of man and beast. Others are utilized in a variety of manufactures.

Some of these are essential to their daily existence. Pasture for goats

and camels are the most extensive use of plants.

The prominence of desert plants in Bedouin life is reflected in

various less tangible aspects of Bedouin culture. It also led the

Bedouins to identify many places in the desert according to some

botanical landmarks, whether it is abundance of a certain plant

species or even their unique but prominent presence. The distinctive

qualities of some plants have become proverbial (Bailey and Danin,

1981).

In the study area, the Bedouins have many wells to irrigate

their fruit trees and vegetables. They have established many gardens

Study Area

60

(especially the few years ago) of fig trees (Ficus carica), in W.

Fieran, peach (Prunus persica), pear (Pyrus conumunis), apple

(Pyrus malus), almond (Amygdalus conumunis), olive (Olea

europaea), orange (Citrus aurantium), mandarin (Citrus mobilis),

lemon (Citrus limon), plum (Prumus domestica), guava (Pesidium

guajava), pomegranate (Punica granatum), apricot (Prunus

armeniaca), and dates (Phoenix dactylifera), as well as grapevine

(Vitis vinifera), (Ramadan, 1988 & Moustafa, 1990).

Human resources in South Sinai are diversified with Bedouin

pastoralists especially in this stripe. Urban dwellers are related

mainly to part cities touristic villages and oil fields in coastal areas.

The supporting jobs come from transportation means and few

protected areas (Kassas et al., 2002).

Materials & Methods

61

V. Materials and Methods

I. Field Survey

During this study, M. peregrina trees were recorded in four

wadis; W. Agala, W. Fieran, W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir. Forty-one

sites were selected; four sites at W. Agala, five sites at W. Fieran,

six sites at W. Zaghra and twenty-six sites at W. Me'ir. Totally four-

hundred and four M. peregrina trees were surveyed at these four

wadis; forty at W. Agala, forty-seven at W. Fieran, eighty-two at W.

Zaghra and two-hundred and thirty-five at W. Me'ir for measuring

vegetative parameters and collecting seeds.

Moreover, associated plant species were recorded in each site.

The identification of associated plant species with M. peregrina

trees in the studied four wadis was carried out according to Boulos

(1995, 1999, 2000, and 2002).

In each site, the geographical position (GPS reading);

elevation in meters above sea level, slope degree, and exposure

degree were measured. Exposure is north-facing or south-facing; (1)

North (315º - 45º), (2) East (45º - 135º), (3) West (225º - 315º) and

(4) South (135º - 225º). A south-facing slope in north temperate

latitudes always experience greater total insolation than the north-

facing slope of the same region, and so south-facing slopes have

warmer air and soil (Barbour, et al., 1987).

Materials & Methods

62

The slope degree was determined as shown in Table (7). On

the other hand, elevation categorized according to Zaghloul (1997)

as low altitude (<1500m-1700m a.s.l), medium altitude (<1700m-

1900m a.s.l), high altitude (<1900m-2100m a.s.l) and very high

altitude (<2100m a.s.l.).

Landform type was determined according to Moustafa &

Klopatek (1995) as; gorge, slope, wadi and outcrop of smooth-faced

rock, or terrace (Zaghloul, 1997).

Nature of soil surface (N.S.S.) was described as shown in

Table (8), and using the following scale; fine fraction (>2 mm

equivalent diameter), gravel (2 - 75 mm), cobbles (75 - 250 mm),

stones (250 - 600), and boulders (<600mm) (Hausenbiuller, 1985).

During monthly field visits, the grazing intensity was assessed

(subjectively) as degree of browsing and the number of observed

camels. It can be explained as follows: severe with presence of

camels at the time of assessment, providing the the highest stocking

rate (scale is 4), severe without presence of camels at the time of

assessment and with high feces content (scale is 3), moderate (scale

is 2), low (scale is 1) and no browsing (0) (Abd El-Wahab, 2003).

Human interferences (e.g. cutting, damage, firing, etc.) were

recorded as presence/absence signs. The status of cutting in M.

peregrina trees was evaluated using the following scale: high

degree of cutting (3), middle (2), low impact (1), and no cutting (0).

Materials & Methods

63

Table (7): The slope degree and scale (Zaghloul, 1997).

Slope degree

Type gentle medium steep very steep precipitous wall

Degree (0o- 5

o) (<5

o- 20

o) (<20

o- 45

o) (<45

o- 70

o) (<70

o)

Scale 1 2 3 4 5

Table (8): The percentage of soil constituents in soil surface

(Zaghloul, 1997):

%

Nature of soil surface (N.S.S.)

Fine

fraction Gravel Cobbles Stones Boulders Bare rock

Low 0 - 5 % 0 - 15 % 0 - 10 % 0 - 15 % 0 - 15 % 0 - 50 %

Medium >5 - 15 % >15 - 30 % >10 - 30 % >15 - 50 % >15 - 60 % >50 - 80 %

High > 15 % >30 - 70 % > 30 % > 50 % > 60 % > 80 %

Very high > 70 %

Materials & Methods

64

II. Estimation of Age structure

a. Cutting cross sections

For dendrochronological studies, ninety-three of cross-cuts in

M. peregrina trees representing the four wadis populations were

carried out during the field survey. Due to the importance of

individual trees in this arid region of South Sinai, samples were

taken from dead trunk or dead tree branches. In the laboratory,

cross-cuts were further cut into thin sections and surfaced with

sandpaper from both sides for better resolution. The final polishing

ensured that fine scratches could not be confused with marginal

parenchyma (Figure 11). The age of each sample was obtained

directly by counting the annual rings.

b. Age-radius relationship and age dating

The data were treated as a linear regression relationship

between the tree radius (excluding the bark thickness) and the

number of counted growth rings in the sampled ninety-three cross-

cut sections. The linear regression relationship between the tree

radius and bark thickness in ninety-three cross-cut sections was also

determined. The radius (r) was assessed as a mean of eight

measurements of sample diameter.

Anderson-Darling test was used to test significant departures

from normality in measured parameters; number of rings, radius,

and bark thickness. Simple Linear Regression Analysis was applied

to calculate the equation and figure out the relationship between the

radius of cross-cut sections and the number of annual rings using

Minitab 14 computer software (Zaghloul et al., 2008).

Materials & Methods

65

Figure (11): Photos of annual rings counting to estimate the age of

M. peregrina trees growing in South Sinai.

Materials & Methods

66

The regression was forced to pass through the origin as a logic

biological fact. The ages of the studied 404 trees were then

estimated based on their wood radii, using the resultant age-radius

relationship. There are, however, some serious limitations

associated with this approach (Zaghloul et al., 2008).

Because of the considerable uncertainties involved in

determining the age of individual trees, an unavoidable error is built

into the age-radius model. Therefore, the skewness from the

normality of the resultant age distribution was assessed by

Anderson-Darling normality test to figure out the magnitude of this

error. Variation in estimated trees ages between the sampled four

wadis was evaluated using one way ANOVA.

c. Age structure and static life table

The estimated trees ages were used to determine the age

distribution and construct a static life table (Barbour et al., 1987).

The age distribution of the studied populations was used as a

predictive tool to determine if M. peregrina populations in South

Sinai are healthy or not. The age structure of populations consisting

of multiple cohorts was used to estimate the survival patterns of the

various age groups in a static life table (Sharitz and McCormick,

1973).

Once the age classes at the time of census are represented by

x, some parameters are required to construct the static life table of

M. peregrina populations (Table 9).

Materials & Methods

67

Table (9): Parameters of a static life table used in estimation of

survival and mortality rate of M. peregrina tree.

Symbol Description

x

Age interval (class) entered by the time of census.

Nx Number of individuals trees living in age class x.

ax Number of survivors at beginning of age interval x. (number of

survivors to age x, it plots a survivorship curve).

lx Proportion of original cohort surviving to age x

Lx Average proportion alive at the age x.

Tx Total number of living individuals at age class x and beyond.

ex Probability of living ' x ' number of years beyond a given age x.

dx Number of individuals that die during age class x.

qx Proportion of individuals that die during age x and find out

which ages have the highest risk of death.

The various statistics can be derived from lx values,

(Silvertown, 19982; Bengon and Mortimer, 1986; Bengon et al.,

1996; Molles & Manuel, 2002) as:

Survivorship lx = ax/a0 (1)

Lx = (2)

Tx = ∑ Lx – x-1 (e.g. T6 = L6 + L7 + L8 + ....+ Lmax) (3)

Number of individuals that die during intervals

dx = lx – lx+1 (4)

ex = (5)

Age specific mortality rate qx = dx/ax (6)

Tx

lx

lx + lx+1

2

Materials & Methods

68

On the other hand, two important assumptions are necessary

for the static tables: 1) the population has a stable age structure –

that is, the proportion of individuals in each age class does not

change from generation to generation, and 2) the population size is,

or nearly, stationary. Age specific mortality rate (qx = chance of

death) was calculated as the percentage of the population dying

during a particular age class (Zaghloul et al., 2008).

d. Survivorship Curve

A survivorship curve summarizes the patterns of survival in

population. Survivorship curve of M. peregrina trees was produced

by plotting the lx at each age interval against time. Based on studies

of survival by a wide variety of organisms, survivorship curve fall

into three major categories (Molles and Manuel, 2002):

1. Type I survivors ship curve: a relatively high rate of

survival among young, middle-aged individuals, followed by a high

rate of mortality among the aged. In this type, juvenile survival is

high and most mortality occurs among older individuals.

2. Type II survivorship curve: constant rates of survival

throughout life produce the straight-line patter of survival.

Individuals in this type die at equal rates, regardless of ages.

3. Type III survivorship curve: is one in which a period of

extremely high rates of mortality among the young is followed by a

relatively high rate of survival.

Materials & Methods

69

III. Determination of population size

a. Field measurements

To study the tree size distribution and its relation with age

structure of M. peregrina, certain vegetative parameters were

measured for each tree. The tree height (in meter) was measured

using graduated long bar and meter. Crown cover area calculated

from the average of two dimensions of crown diameter. As well as

the trunk circumference (cm) at ground level (CAG) was measured

using meter. The tree diameter was calculated based on

circumference measurements as made by Franklin et al. (1988). In

addition, a sketch map was drawn for each site to help in

monitoring of M. peregrina trees in the studied wadis.

Variation in size values (height, crown cover, and trunk

circumference) between the sampled four wadis (W. Agala W.

Feiran, W. Zaghra, and W. Me'ir) was evaluated using one way

ANOVA. Tukey’s pairwise comparisons were done to discriminate

between different wadis.

b. Height, annual increment and circumference/height ratio

The annual increment was estimated by dividing the radius of

the sample by its estimated age, (Zaghloul et al., 2008). The

circumference/height ratio was simply estimated by dividing the

circumference (cm) by the height (cm).

The correlation between the tree height, the area of crown

cover, and circumference/height ratio with the age of the tree was

evaluated used Pearson linear correlation. Simple Linear Regression

Materials & Methods

70

equation that describes the relationship between the age and size

(height, crown cover) was developed. This regression also was

forced to go through the origin as a logic biological fact.

IV. Soil characteristic

Twenty soil samples (15-25 cm depth and 2-3kg each) were

collected represent the forty-one sites in the studied four wadis for

some physical and chemical analyses (Figure 12.a & b). Three soil

samples were collected from W. Agala, three from W. Fieran, five

from W. Zaghra and nine soil samples from W. Me'ir. In laboratory,

soil samples were dried in air as recommended by Hausenbiuller

(1985), and then passed manually through 2 mm diameter sieve to

remove the gravel.

1. Physical charcteristics

1.1. Soil texture (Particle size distribution)

Soil texture was evaluated by sieving method (Richards,

1954). In this method, the fine soil fractions were determined using

the following sieve meshes: gravel (<2mm), coarse sand (0.59),

medium sand (0.25), fine sand (0.063mm) and silt+clay

(>0.063mm).

1.2. Total moisture content

Soil samples were collected for gravimetric determination of

soil moisture. A Soil sample is weighed in an aluminum container,

placed in an oven and dried to constant weight at 105ºC, then the

sample is reweighed and the content of moisture is expressed as a

percentage of the oven dry weight (Pansu and Gautheyrou, 2006).

Materials & Methods

71

Figure (12): Soil analysis, (a) sample collection under the crown

cover of M. peregrina tree. (b) on the depth 15-25 cm,

(c) EC meter, (d) Flame Photometer, and (e) Auto-

analyzer Spectrophotometer.

(a) (b)

(d)

(e)

(c)

Materials & Methods

72

2. Chemical charcteristics

2.1. Soil organic matter (SOM)

The organic matter content of soil samples were determined

by loss on ignition (LOI) at high temperature. This method gives

quantitative oxidation of organic matter (Nelson and Sommers,

1996). Ten grams of 2 mm-mesh sieved, air-dried soil, are placed in

a tared porcelain crucible and dried at 105ºC for 24 hours to

estimate the soil weight without water. The crucible with dry soil

ignited in an electric muffle furnace at 550ºC for about three hours.

The crucible is placed in a desiccator, cooled to room temperature

and re-weighed. The loss is calculated in percent of the oven-dried

sample (Margesin and Schinner, 2005).

2.2. Soil reaction (pH)

After sieving the soil with 2mm sieve, the pH values of water

extracts of soil samples were determined with a pH meter (Hanna,

Model 60648, Cole Parmer) using a soil-water extract of (1:2.5)

according to Pansu and Gautheyrou (2006).

3. Slouble salts

Salt solution of 2mm sieved soil was carried out to determine

EC, water soluble anions, and water soluble cations as follow:

3.1. Electrical conductivity (EC) and salinity

Electrical conductivity (EC) was measured by

conductivitimeter (Model 4510, Jenway) (Figure 12.c) in extract

(1:1) as described by (Pansu and Gautheyrou, 2006). Salinity was

calculated in extract (1:5) according to Jackson (1967) as in the

Materials & Methods

73

equation: Salinity (ppm) = EC x 640 and the total soluble salts

(TSS) was calculated as: TSS (%) = EC x 0.32

3.2. Water soluble anions (CO32-

, HCO3-, Cl

- & SO4

2-)

Soil water-soluble carbonate and bicarbonate were determined

in extract (1:1) according to Baruah and Barthakur (1997) by

acidimetric titration method, using 0.01N sulphoric acid (H2SO4) in

the presence of phenolphthalein as indicator for CO32-

(pH ≥ 8.5)

and methyl orange for HCO3- (pH < 6). Phenolphthalein gives a

pink colour as long as CO32-

remains. It will be discharged as soon

as all CO32-

is converted into HCO3- (Baruah and Barthakur, 1997).

Chloride (Cl‾) determination was based on the formation of

nearly insoluble silver salt. It was estimated in soil-water extract

(1:5) according to Baruah and Barthakur (1997). It titrated with 0.02

N silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution in presence of potassium

chromate indicator (K2CrO4) forming a reddish brown precipitate of

Ag2CrO4 which indicates the end-point of the reaction.

Soil sulphate (SO42-

) was estimated in soil extract (1:5)

according to Jackson (1967), using the precipitation method. In this

method, concentrated HCl is added if the filtrate was alkaline then

boiled and barium chloride (BaCl2) was added to convert SO42-

to

BaSO4. The precipitation washed to remove chloride ions and

ignited in a muffle at 600ºC for half hour, cool in a desiccator and

weight of residue is the weight of barium sulphate (Anonymous,

1980).

Materials & Methods

74

3.3. Water soluble cations (Na+, K

+, Ca

++ & Mg

++)

Water soluble Na+

and K+ were measured in soil extract (1:5)

according to Sparks et al. (1996) using Flame Atomic Absorption

Spectrophotometer (Corning 410, Figure 12.d). Samples were

introduced into a hot flame, provides absorbance value based on the

amount of the element present. When it compared to generated

standard curve, the element measured can be quantified.

Ca++

and Mg++

were measured in soil water extract (1:5)

according to Baruah and Barthakur (1997). For determination of

Ca++

, 5 ml of 10 % NaOH solution + 0.05 gm ammonium purpurate

(Murexide) as indicator were added to 10 ml of soil extract (V1).

Titration was run against 0.01 EDTA till colour changed from pink

to purple.

However, for determination of Mg++

, pH was adjusted to 10

using buffering solution (NH4Cl + NH4OH) and then 0.05 gm of

erichrome black (EBT) was added to 10 ml of extract. Titration

against 0.01 EDTA was carried out till the colour changed from red

to bright blue. Calculations of Ca++

and Mg++

were done according

to Sparks et al. (1996) as:

meq. of Ca2+

= (V2 – V3) x 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (I)

meq. of Ca2+

+ Mg2+

= (V2 – V3) x 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - (II)

meq. of Mg2+

= meq. of (Ca2+

+ Mg2+

) meq. of Ca ـــ

2+ - - (III)

Where V2 is the volume of EDTA used for the sample (titre-

value) and V3 is the volume of EDTA used for blank.

Materials & Methods

75

4. Total and available Phosphorus

Total phosphorus (TP) was extracted according to Jackson

(1967) using concentrated H2SO4 and H2O2 in digestion, and then

the samples concentration were estimated based on the wavelength

by Auto-analyzer Spectrophotometer (Model 5023, Finland).

Available phosphorus was estimated according to Olsen's

method (Olsen et al., 1954). The extraction was made using 0.5M

sodium bicarbonate (pH 8.5) (Tiessen and Moir, 1993). Exactly

2.5g of air-dry soil and 50 ml of sodium bicarbonate was shacked

for 30 min. The available P was measured in the soil extract filtrate

using Ammonium molybdate and stanus chloride as indicator. The

blue colour was measured using Spectrophotometer at wavelength

690nm 5 to 6min and before 15min (Robertson et al., 1999).

5. Total Nitrogen

The digestion of 0.5g of soil sample was carried out according

to Jackson (1967) using 10 ml concentrated H2SO4 and heated at

350ºC for half hour then cooled. H2O2 was added up to the end of

effervescence and the sample became colourless. The concentration

was estimated based on the wavelength recorded by Auto-analyzer

Spectrophotometer (Model 5023, Finland) at wavelength 590nm

according to Robertson et al. (1999).

Materials & Methods

76

V. Soil characteristic, age and size relationships

Finally, significance of variations in values of soil

characteristics between the four studied wadis was evaluated using

one-way ANOVA. It was necessary to investigate the influence of

soil characteristics as one of the most important environmental

factors on age and size distribution of M. peregrina trees.

The correlation between soil parameters with the tree age and

size (height, crown cover area, and circumference/height ratio) was

evaluated using Pearson linear correlation to find out the

relationship between these parameter and age and size.

VI. Data treatment

Several computer systems for data analysis have been

developed. Among the systems currently in widespread use are

SPSS 17 and Minitab 14 (2007). Statistical evaluation has been

done by using, descriptive statistics, Anderson-Darling normality

test, Pearson correlation analysis and simple linear regressions. On

the other hand, the significance of data of each factor was tested

using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Thus data are

subjected to the simplest kind of ANOVA. This means that the

groups of samples (environmental parameters) are classified by only

a single criterion (Zar, 1984).

Results

77

VI. Results

I. Environmental parameters

The environmental parameters (landform type, slope degree,

elevation, and exposure aspect) are shown in Table (10). Moringa

peregrina trees were recorded on slopes as the main landform at the

highest elevation (800 m. a.s.l) in W. Feiran (Figure 13). While the

lowest elevation (560 m. a.s.l) for M. peregrina was recorded in W.

Zaghra.

The highest slope degree (about 60º) in W. Feiran, while the

lowest slope degree (5º) in W. Me'ir (Figures 14). During recording

of associated species with M. peregrina tree, it was found that

narrow wadis and gorges support the richest assemblage of plants,

followed by the high-elevation slopes and terraces, respectively.

Outcrops of smooth-faced rocks function as refuge for more

mesophilic plants. Wadi bed is medium cover or high cover percent.

Finally the gorge is very high cover percent.

The majority of M. peregrina trees are located in South-facing

(Table 10) due to the increase of temperature. However, the most

noticeable field observation was that almost all reproductive trees

grow on south-facing slopes and cervices of metamorphic rocks. At

the same wadi, trees growing on north-facing slopes are without

flowers, (non productive). This may indicates the importance of the

light and temperature as reflected by slope exposure as a limiting

factor for growth, flowering and fruiting of M. peregrina trees.

Results

78

Location Site No.

of Landform Slope Elevation Exposure grazing Interferences

No. trees degree type (m) Mean Facing Scale Firing Cutting

W. Agala 1 11 Slope 50 very steep 764 145 South-facing

4 ( - ) 1

2 7 George 40 steep 684 145 South-facing

3 ( + ) 1

3 6 Slope 45 steep 690 180 South-facing

4 ( + ) 2

4 16 Slope 48 very steep 625 205 South-facing

4 ( + ) 3

Total 4 40

W. Feiran

5 4 Slope 60 very steep 725 175 South-facing

1 ( - ) 3

6 14 George 55 very steep 800 39 North-facing

1 ( - ) 2

7 7 Slope 40 steep 735 140 South-facing

1 ( - ) 3

8 15 Slope 45 steep 610 195 South-facing

1 ( - ) 2

9 7 Slope 48 very steep 715 220 South-facing

0 ( - ) 2

Total 5 47

W. Zaghra

10 13 George 50 very steep 560 156 South-facing

1 ( - ) 1

11 15 Slope 35 steep 610 215 South-facing

0 ( + ) 2

12 24 Slope 40 steep 590 185 South-facing

0 ( + ) 1

13 2 Slope 40 steep 573 205 South-facing

1 ( - ) 1

14 12 Slope 45 steep 630 195 South-facing

1 ( + ) 1

15 16 Slope 45 steep 642 220 South-facing

1 ( + ) 3

Total 6 82

W. Me'ir 16 12 Slope 30 steep 710 140 South-facing

1 ( - ) 1

17 9 Slope 45 steep 718 155 South-facing

3 ( - ) 2

18 10 Wadi-bed 5 gentle 620 38 North-facing

2 ( - ) 1

19 5 Slope 5 gentle 620 42 North-facing

1 ( - ) 1

20 14 Slope 42 steep 725 44 North-facing

4 ( - ) 2

21 7 Slope 48 very steep 635 168 South-facing

0 ( - ) 1

22 3 Wadi-bed 8 medium 578 186 South-facing

3 ( - ) 3

23 6 slope 50 very steep 618 196 South-facing

2 ( - ) 1

24 16 George 50 very steep 736 158 South-facing

1 ( - ) 1

25 14 Slope 44 steep 570 215 South-facing

1 ( - ) 2

26 6 Wadi-bed 8 medium 565 155 South-facing

1 ( - ) 0

27 8 Slope 42 steep 642 194 South-facing

2 ( - ) 1

28 15 George 52 very steep 728 186 South-facing

1 ( - ) 0

29 2 Wadi-bed 5 gentle 638 320 North-facing

3 ( - ) 2

30 9 Slope 46 very steep 708 195 South-facing

2 ( - ) 1

31 5 Slope 35 steep 672 207 South-facing

2 ( - ) 1

32 6 Wadi-bed 10 medium 585 189 South-facing

4 ( - ) 3

33 12 Slope 25 steep 647 218 South-facing

1 ( - ) 3

34 8 Slope 28 steep 705 178 South-facing

0 ( - ) 3

35 10 Slope 35 steep 680 192 South-facing

3 ( - ) 2

36 9 Wadi-bed 5 gentle 593 184 South-facing

4 ( - ) 1

37 17 Slope 40 steep 654 210 South-facing

3 ( - ) 1

38 12 Slope 35 steep 620 185 South-facing

4 ( - ) 2

39 7 Slope 22 steep 575 148 South-facing

1 ( - ) 0

40 10 Slope 30 steep 615 173 South-facing

1 ( - ) 0

41 3 Slope 20 medium 635 186 South-facing

0 ( - ) 1

Total 26 235

T. wadis 41 404

Table (10): Summary table of environmental setting data for the sites in which

M. peregrina was recorded:

Results

79

Slope ranges

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Mei'r

Slo

pe

de

gre

e

Min Max Mean

Figure (14): The slope degree of the sites at the four studied wadis

represented in degree.

Elevation ranges

500

550

600

650

700

750

800

850

W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Mei'r

Ele

va

tio

n (

m a

.s.l

.)

Min Max Mean

Figure (13): The elevations of M. peregrina in the four studied

wadis represented in meter above sea level.

Results

80

The highest grazing intensity was recorded in W. Agala, then

in W. Me'ir. Human interferences (e.g. cutting, damage, firing, etc)

confirm that W. Feiran (the most crowded with Bedouins) is

subjected to over-cutting and firing and followed by W. Agala.

II. Age structure of Moringa populations

a. Bark thickness, radius and number of rings of cross sections

The mean for the measurements of radius and bark thickness

of ninety-three of M. peregrina cross-cuts were 4.1 cm (± 0.81) and

0.5 cm (± 0.2), respectively (Table 11 & Figure 15a). The mean

values of radius after excluding the bark and counting of annual

rings of these cross-cuts were 3.6 (± 0.7) and 20.8 (± 5.0)

respectively (Figure 15b). The normality test (Anderson-Darling

test) proved that the measured parameters in the cross-cuts (radius,

bark thickness and number of annual rings) are significantly

departed from normality (P = 0.030, <0.005, and <0.005;

consequently (Figure 16).

The data of ninety-three sections of M. peregrina were used to

attain the regression equation. The relationship between the bark

thickness and radius was estimated from the significant (P = 0.000,

r2 = 0.187, Figure 17a) linear regression equation as:

[Bark thickness (cm) = 0.121 Radius] ---------------- I

The results of the linear regression significantly (P = 0.000, r2 =

0.271, Figure 17b) showed that relationship between the tree radius

(excluding the bark) and the number of counted growth rings in the

cross sections is governed by the equation:

[No. of rings = 5.68 Radius] --------------------------- II

Results

81

Location Site Number of Number

of Radius (cm) Bark thickness (cm) No. of rings

No. sampled trees

cross-cuts

Min Max Mean StD Min Max Mean StD Min Max Mean StD

W. Agala 1 2 2 3.66 5.58 4.62 1.36 0.45 0.47 0.46 0.01 28 32 30 2.83

2 2 2 3.63 4.03 3.83 0.28 0.59 0.63 0.61 0.02 21 25 23 2.83

3 2 2 2.75 3.98 3.36 0.87 0.43 0.56 0.49 0.10 11 20 16 6.36

4 5 6 3.71 4.68 4.17 0.32 0.46 0.80 0.61 0.15 14 25 18 3.93

Total 4 11 12 2.75 5.58 4.05 0.67 0.43 0.80 0.57 0.12 11 32 21 6.07

W. Feiran

5 3 6 3.27 5.15 4.30 0.80 0.32 0.74 0.47 0.16 16 30 22 5.89

6 4 4 3.51 5.04 4.38 0.78 0.39 0.96 0.76 0.27 14 22 18 3.86

7 3 4 3.43 5.53 4.25 0.90 0.42 1.01 0.73 0.25 15 21 18 2.65

8 1 1 3.79 3.79 3.79 0.56 0.56 0.56 30 30 30

Total 4 11 15 3.27 5.53 4.27 0.74 0.32 1.01 0.62 0.24 14 30 20 5.33

W. Zaghra

10 3 4 2.76 4.25 3.31 0.66 0.20 0.41 0.28 0.09 15 24 19 4.43

11 3 7 3.74 4.29 3.97 0.19 0.24 0.52 0.36 0.09 18 26 22 2.87

12 12 21 2.68 5.60 4.13 0.78 0.26 0.64 0.38 0.10 14 31 23 5.09

14 4 6 2.11 5.59 4.15 1.14 0.23 0.98 0.42 0.28 16 20 19 1.60

15 1 1 4.53 4.53 4.53 0.51 0.51 0.51 28 28 28

Total 5 23 39 2.11 5.60 4.03 0.77 0.20 0.98 0.38 0.14 14 31 22 4.61

W. Me'ir 16 3 3 3.29 5.39 4.16 1.10 0.60 0.83 0.70 0.11 15 24 19 4.51

17 2 2 3.84 4.16 4.00 0.23 0.34 0.54 0.44 0.14 20 24 22 2.83

18 3 3 2.96 5.90 4.80 1.61 0.44 0.74 0.59 0.15 18 30 23 6.24

19 1 1 2.98 2.98 2.98 0.36 0.36 0.36 19 19 19

21 2 2 3.20 3.83 3.52 0.45 0.34 0.64 0.49 0.21 19 26 23 4.95

24 1 2 5.26 5.32 5.29 0.04 0.41 0.42 0.41 0.01 17 19 18 1.41

26 1 1 5.05 5.05 5.05 0.64 0.64 0.64 21 21 21

31 1 2 4.14 4.32 4.23 0.13 0.73 1.03 0.88 0.21 16 20 18 2.83

33 6 8 3.45 5.88 4.00 0.79 0.26 0.84 0.53 0.17 10 30 18 6.69

37 3 3 2.76 5.21 3.81 1.26 0.46 1.04 0.66 0.33 14 19 17 2.52

Total 10 23 27 2.76 5.90 4.16 0.94 0.26 1.04 0.58 0.20 10 30 19 4.81

Pooled samples

23 68 93 2.11 5.90 4.11 0.80 0.20 1.04 0.50 0.20 10 32 21 5.06

Table (11): Descriptive statistics and of average radii, bark thickness and number of rings for M. peregrina cross sections:

Results

82

Figure (15): The measurements of sampled M. peregrina cross-cuts

(a) radius and bark thickness and (b) radius excluded bark

and number of rings.

Fre

qu

en

cy

6.0

5.5

5.0

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

20

15

10

5

0

1.0

5

0.9

0

0.7

5

0.6

0

0.4

5

0.3

0

0.1

5

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Radius (cm) Bark thickness (cm) Radius (cm)

0.4991

StDev 0.2026

N 93

Mean 4.115

StDev 0.8012

N 93

Bark thickness (cm)

Mean

Normal

Histogram (with Normal Curve) of Radius & Bark thickness (cm)

(a)

Fre

qu

en

cy

5.04.54.03.53.02.52.0

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

322824201612

20

15

10

5

0

Radius (cm) No of rings Radius (cm)

20.83

StDev 5.058

N 93

Mean 3.614

StDev 0.7351

N 93

No of rings

Mean

Normal

Histogram (with Normal Curve) of Radius (- bark) and No of rings

(b)

.

.

.

Results

83

Figure (16): Normality test for (a) radius, (b) bark thickness

(cm) and number of rings in sampled M. peregrina

cross-cuts.

Bark thickness (cm)

Pe

rce

nt

1.251.000.750.500.250.00

99.9

99

95

90

80

7060504030

20

10

5

1

0.1

Mean

<0.005

0.4991

StDev 0.2026

N 93

AD 2.163

P-Value

Probability Plot of BarkNormal

Radius (cm)

Pe

rce

nt

654321

99.9

99

95

90

80

7060504030

20

10

5

1

0.1

Mean

0.030

3.614

StDev 0.7351

N 93

AD 0.833

P-Value

Probability Plot of RadiusNormal

No of rings

Pe

rce

nt

403530252015105

99.9

99

95

90

80

7060504030

20

10

5

1

0.1

Mean

<0.005

20.83

StDev 5.058

N 93

AD 1.154

P-Value

Probability Plot of RingsNormal

(a)

(b)

(c) .

Results

84

Figure (17): Linear regression equation (a) between bark thickness

(cm) and radius, and (b) between radius and number of

annual rings of sampled M. peregrina cross-cuts.

Radius (cm)

Ba

rk t

hic

kn

ess

(cm

)

6543210

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

Line Fit Plot

Bark thickness = 0.121 * Radius (cm)

r2 = 0.19

(a)

Radius (cm)

No

of

rin

gs

543210

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Line Fit Plot

No of rings = 5.68 * Radius (cm)

r2 = 0.27

(b)

Results

85

b. Bark thickness, radius and number of rings of sampled trees

ANOVA results revealed that there is a high significant

variation (P = 0.000) in estimated trees ages between the four

wadis. The histograms of the estimated radii and hence age

distribution significantly departed from fit to normal distribution

(Figure 18).

Anderson-Darling normality test showed that the skewness

from normality is associated with the extreme radii (lower than 7

cm and higher than 28 cm (Figure 18a). This means that estimated

ages less than 40 years and higher than 160 years may be under-

estimated (Figure 18b).

The age structure of M. peregrina populations (Figure 19)

confirms that the majority of trees located in the interval [41 - 60]

years. It followed by the interval [60- 80] years. Based on the

regression equation, the age structure of M. peregrina can be

summarized as follows: (1) the estimated oldest M. peregrina tree is

382 years old, while the youngest tree is 13 years old at W. Zaghra.

(2) The oldest M. peregrina tree in W. Me'ir is 285 years old, while

the youngest tree is 26 years old. (3) The oldest M. peregrina tree in

W. Agala is 192 years old, and the youngest tree is 20 years old. (4)

The oldest M. peregrina tree in W. Feiran is 119 years old, and the

youngest tree is 15 years old. In addition to (6) the highest mean age

of the trees recorded in W. Zaghra is 82.3 (± 62.9) followed by W.

Me'ir is 73.2 (± 42), W. Agala is 52.3 (± 38.9), and W. Feiran is

43.75 (± 26.9) with an overall mean of 69.5 (± 47) in pooled

population (Table 12).

Results

86

Radius (R)

Pe

rce

nt

806040200

99.9

99

95

90

80

7060504030

20

10

5

1

0.1

Mean

<0.005

13.93

StDev 9.424

N 404

AD 18.023

P-Value

Probability Plot of Radius (R)Normal

(a)

Age (2007)

Pe

rce

nt

4003002001000-100

99.9

99

95

90

80

7060504030

20

10

5

1

0.1

Mean

<0.005

69.54

StDev 47.06

N 404

AD 18.025

P-Value

Probability Plot of Age (2007)Normal

(b)

Figure (18): Normality test of radii (a) and estimated age for 404

trees of M. peregrina in the studied four wadis (b).

Results

87

Location Site Number

of Radius (cm) Bark thickness (cm) No. of rings

No. of trees Min Max Mean StD Min Max Mean StD Min Max Mean StD W. Agala 1 11 5.0 17.8 7.8 3.6 0.6 2.2 0.9 0.4 25.2 89.0 38.9 18.0

2 7 4.3 10.7 6.9 2.7 0.5 1.3 0.8 0.3 21.5 53.3 34.5 13.4

3 6 4.0 10.4 6.5 2.2 0.5 1.3 0.8 0.3 19.9 51.7 32.5 10.9

4 16 4.8 38.5 15.4 10.1 0.6 4.7 1.9 1.2 23.9 192.4 76.8 50.3

Total wadi

4 40 4.0 38.5 10.5 7.8 0.5 4.7 1.3 0.9 19.9 192.4 52.3 38.9

W. Feiran

5 4 6.1 10.0 7.7 1.9 0.7 1.2 0.9 0.2 30.6 50.1 38.6 9.3

6 14 4.3 23.7 10.4 6.7 0.5 2.9 1.3 0.8 21.5 118.5 52.1 33.5

7 7 4.9 15.4 10.2 4.2 0.6 1.9 1.2 0.5 24.6 77.1 50.9 21.1

8 15 4.1 23.1 9.0 5.4 0.5 2.8 1.1 0.7 20.7 115.3 44.9 27.0

9 7 3.0 7.3 4.1 1.6 0.4 0.9 0.5 0.2 15.1 36.6 20.3 7.8

Total wadi

5 47 3.0 23.7 8.8 5.4 0.4 2.9 1.1 0.7 15.1 118.5 43.8 27.0

W. Zaghra

10 13 2.5 20.4 7.4 5.0 0.3 2.5 0.9 0.6 12.7 101.8 36.7 24.8

11 15 4.8 37.6 17.9 11.5 0.6 4.5 2.2 1.4 23.9 187.6 89.6 57.5

12 24 3.2 51.8 19.3 13.0 0.4 6.3 2.3 1.6 15.9 258.4 96.6 65.1

13 2 11.8 37.4 24.6 18.1 1.4 4.5 3.0 2.2 58.8 186.8 122.8 90.5

14 12 5.6 33.6 14.2 7.4 0.7 4.1 1.7 0.9 27.8 167.7 70.8 37.1

15 16 6.4 76.4 18.9 16.9 0.8 9.2 2.3 2.0 31.8 381.6 94.5 84.4

Total wadi

6 82 2.5 76.4 16.5 12.6 0.3 9.2 2.0 1.5 12.7 381.6 82.3 63.0

W. Mei'r 16 12 6.7 21.3 13.6 4.6 0.8 2.6 1.6 0.6 33.4 106.5 68.0 22.8

17 9 5.9 22.4 14.1 5.4 0.7 2.7 1.7 0.7 29.4 111.7 70.3 27.1

18 10 6.7 30.3 14.8 7.1 0.8 3.7 1.8 0.9 33.4 151.1 73.8 35.3

19 5 5.6 18.0 10.0 5.2 0.7 2.2 1.2 0.6 27.8 89.8 49.8 26.0

20 14 6.4 25.7 12.9 6.0 0.8 3.1 1.6 0.7 31.8 128.4 64.6 30.2

21 7 6.1 51.8 23.6 14.6 0.7 6.3 2.9 1.8 30.6 258.4 118.0 72.9

22 3 9.3 14.1 11.1 2.6 1.1 1.7 1.3 0.3 46.5 70.4 55.4 13.0

23 6 5.9 22.0 14.2 6.1 0.7 2.7 1.7 0.7 29.4 109.7 70.9 30.4

24 16 6.6 29.3 15.9 7.8 0.8 3.5 1.9 0.9 32.9 146.3 79.1 38.9

25 14 5.1 21.8 10.7 5.8 0.6 2.6 1.3 0.7 25.4 108.9 53.6 28.8

26 6 8.1 25.5 15.7 6.3 1.0 3.1 1.9 0.8 40.5 127.5 78.3 31.5

27 8 6.8 25.2 13.8 6.8 0.8 3.1 1.7 0.8 34.2 126.0 69.0 33.7

28 15 6.4 27.1 11.3 5.5 0.8 3.3 1.4 0.7 31.8 135.2 56.5 27.4

29 2 9.1 16.5 16.5 5.2 1.1 2.0 2.0 0.6 45.3 82.3 82.3 26.1

30 9 8.4 23.2 13.9 5.2 1.0 2.8 1.7 0.6 41.7 116.1 69.3 25.7

31 5 11.5 43.0 23.6 13.5 1.4 5.2 2.8 1.6 57.2 214.7 117.6 67.4

32 6 11.5 34.6 20.7 8.4 1.4 4.2 2.5 1.0 57.6 172.5 103.4 41.8

33 12 8.6 34.6 18.0 7.7 1.0 4.2 2.2 0.9 42.9 172.5 89.6 38.3

34 8 7.6 48.2 26.3 15.2 0.9 5.8 3.2 1.8 38.2 240.5 131.2 76.0

35 10 6.8 49.0 14.4 12.5 0.8 5.9 1.7 1.5 34.2 244.5 71.9 62.4

36 9 6.8 49.1 15.9 13.4 0.8 5.9 1.9 1.6 34.2 245.3 79.2 66.9

37 17 6.8 34.9 12.9 6.4 0.8 4.2 1.6 0.8 34.2 174.1 64.3 32.0

38 12 6.4 28.6 12.4 7.6 0.8 3.5 1.5 0.9 31.8 142.7 62.1 37.9

39 7 5.9 12.3 8.6 2.1 0.7 1.5 1.0 0.3 29.4 61.2 42.8 10.4

40 10 6.8 23.8 13.2 6.0 0.8 2.9 1.6 0.7 33.8 118.9 65.7 29.7

41 3 12.6 22.0 16.3 5.0 1.5 2.7 2.0 0.6 62.8 109.7 81.4 24.9

Total wadi

26 235 5.1 51.8 14.7 8.5 0.6 6.3 1.8 1.0 25.4 258.4 73.2 42.3

Pooled 41 404 2.5 76.4 13.9 9.4 0.3 9.2 1.7 1.1 12.7 381.6 69.5 47.1

F = 9.53 , P = 0.000

Table (12): Descriptive statistics of radii, bark thickness and no. of rings

for all sampled M. peregrina trees:

Results

88

Based on the age structure of M. peregrina in the studied

wadis of South Sinai, one can found that 50 % of the trees in W.

Agala, 40.4 % in W. Feiran, 76.8 % in W. Zaghra, 81.7 % in W.

Me'ir, and 72.8 % for the pooled population are older than 40 years

(Table 13). Individuals born before the last 20 years are not

exceeding 2.5 % in W. Agala, 8.5 % in W. Feiran, 7.3 % in W.

Zaghra, 2.7 % in the overall population, and there is no new born in

W. Me'ir (zero %) during this interval. Therefore, in W. Me'ir, no

single tree was recoded with age under 20 years (Table 13).

In other word, there is no new individual in last 20 years in

both wadis (W. Agala and W. Me'ir), and there is no single tree in

last 15 years in both wadis (W. Feiran and W. Zaghra). It means

that these populations are very sharply decline with almost no

regeneration and most probably will face extinction.

The age structure shows the very unhealthy status of M.

peregrina populations due to the rapidly shrinking in both sides of

the curve (Figure 19). The shrinking phase started around 60 – 80

years ago with sharp decline in the last 20-40 years. This figure

suggests that if the current situation unchanged, the populations of

M. peregrina trees will not persist, that the older trees are not being

replaced by young trees.

Results

89

Rank Age W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Me'ir Pooled Populations

Class Freq. % Cum. % Freq. % Cum. % Freq. % Cum. % Freq. % Cum. % Freq. % Cum. %

1 [≤20] 1 2.5 39 97.5 4 8.5 43 91.5 6 7.3 76 92.7 0 0.0 235 100.0 11.0 2.7 393.0 97.3

2 19 47.5 20 50.0 24 51.1 19 40.4 13 15.9 63 76.8 43 18.3 192 81.7 99.0 24.5 294.0 72.8

3 [41-60] 10 25.0 10 25.0 9 19.1 10 21.3 16 19.5 47 57.3 71 30.2 121 51.5 106.0 26.2 188.0 46.5

4 [61-80] 4 10.0 6 15.0 5 10.6 5 10.6 16 19.5 31 37.8 42 17.9 79 33.6 67.0 16.6 121.0 30.0

5 [81-100] 2 5.0 4 10.0 2 4.3 3 6.4 12 14.6 19 23.2 30 12.8 49 20.9 46.0 11.4 75.0 18.6

6 [101-120] 2 5.0 2 5.0 3 6.4 0 0.0 5 6.1 14 17.1 24 10.2 25 10.6 34.0 8.4 41.0 10.1

7 [121-140] 0 0.0 2 5.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 12 14.6 9 3.8 16 6.8 11.0 2.7 30.0 7.4

8 [141-160] 0 0.0 2 5.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 11 13.4 4 1.7 12 5.1 5.0 1.2 25.0 6.2

9 [161-180] 0 0.0 2 5.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 5 6.1 6 7.3 6 2.6 6 2.6 11.0 2.7 14.0 3.5

10 [181-200] 2 5.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 3.7 3 3.7 0 0.0 6 2.6 5.0 1.2 9.0 2.2

11 [201-220] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 3.7 2 0.9 4 1.7 2.0 0.5 7.0 1.7

12 [221-240] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 3.7 0 0.0 4 1.7 0.0 0.0 7.0 1.7

13 [241-260] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 1 1.2 4 1.7 0 0.0 6.0 1.5 1.0 0.2

14 [261-280] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2

15 [281-300] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2

16 [300-320] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2

17 [321-340] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2

18 [341-360] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2

19 [361-380] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2

20 [>380] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1.0 0.2 0.0 0.0

Total 40 100 47 100 82 100 235 100 404 100

Table (13): Age structure of M. peregrina populations in the studied four wadis (W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra and

W. Me'ir) and pooled population.

Cum. = Cumulative represents the percentage of individuals with age more than the upper limit of the specified class.

Results

90

Estimated Age (year)

Fre

qu

en

cy

400

380

360

340

320

300

280

260

240

220

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

200

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Mean 69.54

StDev 47.06

N 404

Normal

Histogram of Estimated Age (2007)

(a)

Fre

qu

en

cy

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

200

20

15

10

5

0

120

100

80

60

40

200

12

9

6

3

0

400

360

320

280

240

200

160

120

80

400

30

20

10

0

260

240

220

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

200

60

45

30

15

0

W. Agala W. Feiran

W. Zaghra W. Meir

W. Agala

43.75

StDev 26.97

N 47

W. Zaghra

Mean 82.27

StDev 62.96

Mean

N 82

W. Meir

Mean 73.18

StDev 42.33

N 235

52.34

StDev 38.89

N 40

W. Feiran

Mean

Normal

Histogram of Ages by Wadi (2007)

W. Me'ir

W. Me'ir

(b)

Figure (19): Age structure of M. peregrina tree (a) in pooled

population and (b) in the studied four wadis.

Results

91

The annual increase of tree radius has been estimated to be

1.76 mm. As the estimated age is a function of the radius and the

annual increment was estimated by dividing the radius by the

estimated age. The annual increment estimation turns to be the

reciprocal of the slope in age regression equation (1/5.68) and hence

constant to all cross-cuts.

c. Static life table

Based on the age structure and static life table of M. peregrina

in South Sinai, the old trees (≥ 180 years old trees in W. Agala, ≥

100 years old in W. Fieran, ≥ 260 years old in W. Zaghra, and ≥ 240

years old in W. Me'ir) have a 100% chance of death (qx = 1.00)

(Tables 13 and 14). These death-facing trees represent 5 %, 6.4 %,

1.2 %, and 1.7 % of populations at W. Agala, W. Feiran, W.

Zaghra, and W. Me'ir respectively. Life table (Table 14) shows that

there is decline in population number in young individuals in in the

last 20 years. Moreover, life span of M. peregrina at which the

highest risk of death was recorded in trees older than 100 years old

(represent 10 %, 6.4 %, 23.2 %, and 20.9 % of W. Agala, W.

Feiran, W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir populations, respectively) .

Results

92

Table (14): A static life table for M. peregrina populations at the four studied wadis (W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra and

W. Me'ir) and pooled population. X = age entered by time of census, Nx = number of individuals living in age x, ax

= number of individuals that survive to the age x, lx = proportion of original cohort surviving to age x, Lx = the

average proportion alive at the age, Tx = the total number of living individuals at age class x and beyond, ex = the

probability of living 'x' number of years beyond a given age, dx is the number of individuals that die during stage x,

and qx = proportion of individuals entering age x that die during age x.

Age Wadi Agala Wadi Feiran Wadi Zaghra Wadi Mei'r Pooled Population

Class Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex dx qx

[≤ 20] 1 40 1.00 0.99 2.68 2.68 1 0.03 4 47 1.00 0.96 2.20 2.20 4 0.09 6 82 1.00 0.96 4.10 4.10 6 0.07 0 235 1.00 1.00 3.69 3.69 0 0.00 11 404 1.00 0.99 3.50 3.50 11 0.03

[21-40] 19 39 0.98 0.74 1.69 1.73 19 0.49 24 43 0.91 0.66 1.24 1.36 24 0.56 13 76 0.93 0.85 3.13 3.38 13 0.17 43 235 1.00 0.91 2.69 2.69 43 0.18 99 393 0.97 0.85 2.51 2.58 99 0.25

[41-60] 10 20 0.50 0.38 0.95 1.90 10 0.50 9 19 0.40 0.31 0.59 1.45 9 0.47 16 63 0.77 0.67 2.29 2.98 16 0.25 71 192 0.82 0.67 1.78 2.18 71 0.37 106 294 0.73 0.60 1.66 2.29 106 0.36

[61-80] 4 10 0.25 0.20 0.58 2.31 4 0.40 5 10 0.21 0.16 0.28 1.30 5 0.50 16 47 0.57 0.48 1.62 2.82 16 0.34 42 121 0.51 0.43 1.11 2.16 42 0.35 67 188 0.47 0.38 1.07 2.29 67 0.36

[81-100] 2 6 0.15 0.13 0.38 2.51 2 0.33 2 5 0.11 0.09 0.12 1.10 2 0.40 12 31 0.38 0.30 1.14 3.01 12 0.39 30 79 0.34 0.27 0.69 2.04 30 0.38 46 121 0.30 0.24 0.68 2.28 46 0.38

[101-120] 2 4 0.10 0.08 0.25 2.51 2 0.50 3 3 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.50 3 1.00 5 19 0.23 0.20 0.83 3.60 5 0.26 24 49 0.21 0.16 0.41 1.99 24 0.49 34 75 0.19 0.14 0.44 2.38 34 0.45

[121-140] 0 2 0.05 0.05 0.18 3.53 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 2 14 0.17 0.16 0.63 3.71 2 0.14 9 25 0.11 0.09 0.26 2.42 9 0.36 11 41 0.10 0.09 0.30 2.94 11 0.27

[141-160] 0 2 0.05 0.05 0.13 2.45 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 1 12 0.16 0.15 0.47 2.97 1 0.08 4 16 0.07 0.06 0.17 2.50 4 0.25 5 30 0.08 0.07 0.21 2.74 5 0.17

[161-180] 0 2 0.05 0.05 0.08 1.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 5 11 0.13 0.10 0.32 2.41 5 0.45 6 12 0.05 0.04 0.11 2.17 6 0.50 11 25 0.06 0.05 0.14 2.26 11 0.44

[361-380] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.50 0 0.00

Results

93

Table (15): continue

Age Wadi Agala Wadi Feiran Wadi Zaghra Wadi Mei'r Pooled Population

Class Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex dx qx

[181-200] 2 2 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.50 2 1.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 3 6 0.07 0.05 0.22 3.00 3 0.50 0 6 0.03 0.03 0.07 2.83 0 0.00 5 14 0.03 0.03 0.09 2.64 5 0.36

[201-220] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 3 0.04 0.04 0.16 0.00 0 0.00 2 6 0.03 0.02 0.05 1.83 2 0.00 2 9 0.02 0.02 0.06 2.83 2 0.00

[221-240] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 3 0.04 0.04 0.13 3.50 0 0.00 0 4 0.02 0.02 0.03 1.50 0 0.00 0 7 0.02 0.02 0.04 2.50 0 0.00

[241-260] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 2 3 0.04 0.02 0.09 2.50 2 0.00 4 4 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.50 4 1.00 6 7 0.02 0.01 0.03 1.50 6 0.00

[261-280] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.01 0.01 0.07 5.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.00 0.00 0.02 6.50 0 0.00

[281-300] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.01 0.01 0.05 4.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.00 0.00 0.01 5.50 0 0.00

[300-320] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.01 0.01 0.04 3.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.00 0.00 0.01 4.50 0 0.00

[321-340] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.01 0.01 0.03 2.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.00 0.00 0.01 3.50 0 0.00

[341-360] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.01 0.01 0.02 1.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.00 0.00 0.01 2.50 0 0.00

[361-380] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.50 0 0.00

[>381] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 1 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1 1.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 1 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 1 1.00

Total 40 47 82 235 404

Results

94

d. Survivorship Curve

Based on the survivorship values (lx) in life table, the

survivorship curve of M. peregrina populations in South Sinai

represents type III of survivorship curves due to the high rate of

mortality among the young and the old trees. At the age class [21-

40], the value of lx was declined in the three wadis (Agala, Feiran

and Zaghra), while in W. Me'ir, it declined at the age class [41-60]

referring to that the highest mortality rate starting in small ages

(Figure 20).

Figure (20): Survivorship curve of Moringa peregrina populations.

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

[< 2

0]

[21-4

0]

[41-6

0]

[61-8

0]

[81-1

00]

[101-1

20]

[121-1

40]

[141-1

60]

[161-1

80]

[181-2

00]

[201-2

20]

[221-2

40]

[241-2

60]

[261-2

80]

[281-3

00]

[300-3

20]

[321-3

40]

[341-3

60]

[361-3

80]

[≥ 3

81]

Age Class (years)

Su

rviv

ors

hip

(lx

)

W. Agala

W. Feiran

W. Zaghra

W. Me'ir

Pooled population

Su

rviv

ors

hip

(l x

)

Results

95

III. Size structure of Moringa populations

The output results of size structure of M. peregrina

populations showed that the mean values of tree height is 6.9 m (±

3.5), crown cover area is 17.7 m2 (± 20.2), circumference at ground

level (CAG) is 87.5 cm (± 59.2) and circumference/height ratio is

0.13 (±0.07) (Table 15 & Figure 21). The highest mean values of

the tree height (8.1 m), crown cover area (25.8 m2), circumference

at ground level (103.5 cm) were recorded in the trees of W. Zaghra

(Table 15).

The minimum value of tree height (1 m) was recorded in W.

Zaghra, while the highest value (17 m) in W. Me'ir. The minimum

value of crown cover (0.3 m2) was recorded in W. Feiran, while the

highest value (203.5 m2) in W. Zaghra. At the same time, the

minimum value of circumference (16 cm) and the highest value

(480 cm) were recorded in W. Zaghra (Table 15 & Figure 22).

ANOVA (one-way) results revealed that there is highly

significant variations (P = 0.000) in the measured tree size (height,

crown cover area, and trunk circumference) between the four wadis.

Moreover, significant variation (P = 0.029) was in

circumference/height ratio between the studied wadis (Table 15).

Comparing height, cover, and circumference, Tukey test could only

discriminate between trees at W. Agala and wadis (Feiran, Zaghra,

and Me'ir), and between trees at W. Feiran and trees at both (W.

Zaghra and W. Me'ir). Finally, it couldn't discriminate between

trees at W. Zaghra on one side and W. Me'ir on the other.

Results

96

Table (15): The descriptive statistics of the vegetative parameters of M.

peregrina populations in South Sinai:

Results

97

Figure (21): Size structure of M. peregrina tree populations (a) tree

height (m) (b) crown cover (m2), and (c) circumference/height

in South Sinai.

Fre

qu

en

cy

1211109876543210

8

6

4

2

0

1211109876543210

8

6

4

2

0

161514131211109876543210

20

15

10

5

0

17161514131211109876543210

30

20

10

0

W. Agala W. Feiran

W. Zaghra W. Meir

W. Agala

5.121

StDev 2.615

N 47

W. Zaghra

Mean 8.067

StDev 3.172

Mean

N 82

W. Meir

Mean 7.088

StDev 3.669

N 235

5.253

StDev 2.176

N 40

W. Feiran

Mean

Tree Height (m)Normal

(a)

W. Me'ir

W. Me'ir

Fre

qu

en

cy

322824201612840

10.0

7.5

5.0

2.5

0.0

454035302520151050

12

9

6

3

0

200

180

160

140

120

100806040200

40

30

20

10

0

120

110

1009080706050403020100

60

45

30

15

0

W. Agala W. Feiran

W. Zaghra W. Mei r

W. Agala

10.98

StDev 11.09

N 47

W. Zaghra

Mean 25.79

StDev 27.58

Mean

N 82

W. Mei r

Mean 17.49

StDev 19.10

N 235

10.30

StDev 6.976

N 40

W. Feiran

Mean

Crown cover area (m ) Normal

2

W. Me'ir

W. Me'ir

(b)

Fre

qu

en

cy

0.54

0.48

0.42

0.36

0.30

0.24

0.18

0.12

0.06

0.00

8

6

4

2

0

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

16

12

8

4

0

0.55

0.50

0.45

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

80

60

40

20

0

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

60

45

30

15

0

W. Agala W. Feiran

W. Zaghra W. Me ir

W. Agala

0.1126

StDev 0.04503

N 47

W. Zaghra

Mean 0.1288

StDev 0.08632

Mean

N 82

W. Me ir

Mean 0.1423

StDev 0.06160

N 235

0.13

StDev 0.06958

N 40

W. Feiran

Mean

Circumference/height

Normal

(c)

'

'

Results

98

The comparison between the size structures of the four wadis

showed that 90 % of M. peregrina trees in W. Agala, 72.3 % in W.

Fieran, 91.5 % in W. Zaghra, and 87.2 % W. Me'ir are more than 3

m height. Moreover, 32.5 % of M. peregrina trees in W. Agala,

29.8 % in W. Fieran, 17.1 % in W. Zaghra, and 52.3 % in W. Me'ir

are more than 6 m height. On the other hand, 2.5 % of M. peregrina

trees in W. Agala, 12.8 % in W. Fieran, 7.3 % in W. Zaghra, and

24.7 % W. Me'ir are more than 9 m height (Table 16). There are

only 2 trees in W. Zaghra (2.4 %) and 8 trees in W. Me'ir (3.4 %)

more than 15 m height. Therefore, the height of M. peregrina trees

in the pooled population showed that 86.6 % are more than 3 m

height and 53.5 % are more 6 m height. Furthermore, 22 % of

population is more than 9 m height, and 9.7 % is more than 12 m

Figure (22): Size structure [height (m), crown cover area (m2),

circumference (cm), and circumference/height ratio] of

pooled population of M. peregrina trees in South Sinai.

Fre

qu

en

cy

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

109876543210

60

45

30

15

0

195

180

165

150

135

120

105

90

75

60

45

30

150

160

120

80

40

0

480

440

400

360

320

280

240

200

160

120

80

400

80

60

40

20

0

0.5

6

0.4

8

0.4

0

0.3

2

0.2

4

0.1

6

0.0

8

0.0

0

60

45

30

15

0

Height Crown Cover

Circumference (CAG) Circumference/height

Height

17.70

StDev 20.19

N 404

Circumference (CAG)

Mean 87.47

StDev 59.19

Mean

N 404

Circumference/height

Mean 0.1348

StDev 0.06707

N 404

6.876

StDev 3.466

N 404

Crown Cover

Mean

Size structure of pooled population in South Sinai

Normal

(m) (m2)

(cm)

Results

99

Class

W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Mei'r Pooled Populations

Freq. % Cum. % Freq. % Cum. % Freq. % Cum. % Freq. % Cum. % Freq. % Cum. %

Tree height [1 - 3 ] 4 10.0 36 90.0 13 27.7 34 72.3 7 8.5 75 91.5 30 12.8 205 87.2 54.0 13.4 350.0 86.6

(m) [3.1 - 6 ] 23 57.5 13 32.5 20 42.6 14 29.8 9 11.0 14 17.1 82 34.9 123 52.3 134.0 33.2 216.0 53.5

[6.1 - 9 ] 12 30.0 1 2.5 8 17.0 6 12.8 42 51.2 6 7.3 65 27.7 58 24.7 127.0 31.4 89.0 22.0

[9.1 - 12 ] 1 2.5 0 0.0 6 12.8 0 0.0 15 18.3 0 0.0 28 11.9 30 12.8 50.0 12.4 39.0 9.7

[12.1 - 15 ] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 7 8.5 0 0.0 22 9.4 8 3.4 29.0 7.2 10.0 2.5

[15.1 - 18 ] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 0 0.0 8 3.4 0 0.0 10.0 2.5 0.0 0.0

Crown cover [1 - 20] 36 90.0 4 10.0 37 78.7 10 21.3 38 46.3 44 53.7 166 70.6 69 29.4 285.0 70.5 119.0 29.5

area [20.1 - 40] 4 10.0 0 0.0 8 17.0 2 4.3 31 37.8 13 15.9 50 21.3 19 8.1 85.0 21.0 34.0 8.4

(m2) [40.1 - 60] 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 4.3 0 0.0 11 13.4 2 2.4 10 4.3 9 3.8 23.0 5.7 11.0 2.7

[60.1 - 80] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 3 1.3 6 2.6 3.0 0.7 8.0 2.0

[80.1 - 100] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 2 0.9 4 1.7 2.0 0.5 6.0 1.5

[100.1 - 120] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 4 1.7 0 0.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 0.5

[120.1 - 140] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 1.0 0.2 1.0 0.2

[140.1 - 160] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2

[160.1 - 180] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2

[180.1 - 200] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2

[200.1 - 220] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 Circumference/ [0.01 - 0.1] 18 45.0 22 55.0 23 48.9 24 51.1 42 51.2 40 48.8 72 30.6 163 69.4 155.0 38.4 249.0 61.6

height ratio 0.11 - 0.2] 17 42.5 5 12.5 22 46.8 2 4.3 31 37.8 9 11.0 130 55.3 33 14.0 200.0 49.5 49.0 12.1

[0.21 - 0.3] 5 12.5 0 0.0 2 4.3 0 0.0 5 6.1 4 4.9 27 11.5 6 2.6 39.0 9.7 10.0 2.5

[0.31 - 0.4] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 2 2.4 6 2.6 0 0.0 8.0 2.0 2.0 0.5

[0.41 - 0.5] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 1.0 0.2 1.0 0.2

[0.51 - 0.6] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1.0 0.2 0.0 0.0

Total 40 100 47 100 82 100 235 100 404 100

Table (16): Size structure of M. peregrina populations in the studied four wadis and pooled population:

Results

100

height, and only 2.5 % of M. peregrina population is more than 15

m height. The tree height of M. peregrina trees in 10% of

population in W. Agala, 27,7% in W.Feiran,8.5% in W. Zaghra and

12.8 % in W. Me'ir was [1-3] m. The majority are trees are located

in height class [3.1 - 6] m; 57 % of population in W. Agala, 42.6 %

in W. Fieran,and 34.9 % in W. Me;ir. On the other hand, 51.2 % of

trees in W. Zaghra are located in the height class [6.1 - 9]. The

results of crown cover area of M. peregrina showed that 10 % in W.

Agala, 21.3 % in W. Fieran, 53.7 % in W. Zaghra, and 29.4 % W.

Me'ir are more than 20 m2. There is no tree in W. Agala more than

40 m2, while 4.3 % of tress in W. Fieran, 15.9 % in W. Zaghra, and

8.1 % W. Me'ir are more than 40 m2. This means that there are no

small sizes of M. peregrina trees in the studied wadis where there is

only one tree in W. Zaghra more than 200 m2 in crown cover area.

The Pearson correlation coefficient showed that there is a

highly significant positive linear relationship between tree size and

estimated tree age. Based on this correlation and the output results

of the linear regression analysis the size (especially height, and

circumference/height ratio) can be used to expect the age class of

M. peregrina tree (Table 17).

Table (17): Pearson correlation and linear regression between size and

age of M. peregrina tree.

Correlation Linear regression

C.C P r2 P equation

1) Height (m) 0.580 0.000 0.36 0.000 Age (year) = 9.66 height (m)

2) Crown Cover (m2) 0.529 0.000 0.28 0.000 Age (year) = 2.41 Crown Cover

3) Circumf. / Height 0.580 0.000 0.36 0.000 Age (year) = 494 Circumf./height

Results

101

IV. Soil characteristics

1. Nature of soil surface (NSS)

The results of nature of soil surface in quadrate (5 x 5m)

revealed that the highest mean value of fine fractions (8.57 ± 3.78

%), gravel (19.3 ±4.5 %), and cobbles (28.57 %) were recorded at

W. Me'ir. On the other hand, the highest mean value of stones (43 ±

7.58 %) in W. Zaghra, boulders (38.3 ± 22.55%) in W. Agala

(Figure 23). Bare rocks appear only in the quadrates of both W.

Agala (10 %) and (3.3 %) in W. Feiran (Table 18).

2. Physical characteristics

2.1. Soil texture

Based on the results of nature of soil surface, W. Me'ir has the

highest mean value of fine fractions (8.57 % ± 3.78). Moreover, the

soil surface of W. Agala and W. Zaghra has the highest mean value

of rocky fragments (stones = 43 % ± 7.58 in W. Zaghra, and

boulders = 38.3 % ± 22.55 in W. Agala). Soil of W. Agala and W.

Feiran characterized are sandy soils. On the other hand, soil texture

was sandy loamy to sandy in W. Zaghra and in W. Me'ir. The

highest mean value of gravel (28.67 ± 1.53 %) was recorded in soils

collected from W. Fieran (Figure 24a).

The results of mechanical soil texture by sieves methods

showed that the highest mean of coarse sand (50.47 ± 11.22 %) was

recorded in W. Agala. However, the soil of W. Zaghra showed the

highest mean of medium sand (29.14 ± 9.71) (Table 18). Moreover,

the soil of W. Me'ir showed the highest mean values of fine sand

(32.18 ± 10.43 %) and silt + clay (20.1 ± 6.19) (Figure 24b).

Results

102

Table (18): Descriptive data and analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) of nature of soil surface (N.S.S.) and soil

properties:

Results

103

Table (18) Continu:

Results

104

Figure (23): Variations of the mean values of nature of soil surface

(N.S.S.) of the four wadis of the study area.

22.00

5.003.33

6.00

8.57

16.7

11.7 12.0

19.3

15.0

28.33 28.6

18.016.7

21.7

27.1

43.0

38.33

30.00

16.43

0.000.00

3.33

10.00

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Agala

Fine fractions Gravel Cobble Stones Bolders Bare rock

Results

105

Figure (24): Variations of the mean values of soil texture in the four

studied wadis (a) gravel % and (b) soil particles using

sieving method.

Gravel %

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Me'ir

%

(a)

Soil texture (Sieving method)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Me'ir

Coarse Sand Medium Sand Fine Sand Silt+ Clay

(b)

Results

106

2.2. Moisture content

The obtained results of analysis the soil samples that collected

from the four studied wadis showed that the highest mean values of

moisture content (1.21 ± 1.03 %).

3. Chemical characteristics

3.1. Soil organic matter (SOM)

The highest mean of soil organic matter (2.77 ± 0.65) were

recorded in W. Agala. One of the most common observations in the

field was that the highest wadi subjected to over-grazing and

presence of cultivated plants by Bedouins of the area was W. Agala

(Figure 25).

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

W.

Agala

W.

Feiran

W.

Zaghra

W.

Me'ir

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

W.

Agala

W.

Feiran

W.

Zaghra

W.

Me'ir

%

(a) (b)

Moisture content (%) SOM (%)

Figure (25): Variations of the mean values of moisture and organic

matter content (%) in the four studied wadis.

Results

107

3.2. Soil pH

The soil of the four studied wadis is slightly alkaline; the

highest mean value of pH (8 ± 0.21) was recorded in W. Agala

(Figure 26a). The highest mean value of electrical conductivity

(7.63 ± 2.89 mS.cm-1

), and hence salinity (976.4 ± 370.2 ppm) and

total soluble salts (0.49 %) was recorded in W. Zaghra (Table 18

and Figure 26b).

4. Soluble Salts

The highest mean values (meq/L) of water soluble anions

HCO3- (11.1 ± 5.47), Cl

- (6.86 ± 3.57), and SO4

2- (5.74 ± 1.78) were

recorded in soil of W. Zaghra (Table 18 and Figure 27). At the same

time the highest mean values of water soluble cations Na+ (4.16 ±

2.54), K+ (3.46 ± 1.96), Ca

++ (3.86 ± 1.23) and Mg

++ (3.35 ± 1.23)

also recorded in W. Zaghra (Table 18 and Figure 28).

5. Total, available phosphorus and total nitrogen

Moreover, the highest mean value of available phosphorus

(2.58 ± 0.69 ppm), and total nitrogen (0.29 ± 0.13 %) were recorded

in soils collected from W. Zaghra. The values of the total

phosphorus (TP) were almost the same, where the highest mean

value (0.037 %) was recorded in the soil of W. Fieran (Table 18 and

Figures 2 a9nd 30).

The results of one-way ANOVA showed that the variation in

stones, boulders, and silt + clay between the four studied wadis is

statistically significant (P ≤ 0.05). While, coarse and fine sand are

statistically highly significant (P ≤ 0.000). The rest of physical

Results

108

characters (fine fraction, gravel, bare rock, medium sand, moisture

and organic matter) showed non significant variation between them.

The differences in water soluble anions and cations (except K+

and

Mg++

) are highly significant between the studied wadis (Table 18).

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

W.

Agala

W.

Feiran

W.

Zaghra

W.

Me'ir

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

W.

Agala

W.

Feiran

W.

Zaghra

W.

Me'ir

(b) (a)

Soil pH Electrical Conductivity (EC)

mS

/cm

Figure (26): Variations of the mean values of soil pH (a) and

electrical conductivity (mS/cm) (b) per wadi.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

W.

Agala

W.

Feiran

W.

Zaghra

W.

Me'ir

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

W.

Agala

W.

Feiran

W.

Zaghra

W.

Me'ir

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

W.

Agala

W.

Feiran

W.

Zaghra

W.

Me'ir

Bicarbonates (HCO3-) Chloride (Cl

-) Sulphate (SO4

2-)

meq

/L

Figure (27): Variations of the mean values of water soluble anions in the

soil of the four studied wadis.

Results

109

Figure (28): Variations of water soluble cations of the pooled studied

soil samples (a), and the mean values (±SE) per wadi (b).

(a)

(b) W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Me'ir

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

Na+

meq

/L

Na+

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Ca++

meq

/L

Ca++

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

Mg++

Mg++

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

K+

K+

Fre

qu

en

cy

876543210

8

6

4

2

0121086420

10.0

7.5

5.0

2.5

0.0

6543210

8

6

4

2

09876543210

8

6

4

2

0

Na K

Ca Mg

Na

2.866

StDev 2.595

N 20

Ca

Mean 1.914

StDev 1.706

Mean

N 20

Mg

Mean 2.300

StDev 2.044

N 20

1.903

StDev 2.138

N 20

K

Mean

Normal

Histogram (with Normal Curve) of Na; K; Ca & MgHistogram (with Normal Curve) of Na+, K+, Ca++ & Mg++

Results

110

0

150

300

450

600

750

900

1050

1200

Salinity

pp

m

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

Available PW. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Me'ir

Soil salinity (ppm) Available P (ppm)

(a) (b)

Figure (29): Variations of the mean values (±SE) of soil salinity and

available phosphorus (ppm) in the four studied wadis.

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

T P

%

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

0.50

T NW. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Me'ir

TN TP

Total Phosphorus (%)

Total Nitrogen (%)

Figure (30): Variations of the mean values (±SE) of total phosphorus

(TP) and total nitrogen (TN) in the soil of the four

studied wadis.

Results

111

V. Soil and relationship with tree age and size

The values of Pearson correlation between tree age and nature

of soil surface showed that there is a highly significant positive

linear relationship with fine fractions percentage and significant

negative relationship with bare rock. The values of correlation

coefficient between tree size (especially height, and crown cover

area) and soil properities showed a highly significant positive linear

relationship with stones percentage. Circumference/height ratio

showed significant positive linear relationship only with gravel

percentage (Table 19).

The Pearson correlation between tree age and soil parameters

showed that there is a highly significant positive linear relationship

with medium sand percentage, EC, Cl-, Na

+, K

+, Ca

++, Mg

++ in

addition to total nitrogen. Moreover, correlation between tree age

and soil parameters showed a significant negative relationship with

coarse sand percentage and pH (Table 19).

Based on the correlation between tree size (height and crown

cover area) and soil parameters, there is highly significant positive

linear relationship with HCO3-, Cl

-, and Na

+. Moreover, the tree

height showed significant positive linear relationship TN, while the

crown cover showed significant positive linear relationship EC,

SO42-

, and Ca++

(Table 19).

Results

112

Table (19): Pearson correlation between ages, size of M. peregrina

tree and soil characteristics

Correlations Age Height Crown cover Circumf./height

C.C P C.C P C.C P C.C P

Fine Fractions 0.427 0.048 0.173 0.442 0.092 0.683 0.364 0.096

(N.S

.S)

Gravel 0.163 0.469 -0.311 0.159 -0.285 0.199 0.509 0.015

Cobble -0.146 0.515 0.066 0.772 -0.187 0.406 -0.180 0.423

Stones 0.351 0.109 0.560 0.007 0.546 0.009 -0.247 0.268

Boulders -0.172 0.445 -0.311 0.159 -0.059 0.795 0.150 0.504

Bare rock -0.467 0.028 -0.364 0.096 -0.334 0.128 -0.196 0.391

So

il p

aram

eter

s

Gravel -0.227 0.286 -0.212 0.321 0.031 0.885 -0.261 0.219

Coarse sand -0.356 0.088 -0.294 0.164 -0.079 0.715 -0.314 0.135

Medium Sand 0.353 0.091 0.344 0.100 0.169 0.431 0.096 0.656

Fine Sand 0.247 0.245 0.331 0.115 0.180 0.400 0.076 0.726

Silt + Clay -0.040 0.853 -0.308 0.143 -0.325 0.121 0.452 0.027

Moisture 0.170 0.427 -0.052 0.809 -0.020 0.926 0.249 0.240

SOM -0.176 0.410 -0.270 0.202 -0.214 0.315 -0.091 0.673

pH -0.456 0.025 -0.272 0.198 -0.290 0.170 -0.308 0.144

EC 0.538 0.007 0.289 0.172 0.390 0.060 0.326 0.120

HCO3- 0.292 0.166 0.368 0.077 0.364 0.080 -0.062 0.774

Cl- 0.535 0.007 0.387 0.062 0.504 0.012 0.198 0.355

SO42-

0.576 0.003 0.274 0.195 0.411 0.046 0.326 0.120

Na+ 0.563 0.004 0.370 0.075 0.482 0.017 0.259 0.221

K+ 0.446 0.029 0.103 0.632 0.114 0.595 0.494 0.014

Ca++

0.536 0.007 0.320 0.127 0.531 0.008 0.260 0.220

Mg++

0.323 0.124 0.205 0.337 0.225 0.290 0.124 0.565

Available P ppm

0.378 0.069 0.150 0.484 0.050 0.817 0.351 0.093

T P -0.150 0.483 -0.224 0.293 -0.312 0.137 0.230 0.279

T N 0.391 0.059 0.440 0.031 0.203 0.342 0.112 0.601

Results

113

VI. Associated species

The recorded associated species with M. peregrina trees in the

studied four wadis belong to fourteen families. The identification or

nomenclature of recorded species is done according to Boulos

(1995, 1999, 2000, and 2002) (Table 20).

Table (20): Alphabetical list of associated species with Moringa

peregrina populations in South Sinai.

Family

Species Name

Life form

Amaranthaceae

Aerva javanica ((Burm. F.) Juss. ex Schult.

Per.

Asclepiadaceae Solenostemma arghel (Delile) Hayne Per.

Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait. f. Per.

Capparaceae Capparis sinaica Veill. Per.

Capparis spinosa L. Per.

Chenopodiaceae Anabasis articulata (Forssk.) Moq. Per.

Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.) Bunge ex Boiss. Per.

Cleomaceae Cleome droserifolia (Forssk.) Delile Per.

Compositae Artemisia judaica L. Per.

Iphiona scabra Dc. Per.

Launaea spinosa (Forssk.) Sch. Bip ex Kuntze Per.

Pulicaria arabica (Forssk.) Oliv. Ann.

Cruciferae Zilla spinosa (L.) Prantl subsp.spinosa Per.

Cucurbitaceae Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad Per.

Cucumis prophetarum L. Per.

Euphorbiaceae Chrozophora oblongifolia (Delile) Spring. Per.

Labiatae Otostegia fruticosa (Frossk.) Penz. Per.

Teucrium polium L. Per.

Leguminosae Acacia tortilis (Frossk.) Hayne Per.

Retama raetam (Frossk.) Webb & Berthel. Per.

Senna italica Mill. Per.

Resedaceae Ochradenus baccatus Del. Per.

Reseda sp. L. Ann.

Solanaceae Hyoscymus muticus L. Per.

Zygophyllaceae Fagonia mollis Delile Per.

Peganum harmala L. Per.

Discussion

115

VII. Discussion

The most obvious and universal characteristic of desert

vegetation is scarcity of plant growth and nearly lack of trees

(Moustafa, 2000a; Moustafa and Zaghloul, 1996). The unique

geomorphological formations of South Sinai led to wide variations

in its climate and vegetation than elsewhere. Meanwhile, this sparse

vegetation is subjected to depletion by continuous over-grazing,

over-cutting and uprooting for fuel and medicinal uses (Moustafa

and Klopatek, 1995; Moustafa, 2001). These severe impacts lead to

great environmental deterioration including; disappearance of

pastoral plant species, dominance of unpalatable (un-grazed)

species, the paucity of trees and shrubs, reduction of vegetation

cover and soil erosion (Kassas, 1955, Zahran and Willis, 1992,

Helmy et al., 1996). Therefore, more studies should be focus on the

regeneration of destructed vegetation; soil protection and how to

overcome the risks affect the establishment of South Sinai

vegetation in future (Abd El-Wahab, 1995).

There are many threats affecting the existence of Moringa

peregrina populations in South Sinai such as over-cutting for

different uses, for instance fuel-wood (Abd El-Wahab, 1995).

According to NAS (1980, 1983a, b and c) and Brewbaker et al.

(1984), most tree legume species are potentially suitable for fuel-

wood production, providing that the wood is not fire retardant and

these levels of sparks, smoke, odors and tastes are acceptable.

Discussion

116

Moreover, the woody plants are very palatable (Owen and Cooper,

1987). In fact, over-cutting and over-grazing as well as unmanaged

human activities represent a great disturbance for natural vegetation

and threatening some rare species of extinction (Zaghloul, 1997).

The problem of over-grazing that it does not give some plant

species (e.g. M. peregrina) the chance to increase the productivity

or growth rate. In addition, it decreases the pre-reproductive and

reproductive age periods. This may lead to a decrease of birth rate

according to the grazing intensity (Moustafa, 2002).

In agreement with Abd El-Wahab (1995) and as confirmed by

Moustafa (2000a and b), over-grazing is a destructive factor in

regeneration of M. peregrina. It must be protected against over-

grazing and over-cutting. In order to the conservation of M.

peregrina in South Sinai, the present work aimed to study the

population dynamic of M. peregrina tree through: (1) determining

the actual demographic status, (2) determining the size structures of

M. peregrina and reveal the relationship between the size and age

structures, in response to birth, aging and mortality rates, (3)

Providing a static life table for M. peregrina populations in South

Sinai, (4) investigating the distributional behavior of M. peregrina

populations in the study area and (5) evaluating the threats which

affect the establishment of M. peregrina in its natural habitat.

The threatened populations of M. peregrina tree in the studied

wadis of South Sinai may disappear if the mentioned threats are not

restricted. As confirmed by Molles and Manuel (2002), it is difficult

Discussion

117

to keep track of everything going on as occurring in the

populations; the distributions may change, the numbers may

increase for some time and then fall precipitously. A new

population of a previously unrecorded species may suddenly appear

in an area, persist for a season or a decade, and then disappear. In

addition, individuals of different ages and sexes may make different

contributions to population dynamics and must be followed

separately. Population studies hold the key to solve practical

problems such as saving endangered species, and controlling the

others. Generally, the physical environment limits the geographic

distribution of species (Molles and Manuel, 2002).

Abd El-Wahab (1995) found that most of M. peregrina

populations grow in between rock cervices, also on cliffs and at the

base of hills with very rugged topography. The elevation of this

hills ranges between 700 to 800 m a.s.l. During the course of

present study, it was found that M. peregrina located at the highest

elevation (610–800 m a.s.l.) at W. Feiran in between rock cervices,

followed by the trees in Wadi Agala (625–764 m a.s.l.). Moreover,

the elevation of M. peregrina trees in W. Zaghra was ranged

between (560–642 m a.s.l.), while the elevation of M. peregrina

trees in W. Me'ir (565–736 m a.s.l.).

The most noticeable field observations were that (1) the

highest grazing intensity (subjectively) was recorded in W. Agala

and in W. Me'ir, especially number of camels were observed in W.

Agala and most of M. peregrina trees in W. Me'ir located at low

Discussion

118

elevations or at wadi bed; (2) The majority of M. peregrina trees in

higher elevations are dry and non-productive. (3) The altitude and

the exposure aspect may affect the distribution of M. peregrina in

South Sinai. The majority of M. peregrina trees are located in

south-facing, due to the increase of temperature (Zaghloul, 1997).

Furthermore, almost all reproductive trees grow on south-facing,

while non reproductive trees grow on north-facing, where most of

these trees survive without formation of flowers. This indicates the

importance of the light and temperature reflected by slope exposure

as a limiting factor for growth, flowering and fruiting of M.

peregrina trees. Young (1984) confirmed that the solar irradiation

increases the floral development rates. This explains the reason for

which esposure of the carrying-flowers tree is South-facing.

Many studies (e.g. Batanouny, 1979 and 1983; Schlesinger et

al. 1990; Beymer and Klopatek, 1991; Milchunas and Lauenroth,

1993 and Olsvig-Whittaker et al. 1993) showed the deterioration

effects of grazing on vegetation and soil of desert ecosystems. On the

other hand, few studies (Bailey and Danin, 1981; Heneidy, 1996;

Zaghloul, 1997; Moustafa, 2000 a & b) have been done in South Sinai

regarding the impact of over-grazing on the population dynamics.

Bedouins depend on animal husbandry as a resource of

income; therefore South Sinai is subjected to high grazing intensity

as showed by Heneidy and Halmy (2009). They reported that

Panicum turgidum in South Sinai subjected to a high grazing

pressure as it has high palatability, especially in summer when

Discussion

119

annuals disappear and shortage in natural forage occurs. The same

situation was observed with M. peregrina tree as it is a good fodder

for Bedouins' camels.

Generally, tree fodder is richer in crude protein (CP), minerals

and digestible nutrients than grass fodder (El-Kady, 1987, Topps,

1992, Heneidy, 2000). It was observed that the camels prever M.

peregrina pods and its green branches, especially pods and branches

are high platable and without spines as in other wild trees (e.g.

Acacia sp.). The use of tree legume fodder as supplement has

improved intake, digestibility and animal performance (Norton,

1994) and this explains why the Bedouins depend on browse of M.

peregrina in animal husbandry.

Zahran and Willis (2009) stated that water resources and

human interferences are among the most important factors

controlling the plant life in the desert. On the other hand, browsing

in combination of drought has a negative effect on the growth rate

and productivity of M. peregrina in the studied wadis. This returns

to destroy of the tree crown. Bruna and Ribeiro (2005) reported that

canopy destroy strongly influences the diversity and dynamics of

both tropical and temperate forests. It is often viewed as inherently

beneficial for understory plants, primarily because growth and

flowering are enhanced when light is no longer a limiting resource.

It can also be detrimental as in case of M. peregrina trees; however

trees can be damaged by falling crowns or branches.

Discussion

120

For more understanding the population dynamics of M.

peregrina trees, and consequently their sustained management,

information on their age and growth rates are required (Gourlay and

Grime, 1994). Age measurements are usually used to determine the

age-class distribution of a tree population, from which inferences on

the dynamics of that population can be drawn (Fritts and Swetnam,

1989). Therefore, the study of age structure and size distribution of

M. peregrina in South Sinai was very essential.

To organize the exploration of population dynamics, the

patterns of survival in populations or decrease in size should be in

considered, and the quantitative tools for perceiving such changes

are required (Molles and Manuel, 2002). Tree growth rings are

widely applied in ecological studies for determining tree ages,

investigating changes in growth rates and elucidating their causes

(Fritts and Swetnam, 1989).

The structure of a population of plants can be described in

terms of ages, sizes and forms of the individuals that compose it

(Harper, and White, 1974). Since the fecundity and survival of

plants is often much more closely related to size than to age, it

necessary to study the size distribution (Harper, 1977; Caswell,

1986; Weiner, 1985; Shaltout and Ayyad, 1988).

Some researchers (Werner and Caswell, 1977; Kirkpatrick,

1984; Caswell, 1986) argued that it is better to classify the life

history of plants by size rather than age which is the most widely

Discussion

121

used in classification of organisms. Size differences may be return

to the differences in growth rates, age differences, genetic variation,

heterogeneity of resources, nutrition, and competition (Weiner,

1985; Caswell, 1986).

Population dynamics of M. peregrina trees in the present

study is based on size and age structures. According to Emslie

(1991), it is necessary to study woody vegetation at a size class as

well as at a species level. Since age class data are unreliable for

savanna areas, (Lilly, 1977), analysis of population structure is

restricted to size classes, (Shackleton, 1993). Size classes are

considered to be better indicators of reproductive output than age

classes, (Werner and Caswell 1977; Knowles and Grant 1983).

On the other hand, the study of tree age dating is essential to

identify the age and/or the exact year of an event or formation of an

annual ring by application of cross dating which involves both ring

counting and ring-width pattern matching (Fritts, 1976;

Schweingruber, 1988). In the meantime, the knowledge of age and

growth rates of trees is necessary for an understanding of tree

recruitment patterns and woodland management (Jacoby, 1989 and

Suarez et al., 2008).

Numerous studies (Mitchell, 1979; Siewniak and Kusche,

1994; Henry and Aarssen, 1999; Szczepanowska, 2001; Isik and Li,

2003; Weber and Mattheck, 2005) used many methods (Pressler

increment borer, Resistograph, increment cores, radiocarbon, tree

Discussion

122

age tables, log volume tables, and age-dbh correlation) to determine

the tree age.

White (1998) presented a noninvasive method of age

determination, combining elements of tree age tables with

dendrochronological calculations. He related the size of trees to the

type of site in which the trees grow. The uses of tree ring

measurements to determine the tree age and in climatological

studies were well proven in temperate countries (Schweingruber,

1988). However, in comparison fewer conclusive studies exist for

tropical areas (Ogden, 1981). In the arid areas of the tropics, the

abrupt transition from wet to dry season produces new leaves

shortly after the onset of the rain, and fast-growing cambium

(Alvim, 1964 and Gourlay, 1995).

Studying the relationship between number of annual growth

rings and tree radius of M. peregrina tree is required to understand

its population dynamics as confirmed by Liang et al. (2001). Tree-

ring analysis including age structure proved to be a useful tool in

the study of stand dynamics and ecological history of trees

populations (Lorimer, 1985, Foster, 1988; Cherubini et al., 1996;

Abrams et al., 1998; Rozas, 2001; Liang et al., 2003). Quantitative

analysis of tree rings gives information on the frequency of

droughts and floods beyond the limited period of hydrological

records. Moreover, in most trees, the annual ring appears as narrow

bands of marginal parenchyma filled with long crystal chains. The

number of bands formed annually corresponded to the number of

Discussion

123

peaks in the annual rainfall distribution. Ring widths were highly

correlated with total annual rainfall (Gourlay, 1995).

On the other hand, tree rings are the most geographically

wide-spread entity that can provide actual year-to-year dating of

current and prehistoric environmental changes (Jacoby and Wagner,

1993). Annual growth rings provide a fairly good method to

determine the exact age of trees, especially in temperate regions.

The tree rings have been shown to be a reliable means of estimating

tree age and growth rate (Ogden, 1981; Schweingruber, 1988).

Many researchers (Schweingruber, 1988; Abrams et al., 1995;

Kaennel and chweingruber, 1995) confirmed that the analysis of

annual rings can be used to study ecological aspects such as

population dynamics, disturbance effects and influence of present

atmospheric changes on growth.

In order to date any tree by means of dendrochronology, it is

essential to assume that one growth ring can be equated with one

year's growth. Angiosperms frequently produce anomalous growth

patterns and rings which are not necessarily annual. For example, a

stress period may occur during a growing season and cause more

than one growth layer to form within that year (Fritts and Swetnam,

1989). Alternatively, when conditions are extremely limiting,

growth cannot occur and no ring is produced (Steenkamp, 2000).

Certain regions of the cambium may not divide at all giving the

appearance of a missing ring (Fahn, 1974, Fritts, 1976; Lilly, 1977;

and Walker et al., 1986).

Discussion

124

The problems associated with using stem diameter to predict

age were discussed by Ogden (1981); Norton and Ogden (1990),

Wyant and Reid (1992). During the course of present study, it was

found that in case of M. peregrina tree, one growth ring is an annual

event. Tree age distributions can be used in prediction of history of

the population, as confirmed by Kuuluvainen et al. (2002). Daniels

et al. (1995) showed that the relationship between age and diameter

can be derived from a regeneration equation for some samples, and

a general equation can be used to estimate all tree ages.

In the present study, sampling was based on dead and broken

branches of M. peregrina, while sampling that made by Daniels et

al. (1995) was restricted to the tree layer, since their study was

conducted on cutover areas. Stumps with a diameter ≥ 7.5 cm were

assumed to be part of the tree layer (Luttmerding et al., 1990). At

all stumps, they measured the diameter including the bark (cm) and

the uphill and downhill vertical distances (cm) from the upper

surface of the stump to the ground, to calculate mean stump height.

Thus the present study is in disagreement with them in the method

of estimation, and in agreement with them that the shape of age

distribution of trees is affected by number of factors like the

variation in site characteristics, soil variations, degree of impact,

and climate changes which control the regeneration of the tree.

Whitford (2002) during his estimation the ages of jarrah

(Eucalyptus marginata) and marri (Corymbia calophylla) trees

showed that growth rings can be counted on tree stumps. The cross-

Discussion

125

sections were cut from a fallen tree, or from cores that removed

from the tree bole. But he confirmed that the core method is

technically difficult and does not work well on large trees (diameter

>40cm) as a core was very difficult to collect and extract the central

growth ring, moreover it damages the tree (Douglass, 1941a and b).

Age dating of M. peregrina tree in the present study was

based on tree ring analysis in cross sections of dry and broken

branches. Linear regression equation finds the relation between

growth rings count and trunk radius. During the course of this

study, it was found that M. peregrina rings are visible because

regular seasonal variations in the density of wood grown onto the

outer edge of the tree provide a visible banding of annual growth

rings. One of the well known studies in the field of age dating was

developed by Douglass (1929) that defined and illustrated cross

dating as an initial process in dendrochronology or tree ring work

by which accurate ring chronologies may be built for dating

purposes (Nash, 1999), for climatic information (Fritts, 1976), or

for certain ecological problems (Douglass, 1940).

Another study which described the uses of the rings for

measuring the age of trees was developed by Yamaguchi (1986),

which focused on the method for cross-dating increment cores from

the living trees. It described the uses of the annual rings formation

for the measurement of the trees age, which is essential to identify

the exact age based on the formation of annual rings in increment

cores taken from living trees. Matching ring-width pattern occurred

Discussion

126

in trees sampled over extensive area owing to year of the climatic

variation (Fritts 1976; Schweingruber, 1988). However, no studies

carried out on age dating and size structure of M. peregrina tree,

thus the present work is a pioneer step to focus on population

dynamics of this tree as an endangered species in South Sinai.

The obtained results of the linear regression showed a highly

significant relationship (P = 0.000, r2 = 0.27) between the tree

radius (excluding the bark) and the number of counted growth rings

which means that the growth rings can be taken as regular time

markers and could be used for dating the trees. Based on this

regression equation, the results suggest that M. peregrina tree in

Southern Sinai grows very slowly and its age ranges between 13

and 382 years at W. Zaghra with a mean of 69.5 ± 47 years (Table

21).

The obtained results indicate the dominance of mature

individuals of M. peregrina over the juvenile ones. This means that

there is no establishment for new individuals in the studied wadis

and then declining in population number when the old trees are not

replaced by young indiviuals. This returns definitely to stresses

which affect the existence of M. peregrina population. The main

stresses on M. peregrina are over-cutting, over-collection, over-

grazing, aridity of the climate, discontinue of flowers formation,

and fail of juveniles to establish in its habitats. The later problem

needs futher studies.

Discussion

127

Table (21): Summary table of age and size structures of M. peregrina growing in South Sinai.

W.

Agala

W.

Feiran W.

Zaghra

W.

Me'ir Comment

W. Zaghra is a protected area, it is the lowest wadi subjected to anthropogenic

effects, and therefore it has the highest stability in population that led to aging of

trees and therefore the oldest tree is recorded in this wadi.

Ages

(year)

Min 20 15 13 25

Max 192 119 382 258

Mean 52 44 82 73

Tree height Min 1.7 1.7 1.0 1.5

W. Me'ir and W. Zaghra are the lowest wadis subjected to overcutting and over-

grazing give the old trees the chance to grow and increase the tree height. Max 12.0 11.4 15.8 17.0

Mean 5.3 5.1 8.1 7.1

Crown cover

area (m2)

Min 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.6 As the highest browsing intensity is recorded in W. Agala, its trees are the

lowest in canopy area. Grazing in this case has a negative effect, where it

reduces the tree size and then declining its growth rate. Moreover, it decreases

or prevents the chance of flowers formation. On contrast in forests the grazing

has a positive effect that it improves or stimulates the growth when it decreases

the competion between the tree braches for light and water (Salmon et al., 2007)

Max 32.2 43.0 203.5 116.4

Mean 10.3 11.0 25.8 17.5

Circumference

(CAG) (cm)

Min 25.0 19.0 16.0 32.0 The majority of M. peregrina trees in W. Feiran located at high elevation with

small circumference as these trees are younger than Moringa trees in other

wadis.

Max 242.0 149.0 480.0 325.0

Mean 65.8 55.0 103.5 92.1

Discussion

128

The age structure of M. peregrina populations confirmed that

26.2 % of trees located in the class [41 - 60] years. At the same time

72.8 % and 46.5 % of M. peregrina trees in the pooled population

are older than 40 and 60 years old respectively. Moreover, 30 % of

trees in the pooled population are older than 80 years old. At the

same time, 2.2 % of M. peregrina trees are older than 200 years old.

High age estimations are rendered credible by tree characteristics

that are often associated with great longevity such as its great ability

to resprout and its investment in defensive characters, hard wood

impregnated with resins and crystals (Loehle, 1988; Bond, 2003).

Moreover, the age structure showed very unhealthy status of M.

peregrina populations in the studied wadis of South Sinai. It

suggests that if the current situation unchanged, the populations of

M. peregrina trees will not persist, that the older trees are not being

replaced by the young trees as the same circumstances for Acacia

trees (Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana) in the same area (South

Sinai) as recommended by Zaghloul et al. (2008).

The obtained results showed that M. peregrina growing in the

studied wadis of South Sinai has a very low growth rate with an

annual increment of 1.76 mm. Age structure results showed

unhealthy shrinking populations of M. peregrina trees in Southern

Sinai with sharp decline in the last 20-40 years. The age-class

distribution shows that the regeneration of M. peregrina tree in the

area is severely limited. Although many of the individuals in

populations may be producing flowers and fruits, no seedlings have

Discussion

129

been successfully established and establishment is interrupted for at

least the last 20-40 years. Unless conditions change, these

populations will permanently disappear.

On contrast, if the different age classes are represented in the

population with the largest numbers in the youngest ages, this

ensures a continuous and uninterrupted population dynamics

(Harper and White, 1974; Solbrig, 1980; and Parish and Antos,

2004). The results of the present study in agreement with Zaghloul

et al. (2008), especially they stated that establishment of Acacia

trees (Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana) in South Sinai was

interrupted for at least the last 25-50 years.

The life table is a key summary tool for assessing and

comparing mortality conditions prevailing in populations (Chiang,

1984). According to Luke (1993), a life table typically consists of a

series of columns presenting age-specific information on various

aspects of mortality. Static life table of M. peregrina shows a cohort

in life span as it reveals the survival and age specific mortality rate

at the time of census.

According to (Wilgon, 1990), birth and death rates provide

basic information about populations. When these rates are specific

to age and environment, they encapsulate much of the dynamics of

a population and help reveal the mechanisms controlling population

size. Unfortunately, most methods for estimating demographic

parameters, including cohort and current life table analysis, are

inadequate for studying the long-lived tree species.

Discussion

130

Pielou (1977) showed that static life tables are constructed

from short-term observations of the births and deaths of an entire,

multi-aged population. Age classes of M. peregrina life table are

located in 20 intervals (≤ 20 and ≥ 381 years). On the other hand,

constructing cohort life tables requires following individuals born

within the same time interval throughout each of their lifetimes, and

it is difficult not only for M. peregrina tree but also for all trees.

Thus, only short-lived organisms are suitable for study as cohorts

(e.g. Leverich and Levin, 1979; Mack and P1ke, 1983 and

Silvertown, 1985).

The results of static life table of M. peregrina in the studied

wadis of South Sinai revealed that ≥ 180 years old trees in W.

Agala, ≥ 100 years old in W. Fieran, ≥ 260 years old in W. Zaghra,

and ≥ 240 years old in W. Me'ir have a 100% chance of death (qx =

1.00). In agreement with Crawely (1997), species conservation

should begin when a species is found to be declining in numbers but

is not yet threatened with extinction. Sometimes, if the decline is

very rapid and a species is well known, concern for its survival is

felt before it is endangered.

Based on the obtained results, M. peregrina populations are

dominated by adult individuals and the seedling recruitment is

extremely limited. However, survival and fecundity are the basic

components of demography and therefore have a strong influence

on population dynamics (Maria et al., 2008). The survivorship

curve of M. peregrina populations in the studied wadis of South

Discussion

131

Sinai represents type III of survivorship curves, due to the high rate

of mortality among the young and the old trees.

Gignoux et al. (2001) reported that the best measure of tree

size is probably basal circumference for adult trees, especially if the

trunks are rarely straight and branch at a low height as in case of M.

peregrina tree. The present study estimated the tree diameter and

hence radius based on circumference measurements as made by

Franklin and DeBell, (1988) and by Agren and Zackrisson (1990),

Franklin et al. (1988) and Gignoux et al. (2001), but Daniel (1994)

and Daniel et al. (1995) calculated DBH (Diameter at breast height)

from mean stump height and diameter measurements using

conversation table as revealed by (Demaerchalk and Omule 1978).

According to Fritts (1974), Kirkpatrick (1984) and Franklin et al.

(1988), the tree diameter is the most accurate method to estimate the

tree age, and analysis of tree-ring can be used to predict the changes

in the population of old growth trees.

Plant size determines the potential investment into

reproductive structures (Colas et al., 2001). Moreover, size structure

in some plants can be used as indicator for age (Kirkpatrick, 1984;

Agren and Zackrisson, 1990; O'brien et al., 1995; Niklas, 1997;

Sano, 1997; Stoneman et al., 1997; Suarez et al., 2008). Although

Grice et al. (1994) concluded that size is not a good indicator of age

and that it is unreliable to identify cohorts of the tree by examining

size-class frequency distribution, they achieved estimate of the tree

age by using age-size regressions with known-age trees and changes

Discussion

132

in tree sizes determined from aerial photographs (Sinclair, 1995).

The size structure in the present study was based on tree height,

crown cover area and trunk circumference.

The obtained results of size structure showed that the mean

height is 6.9 m (± 3.5), crown cover area is 17.7 m2 (± 20.2),

circumference at ground level (CAG) is 87.5 cm (± 59.2) and

circumference/height ratio is 0.13 (±0.07). W. Zaghra has the lowest

tree height (1 m) and W. Me'ir has the highest tree height (17 m).

W. Feiran has the lowest crown cover area (0.3 m2), while W.

Zaghra has the highest crown cover (203.5 m2). Moreover, W.

Zaghra has the minimum trunk circumference (16 cm) and at the

same time, it has the highest trunk circumference value (480 cm).

Moreover, the obtained results confirm the dominance of large

individuals over the smaller ones. This may be return to the

decrease of establishment rate (Abd El-Wahab, 1995); even small

trees are completely consumed by the animals in the area.

Therefore, it should be ring the sounded alarm that the studied

populations of M. peregrina are in declining status.

ANOVA (one-way) results showed that there are highly

significant variations (P ≤ 0.000) in the measured tree size

(especially height, crown cover area, and trunk circumference)

between the four studied wadis which may reflect different

environmental factors and/or levels of human stress. Tukey test

could only discriminate between trees at W. Agala and wadis

(Feiran, Zaghra, and Me'ir), and between trees at W. Feiran and

Discussion

133

trees at both (W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir). It couldn't discriminate

between trees at W. Zaghra on one side and W. Me'ir on the other.

The comparison between the size structures of the four wadis

showed that 90 % of M. peregrina trees in W. Agala, 72.3 % in W.

Fieran, 91.5 % in W. Zaghra, and 87.2 % W. Me'ir are more than 3

m height. Moreover, 32.5 % of M. peregrina trees in W. Agala,

29.8 % in W. Fieran, 17.1 % in W. Zaghra, and 52.3 % in W. Me'ir

are more than 6 m height. On the other hand, 2.5 % of M. peregrina

trees in W. Agala, 12.8 % in W. Fieran, 7.3 % in W. Zaghra, and

24.7 % W. Me'ir are more than 9 m height. Only 2 trees in W.

Zaghra (2.4 %) and 8 trees in W. Me'ir (3.4 %) are more than 15 m

height. Therefore, the height of M. peregrina trees in the pooled

population showed that 86.6 % are more than 3 m height and 53.5

% are more 6 m height. Furthermore, 22 % of population is more

than 9 m height, and 9.7 % is more than 12 m height, and only 2.5

% of M. peregrina population is more than 15 m height.

The results of crown cover area of M. peregrina showed that

10 % in W. Agala, 21.3 % in W. Fieran, 53.7 % in W. Zaghra, and

29.4 % W. Me'ir are more than 20 m2. There is no tree in W. Agala

more than 40 m2, while 4.3 % of tress in W. Fieran, 15.9 % in W.

Zaghra, and 8.1 % W. Me'ir are more than 40 m2. This means that

there are no small sizes of M. peregrina trees in the studied wadis

where there is only one tree in W. Zaghra more than 200 m2 in

crown cover area.

Discussion

134

According to Whitford (2002), a common mistake made in

estimating the age of trees was using the average growth rate.

Stoneman et al. (1997) discussed this problem confirming that the

largest trees on a site are typically the fastest growing trees (Nock et

al. (2009). On the other hand, Ahmed et al. (2009) reported that

growth rate and age of trees are frequently used in silviculture,

forestry, ecology and population dynamics studies. They study the

relationship between the ages and sizes of different mature stands of

thirty nine gymnosperms based on simple ring count and DBH

measurements. They showed that the largest tree is not necessarily

the oldest tree. The highest overall growth rate (2.65 ± 0.19 y/cm)

was recorded in Cedrus deodara from south-facing slopes while the

lowest growth was observed in Taxus wallichiana from east-facing

slope. Except in Pinus roxburghii, DBH and age showed non

significant relation. However in the present study, the Pearson

correlation coefficient showed that there is a highly significant

positive linear relationship between tree size and estimated age of

M. peregrina tree. The correlation and linear regression analysis

revealed that the size (especially height and circumference/height

ratio) can be used to expect the age class of M. peregrina tree. A

similar finding has been arrived by Ferguson (1951) and O'brien et

al. (1995).

O'brien et al. (1995) measured the diameter, height, crown

shape, and crown area of 23-42 trees, ranging in size from saplings

to large adults for each of eight common dicotyledonous tree

species in a Neotropical forest in Barro Colorado Island, Panama.

Discussion

135

But the crown shapes in their study were measured by the

coefficients of variation of the eight crown radii, and age-diameter

relationships were estimated from diameter growth increments over

an eight years period. They predicted that canopy mass to trunk

mass ratio should remain constant during tree growth. They

concluded that one can use the age-size relationships in the studied

canopy species.

Correlation coefficient (C.C.) between height and tree age in

the present study is 0.58 and age of M. peregrina tree can be

estimated from the regression equation [Age (year) = 9.66 height

(m)]. However, correlation coefficient (C.C.) between crown cover

area (m2) and age is 0.53 and Age (year) = 2.41 crown cover (m

2).

On the other hand, the relationship between the circumference

(m)/height (m) ration and estimated tree age is significant and

correlation coefficient (C.C.) is 0.58. The obtained regression

equation was [Age (year) = 494 Circumference/height]. Based on

these results and in agreement with Lieberman et al. (1985), age-

size relationship can be used to expect the age or size of M.

peregrina tree.

The present study was focused on studying the relationship

between age and size distributions with the soil characteristics.

Several studies have described in detail, the chemical and physical

composition of the soil supporting the plant species growing in

South Sinai (Danin, 1978a and 1983; Moustafa, 1986 and 1990;

Moustafa and Zaghloul, 1993 and 1996; Zaghloul, 1997; Abd El-

Wahab, 2003). These studies showed that soils of South Sinai, as

Discussion

136

desert soils, are characterized by spatial heterogeneity, where soil

properties vary quite small distances.

Based on the results of nature of soil surface, W. Me'ir has the

highest mean value of fine fractions (8.57 % ± 3.78). Moreover, the

soil surface of W. Agala and W. Zaghra has the highest mean value

of rocky fragments (stones = 43 % ± 7.58 in W. Zaghra, and

boulders = 38.3 % ± 22.55 in W. Agala). W. Agala and W. Feiran

characterized by sandy soils. It was sandy loamy to sandy in W.

Zaghra and in W. Me'ir.

ANOVA showed that the variation between the four studied

wadis in stones, boulders, coarse sand, fine sand and silt + clay is

statistically highly significant (P ≤ 0.000). The soil of the studied

four wadis showed non significant variation in the rest of physical

characters. Moreover, the differences between the studied wadis in

water soluble anions and cations (except K+

and Mg++

) are highly

significant.

The results of one-way ANOVA showed that the variation in

stones, boulders, and silt + clay between the four studied wadis is

statistically significant (P ≤ 0.05). While, coarse and fine sand are

statistically highly significant (P ≤ 0.000). The rest of physical

characters (fine fraction, gravel, bare rock, medium sand, moisture

and organic matter) showed non significant variation between them.

This result refers to that all studied wadis may be subjected to the

same conditions. The differences in water soluble anions and

cations (except K+

and Mg++

) are highly significant between the

Discussion

137

studied wadis and this may be return to variation in analyzed debris

content per each wadis, as well as the composition of its parent

rocks.

The actual moisture content of the soil fluctuates depending

upon the composition of the soil, topographic location, and climatic

variation. Moisture in the form of rainfall is the most decisive factor

controlling productivity, plant distribution and life form in arid

lands (Zohary, 1973). Slopes and gorges are covered by large

outcrops of smooth-faced rocks that maximize the avialability of

every shower to plant growing among rocks and concentrate run-off

water in cervices and soil pockets (Danin, 1972). Generally, all M.

peregrina trees in South Sinai suffer from extreme drought due to

high temperature and no rainfall.

Based on the analysis results of the collected samples of soil

collected from the four studied wadis, W. Agala has the highest

mean value of moisture content (1.21 ± 1.03 %). This may be return

to the increase of vegetation in this wadi such as Acacia trees which

act as a pump of underground water and increase the soil humidity,

moreover, Bedouins activities in raising the underground water for

cultivations. The lowest moisture content was recorded in the soil of

W. Me'ir as an open wadi. According to Moustafa and Zaghloul

(1993) and Moustafa and Zayed (1996), soil moisture availability

which is a function of slope degree, nature of soil surface and soil

texture is the most limiting factor in the distribution of plant

communities in general and M. peregrina in particular at gorge and

fan habitats in South Sinai.

Discussion

138

The effect of nature of soil surface on moisture availability is

related to its capacity of water storage. This depends not only on the

volume of water resources, but also on depth of surface deposits;

the shallow deposits are the lowest capacity of moisture storage

(Abd El-Wahab, 2003). Available moisture also increases with

increasing of the coarseness of surface such as cover of cobbles

conserves more moisture than the cover of gravels, (Hillel and

Tadmor, 1962). It is well-known that the presence of surface gravel

serves not only to protect the underlying soil from water and wind

erosion but reduces moisture losses. The gravel slow down water

movement across the surface, which results in more water

penetrating the soil, and also reduce the mount of soil surface

exposed to evaporation (El-Ghareeb and Shabana, 1990).

Soil organic matter influences many soil properties, including

the capacity of soil to supply N, P, and S and trace metals to plant;

inflation and infiltration and retention of water; degree of

aggregation and overall structure that affect air and water

relationships; cation exchange capacity; and soil color, which in

turn affects temperature relationships (Nelson and Sommers, 1996).

W. Agala showed the highest mean value of moisture content and

soil organic matter (2.77 ± 0.65). This may be return to increase the

grazing intensity. The effect of grazing, wild and domestic, is

among important factors of the desert habitats, ranking perhaps

second to the water factor (Kassas, 1953). Abd El-Wahab (2003)

recognized a positive correlation relationship between grazing

intensity and number of soil properties including silt and clay,

Discussion

139

SOM, TN, available P, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, and cation exchange

capacity.

The soil of the four studied wadis is slightly alkaline; it

ranged between 6.18 and 8.24 within the studied samples. However,

slight decrease in pH values is observed in soil of W. Me'ir. The

highest mean value of pH (8 ± 0.21) was recorded in W. Agala.

Electrical conductivity (EC) is a numerical expression of the ability

of an aqueous solution to carry an electric current. It is generally

related to the total solute concentration and can be used a

quantitative expression of dissolved salt concentration (Rhoades,

1996). Measurement of electrical conductivity is the most widely

used soil salinity test (Rhoades and Miyamoto 1990; Shirokova et

al., 2000).

When EC measured at the same time as pH, measurement of

conductivity is a good indicator of soil quality (Smith and Doran

1996). The highest mean value of electrical conductivity (7.63 ±

2.89 mS.cm-1

), and hence salinity (976.4 ± 370.2 ppm) and total

soluble salts (0.49 %) was recorded in W. Zaghra. Salinity and

drought are two environmental constraints that often occur

simultaneously in arid regions (Lichtenthaler, 1996). The increase

of salinity in the studied soil samples was due to the increase of K+

content in soil. The increase of K+ may return to the hydrolysis of

the parent rock around the root of M. peregrina and decay its pods

and leaves in the soil especially the leaves are rich in potassium

content. Based on this result, salinity has a negative effect on

growth of M. peregrina in the studied wadis.

Discussion

140

On the other hand, Bresler et al. (1982) showed that salinity

problems are most pronounced in arid and semi-arid regions

because of insufficient annual rainfall to flush accumulated salts

from the crop root zone. The most sources of salts in arid and semi-

arid regions are rainfall, mineral weathering, salts and various

surface waters and ground-waters which redistribute accumulated

salts, often as a result of Bedouins' activities. And according to

Garcia et al. (1993), the high stress caused by a combination of high

salinity levels and high air temperature resulted in hyper-arid

conditions, act as an ecological filter that resulted in reduced

species richness in these habitats.

Inorganic carbon in soil is usually present as carbonates of

calcium or magnesium. The carbonate minerals exert a dominating

influence on soil because of their relatively high solubility and

alkalinity and buffering properties (Sparks et al., 1996). The highest

mean value of soil bicarbonate HCO3-

(11.1 ± 5.47 meq/L) was

recorded in soil of W. Zaghra as it showed lowest pH (7.13 ± 0.12).

The obtained results showed that the behavior of chloride (Cl-) is

similar to sulphate (SO42-

). However, the soil of W. Zaghra showed

the highest mean value of chloride content (6.8 ± 3.57 meq/L), it

has also the highest sulphate content (5.7 ± 1.78 meq/L).

The most common soil minerals of sodium (Na+) and

potassium (K+) are albite (NaAlSi3O8), orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), other

feldspars and micas. Soil K exists in four forms in soils: solution,

exchangeable, fixed, and structural or mineral. The structural form

of K+ represents 89 % of the total K in soil. Only 1-2 % of the total

Discussion

141

soil potassium is readily available, exchangeable, and soil solution

forms. Meanwhile, potassium is a macronutrient for plants; sodium

is not essential element for plants. The content of soluble and

exchange sodium is important parameters in the management of

saline and sodic soil (Helmke and Sparks, 1996).

Calcium (Ca++

) and magnesium (Mg++

) are abundant elements

in soil and also are among the essential elements for plant growth

(Suarez, 1996). Calcium (Ca2+

) is essential for membrane

permeability, solute transport and maintenance of cell integrity.

Magnesium is required for many cellular functions including

production of chlorophyll, protein synthesis, regulation of cellular

pH and cation-anion balance (Marschner, 1986). Based on the

results of the present study, W. Zaghra showed the highest mean

values of water soluble cations Na+ (4.16 ± 2.54), K

+ (3.46 ± 1.96),

Ca++

(3.86 ± 1.23) and Mg++

(3.35 ± 1.23).

The availability of soil phosphorus to plants varies greatly

depending on the reaction, mineralogical composition, type of

colloids present, and content of organic matter of the soil (Wilde et

al., 1972; Allen, 1972 and Baruah and Barthakur, 1997).

Phosphorus is a major element in soil organic matter. In natural

terrestrial ecosystems, it is derived from the weathering of minerals

in parent rock material. It is the second most limiting nutrient for

terrestrial primary production (after nitrogen) (Robertson et al.,

1999). Sandy soils are generally poor in P, having 300-500mg kg-1

total P and 3-5mg kg-1

P extracted by the NaHCO3 method. In the

Discussion

142

alluvial soils these values are about 1000 and 12-15mg k

respectively (Balba, 1995).

Most of the phosphorus compounds found in soils are

unavailable for plant uptake, often because they are highly insoluble

(Brady and Weil, 1996). According to Balba (1995), sandy soils

contain low organic fraction as little as 0.008 - 0.015%, therefore

their total nitrogen content is also low (0.0015 – 0.002%). Based on

the result of soil analysis; W. Zaghra showed the highest mean

value of available phosphorus (2.58 ± 0.69 ppm) and total nitrogen

(0.29 ± 0.13 %). Moreover, the soil of W. Fieran showed the

highest mean value (0.037 %) in TP percentage. In agreement with

Heneidy and Halmy (2009), the soil texture of the studied wadis in

South Sinai is loamy sand to sandy. Moreover, some soil parameters

(sand, silt, clay, pH, K+, HCO3

- and P content) of the present study

are shared with their study as high values.

Pearson correlation between tree age and nature of soil

surface showed that there is a highly significant positive linear

relationship with fine fractions percentage and significant negative

relationship with bare rock. The correlation between tree size

(especially height, and crown cover area) and soil prosperities

showed a highly significant positive linear relationship with stones

percentage. Circumference/height ratio showed significant positive

linear relationship only with gravel percentage. Therefore, it seems

that the variations in age and size distribution between wadis are

most probably affected by anthropogenic effects (e.g. over-cutting,

Discussion

143

grazing) which are somewhat more disturbing in W. Feiran and W.

Agala than in W. Me'ir and than in W. Zaghra.

In fact, human impact has a negative effect on distribution of

M. peregrina species. Many rare species are threatened by habitat

fragmentation; however, less is known about effects of

fragmentation on common species, despite their potential role in

ecosystem productivity and functioning. Due to habitat destruction,

increasing urbanization, and intensive agricultural practices (as in

W. Agala), many widely distributed plant species occur in highly

fragmented (semi-) natural habitats, surrounded by human-altered

environments (Fabinne & Triest, 2006). Due to the very limited

seedling recruitment of M. peregrina in the studied wadis of South

Sinai, conservation efforts should be directed mainly to the

established individuals. Efforts should be made to minimize the

uncontrolled exploitation of the species by local people. In situ and

ex situ conservation of M. peregrina populations are strongly

recommended.

Integrated conservation planning using autecology,

demography, and genetic diversity data provides the greatest chance

of assuring the long-term survival of rare and endangered species

(Rebecca et al., 1999). On the other hand, understanding the

processes determining the commonness or rarity of plant species

can provide information necessary for effective conservation of rare

species (Münzbergova, 2005).

Discussion

144

The fitness characters and heterogeneity of M. peregrina tree

are in need to more studies to evaluate the genetic diversity between

the studied populations and to overcome the threats affect its

existence. According to Holt (1984) in agreement with Hamilton

and May (1977), Comins et al. (1980), Motro (1982), and Hastings

(1983), each species of organism has a characteristic pattern of

variation in abundance over space. As M. peregrina tree has low

establishment (Abd El-Wahab, 1995) and subjected to different

threats (grazing, cutting, drought, etc), its distribution in the studied

wadis of South Sinai is limited. Understanding the factors

responsible for the manifest diversity in distributional patterns is a

classic goal of ecology (Elton, 1927; Andrewartha and Birch, 1984;

Krebs, 1978; Brown and Gibson, 1983).

A growing body of evidence suggests that dispersal is

important in setting the mean abundances and patterns of

fluctuations of many natural populations (Connor et. al., 1983;

Gaines and McClenaghan, 1980). These empirical findings have

stimulated much theoretical work on the effects of dispersal and

spatial heterogeneity in population dynamics (Levin, 1976; Okubo,

1980; Hastings, 1982; Kareiva, 1982; Vance, 1984). Dispersal is

also widely recognized to be important in the evolution of species,

both directly as a component in life history strategies (Horn and

Rubenstein, 1984), and indirectly as a determinant of geographical

distributions, patterns of gene flow, and effective population sizes,

(Endler, 1977).

Discussion

145

According to Teague and Danckwerts (1989), management of

an area to a large extent depends on condition of the vegetation.

Constant monitoring and studying of vegetation of an area is thus of

the most importance in order to provide the information on changes

in condition of the area. Based on the obtained result in the present

work, the distribution of M. peregrina in studied wadis indicated the

dominance of mature individuals over the juvenile ones. This

distribution characterizes declining populations; because the

population has a large proportion of larger individuals than smaller

ones. Moreover, M. peregrina must be evaluated seasonally rather

than annually.

Zaghloul (1997) reported that the measurements for protecting

and managing of the endemic species in South Sinai should be

preceded by intensive and extensive or long term (autecological)

studies. Moreover, over-grazing, over-cutting and all Bedouins

activities in South Sinai should be managed. Zaghloul (1997) also

recommended that restoration of the endangered species by soil

seed bank and transplanting should be studied. Based on the

obtained results in the present study, M. peregrina populations in

the South Sinai are declining and their survival cannot be ensured

without conservation measures. Therefore conservation efforts

should be directed mainly to the recognized individuals.

In agreement with Zaghloul (1997), over-collection coupled

with grazing pushed many species of plants to extinction. In the last

twenty years unmanaged human activities have threatened and rare

Discussion

146

species with extinction, resulted in disappearance of pastoral plant

species, and have caused an increased dominance of unpalatable

plant species, in lower wadis and around settlements. In addition to

over-collection has a dangerous impact on M. peregrina populations

as it is used by Bedouins for medicinal purposes that may lead to

extinction.

Zaghloul (2003) confirmed that the key to learning the status

of a rare species of special concern is to census the species in the

field and monitors its populations over time. By repeating censusing

a population on a regular basis, changes in the population over time

can be determined (Simberloff, 1988; Primack and Hall, 1992;

Schemske et al., 1994; and Primack, 1998). Long-term census

records can help to distinguish long-term population trends of

increase or decrease, possibly caused by human disturbance, from

short-term fluctuation caused by variations in weather or

unpredictable natural events (Pechmann et al., 1991; Primack,

1998; and Primack and Miao, 1992).

On the other hand, Zaghloul (2003) recommended where,

habitats are in immediate danger of destruction, the collection from

the wild of plant material (e.g. seeds, clonal fragments) and its

maintenance in botanical gardens become necessary. Here the input

from genetic becomes even more important both at the sampling

stage and where attempts are made at controlled breeding (Brown

and Briggs, 1991).

Discussion

147

Anonymous (1987) stated that environmental stress has often

seen as the result of growing demand on scarce resources.

Accordingly, conservation and sustainable development of natural

resources should ideally be directed towards a common goal: the

rational use of the earth's resources to achieve the highest quality of

living for mankind (Zahran and Willis, 2009)

Conclusion:

In a conclusion, the obtained results showed a highly

significant relationship between the tree radius and the number of

counted growth rings and it can be used as regular time markers for

dating M. peregrina trees. Age of M. peregrina is located in-

between 13 and 382 years old with a mean of 69.5 ± 47 years.

Moreover, the number of trees under 20 years old was only 11

individuals in all population. This means that during the last 20

years, no new population appeared.

Both (W. Fieran and W. Agala) are the most wadis subjected

to threats that affect the existence of M. peregrina tree, followed by

W. Me’ir then W. Zaghra. The results showed that the growth rate

of M. peregrina in the studied wadis is very low with an annual

increment 1.76mm in radius. On the other hand, age structure

results showed unhealthy shrinking populations of M. peregrina

trees in Southern Sinai with sharp decline in the last twenty years. If

the current situation unchanged, the populations of M. peregrina

trees will not persist, that the older trees are not being replaced by

young trees, and then all populations will permanently disappear.

Discussion

148

There is highly significant positive linear relationship between

tree size and estimated age of M. peregrina. This means that size

can be used to expect the age, althogh there are no significant

differences between the four studied wadis in soil characteristics.

Thus variations in age and size distribution between wadis are most

probably affected by anthropogenic effects (e.g. over-cutting,

damage, grazing) which are somewhat more disturbing in W. Feiran

and W. Agala than in W. Me'ir and than in W. Zaghra. This study

suggests that the current unmanaged anthropogenic practices

compose a drastically stress on M. peregrina tree in South Sinai.

Unless the Bedouins activities been managed, the ultimate fate of

the current populations is extinction.

As the current study depended on static sampling, more

accurate modeling of the populations' structure would require data

for growth and mortality over a long time period especially during

the climatic stresses that probably have a major influence on

population structure for a number of years. Also, population

viability analysis (PVA) is urgently needed to identify the factors

(natural and human-made) that are important in dynamics of M.

peregrina populations and management options precisely. The

recommended PVA will help in building up a model by combining

the existing information into predictions about the persistence of

species under different assumptions of environmental conditions

and under different conservation and management options.

Discussion

149

Recommendations

Based on the previous results and looking for the future of the

M. peregrina populations in the studied area, one can suggest the

following points:

(1) Formulating the conservation plans in-situ and ex-situ to save

the present populations of M. peregrina trees in Southern Sinai

(starting with the most exploited trees in W. Feiran and the

lowest stress-facing ones in W. Zaghra).

(2) Supporting the idea of fencing which play an important role in

decreasing of the threatening intensity and increasing of the

productivity of M. peregrina populations. The necessity to

construct the enclosures around M. peregrina trees especially in

W. Feiran as the most exploited trees and in W. Zaghra as the

best ones.

(3) It is necessary to manage the Bedouins behaviors against their

activities of over-cutting and over-grazing, and increase their

awareness in time and rate of plants collection. Moreover,

encourage Bedouins to develop means of increasing revenue

generation of M. peregrina in South Sinai; such as cultivation of

this important plant in its habitats and in botanical gardens.

(4) Thus, care efforts should be directed to M. peregrina trees in

South Sinai during establishment and growth periods to avoid its

extinction.

(5) Genetic diversity and heterozygosity of M. peregrina

populations in Southern Sinai are in need to more studies.

Summary

151

VIII. Summary

As Moringa peregrina is one of medicinal, economically and

valuable tree, it is the most endangered species due to over-cutting,

over-grazing, and extremes of drought. It was necessary to study its

population dynamic to conserve it. The unmanaged utilization of

this valuable tree is very short-sighted leading to high mortality,

low recruitment, and poor survival of seedling. Therefore the

present work aimed to estimate the age structures and its relation

with size structures of M. peregrina populations, along with the

spatial and temporal changes in them in response to birth, aging and

mortality rate. A total 404 of M. peregrina trees were surveyed at

41 sites in four wadis of South Sinai; W. Agala (40 trees), W.

Feiran (47 trees), W. Zaghra (82 trees) and W. Me'ir (235 trees).

In each site some parameters were determined such as

elevation, soil texture, soil analyses for some soil samples around

the trees. Ninety-three cross sections represent the four wadis were

collected. 8 diameters per sample were measured to determine the

radius. The bark thickness also measured, and linear regression

between radius and bark was carried out to avoid the error in growth

rings-radius relationship. The linear regression between radius

(excluding the bark) and no. of growth annual rings in these cross

sections was used to estimate the age structure.

The estimated ages were used to determine the age

distribution and construct a static life table. The age distribution of

the studied populations was a predictive tool to determine if the M.

Summary

152

peregrina populations in Southern Sinai are healthy or not. The age

structure of populations which consisting of multiple cohorts was

used to estimate the survival patterns of the various age groups in

the static life table. Size structures (height, crown cover area and

trunk circumference) were determined during the field

measurements which involved the tree height (m), crown cover

(m2), trunk circumferences (cm). Circumference/height ratio was

calculated to find out the relation of size with age distribution.

The results of the linear regression showed a highly

significant relationship (P = 0.000, r2 = 0.27) between the tree

radius (excluding the bark) and number of growth rings. This

means that the growth rings can be taken as regular time markers

and could be used for dating of M. peregrina trees. Moreover, M.

peregrina tree in Southern Sinai grows very slowly and its age

ranges between 13 and 382 years at W. Zaghra with a mean of 69.5

± 47 years. 26.2 % of trees located in the class [41 - 60] years. At

the same time, 72.8 % and 46.5 % of M. peregrina trees in the

pooled population are older than 40 and 60 years old respectively.

Moreover, 30 % of trees in the pooled population are older than 80

years old. In addition, 2.2 % of M. peregrina trees are older than

200 years old. The age structure reveals very unhealthy status of M.

peregrina populations and suggests that if the current situation

unchanged, the populations of M. peregrina trees will not persist,

that the older trees are not being replaced by young trees, and

without change of these conditions, all populations will

permanently disappear.

Summary

153

The result of static life table of M. peregrina in South Sinai

revealed that ≥ 180 years old trees in W. Agala, ≥ 100 years old in

W. Fieran, ≥ 260 years old in W. Zaghra, and ≥ 240 years old in W.

Me'ir have a 100% chance of death (qx = 1.00). The survivorship

curve of M. peregrina populations in South Sinai represents type III

of survivorship curves due to the high rate of mortality among the

young and the old trees.

ANOVA (one-way) results revealed that there are highly

significant variations (P = 0.000) in the measured tree size (height,

crown cover, and trunk circumference) between the four studied

wadis which may reflect different environmental factors and/or

levels of human stress. The Pearson correlation revealed that the

size (especially height and circumference/height ratio) can be used

to expect the age class of M. peregrina tree.

ANOVA showed that the variation in stones, boulders, coarse

sand, fine sand and silt + clay between the four studied wadis is

statistically significant. On the other hand, there is no significant

variation between the studied wadis in rest of physical characters.

The differences in water soluble anions and cations (except K+

and

Mg++

) are highly significant between the studied wadis.

Pearson correlation between tree age and nature of soil

surface showed that there is a highly significant positive linear

relationship with fine fractions percentage and significant negative

relationship with bare rock. The correlation between tree size

(especially height, and crown cover) and soil prosperities showed a

Summary

154

highly significant positive linear relationship with stones

percentage. Circumference/height ratio showed significant positive

linear relationship only with gravel percentage. Therefore, it seems

that the variations in age and size distribution between wadis are

most probably affected by anthropogenic effects (e.g. over-cutting,

grazing) which are somewhat more disturbing in W. Feiran and W.

Agala than in W. Me'ir and than in W. Zaghra.

In a conclusion, this study suggests that the current

unmanaged anthropogenic practices compose a drastically stress on

M. peregrina tree in South Sinai. Unless these activities been

managed, the ultimate fate of the current populations is extinction.

As the current study depended on static sampling, more accurate

modeling of the populations' structure would require data for

growth and mortality over a long time period especially during the

climatic extremes that probably have a major influence on

population structure for a number of years. In addition, population

viability analysis (PVA) is urgently needed to identify the factors

(natural and human-made) that are important in dynamics of M.

peregrina populations and management options precisely.

The present study recommend to put in consider the

conservation strategies (in-situ and ex-situ) to save the present

populations of M. peregrina trees in Southern Sinai (starting with

the most exploited trees in W. Feiran and the lowest stress-facing

ones in W. Zaghra). Finally, Care efforts should be directed to M.

peregrina trees in South Sinai during establishment and growth

periods to avoid its extinction.

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Appendices

197

X. Appendices

Appendix I.

Morphology of Moringa peregrina

Figure (31): photos of Moringa peregrina tree growing in South

Sinai.

Appendices

198

Appendix II.

Threats affect Moringa existence

Figure (32): The impact of cutting (a), infections (b) grazing (c)

and drought (d & e) on M. peregrina trees in South Sinai.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Appendices

199

Figure (33): Over-cutting is one of the most common

observations in W. Agala.

Appendices

200

Figure (34): The green pods and branches of M. peregrina are the most

favorable forage for animals in Wadi Feiran.

Figure (35): The impact of drought on Moringa trees, no green

branches, no flowers, no pods, and no life.

Appendices

201

Figure (36): Long drought period facilitates the winds actions to

break M. peregrina trees in Wadi Feiran.

Appendices

202

Figure (37): The decrease of vitality and productivity of M.

peregrina trees growing at high altitude (a & b) than the

lower one (c & d) in Wadi Feiran.

a

b

c

d

Appendices

203

Figure (38): The infected old trunks of M. peregrina growing in

Wadi Zaghra and W. Me'ir.

Appendices

204

Appendix III.

The old Moringa trees

Figure (39): Two of the old M. peregrina trees in W. Zaghra (a & b)

and in W. Me'ir (c & d).

a

b

c d

Appendices

205

Appendix IV.

Associated plant species

Figure (40): Associated species with M. peregrina trees in South Sinai,

(a) Acacia tortilis, (b) Aerva javanica, (c) Capparis sinaica, (d)

Citrullus colocynthsis, (e) Calotropis procera, and (f)

Hyoscyamus muticus.

(f)

(b)

(c)

(a)

(d)

(e)

Appendices

ـأ

Arabic Summary

صر" -ثئخ ػشبئر جبد ؽت اهطبر اهب ف عة ضبء "

ظرا هوسابةح اهبئواخ فا اهزؼاااة اهطالب هصارا فىاب فا ؽبعاخ ظاررخ هوؾ اب

ػواا ارةااب اهيجؼااخ اهجهعااخه زيواات ااسا اهؾ ااب ا١ضاازسااى اضاان اهطاازااى ثااا

ااع اهبةرح اهاةح ثبالقراض ثص خ خبصخه ررشا اضزالكب ثص خ ػبخ اهؾ ب ػو

ا Moringaceaeؼزجاار جاابد ؽاات اهطاابر اهغااص اهؽااا فاا اهؼبئوااخ اهرغااخ

ػشر ػب زشر ف اهبغق االضزائخ اهغبفخا ا ا اشاغبر صالصخعي سا اهغص

هطابر ثاااخ ا اشاغبر اهعاسخ فاهجابد ؽات ا اهقبخ هوغ ب ا سزوف اهشلن اهسبرع

اهطؼةخ اها إه اهشاغراد ااد اهااربد اهعاةح اغشقر إه اشغبر االضياخ ف

ف شبم شرق أفرقبه ط سا اهجبد ف اهجالة اهؼرثخ ضن اهطؼةخ صر ثؾات اهطابر

ر اؽاار يقااخ عجاان ػوجااخ أ اهجابه زاعااا فاا صاار فاا اهصااؾراء اهشاارحخ ضاابؽن اهجؾاا

عجبم عة ضبءه ف صر غا أب ااع اهجبرخ اهاةح ثبالقراض اهك هزؼرظب

هأ غراض غجخ هورػ اهغبئر زبةح رقيؼب حجن اهجا الضزسااب كحة

زاراػ غاام شاغرح ؽاات اهطابر ااب ثاا خطاخ إهاا خطاخ ػشاار زاارا ااد أراق

وخ ؽش زراػ غم اهرحخ ب ثا ػشار ضاجؼ ضاززراا ثب١ظابفخ إها أ زرراب غ

صبئخ اهغصا ااد رائؾخ غجخه رزس ثسر جابد ؽات اهطابر ثطاجخ ػبهاخ ا اهساد اهزا

% ثرره ؼزجر ؽط اهاك ا اهؾاط 42%( ثب أكضر 42-24رزراػ ب ث )

% ا زاد اهجاسرحا هاسا 07ف ثسر ؽت اهطبر ؽاش يلا أكضار ا طاجخاها اضبض

رؼزجر اهجسرح صارا عااا هوساد اهؼبهاخ اهقابحا ازي اهؾصام ػوا اهساذ ػا غراق غوا

اهجااسر فاا اهاابء عااغ اهسااذ اا ضاايؼ اهاابءا ؽااش طاا اهسااذ اهطاازسو ثبهطاابره

هساد اب كسصاجبد هوزرثاخ كاسهك فا ؼبهغاخ اهاب رطزساى ثقبب اهجاسر ثؼاا اضازسراط ا

ؽش أ هب خبصخ رغغ اهشائته هجسر جبد ؽت اهطبر أخ غسائخ ػبهخ ؽش رؾزا

ػو اهؼاا ا اؽابض ااخ ضان ارعا اهطازبة اهوطا اهزرثزفاب اه ان

اسهض اه بهه آال اهض اهضر اهوض

Appendices

ـب

هشاغرح ؽات اهطابر اضازؼبالد غجااخ ػاااحا ؽاش أ أزبراب عاسرب أراحااب

رطزساى كؼالط ه٠راى اهطرغببدا ثب رطزساى اهجسر ف ػاالط أراى اهاجي اسا ثب١ظابفخ

د إهاا أ طاازسو اهغااسر طاازساى فاا ػااالط االضزطااقبءه كااسهك طاازساى كؼااالط فاا ؽاابال

اؽارار اهغواا اهغابا عااا أ طازسو اهجاسر ا فبػواخ ظااا إصابثخ اهغواا ثبهؼااا اا

(ا Psedomonas aeruginosa( )Staphylococcus aureusااراض اهجلزراخ ضان )

ثب أراح رطزساى كيراد هوقرػ سن هالى خبصخ ف ؽبالد اهصاااعه رزاس اراق

ثبؽزائب ػو اة الاػاخ رخخاس هزؾ اس رطان ػواخ اهعاي فا ػاالط اهغسر اهوؾبء

ا١ضبما كب صجذ أ زذ اهطبر ؼزجر بةح ااد فؼن و هوزسو االطاب ه حاا اكار أ

زذ اهطبر ويف اهطيػ اهوزجخ هوغواه كاسهك رزاس عاسر شاغرح ؽات اهطابر ثاه اساحب

وجاا هزقاخ رضاغ اهارئز كاب إاب اارح هوياش اهجاما اسا ر ؽاش رطازساى كقا ه

ثب١ظبفخ إه أب رؼبهظ ؽبالد اهشون اهطزربه

رؼزجر أراق شغرح ؽت اهطبر صار ه زب أا ةا ط كضرا االػ اهؼااخا

هارعااخ أاا فقااا عااا أ ؾزاا اهجاابد اا اهلبهطااى ػبهاابا أااب ػاا اهؾاااا فؾزااا ػاابه

طزساى ف ػالط اب ف اه وجه رؼزجر اراق صار ب عااا هوجارره ػوا اهاك

فاااى اراق رطااازساى كيؼااابى ؽاااش أ اراق رؾزااا ػوااا اهلجراااذ كضااار ااا اهؼااابة

اه زببد اهعررخ هوغطيه

طابر إها رااةب ثابالقراض حا أة اهرػ اهغبئر اهزقيغ اهزسااا هشاغرح ؽات اه

فاا صاارا ااار اهااس طاازاػ ةراضااخ ةبلااخ ااس اهشااغرح اا أعاان إػاابةح اضاازيبب

كاسا ؼزجار فاي ةبلاخ ؽبزب ف ثئبرب اهيجؼخ هزؼة ثبه غ ػو ضلب اهجا غريه

راا اس اهاراضاخ إها ػشبئر سا اهجبد يوجب أضبضب اخ ثاراظ ؽباخ غواخ اعانا هاسا

ا خاالم رؾااا اهزركات ةراضخ ةبلخ ػشبئر أشغبر ؽت اهطبر اهباخ فا عاة ضابء

هStatic life tableاهؼالحخ ثبا اشبء عام اهؾبح هس اهؼشبئراهؼر اهؾغ

(ا شاغرح 27شغرح هؾت اهطبر ف أرثؼخ ةب؛ اة آعوخ ) 272حا ري رصا

شااغرح(ا حاا كااذ 424شاغرح( اة ؼار ) 24شاغرح(ا اة زغاارح ) 20اة فارا )

Appendices

ـج

حؼااب رااي ةراضااخ ارر بػااب وااص ضاايؼ اهزرثااخا كااسهك أعرااذ اهزؾوااالد 24ااس اشااغبر

اه سبئخ اهلبئخ هؼبد اهزرثخ اهز ر فب س اشغبرا راي رقاي اهزااااد اهزا

ضزرار س اشغبر ػو حا اهؾبح؛ خالم رؾاا ةرعبد اهرػ اهغبئرا اهزقيغه رؼق ا

حيابع ػرظاا فاا أفاارع ضااقب اشااغبر 32هاراضاخ اهزركاات اهؼاار؛ رااي رقيااغ

هزقار أػبر أشغبر ؽات اهطابر ػا غراق رقاار ػااة ؽوقابد اها اهطاخا اغابة ؼبةهاخ

يار اس اهؼابد )طازجؼاا ا ضاك اهقواف( ػااة ؽوقابد اهاا االؾاار اهسي ث صف ح

اهز ثارب اضازساذ هزقاار أػابر اشاغبر ؾان اهاراضاخ ػا غراق اهزؼاط فاب ثقاي

اا خااالم ااس اػاابر اهقااارح رااي رؾاااا أصااب أحيبراابا حااا رااي رؾواان اهزاابئظ اؽصاابئبه

ضزساذ س اهزبئظ كضاوخ اه static life tableذ اهززغ اهؼر رل ؽام ؽبح صبث

صاؾخ أى اله أعاب راي فا ؽبهاخ فا عاة ضابء ؽات اهطابررجئخ هزقرر ب إاا كبذ ػشبئر

كاسا حابش ا١رر ابع طاجخ هرقار ؼاالد اهغبح هسزوف اهغبغ اهؼراخ ا عاام اهؾابح

اهؾػ/ا١رر بع هاراضخ رزغ ؽغي اشغبر ػالحخ اهؾغي ثؼر اهشغرحه

ا رااي حاابش ارر اابع اشااغبرا أثؼاابة ؽاات اهطاابر شااغبرهاراضااخ اهزركاات اهؾغاا

ااهغياابء اهسعاارا ؾااػ اهشااغرح ػااا اهقبػاااح أخاارا رااي احااا رااي رؾواان اهزاابئظ اؽصاابئب

طااجخ اهززااغ اهؾغاا )خصصااب االرر اابعا طاابؽخ اهغياابء اهسعاار هؼالحااخ ثاا ةراضااخ ا

ػر س اشغبرهاهؾػ/ا١رر بع( ث

:حا خوصذ س اهاراضخ إه اهزبئظ اهزبهخ

عة ػالحخ ؼخ عاا ث صف حير اهشغرح ػااة ؽوقابد اها اهطاخ اهزا رؼا ( 4)

أػابر شاغرح ذزسااب كخشر زظي هؼار اهشاغرحا حاا رراؽاأ س اهؾوقبد ل إض

ضا حي ري رطغن س اهقي شاغبر اة زغارح اهزا رؼزجار 224 - 42ؽت اهطبر ث

أكجر اشغبر ػراه

ثااخ ا اه زارح ضا أ 47ئخ ػرخا كن فئخ ف 47( رززع أػبر شغرح ؽت اهطبر ف 4)

% ا 2ه30حاا عاا أ أػابر اض(ه 227 اه زرح )أكجر ضخ( ؽز 47)أحن

Appendices

ـد

% اا 47أشااغبر ؽاات اهطاابر ثيقااخ اهاراضااخ رزؼااا اهؼشاار ػباابا كااب أ أػاابر

% 0ه24% ف اة زغارحا 2ه06% ف اة فراا 2ه27اشغبر ف اة آعوا

يقاخ فا ت اهطابرؽا أشاغبرغان ػشابئر % ا 2ه04ف اة ؼرا ثب١ظابفخ إها

ا أشاغبر % 4ه26ضا ثب 27أكضر غة ضبء رقغ ف اه ئخ اهؼرخ اهاراضخ ث

هاهيقخ رزؼا اهطز ػبب

ضاخ(ا كاب أ 224( أحاى اشغبر ػرا شغرح ر ف اة زغارح حاار ػراب ثا )2)

(ا ثاب أحااى شاغرح فا اة آعواخ ضخ 442أحاى اشغبر ف اة ؼر قار ػرب ث )

443ضاخ(ا أخارا فاى أحااى أشاغبر اة فارا قاار ػراب ثا ) 434ثقار ػراب ثا )

ضخ(ه

ا زقوصاخ ( أ ر اهزركت اهؼر شغبر ؽت اهطابر فا عاة ضابء ؽبهاخ غار صاؾخ2)

ا اؾاااارا ( ضاا27 - 67اه ئااخ اهؼرااخ )ؽااش ؾاااس الاابظ فاا ؾاا اهززااغ ػااا

(ا إ هي زغر اسا اهحاف فاى اشاغبر احااى ػارا 27 - 47شااا ػا اه ئخ اهؼرخ )

ه رطزجام ثهفراة عااحه

ؾاس اس بض ف ػاة اشغبر صاغرح اهطا ثشالن اظاؼ فا اهؼشار ضاخ اهبظاخا ( 4)

اة آعوخا اكجار ض ف 427% ه٠شغبر اكجر 477رصن فرصخ اهفبح إه كب

اكجار ا كاسهك ضا فا اة زغارحا 467اكجر ا ض ف اة فراا 477

هاهع اهضبهش survivorshipضن ؾ اه ؼرض ف اة 427

ثشلن ؽبة فا ااخ اخارح خصصاب فا أشغبر ؽت اهطبر ثغة ضبء س ط ؽغيا( 6)

ه ثبءا ػو سا راق س اهاراضاخ ابحش اهسيار اسرح ثها إاا هاي ظخض اهب 47-27

فا يقااخ عاة ضاابء ؽاات اهطابرازي اهازؾلي فاا اهعاغغ اهاحؼاخ ػواا ػشابئر شاغرح

هغ اصار بثشلن ػبعن صؾؼ فى س اهؼشبئر اةح ثب١خز بء ثشلن ةائي ب ضل ه ثا

ه خف س اهيقػو اهظخ اهجئخ

ران إال فا طاجخ اهفرحب ؼخ ثا اهةاب ارثؼاخ رعا أ ال رد رؾوالد اهزرثخأ( 0)

لرثاابداجبهكااسهك رركااس ثؼااط ااابد كاهسشاا اهاابػيا طااجخ اهياا اهطااوذ

اهلوراا اهلجرزبدا اهلبربد كبهصةى اهلبهطىه

رركاس ااالػ خصابئ اهزرثاخ إال اغ اهشاغرح أ ؽغاي رعا اررجبغ غرة ثا ػاال ( 2)

Appendices

ـه

هكسهك غ طجخ اهزرع اهلو

:ثبء ػو ب رقاى زبئظا خوصذ اهاراضخ إه اهزصبد ارخ

( ظررح ؽبخ جبد ؽات اهطابر )اهرغاب( فا ثئبراب اهيجؼاخا ثاا ررشاا اضازغاله 4

زابةح اهاػ اهجئا ظررح رظي ػوبد اهرػا اهزقياغ ثقبء ػ ػو حا اهؾبحه

ها ضلب اهجا ثغة ضبءه

ا ػا ثئبراب اهيجؼاخ( ظررح إػبةح رغ اكضبر جابد ؽات اهطابر ثابهيرق اهسزو اخ فا 4

Individual's income ؼشاازي غرااق اهجااا أ طااي ااب ؼاان ػواا زاابةح ةخاام

هاهجهع اهؾ ب ػو اهزع ؽااام اهجبرااابد اهااابةرح اهزااا رزؼااارض هالضااازغالم Enclosures( رااااػي فلااارح اهطااابعبد 2

اهطزره

( اهزاع اهااراص اهغا هااسا اهجابد فاا ؽبعاخ هسااا ا اهاراضاابد هوزؼار ػواا ةرعاابد 2

اهالئخا قبخ سا اهجبد هوظر اهجئخ اهاحؼخ ػوه

ـأ

13 9

33 9

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هصر -اإلمسبعيليخ

9002

هصر -سينبء جنوة في ياليسبر النبهحت د نجب عشبئر خثيئ ""

Mohamed Dadamouny

Researcher in Suez Canal University and very interested with

the flora of Sinai, especially the rare medicinal species. One of

the founders and logo designer of the Egyptian Society for the

Environmental Sciences (ESES) and one of the technical editors

of its Journal (CATRINA). One of the organizers of its annual

conferences that held in SCU on different scientific issues. M.Sc

2009 SCU on one of the desert trees (Moringa), as shown in this

study.

Egypt as a developing country needs to use its natural biological resources to

generate a reasonable income in order to overcome the explosive growth in its

population. The problems arise when these resources are abused through

mismanagement. Setting up an effective and a precise system of management may

help in protecting what is left of our natural resources. Conservation is primarily a

precondition stage for starting sustainable development. Sinai is rich in its natural

resources especially the medicinal and endemic plants. One of the medicinal plants in

South Sinai is Moringa tree which is a good source of oil and used since Old

Egyptians in treating inflammations, tumors and purifying the water. Several threats

affect the existence of Moringa peregrina tree in Southern Sinai, such as over-cutting

for different uses, over-grazing, and extremes of drought as a result of climate

change. The unmanaged utilization of this valuable tree leads to high mortality, low

recruitment, and poor survival of seedlings. As a result of this thesis; we found a non-

natural age structure, indicating unhealthy shrinking populations with a sharp decline

in the last 20-40 years, and high mortality rate among both young and old trees. If the

threat situation remains unchanged, the current populations will permanently

disappear. Conservation efforts should be directed to M. peregrina trees in South

Sinai during establishment and growth periods to avoid its extinction.

© Faculty of Science, SCU. 2009

http://fsc.scuegypt.edu.eg/