Platform - UTP Press

Facilitating Learning of Engineering Graphics

Instead of Learning CAD System

A. Majdi Abd Rani, Azmi Abd. Wahab, Rahmat Shaarani

& Dr. Abd. Rashid Abd. Aziz.

Role of Global Positioning System (GPS) in Hydrocarbon Exploration

– Subsidence Monitoring of the Offshore Platform

Dr. Abdul Nasir Matori & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Halim Setan

Influence Of Some Parameters On The Efficiency Of A Solar

Collector

Balbir Singh Mahinder Singh & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fauziah Sulaiman

The Tensile Characteristics Of Fibre Reinforced Bituminous Mixtures

Ir. Dr. Ibrahim Kamaruddin

Stratigraphic Position of Rangsi Conglomerate in Sarawak

Dr Ismail Che Mat Zin

Development Of Agriculture In Malaysia:

The Case of the Rice Sector

Dr. Mohammed Halib

The Application Of Interference Optical Microscopy In Measuring

Window Thickness Of Rigid Polyurethane Foams

Dr. Puteri S Megat-Yusoff & Prof. A. J. Ryan

Pinch And Exergy Analysis On A Brown-Boveri Steam

Turbine Power Plant

M. Shuhaimi & D. Y. Lim

English for Academic Purposes –

An Investigation of Students’ Proficiency

Sumathi Renganathan

Designing Computer Laboratories:

A Malaysian University’s Experience

Suziah Sulaiman & Dayang Rohaya Awang Rambli

P L AT F O R M

Volume 1 Number 2 Jul - Dec 2000

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NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

Instructions to Authors

Authors of articles that fit the aims,scopes and policies of this journal areinvited to submit soft and hard copiesto the editor. Paper should be writtenin English. Authors are encouragedto obtain assistance in the writing andediting of their papers prior tosubmission. For papers presented orpublished elsewhere, also include thedetails of the conference or seminar.

Manuscript should be prepared inaccordance with the following:1. The text should be preceded by

a short abstract of 50-100 wordsand four or so keywords.

2. The manuscript must be typedon one side of the paper, double-spaced throughout with widemargins not exceeding 3,500words although exceptions willbe made.

3. Figures and tables have to belabelled and should be includedin the text. Authors are advisedto refer to recent issues of thejournals to obtain the format forreferences.

4. Footnotes should be kept to aminimum and be as brief aspossible; they must benumbered consecutively.

5. Special care should be given tothe preparation of the drawingsfor the figures and diagrams.Except for a reduction in size,they will appear in the finalprinting in exactly the sameform as submitted by the author.

6. Reference should be indicatedby the authors’ last names andyear of publications.

Publisher

Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS

Bandar Seri Iskandar

31750 Tronoh

Perak Darul Ridzuan

MALAYSIA

Univers i t i Teknologi Petronas • http://www.utp.edu.my

1PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000

PlatformPlatformContentsAdvisors

Dr Rosti Saruwono

Ir Dr Ahmad Fadzil Mohamad Hani

Editor-in-Chief

Dr Puteri Sri Melor Megat Yusoff

Co-Editors

Suziah Sulaiman

Zulqarnain Abu Bakar

Yap Vooi Voon

Editorial Board

Dr Mohammed Halib

Dr Abas Md Said

Dr Mohamed Ibrahim Abdul Mutalib

Dr Abd Rashid Abd Aziz

Dr Mohd Noh Karsiti

Ir Dr Ibrahim Kamaruddin

Dr Nasiman Sapari

Dr Azmi Mohd Shariff

Azrai Abdullah

Address

Editor-in-Chief

PLATFORM



31750 Tronoh

Perak Darul Ridzuan

Malaysia

ht tp: / /www.utp .edu.my

puter [email protected]

Telephone +(60)5 367 8018

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PLATFORM is a biannual, peer-reviewed journal of Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS. It servesas a medium for faculty members, students and industry professionals to share their

knowledge, views, experiences and discoveries in their areas of interest and expertise.

It comprises as collection of, but not limited to, papers presented by the academic staffof the university at various local and international conferences, conventions and seminars.

The entries range from opinions and views on engineering, technology and social issuesto deliberations on the progress and outcomes of academic research.

Opinions expressed in this journal need not necessarily reflect the official views of theuniversity.

All materials is copyright of Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS. Reproduction in whole or in

part is not permitted without the written permission of the publisher.

ISSN 1511-6794

Facilitating Learning of Engineering Graphics Instead of

Learning CAD System by A. Majdi Abd Rani, Azmi Abd. Wahab, RahmatShaarani & Dr. Abd. Rashid Abd. Aziz.

Role of Global Positioning System (GPS) in Hydrocarbon

Exploration – Subsidence Monitoring of the Offshore Platform

by Dr. Abdul Nasir Matori & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Halim Setan


Collector by Balbir Singh Mahinder Singh & Assoc. Prof. Dr. FauziahSulaiman

The Tensile Characteristics Of Fibre Reinforced Bituminous

Mixtures by Ir. Dr. Ibrahim Kamaruddin


by Dr Ismail Che Mat Zin

Development Of Agriculture In Malaysia: The Case of the Rice

Sector by Dr. Mohammed Halib

The Application Of Interference Optical Microscopy In

Measuring Window Thickness Of Rigid Polyurethane Foams

by Dr. Puteri S Megat-Yusoff & Prof. A. J. Ryan

Pinch And Exergy Analysis On A Brown-Boveri Steam Turbine

Power Plant by M. Shuhaimi & D. Y. Lim

English for Academic Purposes – An Investigation of Students’

Proficiency by Sumathi Renganathan

Designing Computer Laboratories: A Malaysian University’s

Experience by Suziah Sulaiman & Dayang Rohaya Awang Rambli

2

8

12

17

25

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45

49

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PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000

2 Univers i t i Teknologi Petronas • http://www.utp.edu.my

INTRODUCTION

Graphics has been heralded as one ofthe cornerstone in engineering, as aneffective medium of communicationbetween engineers and other technicalpersons in engineering profession.Almost all engineering schools relatedin mechanical or chemical engineeringdiscipline provide for a course inEngineering Graphics. This courseused to be conducted in a classroomor laboratory equipped with drawingboards, T-square, set-squares andother hand-held instruments. Theadvancement of computers, hardwareand software, has led to thereplacement of hand-held instrumentswith computer-aided design, CAD, asa tool for facilitating learning.

A change in the drawing tools, fromhand-held instruments to computers,has inadvertently led to a shift incourse objective and students interest[1]. The syllabuses of engineeringgraphics courses have slightly divertedfrom its main objective of teachingstudents so that they can read andwrite the graphic language clearlyusing universally accepted symbols,conventions, standards and principles.Lately, it was found that more oftenthe course content for engineeringgraphics courses tend to focus moreon the need to learn the ropes of thesoftware. Facilitators anddemonstrators also tend to dwell onthe CAD software instead of focusingon the fundamentals of graphiclanguage. Thus, students tend to focus

on learning the CAD software ratherthan graphics fundamentals. Thechallenge to facilitate engineeringgraphics is further compounded bythe difficulty in scheduling an effectiveprogram.

The course content should be wellbalanced between fundamentals ofgraphics and computer-aided design.In the development of an engineeringgraphics course, it is necessary toconsider this new engineeringenvironment and formulate courseobjectives which will ensure thatfuture engineers will be best preparedto efficiently use CAD tools tocommunicate their ideas and designsolution [2].



A. Majdi Abd. Rani, Azmi Abd. Wahab,

Rahmat Shaarani & Dr Abd. Rashid Abd. Aziz.


31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The advancement of computers in both hardware and software has led to the replacement of hand-held instruments withCAD system in engineering graphics course. The syllabus of engineering graphics courses has also shifted more towardslearning the CAD system. This paper provides an in-depth examination of engineering graphic course content andproposed a well-balanced course content between fundamentals of graphics and CAD. It also includes a brief overview ofscheduling and course evaluation methodology.

Keywords

engineering graphics, CAD, facilitating learning, course content

This paper was presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education, ICEEE2000, Taipei,14-16 August, 2000.



This paper provides an in-depthexamination of the course content andits implementation, scheduling,coursework and evaluation criteria toaccommodate the utilization of CADas a tool to facilitate learning.

COURSE CONTENT

Dr Raul Herrera [1] in his paperacknowledge, “The usefulness of theCAD systems in the teaching-learningprocess and their utilization in the jobmarket is unquestioned. Whatremains to be studied is how muchand to what depth these systemsshould be taught, so that studentsattention stays focused on trainingtheir minds to improve theirvisualization skills and on applyinggraphical solutions to engineeringproblems.”

The concerns of many professors andeducators is the increasing number ofengineering schools that are overemphasizing on learning the CADsystem. A random survey wasconducted by visiting numerousengineering colleges’ website andbrowsing through their course outlinefor engineering graphics or similarcourses offered. Among the varioustopics that can be categorized as CADbiased are listed in Table 1.

The same exercise was conducted toidentify topics that are consideredwithin the circle of engineeringgraphics fundamentals as shown inTable 2. Traditional topics such assketching, pictorial, orthographic,sectional views and dimensioning areamong the more commonlyincorporated.

Table 1. Course outline biasedtowards CAD

Topics

Introduction to EngineeringGraphics & CAD

Command entry; Data entry;Draw Commands

Drawing Aids; Entity Selection

Construct; Modify

Display control; Layers; Linetype;Color

Text

Hatching

Dimensioningu

2D Graphics

Surface Representation / SurfaceModeling

3D Modeling

Solid Modeling / ParametricModeling

Plotting and Printing

Table 2. Course outline ofEngineering Graphics

Topics

Introduction to EngineeringGraphics

Sketching – Isometric; Oblique;Perspective

Pictorials Drawing

Multiview / OrthographicProjections

Auxiliary view

Details Drawings / Title Block

Sectional Views

Dimensioning

Threads & Fasteners

Gears & Cams

Assembly Drawings/ BOM/Balloons

At Universiti Teknologi Petronas,Malaysia, the approach adopted is tofacilitate teaching-learning ofengineering graphics course bydesigning the course to be wellbalanced between fundamentals ofengineering graphics andincorporating computer-aided designas its tool (Refer Table 3). EngineeringGraphics, EMB 2013 is a 3 credit hourcourse offered during the 2nd year of afive year bachelor of engineeringprogramme at Universiti Teknologi

Petronas. Mechanical and chemicalengineering students taking thiscourse have already had anintroductory course in computing,algebra and calculus. This course isoffered 4 hours per week, to meet theminimum requirement set by theNational Accreditation Board (LAN).The guideline stipulated by the boardis that one credit hour is equivalentto an hour of lecture, or an hour anda half of tutorial, or two hour ofpractical laboratory work.



Accordingly, for engineering graphics,an hour of lecture is delivered onfundamentals and concept ofengineering graphics. Another fullhour is dedicated on demonstrationwith the CAD system adopted as atool for completing classwork andhomework assignments, while two

solid hour is allotted for the lab-tutorial session.

Lectures are conducted in the CADlaboratory so as to allow for continuitywith the demonstration and lab-tutorial session. The number ofstudents are limited by the number of

workstations available. This is toensure effective learning, where eachstudent has a hands-on learningexperience when utilizing the CAD toimplement the fundamentals andconcept learned the previous hour.Effectiveness of the laboratory sessioncan be ensured by the availability of

SKETCHING

MULTIVIEW

SECTIONING

DIMENSIONING

Sample Topics Engineering Graphics CAD tools

- introduction and importance ofengineering graphics

- lines; linetypes and lettering- sketching techniques- sketching isometric view -sketching

oblique view

- multiview; front; side; plan;- orthographic projection; view selection- geometric symbols- 1st angle projections- 3rd angle projections- layout and drawing placements- lines representation; object; hidden;

center; construction- line precedence- border; title- blocks

- purpose and concept of sectioning- section view basics- cutting plane- sectioning symbols- type of sections -conventional breaks- application of sections

- basics of dimension- parts of dimension -rules and guidelines

-extension & dimension placements -grouping dimension -centerline andcenter marks -dimensioning symbols -dimensioning system

- None

- introduction to CAD- command entry; keyboard; menus;

toolbars- data entry; coordinate system; absolute;

incremental; polar- draw lines; arcs; circles; polygons; ellipse;

text- linetypes; layers; colors- drawing aids; entity selection;- copy; offset; mirror; array- move; rotate; scale; trim; erase

- draw polyline & arrowheads- draw and label cutting planes- hatching style- hatching pattern- hatching scale- hatching angle manipulation- draw balloons

- draw linear dimension- draw aligned dimension- baseline and continuos- circular dimensions- leader lines- angular dimensioning- setting dimension styles; annotation;

units; precision- setting dimension format and justification

Table 3. Fundamentals of Engineering Graphics Balanced With Learning CAD as a Tool.



one or two demonstrators dependingon the number of students in eachsession. This is especially so when thedesign of the CAD laboratory can beobstructive to student’s view wherethose seated at the back can hardlyfocus details on the projected screen.

Each lecture session should start withfundamental concepts, engineeringdrawing principles, relatedconventions, symbols andabbreviations of that particular topic.As an example, a topic on sectioningshould begin with section view basics,purpose of performing sections,cutting plane concepts and symbols,various hatching pattern, scale and itsrepresentations, types of sectioning,and various sectioning applications.Basically this session describes thewhat and why issues.

The demonstration session thatfollows immediately after the lecturesession can clearly guide students thevarious commands, steps required,execution methodology, simpleexamples, case example andapplications. This sessiondemonstrates the how issues.

In the Engineering WorkstationLaboratory used for teachingengineering graphics at UTP, variousteaching aids are provided. LCD isused to present learning materialsusing electronic presentations.Transparencies are used to supportwith various materials, while themarker-board is used for furtherclarification, explanation andmaterials enhancement. Changingfrom one teaching tool to another canstimulate the student’s attention andavoid boredom. Changing from onedelivery mode to another will alsorequire switching on and off thelighting system, which create changesin environment and stimulatesstudents’ attention. Through many

years of experience, having the lightsturned off for the whole lecturesession, while using LCD or overheadprojector, will definitely put some ofthe students to sleep.

The course starts with sketchingtechniques, after a short introductionand importance of engineeringgraphics. These include sketching inisometric and oblique. Subsequently,the basic concepts and fundamentalsof orthographic projections areintroduced together with CAD as atool. Students are graduallyintroduced to details drawing, titleblock, text and numbering. Later,topics on sectioning, dimensioning,thread and fasteners, gears and cams,assembly drawings with balloons andbill of materials, and finally completedwith working drawings.

In the future other than lecture andlab-tutorial session video and CD-ROM’s presentation, invitedprofessional speaker and field trip willalso be incorporated to improvestudent’s learning.

SCHEDULING

To ensure effective learning, blockingor continuos session is adopted asshown in Table 4. Students are ableto apply the basic engineeringconcepts as soon as they learn them.This is further enhanced with an hourdemonstration on its application onCAD system and a two-hourlaboratory and tutorial session. Eventhough the continuos four-hoursession is quite long, provision ofrefreshing breaks will allow for anoptimum learning session.

Initially it was thought that a splitsession of two hours, as shown in Table5a, would allow students more timeto grasp and absorb informationlearned during the two-hour lecture

and demonstrations session. Instead,the tutors ended having to repeatlearning materials presented in theearlier session since most studentsrequires a relearning curve in thelaboratory and tutorial session. Hence,from this year onwards the session forEngineering Graphics is block orcontinuos (Refer Table 5b), which ismore effective. Positive response fromstudents overweighs those complaintsof session being too long. Asmentioned earlier, short breaks wereprovided between session to refreshthe students.

The materials selected for the lab-tutorial session should differ slightlyfrom homework materials. While theexercise materials for lab-tutorialsession is more focus towards what hasbeen learned in the current lecturesession, the exercises meant ashomework should try toaccommodate or incorporate as muchas possible all materials learned theprevious lectures. Utmost importanceis that these exercises are trainingstudents on applying graphicalsolutions to engineering problems andimproving their visualization skills.

COURSEWORK AND

EVALUATION

Grades assigned in eachundergraduate course are intended toreflect achievement relative to adefined level of competence. Whilemost courses have a final examinationto assess student achievement, inengineering graphics it is more feasibleto conduct a continuos assessment.Student accumulates grades pointsbased entirely on coursework.

Lab-tutorial session forms animportant component of assessingstudent ability to focus and absorblearning materials while being guidedand coerced by tutor. Homework



assignment forms the other majorcomponent of coursework, trainingstudents to improve their visualizationskills and applying graphical solutionsto engineering problems. Quiz andmid-term assessment are used forassessing student’s comprehension onthe subject matter. Instead of a finalexamination, which is verycumbersome when using CAD as atool, a final semester project is a morereliable assessment of student’s ability.The final semester project should beas close to an actual working drawingused in industry complete with detaildrawings, assemblies and parts lists.The project selected should requirestudents to apply most of the coursecontents learned for that semester.

To implement a final examination forengineering graphic course willintroduce numerous complicationsand controversies. Since the capacityfor most CAD laboratories are designfor between 30 – 40 students, anexamination for any larger number ofstudents will require some scheduling.Quarantine will have to beimplemented if the same set ofproblems is meant for all the students.Alternatively, multiple set of examproblems of “supposedly” similarstandard and difficulties have to beprepared. This approach almostalways attract complains fromstudents that the exam questions areof different difficulty levels.

To have examination using hand-heldinstruments is perfectly easy. UsingCAD laboratory for conducting a finalcan sometime turn into a completenightmare. Imagine after painstakingpreparation and maintaining thecomputers, to still have a studentfacing computer breakdown duringfinals. Even though technically all thecomputers are the same, students arewell aware of those particular stationsthat crawls, with corrupted files,missing menus, printingmisconfigurations and various otherhardware and system problems.

Table 4. Blocking or Continuous Session.

Table 5a. Scheduling for Engineering Graphics in Year 1999.

8:00 am - 10:00 am 8:00 pm - 10:00 pm

Monday (Section 1) Lecture & Demo. Lab & Tutorial

Wednesday (Section 2) Lecture & Demo. Lab & Tutorial

Table 5b. Scheduling for Engineering Graphics in Year 2000.

8:00 am –10:00 am 10:00 am -12:00 pm

Tuesday (Section 1) Lecture & Demo. Lab & Tutorial

Thursday (Section 2) Lecture & Demo. Lab & Tutorial

Length ofSession One hour One hour Two hour Two hour

SessionContents

Lecture /engineeringconcepts

Demonstration& applicationon CAD

Lab & Tutorial Homework (lab)assignment



CONCLUSION

Development of a well balancedengineering graphics course contentis critical in ensuring future engineerswill be prepared for the newengineering environment. The coursecontent should be balanced betweenfundamentals of engineering graphicsand computer-aided design. Timeallocated and depth of coverage inthese two focus areas will ensure thatthe course objectives to improvestudents’ visualization skills and toefficiently use CAD tools tocommunicate their ideas and designsolution can be achieved.Implementing continuos session hasbeen found to enhance effective

learning as conducted at UTP. A splitsession between lecture,demonstration and lab-tutorial hasbeen found to be less effective andrequiring a higher learning curve. Thenature of engineering graphics courseobjectives with CAD as a tool calls fora different method of assessment.Instead of exam orientated it wasfound that a project-orientatedevaluation is more applicable.Continuos assessment of students’ lab-tutorials, homework assignments,quizzes, mid-term assessment andproject is a more accurate assessmentinstead of a final examination.Complications and controversies thatarise with having a final using CADare thus avoided.

REFERENCES

[1] Raul Herrera, “Problems Encounteredwhen Substituting the TraditionalDrawing tools for CAD systems inEngineering Graphics Courses,” IEEEpp.677, 1998.

[2] P. Agathoklis, “Some Aspects ofDeveloping a Modern EngineeringGraphics Course,” IEEE Transactions onEducation, vol 32, no 4, pp..439-442,November 1989.

[3] R.W. Bolton, J. R. Morgan, “EngineeringGraphics in an Integrated Environment,”IEEE Frontiers in Education Conferencepp.462 –466, 1997.

[4] M. Reza Ziai, R.P. Kelso, “The NewEngineering Graphics,” IEEE Frontiersin Education Conference Proceeding,pp.67-70, 1989.

[5] Frank Saccente, “The Real World meetsthe Technical Drawing Curriculum,” TH E Journal, vol. 21, pp. 72-74, March1994.

[6] Scott E. Wiley, “Learning Models forDeveloping Visualization in EngineeringGraphics,” IEEE Frontiers in EducationConference, pp.552-555, 1991.



INTRODUCTION

Oil and gas remain the main energysource in Malaysia, where each ofthem contributes almost 33% and41% of total energy generation. Thefact that our hydrocarbon (oil and gas)reserves are mostly located 120 km –

Role of Global Positioning System (GPS) in

Hydrocarbon Exploration – Subsidence Monitoring

of the Offshore Platform

Dr. Abdul Nasir Matori,



Assoc. Prof. Dr. Halim Setan,

Faculty of Geoinformation Science and Engineering,

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

ABSTRACT

Oil and gas remain the main energy source in Malaysia, where each of them contributes almost 33% and 41% of totalenergy generation. In Malaysia, the exploration of hydrocarbon resources (oil and gas) is normally associated withoffshore activities. This is so because our hydrocarbon reserves are mostly located 120 km – 250 km offshore. Hence itrequires a very sophisticated positioning tool in order to position the oil or gas platform/rig at the right location of the oiland gas well/reservoir. GPS as the most advance and superior positioning tool has proven its capability and superiorityfor the purposes of positioning the oil and gas platform/rig all over the globe. It is estimated that at least 40% of theoffshore positioning for this nature were done by GPS. GPS role in the hydrocarbon exploration does not end there,since once the hydrocarbon especially gas was extracted from its reservoir, there is a possibility that the reservoir willexperience reservoir compaction. This on the other hand will lead to the subsidence of the platform. Again GPS has thecapability to determine this subsidence rate (cm/year) and hence the compaction of the reservoir. It is important tomodel the reservoir compaction in order to optimise the extraction of the gas. A study to determine and model thesubsidence rate of one of PETRONAS Gas Platform, which is Gas Platform Duyong, will be done. This study will alsoassess the safety of this gas platform against the excessive subsidence, since this phenomena could expose the understructureof the platform to the sea water against which it is not designed for. This study is for the duration of one year, and willinvolve three data collections. The data will be processed and analysed for the above purpose using independence andsophisticated GPS software. At the end of this study, the rate of subsidence and hence the reservoir compaction of thehydrocarbon reservoir beneath the Platform Duyong will be known.

Keywords

GPS, Hydrocarbon Exploration, Offshore Positioning, Deformation/Subsidence Analysis.

250 km offshore requires very highprecision, reliable and highly availablepositioning tool in order to performvarious positioning purposes relatedto the hydrocarbon exploration suchas the positioning of the offshore oil/gas rig at the correct location of theoil/gas reserves, positioning during the

seismic surveys and the subsidence ordeformation surveys/monitoring ofthe offshore oil/gas rig. GlobalPositioning System (GPS) fits well toperform such positioning activities inthe hydrocarbon exploration hence ithas involved in at least 40% of theoffshore positioning world wide.

This paper was presented at the Advances in Malaysian Energy Research Seminar, UiTM Shah Alam, 4-5 October, 2000.



GLOBAL POSITIONING

SYSTEM (GPS)

GPS is a space-based positioningsystem, owned and operated by theUnited States Military. It wasconceived in the early 70s and hasachieved its Full Operational Capacity(FOC) on July ’95. Despite ownedby the US military, civilian access toGPS is guaranteed. Segment wiseGPS is divided into three: space,control and user segment as shown inFigure 1. GPS space segment consists24 orbiting satellites on six planes,each of the plane has 55° inclination.Hence there are four GPS satellites onevery orbital plane orbiting the Earthtwice a day. This configurationensures at least four GPS satellites willbe visible (above horizon) and thusguarantees GPS availability at everytime. On the other hand controlsegment is the brain and nerve thatcontrol the space segment. It consistsof one Master Control Station (MCS)at Falcon Airforce Base, Colorado, and5 Monitor Stations each located atDiego Garcia, Kwajalein, Hawaii,Florida and Ascension Island . Usersegment is every one of us with GPSreceiver that could receive GPS signal.

GPS POSITIONING

MECHANISM

Every object within space hascoordinate associated with it withrespect to a certain coordinate system.Using GPS, this coordinate may bederived via the measurement of rangesfrom the object to the GPS satellitesand the coordinate of the GPS satelliteas shown in equation 1 and Figure 2.

Ranges from the object to GPS satellites+ GPS satellite’s coordinate= Object Coordinate. (1)

The advance positioning technologyof GPS ensures that the coordinatesobtained will be of high precision,accuracy and of a high quality.Together with its high availability GPStherefore qualifies for variouspositioning purposes in offshorehydrocarbon exploration activitiesmentioned earlier, which are seismicactivities, positioning of the oil/gas rig,laying out of the oil/gas piping and oflate deformation/subsidencemonitoring of the oil/gas rig.

OFFSHORE GAS PLATFORM

DEFORMATION/SUBSIDENCE

MONITORING USING GPS

Extraction of oil and/or gas, inparticular gas underneath the sea maycause instability of the structuresunder the sea, which may lead to thesubsidence/deformation of the gas oroil platform. This instabilityphenomena is a long term process, i.e.may only be observed in 6 months to2 years with the expected subsidencerate of 2 - 5 cm/year. It is necessaryto carry out monitoring worksperiodically to obtain the instabilityand reservoir compaction informationin order to assess the safety of theplatform and also to optimise the gas/oil extraction. However the locationof the gas/oil platform which istypically 150 – 250 km requires suchmonitoring works to collect data fromdistant location and being processedusing very special technique. Withsuch constraints the data of such astudy may be observed and acquirethrough Global Positioning System(GPS) or the system alike. This paperdescribes the intended stability (hencedeformation/subsidence) monitoringto one of Petronas offshore gas

Figure 2: GPS Positioning MechanismFigure 1: GPS Segments



platform, which is the PlatformDuyong using GPS PositioningTechnique.

METHODOLOGY

The basic concept of the instabilitymonitoring is to employ GPS relativepositioning of the offshore gasplatform with respect to the (stable)control stations as depicted in Figure3. The flowchart of Figure 4 furtherelaborates the steps taken for the aboverelative positioning process.

Figure 4: Flowchart of ResearchMethodology

Prior to the actual monitoring workon the offshore platform, a simulationof the above monitoring was carriedout using the GPS stations at JabatanUkur dan Pemetaan Negara Malaysia(JUPEM) in KL simulating thesubsided offshore platform and(Malaysian Active GPS Stations(MASS) stations as the controlstations. The network configurationis shown in Figure 5. The data wasprocessed using independent GPSsoftware called BERNESSE, based onthe above steps. The simulationresults showed that GPS relativepositioning technique was able todetect the deformation/subsidence ofthe station monitored. Figure 5: Network of Simulation Monitoring

Epoch I Epoch J

Baseline Computation

Network Adjustment

Subsidence/Deformation Detection

Graphical/Numerical Presentation

Figure 3: GPS Relative Positioning

Ipoh

KotaBharu

Kuantan

JohorBharu

JUPEM



Station dx (m) dy (m) dz (m) Displacement Vector (m)

1 (Ipoh) -0.000 0.001 -0.000 0.001

2 (KB) -0.000 -0.002 0.001 0.002

3 (K’tan) 0.001 0.001 -0.001 0.002

4 (JB) 0.002 -0.001 -0.001 0.002

*5 JUPEM 0.042 -0.037 0.035 0.066

Figure 6: Numerical Result

RESULT

The numerical presentation of theresult is shown in Figure 6.

In the above network, the controlstations are MASS Ipoh, Kota Bharu,Kuantan and Johor Bahru. *JUPEM,being the station being monitoredsuffered deformation, note thedisplacement vector shows 0.066 mor 6.6 cm.

CONCLUSIONS

GPS precise positioning technique hasthe capability to perform stabilitymonitoring where it can detectdeformation or subsidence rate of theorder 2 – 5 cm for baseline length of150 – 250 km.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study is sponsored by IRPA under VOT72292 in collaboration with UTM, JUPEMand Petronas Carigali Sdn. Bhd. (PCSB).

REFERENCES

Caspary, W.F (1987). Concepts of Networkand Deformation Analysis. 1st. ed. School ofSurveying, The University of New SouthWales. Monograph 11, Kensington, N.S.W.

Chen, Y.Q. (1983). Analysis of DeformationSurveys – A Generalized Method. TechnicalReport o. 94, Department of SurveyingEngineering, University of New Brunswick,New Brunswick.

Halim Setan (1997). A Flexible AnalysisProcedure for Geometrical Detection of SpatialDeformation. Photogrammetric Record,15(90): 841 – 861.

Halim Setan and Ranjit Singh (1998).Pengesanan Deformasi 2-D SecaraGeometrikal dengan Kaedah UjianKongruensi. Buletin Geoinformasi, 2(1): 201– 213.

Ranjit Singh (1999). Pelarasan dan AnalisisJaringan Pengawasan untuk PengesananDeformasi secara Geometri. Tesis Sarjana Sains(Ukur Tanah). Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.



INTRODUCTION

The importance of energy in today’sworld is certainly not new. Energy hasplayed a key role in bringing aboutour modern civilization. In the era ofhigh-energy civilization, energydemands are likely to increase even ifstrenuous efforts are made to increasethe efficiency of energy use. Thereserves of fossil fuels are disappearingfast and may not last long, althoughthe projected year of exhaustion isabout hundred years away. Since thisis a known fact, tremendous effort isneeded to undergo a transition fromthe present energy source to one thatcan ensure consistency and life long

Influence Of Some Parameters On The Efficiency

Of A Solar Collector

Mr. Balbir Singh Mahinder Singh



Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fauziah Sulaiman

School of Physics

Universiti Sains Malaysia

ABSTRACT

In recent years, the popularity of flat-plate solar collector has increased and are used for domestic and commercial waterheating. Its market gets more competitive as its efficiency keeps on improving. It is evident that there are some componentsthat influence the thermal performance of the flat-plate solar collector to a certain extent that a thorough analysis is vital.To ensure that a particular design will achieve a certain level of efficiency that is acceptable, a simulation study is carriedout on the parameters of the flat-plate solar collector, to assist in the selection of the appropriate materials. Simulationstudies were carried out on the following parameters: overall heat loss coefficient, absorber plates made of copper, aluminiumand galvanized iron, tube spacing, mass flow rate, absorber plate thickness and absorptance of the coating material. Byvarying these parameters, the effect on the efficiency was obtained that will optimize the thermal performance of the flat-plate collector.

Keywords

Daily Efficiency, Flat-Plate Collector, Modelling, Solar Energy, Simulation

supply ideally. The focus is towardsvarious renewable sources of energy ingeneral and solar energy in particular.There are changes and advancesnoticed in the fields of co-generation,waste heat recovery, generation frombiomass and above all the clean andsafe renewable energy1. At this stage,all these efforts are geared moretowards saving the fossil fuels fromdepleting at a faster rate than expectedand can also be considered as aprecautionary measure of anotherenergy crisis. For exploitation of solarenergy commercially, thedetermination of the performancecharacteristics of solar collectors isconsidered important.

BACKGROUND THEORY

There are various types of collectorsexisting today, some popular andothers not. The type of collectorselected for the study, is a flat platesolar collector, which has already,mark its name in the domestic andinternational markets. The principleinvolved in collecting the solar energyis rather simple depending strongly onthe receiving surfaces, which are ableto absorb as much as possible of theincoming solar flux. The ability toretain heat is a condition, but not fora long period of time because thecaptured heat is transported via theconduit tubes by the working fluid.

This paper was presented at Seminar Fizik 2000, Kota Kinabalu, 8 November 2000.



Heat losses poised the main problem,which does not just rely on theabsorbing surface. It is evident thatheat transfer processes are thereforeessential and play a major role in thedesign of a flat plate collector. Thedesign comprises of the front cover(s),absorber plate with conduit tubes,insulation, casing and coatingmaterials.

The actual useful energy gain of theflat-plate solar collector is as follows,with the assumption that the lossesbased on the inlet fluid temperatureis negligible5;

(1)

where S is the absorbed solarradiation, U

L is the overall heat loss

coefficient, AC is the effective collector

area that is exposed to the incomingsolar flux, T

i is the inlet temperature

of the working fluid, Ta is the ambient

temperature and FR is the heat

removal factor.

The absorbed solar radiation, S , isobtained by using the followingequation6;

(2)

where is the effective

transmittance-absorptance product

and is the total solar influx on an

inclined plane.

The equation below is used tocalculate the heat removal factor, F

R7;

(3)

where J is the mass flow rate, CP is

the constant pressure specific heat

capacity, and FP is the plate efficiency

factor.

In order to calculate the dailyefficiency of a flat plate solar collector,the equation used is as follows8;

(4)

where Σqu is the total daily useful

energy gain per unit area and ΣIT is

the total daily solar influx on aninclined plane.

METHODOLOGY

A simulation study carried out inSingapore predicted the storage tank

temperature of a solar heating systemaccurately by using Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm2. Anothersimulation study carried out inTempe, Arizona3 evaluates theinfluence of each parameter on theperformance of the solar collector/regenerator with a conclusion that awarmer inlet solution resulted inbetter heat and mass transfer.

The concept of simulation in scientificresearch is strongly based on theories.From these theories, mathematicalmodels are built to resemble the actualsituation as closely as possible, bytaking into account the allowedconfidence level. As modelling is animportant aspect of simulation, itsdevelopment is done with extensive

Fig. 1. Process involved in the development of computer program for simulation.



care so that it will reflect the systemas precisely as possible4.

In this study, design variables arechanged repeatedly using real weatherdata. Results can be obtained almostinstantly after the initial work ofprogramming and capturing data isdone. The flat plate solar collector’sdesign parameters can be varied untilthe desirable level of efficiency isachieved. All these steps are illustratedin Fig.1 and based on these, acomputer program was written tocarry out the simulation, to enableresults to be obtained for analysis.

RESULTS

A thorough analysis was carried outon the various parameters influencingthe performance of a flat-plate solarcollector by simulation. An iterativemethod was used to determine themean temperatures and a programwritten in FORTRAN 77 computerlanguage was developed. The heattransfer processes that occurred dueto the various components of a flatplate collector were analysed carefully,to predict its performance asaccurately as possible.

Fig. 2 shows the reduction of theoverall heat loss coefficient as thenumber of covers is increased withdifferent absorber plates made ofcopper, aluminium and galvanizediron which is as expected. Althoughthere is a significant reduction in theoverall heat loss coefficient with theincreasing number of covers, the samedoes not apply for the daily efficiency.Fig. 3 shows the decrease in dailyefficiency with the increase of thenumber of covers which however,contradicts with results shown in Fig.2. Fig. 4 can be used to explain thiscontradiction, where it is noticed thatthe transmittance-absorptanceproduct also decreases as the number

Fig. 2. Graph of overall heat loss coefficient versus number of covers for 3 different absorber plates.

Fig. 4. Graph of Transmittance-Absorptance product versus number of covers for 3 different absorber

plates.

Fig. 3. Graph of daily efficiency versus number of covers for 3 different absorber plates.



of covers are increased. So based onequation (2) , as this happens, theamount of solar radiation absorbedwill decrease and from equation (1),the useful energy gain will also will beaffected. The decrease in of thetransmittance-absorptance product ismore significant compared with thereduction of the overall heat losscoefficient as shown in the figures.

It is noticed from Fig. 5 that a tubespacing is an important parameter thataffects the daily efficiency. As the tubespacing increases, the daily efficiencydecreases especially in the case ofabsorber plate made of galvanizediron.

Fig. 6 indicated the change in the dailyefficiency by varying massflow rate ofthe fluid in the tubes. As mass flowrate increases, the operatingtemperature of the collector decreasesresulting in higher efficiency asexpected.

Daily efficiency in the range of 0.59-0.60 is obtained for varying platethickness of 1 mm to 10 mm as shownin Fig. 7. It is noted that by increasingplate thickness from 2 mm onwardswill result in an increase of 1.3% ofdaily efficiency which is however, noteconomically desirable.

Fig. 8 shows the linear relationship ofdaily efficiency with respect to theincrease of the absorptance of thecoating material of which black paintranges between 0.90-0.98 inabsorptance, thus suitable as coatingmaterial.

CONCLUSIONS

The results obtained can be used forthe prediction of the overall thermalefficiency of a flat-plate solar collector.The graphs clearly indicate the

Fig. 5. Graph of daily efficiency versus tube spacing for 3 different absorber plates.

Fig. 6. Graph of daily efficiency versus mass flow rate for absorber plate made of copper.

Fig. 7. Graph of daily efficiency versus absorber plate thickness, made of copper.



Fig. 8. Graph of daily efficiency versus absorptance of coating material.

importance of various components inthe design of a flat-plate collector. Byusing simulation, the thermalefficiency of the flat-plate collector caneasily be predicted, and the optimumefficiency can be obtained by varyingthe parameters of the components.The varying can be done in aminimum time period, if comparedto the conventional testing methods.Besides the benefit of time saving, italso gives a good estimation of cost-effectiveness of each design. Thedeveloped software attempts toprovide a guide to the design of theoptimum flat plate solar collector.

REFERENCES

1. Sulaiman, Fauziah (1995). RenewableEnergy and Its Future in Malaysia : ACounty Paper, Asia-Pacific Solar ExpertsMeeting, Islamabad, Pakistan

2. Wijeysundere, N.E., Hawlader, M.N.A.,Foong, K.Y. (1996). Estimation ofCollector Performance Parameters FromDaily System Tests, Journal of SolarEnergy Engineering, 118, 30-36

3. Hawlader, M.N.A., Stack, A.P., Wood,B.D. (1992). Performance Evaluation ofGlazed and Unglazed Collectors/Regenerators in a Liquid AbsorbentOpen-Cycle Absorption Cooling System,Int. Journal of Solar Energy, 11, 135-164

4. Balbir Singh and Fauziah Sulaiman(1995). Design of a Flat-Plate Collectorby Computer Simulation, Proc. ofNational Seminar On Energy, UniversitiKebangsaan Malaysia, 187-194

5. Duffie, J.A., Beckman, W.A. (1980).Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes,John Wiley & Sons, New York, 223-225

6. Duffie, J.A., Beckman, W.A. (1980).Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes,John Wiley & Sons, New York, 187-189

7. Sukhatme, S.P. (1993). Solar Energy,Principles of Thermal Collection andStorage, Pata McGraw Hill, New Delhi,45

8. Rabl, A. (1985). Active Solar Collectorsand Their Applications, OxfordUniversity Press, New York, 83

Appendix

Value of parameters fixed for the simulation process to investigate theeffect on daily efficiency of a flat-plate collector by varying otherparameters that are thought to influence the thermal performancesignificantly.

No. Parameter Description Value

1 Collector Area 2 m2

2 Collector Thickness 75 mm

3 Plate to cover spacing 25 mm

4 Back insulation thickness 50 mm

5 Edge insulation thickness 25 mm

6 Tube diameter 10 mm

7 Plate emittance 0.96

8 Top cover emittance 0.88

9 Top cover’s refractive index 1.53

10 Wind heat transfer coefficient 10 W/m2C

11 Heat transfer coefficient in tubes 300 W/m2C

12 Insulation conductivity 0.045 W/mC



INTRODUCTION

The tensile properties of bituminousmixtures are of interest to pavementengineers because of the problemsassociated with cracking. Theresistance of bituminous mixtures tofatigue cracking is dependent upon itstensile properties, notably its tensilestrength and extensibilitycharacteristics. Fatigue has beendefined in the literature as thephenomenon of fracture underrepeated or fluctuating stresses havinga maximum value generally less thanthe tensile strength of the material.

The layers in a flexible pavementstructure are subjected to continuousflexing as a result of the traffic loadsthat they carry, resulting in tensilestresses and strains at the bottom ofthe bituminous layers of thepavement. The magnitude of thestrains is dependent on the overallstiffness of the pavement.Measurements of tensile strains in theorder of 30-200 microstrains under astandard wheel load have beenrecorded (Brown, 1994). Under theseconditions, it is possible for load-induced or fatigue cracking to occur.Fatigue is one of the failure criteriaconsidered in pavement design.

THE INDIRECT TENSILE TEST

The indirect tensile mode of testingcan be used to establish the tensile andstructural properties of bituminous

mixtures. This test has been usedwidely by Kennedy and Hudson(1968), Kandhal (1979) and Wallaceand Monismith (1980) amongstothers. The method has beenstandardised by both the BritishStandard Institutions (1993) and theASTM (1982).

The tensile characteristics ofbituminous mixtures are evaluated byloading the vertical diameter of aMarshall specimen with a single orrepeated compressive load actingparallel to and along the verticaldiametrical plane of the specimen.This loading configuration developsa relatively uniform stressperpendicular to the direction of theapplied load and along the verticaldiametrical plane, ultimately causingthe specimen tested to fail by splittingalong the vertical diameter.

MATERIALS USED IN THE

INVESTIGATION

Mineral Aggregates,Filler and BitumenLimestone aggregates and OrdinaryPortland cement filler and a binder ofnominal penetration 50 were used.The bituminous mix used is the Hot-Rolled Asphalt (HRA) as specified inBS594: Part 1. Some relevantproperties of these materials are shownin Table 1.

Synthetic FibresTwo types of synthetic polypropyleneand polyester fibres were used in thisstudy. The fibres were used as a partialreplacement of the filler; on an equalvolume basis; at two differentconcentrations of 0.5% and 1% fillerto bitumen ratio by weight of mix.The fibres in chopped form were theby-products of the textile industry and

The Tensile Characteristics Of

Fibre Reinforced Bituminous Mixtures

Ir Dr Ibrahim Kamaruddin



BS 594: Part

1:1992 Table 3,

Type F wearing

Coarse

designation

30/14

Table 1: Properties of the Mineral Aggregates, Filler and BitumenUsed in the Study

Material Percentage Relative Absorption BS

by Weight (%) Density % Specification

Coarse

Aggregate 35 2.75 0.47

Fine Aggregate

(Sand) 55 2.65 1.37

Filler (Ordinary

Portland cement) 10 3.15

Penetration Softening Penetration

(0.1 mm) Point (°C) Index (PI)

Bitumen 52 48.5 – 0.37

This paper was presented at the 10th Road Engineering Association of Asia & Australasia Conference, Tokyo, 4-9 September, 2000



thus their potential use was desirableon environmental grounds.

Some characteristics of the fibres usedare shown in Table 2. In order tomaintain thermal stability when usingthe polypropylene fibres, it wasdecided that the mixing temperatureduring the preparation of the Hot-Rolled Asphalt (HRA) mixturesshould not exceed 140°C andcompaction be done at 130°C.

STATIC INDIRECT TENSILE TEST

APPARATUS AND

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The test was performed with aMarshall testing machine with thehead modified with a wide, curved,stainless steel loading strip on both thetop and bottom, running parallel tothe axes of the cylindrical specimens.The type of material for the loadingstrip had no significant effect on theresults of the indirect tensile test butthe width of the strip can affect theoutcome of the test significantly(Kennedy and Hudson, 1968). Theloading strip used in this test was 13mm wide having a concave surfacewith a radius of curvature equal to theradius of the specimen (101.6 mm)as specified by DD 213 (BS: 1993).The cylindrical Marshall specimenswere loaded diametrically at a constantrate of deformation until completefailure occurred. The tests wereconducted at room temperature with

a fixed deformation rate similar to thatof the Marshall test of 50.8 mm/min.

INDIRECT TENSILE PROPERTIES

From the load deformationcharacteristics of the indirect tensiletest, a number of parameters relatingto the properties of the material testedcan be determined.

1) Static indirect tensile strength(ITS)

The tensile strength has been usedextensively as a performanceparameter in the study ofbituminous materials. The tensilestrength of the specimen wasmeasured by exposing the sampleto a constant rate of deformationuntil the specimen was ruptured.The tensile strength of thespecimen tested is the maximumtensile stress which it canwithstand and is given by:

2PmaxITS = –––––

πtd

where:Pmax = maximum total loadt = average height of specimend = nominal diameter of specimen

2) Indirect tensile strain at failure,εf

3) Indirect tensile modulus ofelasticity

The modulus of elasticity of abituminous mixture is animportant parameter thatinfluences the structural design ofbituminous pavements as themodulus affects the distributionof stress and strains throughoutthe pavement structure. The staticmodulus of elasticity at failure asobtained from the indirect tensiletest can be determined from therelationship

Tensile Stress at Failure σf(ME)f =––––––––––––––––––––

Tensile Strain at Failure εf

Maupin (1972) presented atypical stress-strain curve from theindirect tensile test for a point inthe region of the maximumtensile stress and tensile strain asshown in Figure 1. The stress-strain curve is approximatelylinear until three-quarters of thefailure stress is reached. As itapproaches total failure, the strainundergoes a faster rate of increasethan the stress. In addition, the

Table 2: Characteristics of Fibres Used

Specific Denier Length Average Degradation

Gravity (mm) Diameter Temperature

µm (°C)

Polypropylene (PP) 0.91 6 6 22* ~160-170

Polyester (POL) 1.41 3 6 17* ~250-260

* Values obtained from 20 readings using a light microscope at 400x magnification.

Figure 1: Typical Stress-StrainRelationship from Indirect Tensile Test(Maupin, 1972)



strain at failure is not well definedand is therefore difficult tomeasure. Maupin was of theopinion that the stiffness valueobtained from the linear portionof the stress-strain relationshipwould therefore be moremeaningful than is the stiffnessvalue at failure. He thereforerecommended that the stiffnessvalue be computed using three-quarters of the failure stress andthe corresponding strain value.The static tensile modulus ofelasticity would then be given by:

3 ⁄ 4 σf(ME)3 ⁄ 4 = –––––

3 ⁄ 4 εfwhere:(ME)3 ⁄ 4= modulus of

elasticity at three-quarters of thetensile failure stress

σf = tensile stress atfailure

εf = tensile strain atfailure

4) ToughnessThe toughness of a material isdefined as the amount of work perunit volume required to causefailure. This does not mean thattoughness can be used to analysespecific distress problems inbituminous mixtures such aspermanent deformation or fatiguebehaviour (Little and Richey,1983), however, it can be used tocompare mixes containingdifferent materials. Specifically inthis work, comparison is madebetween mixes containingdifferent fibre-fillers (othervariables such as bitumen,aggregate and loading time havingbeen kept constant for all themixes).

Toughness was determined byintegrating the area under theload-deformation curve up to adeformation of twice thatincurred at maximum tensilestress (Kavussi and Hicks, 1997)as shown in Figure 2. For eachcurve, the area is divided into twoparts: corresponding to thesections before and after themaximum load at break. The firstpart (1) represents the start ofloading to the maximum atfracture, and corresponds to theenergy absorbed before cracking.The second part (2) represents thestored energy in the sample whichhelps the crack to develop untilthe end of testing.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Indirect Tensile StrengthThe indirect tensile strength is theindirect tensile stress produced by themaximum load or load at failure. Thecurves relating variations of tensilestrength with bitumen content for thevarious mixtures are given in Figure3. The strength can be seen to increasewith increasing bitumen content. Itincreases up to an optimum value foreach of the fibre-filler system. As thebitumen content is further increased,the tensile strength of the mixes startedto decrease.

Lower tensile strength values wereobtained at low bitumen content asthere was insufficient bitumen to coatall the aggregate particles, which led

Figure 2: Definition of Toughness

AREA 2

AREA 1

MAXIMUMSTRESS

a a

Tens

ile S

tres

s (k

Pa)

Deformation (mm)

a = deformation at maximum stress

Toughness = Area 1 + Area 2



to a weak bond between the particles. Thisis correspondingly accompanied by ahigher volume of voids. As the bitumencontent was further increased, theaggregate particles were more evenly andproperly coated, giving rise to a thinbitumen film coating which help create ahigh surface tension and higher tensilestrength. With more bitumen added, athicker bitumen film was created whichled to lower tensile strength values.

Figure 4 presents the variation of tensionstrength with fibre content at the optimumbitumen content (OBC). In making anoverall comparison between the mixes, thecontrol mix can be seen to exhibit greatertensile strength over the fibre-reinforcedmixes. Mixes were progressively weakeras the percentage of fibres increases.Mixtures incorporating the polypropylenefibres appear to exhibit higher strengththan that of polyester. The decrease intensile strength was more prominent forthe 1% fibre concentration. Thepolypropylene mix experienced a 10.9%reduction in maximum strength while thepolyester fibre mix had a higher reductionof 16.5% in the maximum tensile strength.

The general trend that was observedsuggests that the more difficult the fibreswere to disperse within the mixtures, theweaker the mixtures were in tensilestrength. The fibre-induced weakness inthe mixtures may be due to the fibrestrands having a tendency to remaintogether as bundles even with thoroughmixing. Consequently, their inclusion inthe mix could introduce ‘weak spots’ thatresulted in a lower tensile strength. Thisbehaviour also helps explain the superiorperformance of the polypropylene fibremixtures that undergo a morehomogeneous mixing as compared to thepolyester fibre mixes. In addition, due tothe higher viscosity in the polyester-bitumen system, samples of the polyesterincorporated mixtures may not have beencompacted as well as those of thepolypropylene-bitumen system. Thisresulted in a higher porosity in the

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10

Bitumen Content (10%)

Control 1POL0.5PP 1PP 0.5POL

Indi

rect

Ten

sile

Str

engt

h (M

Pa)

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Fibre Content (%)

Polypropylene Polyester

1.00

0.95

0.90

0.85

0.80

0.75

0.70

0.65

0.60

Indi

rect

Ten

sile

Str

engt

h (M

Pa)

Figure 3: Indirect Tensile Strength vs Bitumen Content

Figure 4: Variation of Indirect Tensile Strength With Fibre Content at OBC

Bitumen Content (%)

5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0

0.025

0.020

0.015

0.010

0.005

Control OPC+0.5PP

OPC+1.0PP

OPC+0.5POL

OPC+1.0P0L

Tens

ile S

trai

n (m

m/m

m)

Figure 5: Tensile Strain vs Bitumen Content



polyester mixes, which may be responsible,for the lower strength obtained. The lowerstrength for the fibrous mixtures asobtained from this test led one to believethat the incorporation of fibres intobituminous mixes does not bring about astrengthening of the mix.

Indirect Tensile StrainRelationship between indirect tensilestrains with bitumen content is given inFigure 5. The tensile strain (elongation)at failure showed that the mixturesincorporated with fibres showed higherstrain capacity than the control. Mixtureswith the polyester fibres gave higher strainsthan that with polypropylene as shown inFigure 6. This is likely due in part to theadditional bitumen as well as the fibres inthe mix. If the tensile strain at failure canbe increased while not appreciablyreducing the tensile strength, the mix willbe made more flexible. This combinationof properties may mean that more energyis required to produce cracking in thematerial.

Static Tensile Modulus of ElasticityVariation of static tensile modulus ofelasticity with bitumen content is shownin Figure 7. It can be seen that themaximum values of static modulus ofelasticity occurs at the optimum values ofbinder content. Hence the optimumbinder content is established for maximummodulus of elasticity in all the mixes. Themean value of static modulus of elasticityis higher for the control mix than that ofthe fibre mixtures. Theses values seemedto decrease with increasing fibre contentwith the polypropylene mixes exhibitinggreater modulus than the polyester mixesfor the same fibre concentration. Thevariation of static modulus of elasticity atthe optimum bitumen content for varyingfibre content is shown in Figure 8.

ToughnessFigure 9 shows the relationship betweentoughness per unit volume with bitumencontent. Like the tensile strength

Fibre Content (%)

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0.018

0.017

0.016

0.015

0.014

0.013

0.012

0.011

0.010


Stra

in (

mm

/mm

)

Figure 6: Variation of Strain With Fibre Content at OBC

Bitumen Content (%)

5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

Control 1.0POL0.5PP 1.0PP 0.5POL

Mod

ules

of

Ela

stic

ity (

MPa

)

Fibre Content (%)

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

80

70

60

50

40

30

20


Mod

ules

of

Ela

stic

ity (

MPa

)

Figure 7: Static Modulus of Elasticity vs Bitumen Content

Figure 8: Variation of Static Modulus of Elasticity With Fibre Content at OBC



relationship before, the toughnessincreases with increasing bitumencontent up to a maximum value andstarted to decrease again with furtherincrease of bitumen content. Thereis therefore an optimum bitumencontent for each of the mixes, whichcorrespond to the maximumtoughness and energy. At this point,the material requires the greatest totalenergy to reach failure.

Figure 10 shows the variation oftoughness with fibre content at theoptimum bitumen content. Increasein fibre concentration resulted in anincrease in the toughness – mixes withpolyester fibres displaying greaterincrease than mixes which areincorporated with polypropylene.The increase was enhanced especiallyat the 1% fibre concentration. Thepolypropylene mixes had a 8.4%increase as compared to a 11.1%increase for the polyester mixes. Thehigher toughness of the fibre-incorporated mixes is indicative thatthese mixes are more resistant tocracking and will display better fatiguecharacteristics than the control mixes.

The variation of the properties of thefibre mixes at optimum bitumencontent is given in Table 3. It can thusbe deduced from the study on fibrereinforcement of bituminous mixturesthat the addition of fibre reduces thestrength properties of the mix butenhances their tensile properties.With this fact in mind, the use offibre-reinforced mixes is deemed lesssuitable for the wearing courses of thepavement where the problem ofrutting is most expected. They mayhowever be more suitable for use as abase-course where the problem ofcracking is most likely from the tensilestresses that build up at the base ofthe bound layer.

Table 3 Tensile Properties of Fibrous Mixes atOptimum Bitumen Content

Control 0.5PP 1 PP 0.5POL 1 POL

Indirect Tensile

Strength (MFa) 0.925 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.73

Strain

(mm/mm) 0.013 0.015 0.017 0.016 0.018

Static Tensile Modulus

(MPa) 152.2 136.7 116.4 106.3 96.7

Indirect Tensile

Stiffness Modulus 2100 2180 1970 2200 1950

(MPa)

Toughness

(Joules/cc) 0.0265 0.0295 0.0328 0.0318 0.033

Energy

(Joules/cc) 0.053 0.0563 0.06 0.058 0.062


Bitumen Contents (%)

5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0

0.040

0.035

0.030

0.025

0.020

0.015

0.010

Toug

hnes

s (J

oule

s/cc

)

Figure 9: Toughness vs Bitumen Content

Figure 10: Variation of Toughness With Fibre Content at OBC


Fibre Content (%)

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0.040

0.035

0.030

0.025

0.020

0.015

Ene

rgy/

Vol

ume

(Jou

les/

cc)



Figure 11: Wet Indirect Tensile Strength vs Bitumen Content

Figure 12: Indirect Tensile Strength Ratios vs Bitumen Content

Control

Bitumen Content (%)

6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

Ind

irec

t Ten

sile

Str

engt

h R

atio

1.0PP0.5POL 1.0POL0.5PP

WET-DRY INDIRECT

TENSILE TEST

The wet-dry indirect tensile test wasadopted in this study as a principalmeasure of the bituminous mixresponse to moisture damage. Mostevaluations of moisture damage havebeen assessed quantitatively bymechanical tests in which suchproperties as loss of tensile strengthor decrease of resilient and stiffnessmoduli have been measured. Theseare then given in the form of a tensile-strength ratio and a modulus ratio forwhich the tensile strength andmodulus of the dry specimens servedas a reference. Tensile strength ratio(TSR) and the modulus of elasticityratio (MER) are dimensionlessnumbers used to represent the portionof tensile strength and modulusretained following conditioning. Lowvalues indicate high moisture damage.These ratios are given as:

Tensile strength ratio (TSR)

ITS wetTSR = ––––––– and

ITS dry

Modulus of elasticity ratio (MER)

MER wetMER = –––––––

MER dry

Lottman (1982) used the staticindirect tensile strength test to studythe effect of moisture on bituminousmixtures and recommended aminimum tensile strength ratio of 0.7to differentiate between a strippingand non-stripping bituminous mixwhile Maupin (1982) reported valuesof berween 0.7 - 0.75. Ishai andNesichi (1988) cited values of 60-75percent retained stability values forroads and highway pavements and 75percent for airfield pavements as thequality criteria used in Israel.


Bitumen Content (%)

5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0

0.85

0.80

0.75

0.70

0.65

0.60

0.55

0.50

0.45

0.40

Tens

ile S

tren

gth

(MPa

)

Kennedy and Anagnos (1984) werealso of the opinion that mixtures withless than 70 percent retained strengthare moisture susceptible and wouldrequire treatment.

Figure 11 relates the variation of wettensile strength with bitumen content.In the wet state, mixes reinforced with0.5% fibre exhibited greater strengththan that of the conrrol while thosewith 1% fibre continued to show adecrease in strength as in the dry state.The polypropylene fibre mix appear

to give marginally higher tensilestrength than that of the polyesterfibre mix at the 0.5% fibreconcentration while this increase wasmore distinct at the 1% fibreconcentration level.

Variations of the indirect tensilestrength in wet and dry conditionswith bitumen content allowed thedetermination of the indirect tensilestrength ratios which is shown inFigure 12. The indirect tensilestrength ratio generally increases with



an increase in bitumen content. Thecontrol mix showed that they are morevulnerable to moisture damage andrevealed a higher level of moisturesensitivity as indicated by the lowertensile strength ratios. A low value oftensile strength ratio is indicative ofmore damage in the control sample.

It is to be reminded that the fibreincorporated mixes had higherporosity and permeability than thecontrol mixes. This will permit easieraccess to water and thus increase thepotential for stripping. It may thusappear that the more viscous binderof the fibre incorporated mixes had abetter cementing and adhesiveproperties at the binder-aggregateinterface which resulted in a reductionin stripping. While no measure of theamount of de-bonding or strippingwas carried out during this study, itwas visually apparent that this wasmore pronounced in the controlmixes. It is believed that de-bondingmay not have been solely responsiblefor the decrease in wet tensile strengthvalues but that other moisture damagefactors such as binder matrix softeningmay have been responsible as well.

CONCLUSION

Based on the work done thus far, thefollowing conclusions can be drawn:

1. Whilst in the dry condition thecontrol mix was found to havehigher indirect tensile strength ascompared with the fibreincorporated mixes, wetconditioning of the bituminoussamples resulted in higher tensilesrrength values for the 0.5% fibrereinforced mixes. The 1% fibrereinforced samples howevershowed low indirect tensilestrength in both the dry and wetconditioning state as compared tothe control.

2. The tensile srrength ratioindicated that the control sampleshad undergone the greatest lossin tensile strength as compared tothe fibre reinforced samples.

3 . The toughness values obtainedfrom the tensile tests indicated thesuperiority of fibre reinforcedbituminous samples over theconrrol samples in both the dryand wet conditioning. In thesetests, the 1% fibre reinforcedsamples displayed the greatestenergy at maximum srrength andwas also able to withstand thelargest strain before failure ascompared to the other mix typesat the expense of a low indirecttensile strength.

4. Changes in both the cohesiveproperties of the bitumen and theadhesion of the bitumen to theaggregate surfaces may occur as aresult of exposing the bituminousmixtures to moisrure. The fibremodified mixes exhibited highertensile strength ratios (TSR) andmodulus of elasticity ratio (MER)as compared to the control mix.

5 The result of incorporating thefibres in the rnix also act todecrease the moisture sensitivityof the bitumen to the aggregatebond. This may be due to thesrrengthening of the wettedbinder matrix, in other words theincorporation of the fibres in themix may promote both adhesionand cohesion retention.

REFERENCES

American Society for Testing of Materials,ASTM D 4123-82 (Reapproved 1987),Standard Test Method for Indirect Tension Testfor Resilient Modulus of Bituminous Mixtures,ASTM, 1982

British Standard Institution, Draft forStandard Development for Determination ofthe Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus ofBituminous Mixture DD213 , 1993.

Brown, S.F., “Residential Course onBituminous Pavement Materials, Design andEvaluation”, University of Nottingham, 1994.

Ishai, I. and Nesichi, S., “LaboratoryEvaluation of Moisture Damage toBituminous Paving Mixtures by Long-TermHot Immersion”, Transportation ResearchRecord No. 1171, 1988, pp. 12-17.

Kamaruddin, I., “The Properties andPerformance of Polymer Fibre Reinforced Hot-Rolled Asphalt”, Unpublished PhD Thesis,University of Leeds, 1998.

Kandhal, P.S., “Evaluation of Six AC-20Asphalt Cement by Use of the Indirect TensileTest”, Transportation Research Record 712,1979

Kavussi, A. and Hicks, R.G., “Properties ofBituminous Mixtures Containing DifferentFillers”, Proceedings of the Association ofAsphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 66, 1997,pp.153-186.

Kennedy, T.W. and Anagnos, J.N., “Wet-DryIndirect Tensile Test for Evaluating MoistureSusceptibility of Asphalt Mixtures”, Centre forTransportation Research, University of Texasat Austin, Research Report 253-8, Novernberl984.

Kennedy, T.W. and Hudson, W.R.,“Application of the Indirect Tensile Test toStabilised Materials”, Highway ResearchRecord No. 235, Highway Research Board,1968, pp.36-48.

Little, D.N. and Richey, B.L., “A MixtureDesign Procedure Based on the FailureEnvelope Concept”, Proceedings of theAssociation of Asphalt Paving Technologists,Vol. 52, 1983, pp. 378-415.

Lottman, R.P., “Laboratory Test Method forPredicting Moisture-Induced Damage toAsphalt Concrete”, Transportation ResearchRecord 843, TRB, National Research Council,Washington D.C., 1982

Maupin Jr. G.W., “The Use of AntistrippingAdditives in Virginia”, Proceedings of theAssociation of Asphalt Paving Technologists,Vol. 51, 1982.

Wallace, K. and Monismith, C.L.,“Diametrical Modulus Testing on Non-LinearPavement Materials”, Proceedings of theAssociation of Asphalt Paving Technologists,Vol. 49, 1980, pp.633-652



INTRODUCTION

In the Tatau Horst area (Figure 1), theRangsi conglomerate thatunconformably overlies the Belagaformation (Figure 2), has beenregarded by many workers as a classicalexample of the geological contactbetween the Tatau and Belagaformations. The interpretation was,however, primarily based on thegeneralized sequence in the successionof the geological formations. Nodetailed biostratigraphic work tosupport and to determine the age ofthis particular conglomerate unit, tothe author’s knowledge, has so far beenpublished. In the area adjacent to thisparticular outcrop, (Figure 2), it isknown that the age of Tatau formationis mainly of late Eocene - earlyOligocene and the Bawang memberof Belaga formation is predominantlyof Eocene age (Heng, 1992).

A seismic stratigraphy study on theregional lines from this region revealsthat the Rangsi equivalent is belong

to a younger sequence as comparedto the equivalent unit of Tatauformation. Further, the area that hasbeen called Tatau Horst (Figure 1)seismically does not seem to be madeup of structural feature as a “horst” ofan extensional tectonic.

OBJECTIVE

This paper is aimed at discussing thenew interpretation about thestratigraphy of Rangsi conglomeratethat was for along time beingdescribed as the representative unit ofthe basal part of the Tatau formation,that is the oldest sedimentary unit inSarawak. It is also aimed at describingthe tectonic history of the study area,that may contribute toward a betterunderstanding on the regionaltectonic of Sarawak.

DATA

Overseas Petroleum and InvestigationCorp (OPIC) was the formerpetroleum exploration company

operating in this area called SK12. Inits five-year exploration period, OPIChas drilled several wells and acquiredsome extensive coverage of seismic.Two of the regional seismic lines werepassing through the Tatau Horst area(Figure 3). These lines were used,together with many other lines in theonshore area and data from all thewells drilled in the area.

STUDY TECHNIQUES

The two regional seismic lines havebeen tied to the other lines, whichhave been interpreted and calibratedearlier with the well data from the area(Ismail, 1996). The interpretationswere carried out using seismicsequence stratigraphy techniques, i.e.to correlate the unconformities andtheir correlatable conformities thatformed as bounding surfaces for asequence, to analyze the internalcharacter of seismic beside thestructural interpretation. All thesubsurface unconformities in the areahave also been dated earlier.

Stratigraphic Position of

Rangsi Conglomerate in Sarawak




ABSTRACT

The Rangsi conglomerate that outcropped in the Tatau Horst area in Sarawak has for a long time been regarded as thebasal unit of theTatau formation. The interpretation was, however primarily based on the succession of the geologicalformations, and no detailed stratigraphic work to support the interpretation, to the author’s knowledge, has so far beenpublished. A study conducted of this area using seismic stratigraphic technique shows that the Rangsi conglomerate inthe position is much younger than the Tatau formation. This conglomeratic rock unit is possibly equivalent to Balingianformation that is of late Miocene age. Furthermore, the area that is called Tatau Horst, seismically does not seem to bemade up of structural feature as a “horst” of an extensional tectonic. Instead, it is characterized by positive flower structure,suggesting that the structure was formed as a result of transpressional strike-slip tectonic episode, during early to lateMiocene times.

This paper was presented at the Annual Geological Conference 2000, Penang.



Figure 1: Situation map of the study area showing the location of Tatau Horst and geological map of Mukah-Balingan-Tatau and Bintuluarea. Sketch based on Hing (1992). The abbreviations used are: Ta=Tatau, Bu=Buan, Bl=Balingian, Ny=Nyalau, Bg=Begrih, Li=Liang

formations. Black is granodiorite at Bukit Piring (BP), andesite and rhyolite lavas at Arip and andesite at Bukit Mersing.

Figure 2: Photograph of Rangsi conglomerate showing the contact between what is said to be “Tatau” and Belaga formations



Figure 3: Map showing the orientation of seismic lines passing through the Tatau Horst area.

Figure 4: Seismic section passing through Rangsi conglomerate, showing the nature of reflections terminationbetween the sequences and the tectonic nature of “Tatau Horst”.



RESULTS OF SEISMIC

STRATIGRAPHY STUDY

Five regional unconformities havebeen recognized in this area (Figure4). The geoseismic section (Figure 5)depicts the nature of reflectiontermination at the upper and lowerboundaries of each of the sequences.By comparing the number ofsequences preserved in this area withthe proposed stratigraphic scheme ofSarawak (Mat-Zin and Tucker, 1998)in Figure 6, all the main sequences arepresent except the Tertiary SequenceThree (T3S).

1. Tertiary One Sequence (T1S)

The sequence does not show anythickening in this area. The lowerboundary is marked by strongreflector differentiating betweenreflective interval of Sequence One

which overlies the chaotic reflectors ofBelaga formation.

The internal character of T1S is ofparallel, sub-continuous, lowfrequency and high amplitudereflectors. Based on the seismicconfiguration and the data from anearby well, it is interpreted that theT1S was mainly deposited in a shallowmarine environment.

2. Tertiary Two Sequence (T2S)

The sequence shows a tremendousthickening northward. A strongreflector marks the lower boundarywith mild truncation on T1S. Theupper boundary is marked by a veryclear angular unconformity of baseT4S. This means that the T3S, whichis preserved in the offshore Balingian(Ismail, 1996), has been totally erodedin this area.

The internal character of T2S is ofparallel very continues low frequencyand high amplitude reflectors. Itchanges to shingle and clinoformtoward the upper part of the preservedsequence. Based on the seismicconfiguration and the data from thenearby wells, it is interpreted that theT2S was also mainly deposited in ashallow marine environment.

3. Tertiary Four Sequence (T4S)

Similar to T2S, the sequence shows atremendous thickening northwardwith divergent seismic package,suggesting a basin fill deposited whichprobably developed during T4S times.The lower boundary is marked by astrong angular unconformity andstrong reflective zone and mildtruncation marks the upper boundaryby base T5S unconformity.

Figure 5: Geosismic section along Tatua-Balingian area showing the nature of reflection termination and internal seismic characterof every sequences. It shows also the position of Rangsi conglomerate with respect to the Tertiary sequence unit

and the structural style of Tatau Horst.



Figure 6: Composite stratigraphic table with the previous schemes used for the Sarawak Basin andthe proposed Sequence Stratigraphic Scheme by Ismail, 1996.



The internal character of T4S in thebasinal area is of subparallel highfrequency and low amplitudereflectors. The reflectors arecontinuous at the basal section andbecame discontinuous toward theupper part of the sequence. Based onthe seismic configuration and the datafrom the nearby wells, it is interpretedthat the T4S in the basinal area wasmainly deposited in a shallow marineenvironment and changes to a coastalplain environment toward the upperpart of the sequence.

3a. Rangsi Conglomerate

By tracing the base T4S unconformitylandward, it will reach to an

anomalous reflective seismic packagethat extends over an area of about 4kmwide. The lower unit of the packageseems clearly to truncate theunderlying chaotic reflector, while theupper package with a steeper angletruncates the flatter lower package.

By comparing this seismic packagethat occurs at about 400m depth inthe northern flank of Tatau Horst,with the outcrop of Rangsiconglomerate (Figure 2), it shows aclose appearance. This similarity canbe described by the presence of anangular unconformity, at the base ofRangsi conglomerate. There are alsoseveral higher order unconformitiesthat occur within the conglomerateunit.

Judging from this appearance onseismic and its close location with theoutcrop of Rangsi conglomerate, it isan unmistakable interpretation thatthe highly reflective seismic packagerepresents the same rock unit outcropsin the Tatau Horst area, i.e. the Rangsiconglomerate (Figure 2).

4. Tertiary Five and Six Sequences(T5S and T6S)

The sequences thicken northward.The lower boundaries are marked bygentle onlap features and mildtruncation on the upper boundaries.However, the whole part of the twosequences have been truncated by thebase T7S unconformity that leaves nopreservation of the two sequences inthe Tatau Horst area (Figure 5).

The internal characters of the twosequences appear to be similar. It ischaracterized mainly by discontinuoushigh frequency, high amplitudereflectors. On this basis and otherevidence from the nearby wells, it isinterpreted that the two sequenceswere mainly deposited in coastal plainenvironment.

STRATIGRAPHIC POSITION OF

RANGSI CONGLOMERATE

The stratigraphic scheme by Ismail,1996 (Figure 6) that has been adoptedfor this seismic stratigraphic study,allows the age determination on all theidentified sequences. The stratigraphicscheme for the onshore formation bythe Petronas Research and ScientificServices (PRSS), with offshore CycleStratigraphic Scheme (Ho, 1978),allows a more accurate correlationbetween the geological formation andthe identified sequences in the studyarea (Figure 7).

By referring to the mergedstratigraphic scheme (Figure 7), theT1S is equivalent to Tatau, Buan, and

Figure 7: Stratigraphic scheme of onshore Sarawak (PRSS, 1991) and the stratigraphicscheme for Sarawak subsurface sequences (Ismail, 1996) showing the position Rangsi

conglomerate in Sarawak’s stratigraphy.



the lower part of Nyalau, Tanggap andSubis Limestone. The T2S isequivalent to the upper part ofNyalau, Tanggap, Subis Limestoneand the lower part of Setap Shale. TheT3S, that may be of age equivalent toLambir, the upper part of Sibuti andSetap Shale formation, is totallymissing in the study area.

All the identified unconformities asper Ismail, (1996) can be seen tocorrelate very well with theunconformities in onshoreformations. Nevertheless, theunconformity between Nyalau andBuan formations (PRSS, 1991)cannot be recognized from seismic.

The Rangsi conglomerate that isinterpreted to be situated within T4S,is of late Miocene age. It is perhapsequivalent to the Balingian formation(PRSS, 1991). By comparing to theprevious interpretation, that of basalNyalau formation, the Rangsiconglomerate is supposedly some 25million years younger than its earlierproposed age.

TECTONIC AND

SEDIMENTATION HISTORY

The NW-SE geoseismic section(Figure 5) shows the relationshipbetween the sequences and thetectonic nature of the study area. Itclearly shows that the area that is calledas Tatau Horst is characterized bypositive flower structure. It is believedto be formed as a result of highlydeformed transpressional strike-slipepisode that post-dated the depositionof T2S during early Miocene times.

This tectonic unrest period mightrepresent the most active Tertiarytectonic period in the Tatau area. As aresult of these movements, the wholeof T1S was perhaps moved laterally,away from this area, while thesouthern portion of T2S has beenuplifted and severely eroded.

The cessation tectonic movementduring the early to middle Miocenetimes in the Tatau area is marked by asevere angular unconformity of baseT4S. The basal unit of thisunconformity is represented by theconglomerate unit that is known asRangsi conglomerate. Several episodesof tectonic movement took place postdated the deposition of Rangsiconglomerate, resulting in thedeposition and erosion of both T5Sand T6S during the Pliocene period.

CONCLUSIONS

This study concludes that the Rangsiconglomerate is of age equivalent toBalingian formation. It forms asproximal unit of the T4S possibly ofalluvial fan or braided stream deposits.Therefore, this conglomerate isbelieved to be of about 25 millionyears younger than the previouslyinterpreted, where it was interpretedto be of a basal unit of Tatauformation.

The study contributes toward a betterunderstanding on the tectonic natureand history of the study area. It isrealized that the area called “TatauHorst” was not formed as a horst thatnormally associated with extensionaltectonic. Instead, it is formed as a

result of strike-slip movement.Therefore, the “horst” that itselfdescribes the interpreted geologicalorigin of the structure should bereplaced by other names such as“Tatau Transpressional Area”, thatreflects the true tectonic origin of thestructure.

Although it is well understood that theonshore geological formations arediachronous, this study provides anunderstanding on correlation betweengeological formations and subsurfaceTertiary sequences. This willcontribute toward a betterunderstanding between fieldgeologists and subsurface geologistswho work on different database.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank En GeorgeCheah for proof reading and for his comments,and to the management of UniversitiTeknologi PETRONAS for facilitating thepresentation and publication of this paper.

REFERENCES

Heng,Y.E. 1992. Geological map of Sarawak,second edition. Director General of GeologicalSurvey of Malaysia.

Ismail Che Mat Zin, 1996. Tectonic evolutionand sedimentation history of Sarawak Basin.Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia,41, pp.41-52.

Mat-zin, I.C. And Tucker, M.e, 1998. AnAlternative Stratigraphic Scheme for theSarawak Basin. Journal of South-East AsianSciences (1998), 1-18.

PRSS, 1991. Geological field-guide, Sibu-Miritraverse, Sarawak by Haile, N.S, and Ho, K.W,1991 (Unpublished)



INTRODUCTION

The present is the culmination of itshistorical past. Therefore, the crucialpremise is that everything has itshistorical basis (Shamsul Amri, 1980).This point has been stressed time andagain by various scholars assessingdifferent fields of enquiry. At theconceptual level, one can trace themovement from one paradigm toanother as weaknesses and limitationsare found in explaining social reality.This is articulated in the shift fromthe broader modernization school(Long, 1982) that assumes universalapplicability to more criticalapproaches that focus on the dynamicsof specific conditions within thecontext of the historical globalexpansion of the market forces(Roxborough, 1979).

The penetration of capital at the turnof the century reconstituted society.There were who produced for themarket while others denied them thefruits of their labour. These unequalsocial relations were perpetuated anddeepened in more recent times. Themassive “modernization” efforts of thepost-colonial period sharpened socialcleavages. These on-going processesthreatened the material bases of theproducing classes. The continuedexistence of a class or classes extractingsurpluses from the peasant masses willreproduce poverty. Any effort atagricultural development and plannedsocial change must take into accounthistorical material processes, classrelations, and the role of the state.

In addressing the agriculturaldevelopment of the peninsula thewriter has located the problem inrelation to the unfolding societalprocesses under the pre-colonial,colonial and the post-colonial eras.Each historical epoch has its essentialcharacteristics and this fact must befully understood in order to gaininsight into the present conditions andchart future directions of theagricultural sector. A correctperspective is essential. Theoverdominance or overconcentrationon cultural arguments has to beredressed. Their function atproduction and market levels arenegligible. A shift in emphasis from acultural base to a more economic-oriented programme, yet sensitive tosocial phenomena, will result in newdirections in the agriculturaldevelopment of the country.

THE PRE-COLONIAL MALAY

STATE

The Malay negeri of Perak had existedsince the 16th century. The earlysettlements of the inhabitants wereconfined to the river basins wherekampong were established along thePerak river and its tributaries (LimTeck Ghee, 1976:1). The economy ofthe population was subsistence innature. Padi was grown along withvegetables and fruits to supplementthe diet. Rivers provided fish and thejungle meat products. Whateversurplus produced was mainly used asseed stock for the coming season, a

variety of cultural functions such asthe khenduri, payment a tribute andtaxes to the ruling class, and limitedbarter for essential commodities.Besides rice growing, the rakyat wereinvolved in the collection of jungleproduce such as gutta percha anddamar to exchange for basic essentials.The forests and jungles, then, formedpart of the economy where productswere extracted and animals hunted(Shaharil Talib, 1982:1). Productionsolely for profit was not the drivingforce.

The political structure of the Malaystate was highly decentralized. Thehead of state was the Sultan who wassupreme in all matters. The state wasdivided into jajahan or daerah. Thevarious daerah were headed byterritorial chiefs appointed by theSultan. The traditional leadershippattern at the village level generallyconsisted either of a penghulu or ketuakampong. In addition to providingformal leadership, the penghulu andketua kampong performed other dutiessuch as collection of taxes or tributefor the peasants to be given to theruling class. Upon demand from theterritorial chiefs or the Sultan, theselocal leaders would mobilize thepeasant population for the kerah(corvee labour) (Gullick, 1958). Theuse of kerah labour force by the rulingclass was, for instance, instrumentalin the construction of drainage worksfor swamp reclamation to permit wet-rice cultivation in Kedah (AfifuddinHaji Omar, 1978).



Dr Mohammed Halib





Both wet and dry rice were cultivatedby the peasantry in pre-colonial Perak.The former was in the form ofbendang centred in the river valleysand the later in the form of ladang orhuma. The ‘Malay’ population washeterogeneous, comprised of localPerak Malays, indigenous Orang Asli,and immigrant Indonesia groups likethe Bugis (McNair, 1972). The localPerak Malays were certainly practisingladang cultivation where clearings offelled and burnt forests were cultivatedfor a period of three or at best fourharvests, whereupon the cultivatorshifted to another plot and the cyclerepeated.

The general inclination of the Malaysto cultivate dry rice in ladang was theoutcome of several factors. One ofthese was the length of time neededto convert a piece of land into a regularwet-rice field. The conversion processtook three years with enormousamount of labour needed (Lim TeckGhee, 1976:43). The possibility of avariety of annual food crops that canbe produce in a ladang along with ricewas an added incentive (Maxwell,1884:81). However, such actions bythe peasantry could have beeninfluenced by the system of landtenure and the political situation ofthe pre-colonial Malay states.

Characterized by an abundance ofland in the form of forests and scantpopulation, the availability of land inthe pre-colonial Malay state was thesubject of Man’s willingness to workit. A person who wished to cultivatea piece of land would need to clearand then cultivate the land. In thissituation, the first form of land tenurewas simple usufructuary rights. Thisright is defined as the “right to use landwhich is acquired by clearing of forestsand the cultivation of the land.” (LimTeck Ghee, 1976:4) It emphasized,therefore, the ‘rights of use’ rather thatactual ownership. Although

customary and unwritten, the ruleprevailed in pre-colonial Malaya(Hoebel and Weaver, 1979:266).

A successive stage to the simpleusufructuary rights is what is knownas proprietary rights. Somewhatsimilar to usufructuary rights, thisform is more complex. According tothe Perak Code, any waste oruncultivated land becomes theproperty of the person who clears it,subject to two conditions. The firstis that the cultivator must be a Muslimand secondly, the land must not yetbe occupied. Satisfying theseconditions, the person is entitled tothe land. A more refined andelaborate form of proprietary right isthe one found in Section XIX of theMalacca Code. It distinguished twotypes of land, tanah hidup and tanahmati. The former refers to all clearedand cultivated lands or those that havebeen recultivated; the latter constitutesvirgin or abandoned land showing nosign of use.

Depending on the types of cropsgrown or different forms ofcultivation, the general concept ofproprietary rights described has beenmodified. Lands cultivated withannuals, like wet rice, revert to anuncultivated appearance fastercompared to those grown withperennials such as fruit trees.Different periods were set todetermine whether the land can beconsidered tanah hidup or tanah mati.With respect to the time involved,Maxwell wrote:

Malay custom has, therefore fixed threeyears as the term which wet-rice fields,if left uncultivated shall remain subjectto the proprietary right of the owner. Ifwet rice-land remains uncultivated formore than that period, it is open to theRaja, Chief or headman, within whosedistrict it is situated, to put in anothercultivator. Abandoned fruit plantations,

on the other hand, may be successfullyclaimed under him by descent or transfer,as long as any of the trees survive, andthe proprietary right is not extinguisheduntil all evidence of proprietorship isgone.

(Maxwell, 1884:78-79)

However, irrespective of the cropsgrown was the question of taxation bythe ruling class.

Under the Malay negeri, the Sultanwas entitled to one-tenth of the cropproduced. Therefore, the proprietaryrights to land were not confined tooccupation or cultivation alone, butalso carried the obligation of payingtaxes of the ruling class(Jomo,1988:12-13). Failure to dulypay could mean appropriation of therights to cultivate the land and thecrop to be forfeited. The Sultan, orthe territorial chiefs in this respect,possessed rights to dispose waste oruncultivated land.

The inclination of Perak Malays tocultivate dry rice does not mean thatwet-rice traditions in the peninsulawas non-existent. On the contrary,the peninsula was in fact an arenawhere numerous wet-rice traditionswere carried out. These include thechedongan, bendang, sawah, chenor,paya, tenggala, tugalan, taburan andothers. By and large all the modes ofwet-rice cultivation were rainfed. Theexception was the sawah of theMinangkabau in the present-dayNegeri Sembilan where irrigation wasrelatively advanced.

THE COLONIAL STATE AND

AGRICULTURAL

DEVELOPMENT

British Administration and LandRegulationsThe Pangkor Treaty 1874 between theBritish and certain Malay chiefs ofPerak marked the beginning of



intervention and colonial rule. It wasagreed “that the Sultan received andprovide a suitable residence of a BritishOfficer to be called Resident, whoshall be accredited to his court, andwhose advise must be asked and actedupon on all questions other than thosetouching Malay religion and custom”.(Swettenham, 1893:13) Anotherclause which favoured the British wasin the sphere of taxes. It was agreedthat “the collection and control of allrevenues and the generaladministration of the country beregulated under the advice of theseResidents”. (Swettenham, 1893:13)These two clauses in effect broughtabout the entire governing of the stateby colonial administrators andterminated the rights of the traditionalruling class.

The beginning of British rule markedthe era of a system of governmentstrange to the predominantly Malaypeasantry that constituted the largerpart of the population. The executionof a battery of laws and regulationswas to interfere with their pattern ofsubsistence livelihood. Above all, theentry of the British paved the way forthe resource-rich peninsular to beexposed to a market-orientedeconomy. Exploitation of tinresources and the establishment ofrubber plantations formed the dualspearhead of economic ventures. Theexpansion of the market economy waspromoted by the implanting ofbureaucratic, rational-legal machineryto stabilize the population(Sivalingam, 1983:4-5).

Under the new system, the key role inthe administrative set-up in the statewas the Resident, whose foremostfunction was to execute colonialpolicies decided by the Governor ofthe Straits Settlements. Below theResident were the District Officer(DOs), who were in charge of thedistricts. Major responsibilities of the

DOs included the collection ofrevenues and the administration ofland and justice. The District Office,due to its broad administrativeresponsibilities, became the focalpoint of the system. Augmenting theresponsibilities of the District Officewere the other governmentdepartments such as the land office,public works, and those dealing withlaw and order.

The traditional office of the penghuluwas retained and became an integralpart of the new structure. Thepenghulu was placed in charge of themukim, a subdivision of the district.The role of the penghulu was generallyto assist the DO in matters atgrassroots level. Salaried by thecolonial government, the penghulubecame the link between the Britishand the Malay population. Eventhough situated at the bottom of theheirachy, his responsibilities weremanifold. The penghulu dealt withland infringements, issuance oflicenses for the collection of jungleproduce, encouragement ofagriculture peasants, mediation inland disputes, provision of assistanceto colonial officials in fixing the datesfor rice cultivation, and the collectionof land taxes (Lim Teck Ghee,1977:25).

A part from the penghulu, the roleplayed by Malays in the governing ofthe state was minimal. With less ofthe authority they once enjoyed, theposition of the Sultan and other Malaychiefs remained. In the newgovernment, they made members ofthe State Council, along with Chineseleaders and British officials. Thecouncil was formed to “act as the chiefexecutive body to provide theconstitutional authority for thelegislation in the state.” (Lim TeckGhee, 1977:11) In really, however, itbecame nothing more than “aconvenient device which affixed the

seal of approval on policies andlegislation by the British and helpedto maintain the fiction of Malay rule.”(Lim Teck Ghee, 1977:11)

On of the earliest innovations ofcolonial rule for the methodical andefficient exploitation of the country’sresources was the introduction of asystem of land administration. Unlikethe traditional land tenure system, thenew form was based on privateownership. The Torrens system ofland administration from Australiawas introduced and adopted. Themain characteristic of the new systemwas that private ownership of land waspossible and this, in turn, led torepercussions on the agriculturalactivities of the peasantry. Under thenew land regulations peasants weresubjected to a series of rents, taxes, andother fees to be paid in cash. Thesefunds formed a source of revenue forthe British to support theiradministrative machinery for thegovernance of the states (Watson,1909:195-233).

Land under colonial administrationwas classified into five categories.These were town land, village land,and country land exceeding 10 acresin area, country land not exceeding10 acres in area and finally foreshoreand seabed. Of these categories, onlycountry land not exceeding 10 acreswas relevant to the peasantry. Suchlands, upon application by thepeasants and approved by the colonialstate, were subject to cultivationconditions (Cowgill, 1928:181-189).The cultivation condition waseffectively used as a legal weapon bythe British in deterring of Malaypeasantry from growing the moreprofitable rubber. Alienation of landto individuals, however, did not stopat cultivation conditions. The relevantfees and rents had to be duly paid.These included the initial survey feeand the annual quit rent.



The introduction of colonial rule andland legislation transformed thepolitical and economic structures ofthe former Malay states in thepeninsula. The traditional form ofgovernment under the Sultan wasreplaced by a bureaucratic structurewhere members of the traditionalruling class were given minimal roles.Traditional forms of land tenure basedon usufructuary rights were replacedby a system of private ownership.Contrary to the former situationwhere rights to land were a productof labour, land under colonial ruletook on monetary values and becamean item of exchange. Theintroduction of land rents and fees tobe paid in cash rather than by exactionof produce, gradually transformed thesubsistence economy dominated byuse-value to the cash-orientedeconomy of the new social order.

Influx of Population and Need forRiceThe opening of Perak and other statesto new economic activities led to aninflux of a primarily immigrantpopulation. The peninsula becamethe focal point of various which isgroups which ultimately led to thepluralistic structure of present-dayPeninsular Malaysia. Encouraged bylax immigration rules, a migrantlabour force entered in the greatnumbers. Two distinct groups ofimmigrants were the Chinese andIndians. The former were primarilyrecruited to toil in the tin mines andthe latter were taken up as wagelabourers in the plantation sector. Thegreatest wave of Chinese immigrantsoccurred from the late 1800s until thefirst decade of the present century(McGee, 1965:70). In addition to theChinese and Indians were primarilyJavanese and Banjarase. Some cameas wage labourers in plantations, butmost migrated mainly to settle downas rice growers, attracted by theopportunities for land in British

Malays (Chai, 1964; Smith, 1952).

An immediate impact of the influx ofthe primarily Asiatic rice eatingimmigrant labour population into thecountry was the need to increase thesupply of the staple. Rice was to be apersistent problem for the colonialadministrators throughout theiroccupation of the Malay peninsula.He effect of the population influx onthe local Malays, in terms of ricesupply, was negligible. Their riceproduction through the ladang orbendang was primarily geared forhome consumption, and not forsurplus to be exchanged in the market.To sustain the labour population ofthe plantations and mining industries,the colonial state had to assume theburden of importing rice (Haviland,1901:24-26).

The amount of money expended forrice importation was considerableeven in the late 19th century. However,at this point of early colonial rule theamount spent on rice imports was stillwithin acceptable and bearable limitsand the need to develop a surplus inlocal production was not perceived asgreat. However, as the countrycontinued to be opened up foreconomic exploitation and progressiveincreases of population accompaniedthis development, rice suppliesbecame critical. In addition to thelabour population, there was also theever-increasing personnel of theadministrative structures and the non-cultivating urban dwellers. Thesesegments of the population weredependent on rice from the market.Faced with such a situation, thecolonial state was compelled toembark in increasing production oflocal rice to lessen the burden ofimportation.

The Ban on Ladang CultivationIn the early years of colonial rule, thestate’s role in peasant agricultural

activities was to encourage Malays togrow food crops, especially rice. Theprimary objective was to create asurplus for the market to ease theimported rice supplies. One of themeans employed to encourage ricecultivation was through law. In thisrespect the Malay peasant producersbecame the focus of a series ofenactment that interrupted theirsubsistence economic activities. InPerak, these rulings includedCompulsory Planting of Coconuts byMalays 1880, the Prohibition ofFelling of Forest 1881, and theAlienation of Nipah Lands 1888 (LimTeck Ghee, 1976:144). Theseregulations reduced the independenceof the cultivators in their pursuit ofsubsistence. Interaction with thenatural economy which historicallyhad been an important aspect of theirlivelihood was disrupted. The statedetermined the kinds of crops to begrown and event the associated systemof cultivation.

The most telling law that came as ablow to the Malays was theDiscouragement of LadangCultivation 1890 (Lim Teck Ghee,1976:144). Dry land cultivation, ofladang, included the production ofupland rice in Perak prior to colonialrule. It was a subject of concern tothe British even before the 1890regulation which constituted the finalsqueeze. The tightening of the nooseon padi ladang can be traced to 1887.The practice of shifting dry-riceculture was conceptualized by colonialadministrators as “an obnoxious andwasteful type of agriculture,destroying valuable timber and atemporary culture at best.” (Lim TeckGhee, 1976:66) In order to encouragethe cultivation of the more fixedbendang, through which higher yieldscould be realized, the annual quit rentfor ladang was increased in 1887 (LimTeck Ghee, 1976:66).



The increase in rent did not deter thelocal Perak Malays from their ladangrice culture. The lack of a widespreadwet-rice tradition among some sectorsof the local Malay population and thework involved made the bendang lessappealing. Furthermore, the rice yieldfrom ladang was comparable to wet-rice (Hill, 1977:185). Thus in 1888,a year after the rent increase, ratherextensive ladang was still beingcultivated. In the Kinta district alone,some 1,500 acres were being workedand the figure for Kuala Kangsar was3,455 acres or 91.0 percent of all landsalienated for that year. Finding nodecline in ladang, a much tighter rulewas legislated. The colonial statedecreed that as of January 1, 1890 nojungle area was to be felled for thepurposes of ladang “except secondarygrowth of not more than five to sixyears standing.” (Lim Teck Ghee,1976:67) The effect of this rule wasstill nowhere close to Britishexpectations. The Malays persistedwith their dry-rice culture, thecolonial administrators, in a final driveto curb the practise, passes yet anotheract to the effect that “no pass or licencefor ladang cultivation would begranted in the state.” (Lim Teck Ghee,1976:67) This ruling was to takeeffect as of April 1896. However, thelegislation was not capable to totallywiping out the long-standingtradition; ladang rice culturecontinued under British rule.

Upon reflection, the early period ofcolonial rule experienced an increaseof primarily immigrant labourpopulation into the peninsula to wagein the expanding economic sectors.The need for increased rice supplieswas apparent, but the cost of riceimports to sustain the population waswithin bearable limits. There wassome encouragement of wet-ricecultivation, but it was done indirectlythrough discouraging dry rice(Shaharil Talib, 1984:140).

Rice Cultivation, Irrigation andResearchOne of the first concerted drives forincreased local rice production by theBritish came in the form of the Reporton the Rice Supply of the Colony andnative States, commissioned by theStraits Settlement government in1891 (Short and Jackson, 1971:83).The British were already beginning tofeel the burden on the amount ofmoney spent by importing rice.Accordingly, the government began topromote wet-rice cultivation amongthe Malay peasantry. Colonial officersdiligently contributed to the abovementioned Report, presented in 1893,by commenting on the “nature ofexisting and potential rice lands, andto make suggestions as to how newland might be brought intocultivation”. (Short and Jackson,1971:83) Perak led the way towardsthe establishment of extensiveirrigation activity.

The large-scale attempt was the Krianirrigation Scheme. In the year ofintervention the area was described asa “roadless jungle with a few padi fieldsand one or two fishing villages on thecoast”. (Swettenham, 1893:42) Theproject, which started in 1899, wascompleted in 1906 and cost the PerakGovernment a total of $1.6 million.Officially opened by the Resident,Mr.E.W.Birch, on August 16, 1906,the scheme was described as ‘ a hugefinancial success in every way”.(ABS&FMS, 1906:286) A total of60,000 acres of river land was broughtunder the system. The majority of thecultivators in the scheme, however,were not local Perak Malays. Mostwere Banjarese from Indonesia whohad immigrated into the country insearch of land for rice cultivation(Sternberg, 1979). The local Malays,who lacked an irrigated wet-riceculture, were not attracted tocolonizing the scheme even thoughland was obtainable on fairly easy

terms. While the Krian scheme wasunder construction, other Britishattempts were under way elsewhere.

While the colonial state was trying toget the peasantry to grow more riceand plans were under way to constructirrigation systems for the purpose,some rubber estates embarked on theirown rice production programs tosustain their labour force. A successfulattempt by the management of theLanadron Estate in Muar, Johore, wasreported to be shared by other planters(Pears, 1902:390-392). Despite thefact that the colonial state wasemploying measures to discouragedry-rice cultivation among the nativeMalay population, the rice grown bythis estate was upland rice. In fact,the attempt was regarded as successfulwhen a yield of 175 to 200 gantangper acre was realized (Pears,1902:392).

A separate event which hadconsequences on rice cultivation in thesame period was the influx ofIndonesian groups into the country.After having limited success inencouraging the local Malays to growsurplus rice for the market, the comingof these immigrants was encouragingto the British. The colonial officersdid “all in their power” toaccommodate the immigrants bygranting them land for the purposeof rice cultivation (ABS&FMS,1910:316).

Despite efforts by the British atirrigation system construction andencouraging the Malays peasantry togrow more rice, an alarming patternof disinterest in rice-growing amongthe local Malays was fast emerging(Barritt, 1912:146-149). His was dueto the competition from the moreprofitable venture in rubber growing.The expanding market economycreated by the British increased theneed for more cash among the



peasantry to satisfy material needs andto pay for the variety of imposed taxes.Thus, while continuing to cultivaterice for home consumption, manyturned to cultivate the cash croprubber (Lim Chong Yah, 1967).

The unprofitable and precariousendeavour of rice planting, ironicallyenough, was common knowledgeamong the colonial administrators.For example, an early economicanalysis done by a colonial officercame up with the following remarks:

The profits of this cultivation vary fromabout $10 per acre on the best land tobout minus $50 per acre on the poorland under unfavourable conditions.

(Barritt, 1913:445)

Such analysis, however, did notdampen the spirit of the colonialadministrators. They persisted ingetting Malays to grow wet rice andvarious ways were resorted to in-orderto make it difficult for cultivators tomove into rubber cultivation. Theseimpediments included the creation ofMalay Land Reservations, theimposition of the ‘No Rubber’cultivation conditions on peasantholdings, differential land rents tofavour rice and coconut, closure ofland office books o stop rubber landapplications by the peasants andrepossession of peasant lands found tobe cultivated with rubber. In certainareas there was even completeprohibition of rubber planting byMalays (Lim Teck Ghee, 1977:116-118). The implementation of theserules curbed the entry of the Malaypeasantry from taking part in thelucrative venture.

A part from deliberate legalmanoeuvres to keep Malays in ricefarming, a step taken by the British toincrease their rice yields and to makethe crop more profitable to grow wasthrough rice research and

development. Carried out by theDepartment of Agriculture, which wasestablished in 1905, early effortsconcentrated on varietal trials andimproved methods of cultivation. TheKrian scheme which was the onlyirrigation scheme of considerable size,became the showpiece of these earlyefforts. In 1906, a demonstration plotwas established in Krian so that “theMalay and other rice growers in thedistrict might be able to observe andlearn from the results shown by theseexperiments”.(ABS&FMS, 1907:278)

Experimental work on rice waseventually extended to other areas. InKuala Kangsar, trials were carried outwith more than 30 varieties of paditested at this station in 1912. Theseincluded Siamese, Indian, Japanese,and local varieties (ABFMS,1913:317-323). Augmenting thelocal research scene, a delegation fromthe Department of Agriculture wassent to Thailand that same year tolearn the techniques of rice cultivationpractised in that country for possibleintroduction into British Malaya(Bateson, 1912:146-149). Theresearch effort of the British weretailored to favour irrigated wet rice;no efforts were made for thedevelopment of dry rice and other ricecultivation systems.

As earlier indicated, research in varietalbreeding and improving cultivationmethods had stared after the firstdecade of the century. It camethrough the efforts of the economicbotanist, H.W.Jack (MAJ, 1960:112-116). These activities began to bearfruit a decade later (Jack, 1919:298-319). The success of the breeding andselection work eventually becameclear. It was reported that in 1921,the distribution of selected pure trainsof padi was being carried out in Perak.In the district of Kuala Kangsar, forexample, seven gantang of improvedseeds were distributed in three mukim.

“The Penghulu, Chegor Galah” it wasnoted, “planted his bendang at Jawangsolely with the departmental selectedstrains in 1922”.(South, 1923:258)Supportive of efforts at Krian were thetest stations at Titi Serong and atKuala Kangsar. Like Krian, these twostations carried out varietal trials(Sands, 1926:165-170). At the KualaKangsar station, it was reported thata large party of penghulu and ketuakampong were transported to view thedifferent varieties tested and the“majority of the visitors werefavourably impressed with thestanding crops”.(Birkinshaw,1928:281-283)

The use of Malay traditionalleadership such as the penghulu andketua kampong and members of theroyalty to coax the peasantry intogrowing rice was one of the techniquesemployed by the British. In additionto the arranged visit of the localMalays leaders to the experimentalstation cited above, there were caseswhere Malay royalty was involved inattempting to persuade the people toinvolve themselves in rice growing.Clearly, such a persuade was needed.For instance, in the Lower Perakdistrict, land which was under ladangwas found to be grown with rubber“despite the efforts of Raja Muda,Perak, who has done all in his powerto encourage bendang”.(FMS, 1923:4)The same trend was seen in KualaKangsar district where rubbercultivation by Malay peasant wasdiscouraged in favour of wet-rice.

This pattern of using aristocraticinvolvement can be further traced tothe highest level of Britishadministrative machinery, the FederalCouncil of the Federated Malay States.The Malay member of the council for1930, supposedly representing Malayinterests, was the Raja Dihilir Perak,Raja Sir Chulan ibni Almarhun SultanAbdullah. His perception of Malay



peasant inclination to grow rubber asmoving away from their ‘traditional’preoccupation with rice cultivation isseen by the following statement:

To my mind, the only thing thatinterferes with the extension of padicultivation is the temptation of the partof the native of this country to plantrubber. If steps are not taken to restrainor to prohibit this, there is very little hopeof the Malay taking to padi planting asa means of livelihood… The extensionof English schools in a padi planting areaalso tens to check this form of agriculturebecause Malay youths who gain asmattering of English a these schools donot take kindly o the pursuit of theirforefathers… We cannot, of courseproduce sufficient rice to feed the wholepopulation, but wit the Governmentpursuing the enlightened policy of freelygranting land, possibly with theassistance of irrigation schemes for padigrowing, and of limiting or restrictingfor a period the alienation of land forthe planting of rubber, the position ofrice cultivation will no doubt beimproved.

(FMS, 1931:B97)

The untoward behaviour of the Malaypeasants in their disinterest at ricegrowing despite provisions atirrigation and exhortation by thenobility was indeed appalling toadministrators. At Bruas, Perak, forexample, it was found that traditionalrainfed bendang land had been plantedto rubber much to the dismay of theBritish who were proposing toestablish an irrigation scheme for thecultivators in the area (FMS,1922:C103).

Undeterred by the indifference of theMalay peasantry, British efforts atconstruction of irrigation systemscontinued in the Twenties. The effortsat this stage were the outcome of theperiod of rice shortage during the war

when the colonial governments of theFMS, SS, and Johore accrued a ricedebt amounting to a massive $42million. Further steps were necessaryto increase local rice production andits reign as supreme priority to supportBritish economic exploitation was wellexpressed by the colonial official,H.W.Jack. He said,

that the tin and rubber industries supplythe finances which defray the cost ofadministration of our Government isundoubted, but without rice a largeproportion of the labour masses engagedin these industries could not be kept inthe country, so that rice is, in reality, thefirst essential requirement of Malaya

(Jack, 1923:166).

To increase rice production at the locallevel, the role of the District Officerwas central. Inducements in the formof land offers “on condition that theyplant a definite amount of padiannually” (Jack, 1923:103).

At the federal level, there wasdissatisfaction with local riceproduction. This reaction came in thelight of the continuing enormousamount of rice that has to beimported. Moreover, the Malaypopulation in the country had beenincreasing, but much to Britishdisappointment they “have beendrawn away from rice planting by themore remunerative attraction ofrubber cultivation” (Sands,1930:130). This shift towards rubberby Malay peasants was, however,economically rational. As pointed outby T.H.Silcock, “whether in boom ordepression, rubber was the moreprofitable crop” to grow (Silcock,1959:15).

On the technological front, researchand development efforts on rice wereexpanded. By 1935, four permanentrice experimental stations were alreadyestablished, with research conducted

by personnel of the Department ofAgriculture. In addition, there werethe numerous padi test plots scatteredthroughout British Malaya. Thesewere situated primarily in rice areas,especially where irrigation systemswere constructed by the Drainage andIrrigation Department (DID). Theexperiments carried out by the Britishcentered mainly on varietal selection,fertiliser trials and crop husbandry. Inaddition to local research activities,experiences from neighbouring ricegrowing countries were sharedthrough visits made by the agriculturalofficers. For example, some officersfrom the Department of Agriculturewere sent to study the Burmese riceindustry, particularly its rice-millingaspects (Parker, 1936:121-127).

The centerpiece of irrigation in Perakin the mid-Thirties was undoubtedlythe Sungei Manik irrigation scheme.Begun in 1933 by the DID, itrepresented a colonization area forwet-rice cultivation. It was a massiveeffort by the British after Krian andits development consisted of a seriesof stages (de Moubray, 1936:160-166). Having a more obscure positionwere the numerous small-scaleschemes. Scores of these small orminor systems were built in Perak andother states by the British.

Malaya underwent a change of handsduring the Second World War and thecountry was in turmoil. During theJapanese occupation of 1941-1945,irrigation development came to acomplete halt and research on rice wasstopped. During the short period ofJapanese rule, most of the pure linesof rice selected through the researchefforts of the British agriculturalofficers were lost. A few popularvarieties such as the S.k.48, Sm9, andNachin 11, however, were recovered(Van Thean Kee, 1960:112). Underthe Japanese, the country plunged intoa situation of severe rice shortage. In



1943 steps were taken by the Japaneseto solve the problem by introducingshort-term maturing Taiwanese ricevarieties. The first trial was carriedout in the Sungei Manik irrigationscheme covering an area of 4,000acres. This first attempt resulted insome success and cultivation wasextended to the Krian irrigationscheme, where 20,000 acres morewere planted. This venture wasunsuccessful because the deep-watercondition Krian with drainageproblems was unsuitable for thegrowing of Taiwanese varieties.Following this failure, the Japanesestopped pushing the peasantry intogrowing the short-term varieties andthey mere allowed to cultivate varietiesof their own (Van Thean Kee,1948:119-122).

The first few years after the fall of theJapanese and the return of the British,work on irrigation was mainlyconfined to rehabilitation activities.In 1948, State DIDs were establishedwith their own budgets and staff tofacilitate implementation of irrigationsystems thoughout the country. By1956 double cropping of rice wasencouraged in irrigation systems in thecountry. Under colonial rule, all theirrigation systems had been builtprimarily to supplement naturalprecipitation and only one crop wasgrown annually, using late-maturationvarieties. The only instance wherebydouble cropping with short-termmaturation rice varieties occurred wasduring the Japanese period and thatended in failure (Federation ofMalaya, 1956:44-46). Such a decisionmeant a change in the overall policyin irrigation system construction;existing systems would need to bereconstructed or reorganized to suitthe double cropping of rice(Federation of Malaya, 1956:46).

AGRICULTURAL

DEVELOPMENT IN THE POST-

COLONIAL ERA

The lowering of the British UnionJack on August 31, 1957 marked thebeginning of an independentMalaysia. Along with liberation fromcolonial rule, the new governmentinherited the entire structure ofbureaucratic machinery from thedeparting British. Land regulationsremained intact and so did the otherstate institutions governingagriculture. The Department ofAgriculture and the DID continuedtheir respective efforts, the former inresearch and the dissemination oftechnical knowledge to the peasantryand the latter in the realm ofconstruction, maintenance, andrehabilitation of irrigation systems.The post-colonial state was but anextension of colonial rule with oneobservable difference, the governmentmachinery was now staffed by locals.

Just as it had affected the colonialadministrators, the rice issue becamea primary concern of the new state.The attention of the new rulers wasimmediately directed to the peasantrice cultivators and the rice crop. Thewords of Abdul Aziz Ishak, the firstMinister of Agriculture ofindependent Malaysia placed the riceissue in perspective the year followingindependence. He wrote:

Padi is the top priority crop in theDevelopment Plan of my Ministry. Ihave given every effort to increase theyield of padi and to do this, I have evenasked for assistance in the form of expertsfrom Japan in the hope of helping ourfarmers to increase the yields of their padiand thereby increasing their income. Therecord yield which has been attainedduring 1957/1958 season is indeed veryencouraging and this shows that ourefforts which have so far been directedtowards increasing the yield have not

been futile. … However, I wish to stresshere that research alone is not enoughunless the results of the research alone isnot enough unless the results of theresearch are brought to the farmers inthe fields in such a manner they will befully convinced of the needs to adopt thenew ways

(MAJ, 1958).

The message from the Ministerconcisely charted the course for thedevelopment of the rice industry.Technology and technology transferwere the keys to the strategy. Twofactors compelled the new state toembark on the immediatedevelopment on the rice sector;poverty among the peasantry and thequest for self-sufficiency.

As a consequence of decades ofcolonial rule, the peasantry wasseverely underdeveloped both sociallyand economically. The rice peasantryforms one of the largest povertygroups in Peninsular Malaysia. Thisis not denying the existence of otherpoverty-stricken groups in theagricultural sector of the country.Poverty is found among thesmallholders, fishermen, and thecoconut smallholders. Comparatively,however, the rice peasantry hasconsistently shown a higher incidenceof poverty than the other sectors.Concentrated primarily in the rice-growing areas in the state of Kedah,Perlis, Kelantan, Selangor, and Perak,efforts to eradicate poverty andimprove the economic standing of therice peasantry have been made duringthe 5-year development plans.

Malaysia continued to be a netimporter of rice after it gainedindependence. Massive amounts ofrice continued to be imported into thecountry. With respect to rice, theNational Agricultural Policy whichwas “formulated to ensure a balancedand sustained rate of growth in the



agricultural sector vis-a-vis the othersectors of the economy” (Governmentof Malaysia, 1984:1), stated that:

No country is ever self-sufficient in allits food requirements. In this respect, theimportant issue is the production ofstaple food which, in the case ofMalaysia, is rice. The determination ofthe percentage of rice to be producedwithin the country is influenced by thenational food security needs. In addition,in view of the fact that the country is ahigh cost producer, it is not economicalto produce 100% of its totalrequirement. Further, in times ofemergency, the consumption of rice is notas much as during normal times. Basedon these considerations, the productionlevel aimed at will be between 80% and85% of the national requirement. Inorder to achieve and sustain this level ofself-sufficiency, padi production will beintensified through the provision andimprovement of drainage and irrigationfacilities in existing areas for doublecropping, use of high yielding varietiesand adoption of modern farmingpractices

(Government of Malaysia,1984:8)

The NAP, echoing the words of AbdulAziz Ishak cited earlier, reiterated therole of improved rice technologies,along with the associated physicalinfrastructural development by thegovernment to increase rice yields.

The Agricultural DevelopmentStrategyA stage has been reached whereby stateintervention is deemed necessary inpractically all aspects relating to theproduction of the rice crop. Thisapplies to research in the developmentof new technologies, establishment ofa physical infrastructure includingirrigation systems and farm roads,introduction of machinery, provisionof fertilizer, price supportmechanisms, and even the marketing

of the produce (Sivalingam, 1983:24).It is in this set-up that rice hasfrequently been referred to as politicalcrop.

Simultaneous with these agriculturaldevelopment efforts was an increasein the number of organizations tomanage the state’s inputs. Thesprouting of governmental agencieshas been regarded as a “panacea togrowth and development” (AfifuddinHaji Omar, 1979:1). Theseinstitutions can be found at all levelsof the government’s bureaucraticmachinery, from district to nationalcapital. Added to the alreadyestablished departments formed undercolonial rule such as the Departmentof Agriculture and the DID, came ahost of other agencies. At the federallevel these include the MalaysianAgricultural Research andDevelopment Institute (MARDI), theFarmers’ Organization Authority(FOA) and the Federal AgriculturalMarketing Authority (FAMA). At themore localized level are the regionalauthorities to oversee specificdevelopment programs such as theMuda Agricultural DevelopmentAuthority (MADA), the KemubuAgricultural Development Authority(KADA), and the more recent KedahRegional Development Authority(KEDA).

Underlying the massive task of thedevelopment of the peasant rice sectorlies the philosophy:

Efforts at poverty redressal of the ruralpoor should be directed towards the goalof increased farm income. Thereaslization of these targets depends to alarge extent on technological changeamongst our traditional farmers at amore rapid pace, commercialization ofagriculture and increased efficiency inmanaging the farm business

(Haji Osman Mohd. Nooret al.,1980:341).

It is assumed that the adoption of newtechnologies will generate surpluses tobe exchanged in the market, therebyconsiderably increasing the income ofthe peasants. Accomplishing the taskof transferring the new technologiesto the rice peasantry is the multitudeof agricultural extension agents andtechnicians from the variousgovernment agencies.

On a conceptual plane, the strategyof diffusion of new rice technologiesto the alleged ‘traditional’ and ‘passive’rice peasantry lacks sensitivity tohistorical experience. Technologygenerated and diffused to thepeasantry is merely an extension of riceresearch initiated by the British. Thecolonial rice research programme wasuncritically endorsed by post-colonialresearchers and policy makers.Colonial rice research efforts had beendirected towards irrigated wet-ricevarieties and the practices associatedwith them.

The acceptance and continuation ofthe rice research programme laiddown by the British may constitute ajudgmental error. It marginalized theimportance of other methods ofcultivation that had been historicallydeveloped and modified by peasantsthrough their interaction with thenatural environment. The variousforms of rice cultivation such as theladang, tugalan, chenor, chedongan,and paya were never considered asbases for improvement by the riceresearch program of the post-colonialstate.

Uncritical of the historical factors thathave shaped and conditioned the ricegrowing practices, breeding for high-yielding wet-rice varieties dominatedthe research efforts of the Departmentof Agriculture after Independence(Varughese et al., 1980:51-71). In theSixties, Malaysia’s rice breedingprograms took a dramatic turn.



During this period, the developingnations, including Malaysia,experienced the so-called GreenRevolution. Emphasis was given to theintroduction of high-yielding andshort-maturation rice varieties.

The coming of these new rice varietiesgave a much needed boost in thedevelopment of the rice sector. Thehigh yields possible through thesevarieties was seen by the state as thesolution to its problems. Further,double cropping of rice was possiblein irrigated areas. Higher yields, it wasassumed, would lead to higherincomes for the peasants and throughthe surplus generated, there would beself-sufficiency. Technologically, thesenew varieties reinforced the local riceresearch pattern. The GreenRevolution varieties were primarily forirrigated wet-rice and fitted well withthe local programme.

Recognizing the importance oftechnology for the development of therice industry and the agriculturalsector as a whole, a move to strengthenthe agricultural research system wasmade. In 1969, MARDI wasestablished as a specialized agencydealing with agricultural research.Prior to the setting up of MARDI, thedual functions of research andextension were the primaryresponsibilities of the Department ofAgriculture. With reorganization, theDepartment of Agriculture is confinedto extension and other ‘residual’activities while research came underMARDI. Under the new set-up,research on irrigated wet rice fordouble cropping areas intensified(Y.H. Chen et al., 1980:72-88).Inspired by and taking off from theearlier IRRI-developed varieties, vaststrides have been made in the localdevelopment of high-yielding andearly-maturing varieties. Varietaldevelopment continued into theEighties. Advances have also been

made whereby different rates offertilizer have been recommended forthe different rice areas in the country.

Irrigation and AgriculturalDevelopmentClosely associated with the riceresearch efforts are the constructionand rehabilitation of irrigation systemsto enhance the spread of the new ricetechnologies and to enable doublecropping. This move is in line withthe needs of the new varieties wherewater requirements and control arecrucial for optimal yields (Wickhamet al., 1978:221-232). The efforts haveprimarily been directed to thedevelopment of large-scale irrigationsystems (Cheong Chup Lim,1976:38). After upgrading thefacilities of early large-scale irrigationsystems such as Krian, Sungei Manik,and Tanjung Karang, the constructionof large World Bank-funded irrigationsystems became the preoccupation ofthe state. Two of these constructedafter independence are the 250,000acres Muda scheme in the states ofKedah and Perlis, and the 60,000 acresKemubu scheme in the East Coaststate of Kelantan. The constructionwork of the former spanned from1966 to 1970 while the latter from1967 to 1973.

There has been a situation of relativestagnancy in generating ricetechnologies in Malaysia. Even thoughmore varieties are developed throughresearch, the yield potential of thesevarieties has not significantly gonebeyond the yields presently realized.Changes in the fertilizer raterecommendations are made withoutmuch effect. The rice yields from thelarge scale irrigation systems ofKemubu and Muda, which form themajor targets of technologicalinnovations, have levelled off. Theassumption that there will be anunending development of increases inyield based on biological grounds

alone can prove to be a costly mistake.A major technological breakthroughthat could, for instance, double thepresently realized rice yields in not issight. The actual potential of thepresent varieties, for the most part, hasnot been fully tapped.

The issue of increasing rice productionin the country continued to be apriority problem in the post-colonialstate. Added to the question of beingself-sufficient in rice is the parallelissue of eradicating poverty and raisingthe economic standing of thepeasantry. In the initial years ofindependence, the government,through the inherited institutions inthe Department of Agriculture andthe DID, pursued their respectivefoals, the former in breeding new ricestrains capable of higher yields and thedissemination of technology to thepeasantry, and the latter inconstruction and rehabilitation ofirrigation systems.

The apparently separate objective ofthe DID and the Department ofAgriculture, are in realitycomplementary. They form the majorcomponents in the development ofthe rice sector. The DID through theprovisions of irrigation and drainagefacilities sets the stage for the diffusionof high-yielding varieties whichrequire good water control, apart fromfertilizer and cultural practices, formaximum benefits to be realized.Massive capital outlay is incurred bythe state in construction, upgrading,and maintenance of irrigationfacilities. Supplementing the efforts ofthe Department of Agriculture andDID is the plethora of agencies tomanage state’s inputs in thedevelopment of the agricultural sectorof the country particularly pertainingto rice.

Research on the development of ricetechnology continues to be at the



forefront of government attempts toincrease rice production and improvethe living standards of the cultivators.The rice research agenda in the post-colonial era, however, is merely anextension of the foundation laid downby the British researchers. Theprogram has never been criticallyquestioned and evaluated to considerthe various forms of indigenous ricecultivation systems found in thecountry. Varietal breeding has mainlybeen directed and tailored to suit wet-rice cultivation under irrigation. Thebias for irrigated rice held even afterthe establishment of MARDI in 1969as a specialized institution to carry outresearch on rice and other crops. Justas the program in the Department ofAgriculture was handed down by theBritish, it was in turn inherited andcontinued by MARDI. In otherwords, the direction of rice researchin the country never shifted from theone pioneered by the British.

Reinforcing the one-track rice researchagenda was the coming of the GreenRevolution in the Sixties wherebyhigh-yielding, early-maturing varietieswere developed by IRRI. It is commonknowledge that these new varieties arehighly responsive to fertilizerapplication, susceptible to diseases andpest attacks; above all good watercontrol is desired. The GreenRevolution was, therefore, an addedboost for the local rice scene. It fittedwell with the government’s strategy toincrease rice production and at thesame time eradicate poverty, but itsactual achievements are still debatable.

CONCLUSION

The salient feature marking thedevelopment of peasant rice growingin Peninsular Malaysia is theincreasing degree of state intervention.Peasant rice cultivation under pre-colonial Malay states was primarily forhome consumption, and surplus, if

any, was used to pay taxes to the rulingclass and for a variety of culturalfunctions.

The setting of rice cultivation then wasdiverse. Both dry and wet ricecultivation were practised. There werevarious modes of wet-rice cultivationwith varying degrees of water controlpractices. Irrigation was significantlydeveloped among the Minangkabauof Negeri Sembilan.

Irrigated wet rice cultivation wasencouraged among the Malaypeasantry. Both large and small scaleirrigation systems were constructed bythe colonial state. Ladang cultivationwhich was initially discouraged infavour of wet-rice was later banned.Colonizing of irrigation schemes wasmade attractive through variousmeans such as generous land offersand reduced land taxes.Simultaneously, entry of peasants intothe lucrative rubber growing waschecked by the colonial authorities.Sandwiched between the ban onladang and their entry into rubber, thepeasants were left with littlealternative. Even when wet-rice wascultivated, the legal arms of thecolonial state intruded deeply intotheir cultivation cycles. Cornered intolabouring for a low-paying crop, thepeasants were subjected to colonialstate legislation determining thevarious dates for the different phasesof wet-rice production.

Attempts to get the Malay peasantryto grow wet rice did not stop at therealm of irrigation systemconstruction. The colonial period alsowitnessed the beginning of aconcerted effort in the application ofscientific knowledge in ricecultivation. Selection on high-yieldingpure lines of rice was started and thevarieties were then spread to thepeasantry. In line with colonialinterests, however, the research on rice

leaned towards the development ofwet-rice technologies or morespecifically, irrigated wet rice varieties.Little emphasis was given to thedevelopment of the diverse systems ofrice production found in thepeninsula. The underlying objectiveof the colonial state’s program was toensure a cheap source of local rice tosustain the labour forces in theplantation and mining sectors infurtherance of their exploitativeeconomic endeavours.

The pattern of rice research laid outby the British was uncriticallycontinued to the present era. In theprocess of which, furtherdeemphasizing and marginalizing thedifferent modes of rice production.Technological advancements areprimarily tailored to irrigated wet-ricevarieties. The bias for irrigated rice wasfurther buttressed through the spreadof IRRI-developed high-yielding,short-term maturation, water-sensitive and fertilizer responsivevarieties. Later varieties developed bylocal researchers maintained thesesame characteristics.

Facilitating the spread of thesevarieties to the peasantry, irrigationdevelopment of the post-colonial statetook a new dimension. Provision ofirrigation facilities is to enable double-cropping of rice. The spread of ricetechnologies and the provision ofirrigation forms an agriculturaldevelopment strategy to combatpoverty in the rice peasantry and tostrive for national self-sufficiency inrice. Characterizing the irrigationdevelopment was the construction oflarge World Bank-funded systems andthe rehabilitation of both small andlarge scale schemes. However, muchof the millions that have been spenton irrigation development in Malaysiahas been concentrated in theconstruction and rehabilitation oflarge scale systems.



Closely associated with thedevelopment of the rice sector is theall-important question of researchdirection in the development of ricetechnologies. The existing riceresearch program of over-concentrating on irrigated wet-ricetechnologies needs to be re-evaluated.Existing efforts should also include thedevelopment of rainfed, swamp, anddry rice technologies. In the small-scale schemes where water supply tosustain double cropping is inadequate,then rainfed rice technologies shouldbe made available to peasants asalternatives. In other areas, thepossibility of dry rice making acomeback through improved andappropriate dry rice technologies mustnot be ruled out. This is especially inareas historically and presently knownfor their dry rice activities such asPerak, Kelantan and Trengganu.Along the same line, improvementand development of the paya systemof rice cultivation in Pahang shouldalso be initiated. Research effortstoward improving these non-irrigatedand dry rice cultivation systems areenvisaged to offer broader alternativeof rice technologies to the peasantryand that these will be better suited tothe ecological settings of the areasinvolved and in line with the historicalheritage of the peasantry.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Afifuddin Haji Omar, “The Social, Politicaland Economic Framework of Muda RiceFarmers – A Historical Perspective”, Alor Setar,MADA Publication No.23, August 1973.

“Agriculture in the Native States in 1909”,Agric. Bull. Straits & FMS, Vol.IX, No.8, 1910.

Barritt, N.W., “The Rice Crop in Malaya”,Agric. Bull. of the FMS, Vol.I, No.4, 1912.

Bateson, E., “Padi Cultivation in Siam”, Agric.Bull. of the FMS, Vol.I, No.4, 1912.

Bateson, E., “Padi Experiments in Krian”,Agric. Bull. of the FMS, Vol.II, No.5, 1913.

Birkinshaw, F., “Padi Notes in Perak North”,Malayan Agricultural Journal, Vol.XXI, No.7,1928.

Birkinshaw, F., “Preliminary Report on theDistribution by the Inspection Division inPerak North of Selected Pure Strains of Padi”,Malayan Agricultural Journal, Vol.XI, No.11,1923.

Chai, Hon-Chan, The Development of BritishMalaya 1896-1909, Kuala Lumpur: OxfordUniversity Press, 1964.

Chen, Y.H. et al., “Varietal Evaluation inDouble Cropping Areas”, in MARDI, Researchfor the Rice Farmer, Serdang: MARDI, 1982.

Cheong Chup Lim, “Irrigation Developmentand Present Status of Farm Water Managementin Malaysia”, TARC, Symposium on WaterManagement in Rice Field, Tropical AgricultureResearch Series No.9, Ibaraki, Japan, 1976.

Cowgill, J.V., “System of Land Tenure in theFederated Malay States”, Malayan Agric.Journal, Vol.XVI, No.5, 1928.

de Moubray, G.A. de C, “The Sungei ManikIrrigation Scheme”, Malayan AgriculturalJournal, Vol.XXIV, No.4, 1936.

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FMS, Annual Report of Director of FoodProduction for the Year 1923.

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FMS, Proceedings of the Federal Council of theFMS for the Year 1921, Kuala Lumpur: FMSGovernment Printing Office, 1922.

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Government of Malaysia, The NationalAgricultural Policy, Kuala Lumpur:Government Printers, 1984.

Gullick, J.M., Indigenous Political Systems ofWestern Malaya, London: The Athlone Press,1958.

Haji Osman Mohd. Noor, Chin Fatt and ChanAh Kiow, “Transfer of Technology – Role ofExtension”, in MARDI, Research for the RiceFarmer, Serdang: MARDI, 1982.

Haviland, H.A., “On the Distribution of(Free) Meals to Coolies on the Estates andIrrigation Works, Krian”, Agric. Bull. of theStraits and FMS, Vol.I, No.1, 1901.

Hill, R.D., Rice in Malaya, Kuala Lumpur:Oxford University Press, 1977.

Hoebel, E.A. and Thomas Weaver,Anthropology and the Human Experience, NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1979.

Jack, H.W., “Preliminary Report onExperiments with Wet Rice in Krian”, Agric.Bull. of the FMS, Vol.VII, No.5, 1919.

Jack, H.W., “Rice in Malaya (continued)”,Malayan Agricultural Journal, Vol.XI, No.6,1923.

Jack, H.W., “Rice in Malaya”, MalayanAgricultural Journal, Vol.XI, No.5, 1923.

Jomo, K.S., A Question of Class: Capital, theState, and Uneven Development in Malaya, NewYork and Manila: Monthly Review Press andJCA Publishers, 1988.

Lim Chong Yah, Economic Development ofModern Malaya, Kuala Lumpur: OxfordUniversity Press, 1967.



Lim Teck Ghee, Origins of a Colonial Economy:Land and Agriculture in Perak 1874-1897,Penang: Penerbit USM, 1976.

Lim Teck Ghee, Peasants and Their AgriculturalEconomy in Colonial Malaya 1974-1941, KualaLumpur: Oxford University Press,1977.

Long, Norman, An Introduction to theSociology of Rural Development, Boulder:Westview Press, 1982.

Maxwell, W.E., “The Law and Customs of theMalays with Reference to the Tenure of Land”,JSBRAS, No.13, June 1884.

McGee, T.G., “Population: A PreliminaryAnalysis”, in Wang Gungwu (ed.), Malaysia:A Survey, New York: Frederick A. Praeger,1965.

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Parker, H., “The Rice Industry of Burma”,Malayan Agricultural Journal, Vol.XXIV, No.3,1936.

Pears, Francis, “On the Cultivation of Rice asa Catch Crop”, Agric. Bull. of the Straits andFMS, VolI, No.10, 1902.

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Roxborough, Ian, Theories ofUnderdevelopment, London: Macmillan, 1979.

Sands, W.N., “Annual report of the EconomicBotanist for 1925”, Malayan AgriculturalJournal, Vol.XIV, No.6, 1926.

Sands, W.N., “Review of the Present Positionof Rice Production in Malaya” MalayanAgricultural Journal, Vol.XXIII, No.3, 1930.

Shaharil Talib, “The Colonial Legal Machine:An Instrument of Capitalist Penetration in theMalay Countryside”, A paper read during theSymposium on the Western Presence in South-East Asia, Manila, Philippines, 1982.

Shaharil Talib, After Its Own Image: TheTrengganu Experience 1881-1941, Singapore:Oxford University Press, 1984.

Shamsul Amri Baharuddin, “PembangunanPertanian dan Luar Bandar di Malaysia: SatuPenilaian dan Kritik”, Jurnal Antropologi danSosiologi, Jilid 8, 1980.

Short, D.E. and James C. Jackson, “TheOrigins of an Irrigation Policy in Malaya: AReview of Developments Prior to theEstablishment of the Drainage and IrrigationDepartment”, JMBRAS, Vol.44(I), 1971.

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Sivalingam, G., “The Political Economy ofAgrarian Change, West Malaysia 1947-1975”,Ph.D. Dissertation, Cornell University, 1983.

Smith, T.E., Population Growth in Malaya,London: Royal Institute of InternationalAffairs, 1952.

South, F.W., “Annual Report of the ChiefAgricultural Inspector for 1922”, MalayanAgricultural Journal, Vol.XI, No.10, 1923.

Sternberg, E., “Agricultural Decision Makingand Village Consensus: A Study of Malay PadiFarmers in the Krian Irrigation Scheme ofPerak, Malaysia”, MS thesis, CornellUniversity, 1979.

Swettenham, F.A., About Perak, Singapore:Straits Times Press, 1893.

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INTRODUCTION

Characterisation of the cellularstructure, namely cell diameter anddistribution, strut and cell windowthickness and anisotropy of cells offoams is especially important indetermining structure-propertyrelationships. The mechanicalproperties of polymer foams dependperhaps more on the geometry of thefoam than on the bulk mechanicalpmperties of the polymer itself.[1],[2] Itis important to characterisequantitatively the morphology of thefoams. There are however inherentdifficulties not only in data collectionbut also in the nature of the foam

samples themselves.[3] The cellstructure of polymeric foams iscomplex, incorporafing the polyhedralcell geometry, cell strut shape anddimensions, cell window integrity andthickness, and cell diameter. Thesefeatures result from the complexsequence of physical and chemicalinteractions during foam formation.Nevertheless, various analytical toolsand techniques are available tocharacterise these foamssystematically.

An important characteristic of cellularfoams is the cell wall thickness, whichrelates to physical properties of thefoams under investigation. Optical

interferometry is ideally suited toevaluate the range of thicknessencountered[5] by visually comparingthe characteristic interference colourof cell walls in isolated foam fragmentswith the colour of the emptybackground in the microscope field ofview. A simpler method of measuringcell membrane thickness[6] applied thetheory of light interference patternson a cell membrane. A similartechnique, automated andcomputerised, was usedindependently[7] to measure thewindow thickness of rigid closed cellPU foams in relation to thermalconductivity in ageing studies. Theprocedure involved viewing the foam

The Application Of Interference Optical Microscopy

In Measuring Window Thickness

Of Rigid Polyurethane Foams

Dr Puteri S M Megat-Yusoff



[email protected]

Prof. A J Ryan

Head of the Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield,

Sheffield S3 7HF, United Kingdom

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The use of interference optical microscopy was demonstrated to be a simple yet successful technique to measure thewindow thickness in rigid polyurethane (PU) foams. Furthermore, this technique does not reqiure slicing the sample toa very thin specimen (unlike using SEM and TEM) which could be a practical problem on foams. In addition, thetechnique was employed to investigate the effects of varying foam formulation on the cell window thickness. For thewater blown rigid PU foams under study, the window thickness distribution indicated that the cell membrane wasconcave in shape with mean window thickness between 1 and 2 µm. Varying the foam formulations in terms of thepolyol arrn length, polyol/monol ratio, water content and type of catalyst did not affect the mean window thicknessappreciably. The observed behaviour could be explained as the type and amount of surfactant used throughout the studyremained unchanged.

This paper was presented at the Regional Symposium on Chemical Engineering, Skudai, Johor, 13-15 October, 1997.



window specimen under an opticalmicroscope with reflected light atthree different monochromaticwavelengths. The interference indexof the first minimum intensity wasdetermined by comparison of theinterference pattern produced by thethree different monochromaticwavelengths. Then, the thickness ofthe cell membrane at the minimumintensity of interference light wascalculated using the appropriateequation. In this study, theinterferometric technique[6] was thebasis for cell window thicknessmeasurements.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Three four series of formulationsbased on varying polyol arm length,polyol/monol content, water level andtype of catalyst were systematicallystudied. All formulations employedthe same surfactant. Specimens fromvarious regions of a polyurethane foam(foamed isothermally at 50°C) bunwere cut (using precision foam slicer)into 15 x 15 x 3 mm3 sections andmounted flat onto glass slides on thestage of the OM. Micrographs of the

light interference patterns of thespecimen were taken under threemonochromatic lights withwavelength of 0.452 µm (KL45),0.539 µm (Na-light) and 0.667 µm(KL67). Numerous samples for eachformulation investigated were scannedand 5 to 20 micrographs taken at eachof the three different wavelengths.The light source was a white heat lampequipped with glass filters and asodium lamp. The specifications ofthe equipment are shown in Table 1.

For comparatively small angles ofincidence, cell membrane thickness ateach minimum intensity ofinterference light is given as follows.

m λ θ2d = –––––– ( 1 + –– ) (1) 2 n 4

where d is the cell membranethickness, m is the interference index,λ is the light wavelength, n is the-refractive index of the foam and θ isthe angle of incidence of the light.The refractive index for PU foamranged between 1.5 to 1.6[6],[7] In thecurrent study, n is assumed to be 1.5.

A Method for Determination of theInterference index, mThe interference index of the firstminimum intensity was determinedby comparison of the pattern ofinterference fringes produced by thethree specified wavelengths.Comparison of the positions ofminimum intensity obtained underthe three light sources, that

(1) from Na-lamp and KL-45 filterlight sources, the positions of theinterference indices 4 and 5, 8 and9, 13 and 14 under KL45 lightexist between those of index 3 and4, 6 and 7, 10 and 11 under Na-light, respectively.

(2) from Na-lamp and KL-67 filterliglit sources, the positions of theinterference indices 8 and 9 underNa-light exist between those ofindex 7 and 8 under KL-67 light.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Micrographs of the light interferencepatterns obtained under the threemonochromatic wavelengths (Na-light, KL45 and KL-67 filters) areshown in Figure 1(a) to (d) forspecimen 2-MHT-100 (see Table 2 formaterials coding).

The positions of the minimumintensity were determined along lineAOB through the centre of theinterference pattern, the thickness ofthe cell membrane calculated and thethickness distribution estimated. Thetypical membrane thicknessdistribution for 2-MHT-100 and 6-MHT-100 are shown in Figure 2. Itindicates that the cell membrane hasa concave shape; the edges beingthicker than the centre. Similarobservations were made by Akaboriand Fujimoto[6] in their work onpolyether-based polyol, MDI PUfoam.

Table 1 The main specifications of the light interference opticalmicroscopy (Olympus BH2-UMA) hardware

1 Light sourceWhite heat lamp : 12 Volt, 100 WattNa-lamp wavelength is 0.589 µmGlass filters . KL-45 and KL-67 (Omega Opticals)Spectral data

KL45 KL-67Centre of wavelength : 0.452 µm 0.667 µmHalf-value width : 0.016 µm 0.016 µmTransmission : 36% 36%

2. Objective lensMagnification : x50N~erical apeiture : 0.55Focallength : 180 mm

3. Ocular lensMagnification : x 10



Table 2 summarises the average,minimum and maximum windowthickness as measured by the lightinterference microscopy for thirteenfoaming systems under study. For allthe foaming systems investigated, theaverage membrane thickness variedbetween 1 and 2 µm, typical for rigidfoams.[6] The minimum measurablethickness was 0.2 µm (resolutionlimit) whereas the maximummeasurable value was 4.3 µm.

The addition of monol into the foamformulations did not affect thewindow thickness of the cells,although in a separate study the celldiameter was shown to increase. Forinstance, 2-MHA-100, 2-MHA-80and 2-MHA-60, showed similarwindow thickness of 1.2 ± 0.2 µm.Similar observations were made with3-MHA-100, 3-MHA-80 and 3-MHA-60 which showed a windowthickness of 1.4 ± 0.3 µm regardlessof the amount of monol incorporatedinto the formulations.

From Table 2 it is apparent thatincreasing the water content does notchange the window thicknesssignificantly. For example, at 4 gwater, 2-MHA-100 has a similarwindow thickness (withinexperimental error) compared to 2-MHA-100 at 1.8 g water, 1.2 ± 0.2µm and 1.4 ± 0.4 µm respectively.The finding suggests that the waterlevel in foam formulation do not affectthe membrane thickness.

The type of catalyst used also showedno appreciable influence on the cellmean membrane thickness. This isdemonstrated by all the threeformulations employing tin catalyst(instead of amine), 2-MHT-100,2-MLT-100 and 6-MHT-100 ascompared to 2-MHA-100, 2-MLA-100 and 6-MHA-100 respectively.Figure 2: The membrane thickness distribution for 2-MHT-100 and

6-MHT-100 as measured through the centre of the respectiveinterference pattern. Magnification: 50x.

Figure 1: Micrographs of the interference pattern under (a) Na-light(b) KL-45 and (c) KL-67 for 2-MHT-100. The measurementswere made along a line AOB as illustrated in (d).

(a) Na-light source (b) KL-45

(c) KL-67 (d)

A

B

O

2 3 4 5



The use of longer polyol arm lengthin the foam formulation did not affectthe mean membrane thicknessappreciably. This is demonstrated by2-MHA-100, 3-MHA-100 and 6-MHA-100 series which showedsimilar mean window thickness withinthe experimental error, 1.2 ± 0.2 µm,1.4 ± 0.2 µm and 1.7 ± 0.4 µmrespectively.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has demonstrated theapplication of interference opticalmicroscopy to measure windowthickness in rigid polytirethane foams.For all the foaming systems understudy, the results of the windowthickness distribution indicated thatthe cell membrane was concaved inshape with mean window thicknessbetween 1 and 2 µm. Varying the

foam formulations in terms of thepolyol arm length, polyol/monol ratio,water content and type of catalyst didnot affect the mean window thicknessappreciably. However, this could bereversed if different types of surfactantwere utilised.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to acknowledge DowChemical, Terneuzen, The Netherlands forsponsoring the project. Many thanks to N.Wardman of Materials Science Centre,UMIST, for his technical advice and support.

REFERENCES

1.. Gioumousis,G.; “Shapes of Cells inPolymer Foams”, J. Applied PolymerScience, 7, pp. 947-957, (1963).

2. Gibson,L.J. and M.F. Ashby; “TheMechanics of Three-DimensionalCellular Materials”, Proc. R. Soc. Lond.,A382, pp.43-59, (1982).

Table 2: A summary of the average window thickness, minimum and maximum, measured for various foamingsystems investigated.

Formulation** Average window Minimum window Maximum window

thickness/mm thickness/mm thickness/mm

2-MHA-100 1.2 ± 0.2 0.2 2.9

2-MHA-80 1.2 ± 0.1 0.2 2.2

2-MHA-60 1.2 ± 0.2 0.2 2.7

2-MLA-100 1.4 ± 0.4 0.2 3.9

2-MHT-100 1.4 ± 0.2 0.2 3.1

2-MLT-100 1. 7 ± 0.1 0.2 3.5

3-MHA-100 1.4 ± 0.2 0.2 3.3

3-MHA-80 1.4 ± 0.3 0.2 3.5

3-MHA-60 1.4 ± 0.2 0.2 2.9

3-MLA-100 1.5 ± 0.2 0.3 3.3

6-MHA~100 1.7 ± 0.4 0.2 4.3

6-MHT-100 1.8 ± 0.2 0.2 4.1

14-MHA-100 1.1 ± 0.1 0.3 2.0

** The first number refers to the polyol arm length. The second part refers to type of isocyanate, the water content used (H for 4 g/100

g polyol, L for 1.8 g/100 g polyol) and the catalyst employed (A for amine and T for tin catalyst). The third part, a number refers to the

mass (g) of polyol used in the polyol/monol blend.

3. Rhodes, M.B.; “Image Analysis asApplied to the Characterisation of theCellular Structure in Urethane Foams”,Proc. 34th Annual PotyurethaneTechnical/Marketing Conference,Technomic Publishing Co., Lancaster,PA, p. 548, (1992).

4. Sims, G.L.A. and C. Khunniteekool,“Cell Size Measurement of PolymericFoams”, Cellular Polymers, 13, p.137,(1994).

5. Rhodes, M.B.; “Applicable Techniques ofOptical Microscopy for PolyurethaneInvestigations”, J. Elastomers andPlastics, 12, pp.201-218, (1980).

6. Akabori, K. and K. Fujimoto; “A Methodfor Measuring Cell Membrane Thicknessof Polyurethane Foams”, InternationalPtogress in Urethane, 2, pp. 41-60,(1980).

7. Du Cauze de Nazelle, G.R.N.; “ThermalConductivity Ageing of Rigid ClosedCell Polyurethane Foams”, Ph.D Thesis,Delft University of Technology, TheNetherlands, (1995).



INTRODUCTION

Inefficiency of steam turbine powergeneration systems has long beenunderstood as a result of irreversibilityin real processes (El-Masri, 1985). Thechallenge for engineers is to identifythe locations and quantify themagnitude of the irreversibility. Apractical and low cost method usedfor the analysis of irreversibility is themethod of pinch & exergy analysis.The method allows engineers to targetthe quantity of irreversibility anddetermine its location beforeproposing modifications to improvethe system’s efficiency.

Pinch And Exergy Analysis On A

Brown-Boveri Steam Turbine Power Plant

M. Shuhaimi



D.Y. Lim

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Kimia & Kejuruteraan Sumber Asli,

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81300 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the application of pinch and exergy analysis on a Brown-Boveri regenerative steam turbine powerplant (1955). Pinch and exergy analysis is a simple and cost-saving tool that is used to scope for potential improvementin power production and energy usage before going into detail design. Combined together, exergy analysis was able tolocate the system’s inefficiency while pinch analysis was used to target potential improvement. The application of theanalysis started by simulating and extracting stream data from the existing base case plant. Exergy targets were set byplotting and comparing the exergy of the system to the source of exergy from the fuel. Modifications were proposed onthree areas namely, steam pressure, steam temperature and fuel consumption. Results from the analysis showed potentialshaft work improvement from 837 MW to 844 MW or an increase by 0.8%. Thermal efficiency improved by 0.3%from 33.2 to 33.5%. Fuel rate reduction from 7609 kgmol/s to 7167 kgmol/s, or 6.2% saving, were also achieved. Withrising concern on the efficient use of non-renewable energy source and the protection of our environment, every littleimprovement is a step forward.

Keywords

Process Integration, Thermodynamics, Irreversibility, Efficiency.

Based on constant exergetic efficiencyassumption, the application ofcombine pinch and exergy analysiswas able to target for shaft workgeneration with error of around 5%against detail simulations (Dhole andZheng, 1993). The small error iswithin an acceptable range for scopingand screening options in processdesign.

In this paper, a study was performedon a conventional regenerative steamturbine power plant situated inWeisweiler near Aachen, Germany(Brown-Boveri, 1955). The plantemploys low-grade coal as fuel

resulting in considerable burden onthe operational expenditure. For thisreason, every little improvement madepossible in the power plant would behighly commendable.

The method of pinch and exergyanalysis is based on the second law ofthermodynamics. Exergy is defined asthe maximum work potential of asystem or of a particular form ofenergy in relation to the environment(Kotas, 1986). For a system carryingan exergy source at some temperatureT and discharging it to an exergy sinkat ambient temperature To, the changeof exergy for the system, ∆Ex, as it

This paper was presented at the 14th Symposium of Malaysian Chemical Engineers, Putrajaya, 30-31 October, 2000.



moves from the initial state, 1, to afinal state, 2, can be written as,

(1)

The notations H and S are enthalpyand entropy respectively. For systemsof liquids and gases at constantpressure, the entropy function can beeliminated by combining the first andsecond laws to yield,

(2)

Here, the term TLM denotes thelogarithmic average temperaturebetween an initial and final state. Theerrors in using the equation abovewere found to be as small as 0.2%which was within the accuracy of the

data itself (Linnhoff, 1993).

Pinch analysis is a method fortargeting the sources and sinks ofexergy. This is achieved by plottingcomposite curves made up of exergysources and sinks and locating thebottleneck or “pinch” point that putconstraints on the efficient use ofenergy. If the excess of exergy sourcesand sinks are plotted, the exergy grandcomposite curve is obtained. Thevertical and horizontal axes for thecurve are (1-To/TLM) and ∆Hrespectively. An integration of the areaunder the exergy grand compositecurve provides the quantity of exergyfor the system as depicted by equation(2). For a power plant system, the shaftwork, Ws, generated from the systemcan be estimated by equation (3),

(3)

where ηEx is the exergetic efficiencyof the system.

METHODOLOGY

The Brown-Boveri conventionalregenerative steam turbine powerplant was simulated as a base-casesystem on Hysis process simulator.Figure 1 shows the simplifiedflowsheet of the power plant. Thesystem under analysis was divided intotwo parts, namely the exergy supplyand the exergy sink. Exergy supply isprovided by the furnace system whichemploys bituminous coal as fuel with20% excess air. The base caseoperating conditions for the furnacesystem is shown in Table 1.

FIGURE 1. Process Flowsheet for the Brown-Boveri Regenerative Steam Turbine Power Plant



TABLE 1. Base Case OperatingConditions for the Furnace System

Parameters Values

Acid Dewpointtemperature 167 °CPreheat AirTemperature 190 °CStack temperature 290 °CAdiabatic FlameTemperature 2,158 °C

Exergy sink is the steam cycle system.The regenerative system is a set ofpreheat train employing a total of sixfeedwater heaters. An assumption ofequal enthalpy rise was used for thesimulation. This resulted in thefeedwater temperature rise from 21 to231 °C before entering the furnace.Initial data used for the simulation areshown in Table 2.

TABLE 2. Base Case OperatingConditions for the RegenerativeSteam Cycle System

Parameters Values

Steam Flowrate 1000 kg/s

Steam Temperature 530 °C

Steam Pressure 11372 kPa

Condenser Pressure 5.39 kPa

Turbine Efficiency 72 %

Stream data from the simulated basecase were extracted and an exergygrand composite curve was generatedusing SuperTarget process integrationsoftware. The curve, on a Carnotfactor versus enthalpy scale, isgenerated from excess data comprisingexergy sources and sinks. Theminimum approach temperature wasselected by comparing the approachtemperature of all heat exchange unitsin the system. For this study, aminimum approach temperature,

FIGURE 2. Exergy Grand Composite Curve for the Base Case System

FIGURE 3. Exergy Grand Composite Curve for Modification Option 1



∆TMIN, of 12 °C was used. Plots ofexergy grand composite curve providethe required information for theexergy lost, hence the quantity ofirreversibility, in the powerplant.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

An exergy grand composite curve forthe base case system is shown in Figure2. Exergy source from the fuel valuesat 2,522 MW while exergy sink to theprocess was at 1,252 MW. This showsapproximately 50% or 1,270 MW ofexergy was lost due to irreversibilityin the process. The power output fromthe plant is 837 MW resulting in lowthermal efficiency of 33.2% for thepower plant.

The large quantity of exergy lost (σTo)indicates potential for system’simprovement. To assess the magnitudeof improvement, process modificationwas applied on the operationalparameters, namely the steam supplypressure, steam supply temperatureand fuel supply rate .

Pressure ChangePressure increase in the system wouldincrease the exergy sink to the processand reduce the overall exergy lost. Achange from 11,372 kPa to 13,872resulted in reduction of exergy lost(σTo) from 1270 MW to 1265 MW.The power output would increaseproportionally with the gain in exergysink by 3.3 MW. Thermal efficiencyincreased by 0.1%. Figure 3 showsthe exergy grand composite curve forthe pressure change.

Temperature ChangeTemperature of steam exiting thefurnace was raised from 530 to537 °C. As shown in Figure 4, themodification resulted in an increaseof exergy gain by 0.5%. Powergeneration was projected to increaseby 4.0 MW, improving the thermalefficiency by 0.2%.

FIGURE 4. Exergy Grand Composite Curve For Modification Option 2

FIGURE 5. Grand Composite Curve for Furnace System



Minimize Fuel ConsumptionThe furnace grand composite curve,shown in Figure 5, was modified toget the minimum fuel rate andminimum air preheat temperature.The air preheat temperature wasproposed at 190 °C while the aciddewpoint temperature and the stacktemperature at 167 °C and 170 °Crespectively. The proposedmodification would result in 6.2% of443 kg-mol/s savings on fuelconsumption.

CONCLUSION

Pinch and exergy analysis wereperformed on a Brown-Boveri steamturbine power generation system. Thesimulated base case plant showedpotential for improvement byreduction of exergy lost. The overallresults from the analysis showedpotential shaft work improvementfrom 837 MW to 844 MW or an

increase by 0.8%. This is a compoundresult from the proposed modificationon the steam pressure and temperaturelevel. A 22% increase in steampressure showed a potential increasein thermal efficiency by 0.1%. Similaroperational changes of 1.3% on thesteam temperature further resulted inincreased thermal efficiency by 0.2%.Matching and varying fuel rate andthe air-preheat temperature illustratedpotential savings of 6.2%. The fuelsavings equals to 443 kgmol/s of fuelrate at 170 °C stack temperature and167 °C minimum air preheattemperature. The results of pinch andexergy analysis have providedmagnitudes and directions forimprovement in the operation ofsteam turbine power generationsystem. This simple yet practicalmethod would also result in costsaving in engineering design practicebefore going into detail design.

REFERENCES

Brown-Boveri, 1955, “The First 150-MWTurbo-Generators in Europe,” The BrownBoveri Review, Vol. 42, No. 9, Baden(Switzerland), pp. 335-389.

Dhole, V.R. and J.P. Zheng, 1993, “ApplyingCombined Pinch and Exergy Analysis toClosed Cycle Gas Turbine System Design,”Proceedings of ASME Cogen Turbo PowerConference, Bournemouth, U.K., Sept. 21-23.

El-Masri, M.A., 1985, “On Thermodynamicsof Gas Turbine Cycles: Part I - Second LawAnalysis of Combined Cycles,” ASME Journalof Engineering for Gas Turbine and Power, Vol.107, Oct., pp. 880-889.

Kotas, T.J., 1986, “Exergy Method of Thermaland Chemical Plant Analysis,” Chem.Engng.Res. Des., Vol. 64, May, pp. 212-228.

Linnhoff, B., 1993, “Pinch Analysis andExergy - A Comparison,” Proceedings ofEnergy Systems and Ecology Conference,Cracow, Poland, July 5-9.



INTRODUCTION

English language in Malaysia arrivedwith the colonisation of the MalayPeninsula, Sabah and Sarawak duringthe late 18th century to the mid 20thcentury. Thus, the multi-ethnicgroups in Malaysia were subtlycoerced to learn the English languagefrom the early days of Britishcolonialism.

During the 70s and 80s, ‘…from thepremier language of the colonialgovernment, it was steadily replacedby Bahasa Melayu as the language ofadministration, of the law courts, andthe medium of instructions at schoolsand universities…’ (Asia Magazine,

1993). After 1983, students enteringinstitutions of higher learning inMalaysia would have followed a schooleducation where the medium isentirely in Bahasa Melayu. However,by and large, English remains thepreferred language of business. It isalso the language for interfacing withforeign businessmen.

English is known to have a secondlanguage status in Malaysia but it isnot a second language as understoodby linguists.

‘The status of English as the second mostimportant language as specified by thegovernment does not mean that it is “thesecond language” as understood by

linguists, but rather it is importantenough to be the next language afier thenational language in the Malaysianlanguage planning, to be acquired byMalaysians in general.’

(Asmah 1979;26)

Therefore, English language is rapidlyapproaching the position of a foreignlanguage. This status has led to ageneral decline in the proficiency ofEnglish language in this country.Although concern over this issue isnow widespread and certain steps andprojects have been undertaken by theMalaysian Ministry of Education toimprove the teaching and learning ofEnglish (Tan, 1992), the decline in thestandard of English is yet to be halted.



Sumathi Renganathan



ABSTRACT

Malaysia in its effort to become a centre for excellence in Education, has always realised the importance of Englishlanguage. English has a Second Language status in this nation. With the recent establishment of private universities,where the medium of instruction is English, the role of English language among Malaysian students is becoming moreimportant. This study aims to look at the English language proficiency level of students who will further their studies inprivate universities within Malaysia. It is vital to know the English language proficiency level of the students who will bestudying in these private universities, to enable the language teachers to design courses that will help these students attainthe appropriate proficiency level for effective communication in an academic environment. This study was carried out inone of the three, recently established private universities in Malaysia. The students entering the university have both theSijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) English grade accredited by The Malaysian Examination Syndicate and the 1119 Englishgrade accredited by the University of Cambridge Local Examination Syndicate (UCLES). This paper aims to comparethe grades awarded by these two accreditation bodies, and find out which gives a better indicator of the students’ proficiencyin English language in order to be effective communicators in the academic environment. Students were also given anEnglish Language Placement Test, which tests students’ competence in various areas of language especially grammar,reading comprehension, vocabulary and the structure of writing. The data obtained from this study will provide valuableinformation as to what should be incorporated and emphasised in the English language courses offered by the universitiesfor effective communication.

This paper was presented at the 12th World Congress of Applied Linguistics, Waseda University, Tokyo, 2 August, 1999.



The recent 1997 Sijil PelajaranMalaysia (SPM) examination showedanother decline in the results forEnglish language. The Ministry ofEducation reported that, despite theall-round best SPM results recordedin the country, English recorded thelowest level of passes – 63. 1%. Theresult deteriorated by 2.5% comparedwith 1996.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The majority of students enteringtertiary level education come from twotypes of government schools – theNational and National-type schools.The National schools uses BahasaMelayu as the medium of instructionand English language is only taughtas a subject whereas, the National-typeuses Chinese/ Tamil language as themedium of instruction and BahasaMelayu and English language is taughtas a subject.

The structure of the national educa-tion system is presented in Table 1.Table 2 shows the time allotted to theteaching of English language inMalaysian government schools.

There are three public examinationsfor schools in Malaysia and in each ofthese a pass in English is notmandatory.

1. Standard 6 ExaminationEnglish is one of 6 subjects tested.

2. Form III (PMR)English is one of the 7-9 paperstested.

3 . Form V (SPM)i. English 322 Paper, one

among 6-9 other paperstested.

ii. 1119 English Paper, initiallyall optional paper set by theUniversity of Cambridge

Local ExaminationsSyndicate (UCLES) foroverseas candidate but in theyear 1997 students receivedtwo grades for the SPMEnglish paper – one given bythe Malaysian ExaminationSyndicate and a GCE “O”level grade issued by theUCLES.

As stated earlier, after 1997 studentsreceived two grades for the SPMEnglish paper. Thus, this paper hasbeen modeled after the 1119 EnglishPaper which consists of three sectionsi.e.

1. Paper 1 (11⁄2 hours)This section tests students onunderstanding of texts, languageusage and grammar and languageforms and functions. The testinstruments include multiplechoice questions, ‘cloze’ passages,structured questions and readingcomprehension.

2. Paper 2 (21⁄4 hours)This section tests students’ abilityin writing essays and summarisingtexts. The essays include guidedessay writing and free-essaywriting.

3. Paper 3 (40 minutes)This section tests students’ abilityto read and understand a passage.Questions asked will test students’understanding of the passage.Students’ communication skillswill also be tested based on theirresponse to chosen stimulus suchas pictures, diagrams and etc.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN

HIGHER LEARNING

INSTITUTIONS IN MALAYSIA

The teaching of English to tertiarylevel students in Malaysia createsspecific demands. The basic problem

Table 1 : Structure of the national education system

Level Duration

Lower Primary (Standard 1 - 3) 3 years

Upper Primary (Staiidard 4 - 6) 3 years

Lower Secondary (Form I - III) 3 years

Upper Secondary (Form IV - V) 2 years

Pre-University (Form VI) 2 years

Source : Education Ministry of Malaysia

School Level Duration

(minutes/week)

Standard 1 - 3 240

National~Primary Standard 4 280

Standard 5 - 6 300

Standard 3 120National-Type

Standard 4 160Primary

Standard 5 - 6 200

Remove Class 200

Secondary School Form I - III 200

Form 4 - 5 200

Source Education Ministry of Malaysia

Table 2: Time allotted to the teaching of English language in Malaysiangovernment schools



faced by higher learning institutionsis that, students entering theseinstitutions have no more thanintermediate-level English (Gaurdart,1996). These students will,nonetheless, have to deal withadvanced academic concepts in theirstudies, involving an attention toaccuracy and detail in language, whichthey have not previously needed.

English is not an entrance requirementfor any of the public universities inMalaysia although English languageclasses are conducted by theseuniversities. This is because mediumof instruction in public universities inMalaysia is Bahasa Melayu. Someuniversities even make provisions forexempting good students fromEnglish classes. The instruments usedfor exemption vary from university touniversity and therefore, it is notpossible to determine what level ofproficiency in English is consideredadequate for study in higher learninginstitutions may it be private orpublic.

Many of the private universities inMalaysia use English language as themedium of instruction. UniversityTeknologi PETRONAS is one suchuniversity. The university decided thatstudents entering this universityshould have at least a credit in theSPM English examination.

With the introduction of privateuniversities where many of them areusing English as the medium ofinstruction, students at tertiary levelwill face problems if they are notproficient in the English language.Even in public universities wherelectures are conducted in BahasaMelayu majority of academic writingin Malaysia is still in English.Therefore, it is very important thatstudents who enter universities inMalaysia are equipped with the

appropriate English languageproficiency for effectivecommunication in the academic field.

THE STUDY

This study was carried out with thefollowing objectives:

1. To determine the Englishlanguage proficiency level ofstudents entering privateuniversities in Malaysia bycomparing students’ SPMEnglish and the 1119 Englishgrades.

2. To determine which gives a betterindicator of students’ proficiencyin English language: the SPMEnglish or the 1119 Englishgrade.

3. To identify the areas students areweak in, based on the PlacementTest given by the university, andthus, recommend what areas oflanguage should be emphasised inthe language courses offered bythe university to enable studentsto communicate effectively in theacademic environment.

THE SAMPLE

The sample for this study consists of167 first year students. The sampleconsists of both male and femalestudents. All 167 students sat for theSPM English paper and obtained twogrades for the same paper. One wasawarded by the MalaysianExamination Syndicate (SPM gradingscheme). The second grade was givenby UCLES (1119 grading scheme).Please see Table A, Appendix 1. Thesestudents also sat for a Placement Testconducted during their first week atthe university. The Placement Testwas graded according to UTP’sgrading scheme (please refer to Table

B, Appendix 1 for detail gradingscheme).

THE PLACEMENT TEST

The Placement Test was adapted fromthe Test of English as a ForeignLanguage (TOEFL) paper. Only twosections of the TOEFL paper wereadapted for this test, Section 2 –Structure and Written Expression andSection 3 – Vocabulary and ReadingComprehension. Section 1 – ListeningComprehension was excluded. Properfacilities to accommodate all 167students for the listening test was notavailable at the time this study wascarried out. The Placement Test wasa multiple choice question test, wherestudents have to choose the bestanswer from four options given. Thistest consists of fifty questions and forcalculation purposes the marks wereconverted to percentages. The testconsists of four sections grammar,structure of writing, reading andvocabulary.

GrammarThis section requires students toidentify errors, which involvegrammar or usage in order for thesentences to be correct. Here thesentences have all the basic sentenceparts but each sentence has an error.The grammatical items tested areword forms, verbs, pronouns, singularand plural nouns, verbals,prepositions, and articles.

Structure of writingThis section consists of incompletesentences. Some portion of eachsentence has been replaced by a blank.Under each sentence, four words orphrases are listed. One of thesecompletes the sentence grarnmaticallyand logically at sentence level. Theitems tested in this section are basicsentence pattems, word order, relativeclauses, parallel structure, passive



forms, participle phrases, comparisonsand conjunctions.

ReadingThis section contains two passages.Both passages are informativepassages, which are similar to textsstudents have to read for academicpurposes in the university. Thequestions in this section test students’ability to identify the main idea ortopic of the whole passage, locate andidentify answers to questions aboutspecific information in the passage anddraw conclusions based oninformation in the passage.

VocabularyThis section tests students’ ability tochoose a suitable word from the fouroptions given to complete a sentence.Sentences in this section concern avariety of academic subjects. Studentsneed to identify a suitable word forthe sentence based on contextualclues. This section does not testgrammar because almost all theoptions fit into the sentences equallywell.

FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

Comparison of the SPM and 1119Examination resultsOut of the 167 students, 85 students(51%) obtained ‘Al’ according to theSPM English grading. But out of this,following the 1119 grading schemeonly 6% obtained ‘A1’ and 16%obtained ‘A2’. Sixty six percent (66%)obtained credits (C3, C4, C5 and C6)whereas 12% obtained only a ‘pass’(P7 & P8). Refer to Table 3.

Twenty-three percent of the studentswho took part in this survey obtainedan ‘A2’ in the SPM English. Out ofthis, following the 1119 gradingscheme no one obtained distinctions(A1 or A2), 44% obtained credits (C3,C4, C5 and C6) while majority ofthem (56%) obtained just a ‘pass’, (P7or P8). See Table 4.

Forty-three students (26%) obtainedcredits based on the SPM Englishgrading scheme and this resultcompared to the 1119 grading schemerevealed that only 11% of these forty-three students obtained credits whilemajority of the students (77%)obtained a ‘pass’ (P7 or P8) and 12%failed (F9). Please refer to Table 5.

Comparison of the Placement Testresults with the SPM English and1119 English Grades.

A correlation study of the PlacementTest results with the SPM English andthe 1119 English grades showed thatthe Placement Test results does have acorrelation with both the other grades,although the Placement Test resultshas a higher correlation with the 1119English grades as compared to theSPM English grades (refer to Table C,Appendix 1).

The results of the Placement Testrevealed that only five students (3%)obtained an ‘A’ while six students (4%)obtained a ‘B+’ and twenty-ninestudents (17%) obtained a ‘B’. ThePlacement Test also revealed that sixty-three students (38%) were in the ‘C’category (C+ and C) while thirty-seven students (22%) obtained a ‘D’.Twenty-seven students (16%) failedthe Placement Test. Please refer toTable 6 for a summary of thesefindings.

A comparison study of the PlacementTest with the SPM and 1119 gradingscheme revealed that students whoobtained an ‘A’ in the Placement Test

Table 3: Details of grades in1119 of students who obtained ‘A1’in SPM English

SPM 1119

English Grade English Grade

A1 - 6%

A2 - 16%

C3 - 24%

A1 (51%) C4 - 21%

C5 - 12%

C6 - 9%

P7 - 11%

P8 - 1%

Table 4: Details of grades in 1119of students who obtained ‘A2’ inSPM English

SPM 1119


C3 - 3%

C4 - 3%

A2 (23%) C5 - 5%

C6 - 33%

P7 - 51%

P8 - 5%

Table 5: Details of grades in 1119of students who obtained Credits inSPM English

SPM 1119


C5 - 2%

C6 - 9%

C3 - C6(26%) P7 - 30%

P8 - 47%

F9 - 12%



(6 students) had obtained distinctions(A1) following the SPM gradingscheme. Out of these five students,only three students had obtaineddistinctions (A2) following the 1119grading scheme.

Among the students who obtained a‘B’ and ‘B+’ in the Placement Test(thirty-five students), majority ofthem (thirty-one students) hadobtained an ‘A1’ following the SPMgrading scheme, while following the1119 grading scheme, only sevenstudents had obtained an ‘A2’ andanother thirteen students hadobtained a ‘C3’, while the rest hadvarying grades ranging from a ‘C4’ to‘P8’.

Based on the Placement Test, sixty-three students obtained either a ‘C’ or‘C+’. Among these students, majorityof them (thirty-nine students) hadobtained either an ‘A1’ or ‘A2’following the SPM grading scheme.Out of these same number of students(who obtained a ‘C’ or ‘C+’ in thePlacement Test), majority (thirty-sixstudents) had only obtained either a

‘C6’ or ‘P7’ following the 1119grading scheme.

Thirty-seven students obtained a ‘D’in the Placernent Test. Out of this,majority of them (twenty-fivestudents) had obtained an ‘A1’ or ‘A2’following the SPM grading scheme.Following the 1119 grading scheme,majority (twenty-two students) out ofthose who obtained ‘D’ in thePlacement Test, had only managed toobtain either a ‘C6’, ‘P7’ or ‘P8’.

Twenty-seven students (16%) failedthe Placement Test. Among thesestudents, majority (twenty-fivestudents) had obtained either an ‘A1’or ‘A2’ following the SPM gradingscheme. Following the 1119 gradingscheme, majority of these students(nineteen students) had only managedto obtain either a ‘P7’ or ‘P8’.

It should be noted that the sectionstested in the Placement Test and theSPM English paper were different.The SPM English paper has threesections. Therefore the comparisonbetween grades obtained following the

SPM grading scheme and thePlacement Test might not be anaccurate reflection of the actualproficiency of the students in Englishlanguage. It does not conclude thatstudents who did well in the SPMEnglish paper must also have donewell in the Placement Test or vice versabecause of the difference in the skillstested. Although it would not beentirely wrong to assume that studentswho are genuinely proficient in theEnglish language should obtainsimilar results in both the PlacementTest and the SPM English paper, thisstudy did not reveal a clear indicationto confirm this assumption. Thiscould mean that certain skills testedin SPM English paper could very wellcarry more weight than the other skillstested, in determining the final gradesstudents’ obtained for English.

Analysis ofThe Placement TestThe Placement Test was an attemptto find out which aspects of theEnglish language the students areweak at. The results of the test showedthat majority of the students made themost mistakes in grammar andvocabulary, followed by structure ofwriting and finally reading. This isobtained by comparing the meannumber of mistakes in each area testedin the Placement Test (refer to Figure1). This indicates that majority of thestudents are weak in grammar andvocabulary as well as the structure ofwriting although they don’t seem tohave problems in reading andunderstanding what has been read.

CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

This study revealed that the SPMgrading scheme is not an accurateindicator of students’ proficiency inEnglish Language. This studyindicates that there does not seem tobe a distinct discrimination ofstudents’ grades based on the SPM-

Table 6: Summary of Students’ Placement Test results

Placement Test SPM English Grade 1119 English Grade

(Total number of students) (Majority of students) (Majority of students)

A - 5 A1 - 5 A2 - 3

B+ - 6 A1 - 6 A2 - 2

C3 - 2

B - 29 A1 - 25 A2 - 5

C3 - 11

C+ - 41 A1 - 23 C6 - 6

P7 - 14

C - 22 A1 - 7 C6 - 6

A2 - 9 P7 - 10

D - 37 A1 - 16 C6 - 7

A2 - 9 P7 - 8

C3 - 9 P8 - 7

F - 27 Al - 16 P7 - 9

A2 - 9 P8 - 10



grading scheme (refer to Table 6).Students who obtained a ‘C’, ‘D’ or‘F’ in the Placement Test had obtaineddistinctions (Al and A2) following theSPM-grading scheme as compared tothe 1119 grading scheme where thesestudents obtained either a ‘C6’, ‘P7’,or ‘P8’. This shows that a distinction(Al and A2) following the SPM-grading scheme falls on a very broadscale whereby students who are veryproficient in the English language andstudents who are less proficient in thislanguage can still obtain distinctions(Al and A2). Therefore, this studyshows that the 1119-grading schemeoffers a better indicator of students’proficiency in this language.

The Placement Test revealed that

although students had obtained verygood grades following the SPM andthe 1119 grading schemes, theyshowed lack of mastery in certainaspects of language that were testedin the Placement Test. The PlacementTest indicated that students were stillweak in vocabulary, grammar andsentence structure. Therefore, thisstudy reveals that although studentsmay enter the university with verygood grades following the SPM-grading scheme or the 1119 gradingscheme, they would still need Englishlanguage lessons in the areas that theyare weak at as shown by the PlacementTest. Thus, language departments inhigher learning institutions will stillneed to provide lessons on areas suchas grammar, vocabulary and writingproper sentence structures to enable

students to perform effectively foracademic purposes.

Students who currently enterinstitutions of higher learning inMalaysia still use the grades they hadobtained following either the SPM-grading scheme or the 1119-gradingscheme. There is also an introductionto a new English language test namedthe Malaysian University English Test(MUET) which will commence inDecember 1999. This new test is acompulsory test to be taken by allstudents wishing to enter institutionsof higher learning in Malaysiaalthough it is not mandatory to passthis test. Since this test has not beenadministered yet, this study is not ableto investigate MUET. Although thisstudy only attempted to find a generalunderstanding of students’ proficiencyin the English language when theyenter institutions of higher leaimng inMalaysia, it does reveal valuableinformation which should be takeninto consideration to help thesestudents perform effectively in theacademic environment. Therefore,grades from any language proficiencyexamination that is accepted by aninstitution of higher learning mustdefinitely be monitored by thatrespective institution. Everyinstitution must have a form of testingthe language proficiency of studentsthat will be entering the institutionand only then can an institutiondetermine if a qualification from alanguage proficiency test is sufficientor adequate to meet the needs of itsstudents. The results of this studymanaged to show that grades from aproficiency test does not provide andaccurate reflection of students’proficiency in the English language asneeded by an institution. This couldbe because the skills needed by higherlearning institutions may very muchdiffer from what is emphasised inschools.

5

4

3

2

1

Figure 1 . Mean number of mistakes madeby students in the Placement Test

Mea

n (n

umbe

r of

mis

take

s)

grammar reading structure ofwriting

vocabulary

Areas Tested in Placement Test



The researcher concedes that this isnot a conclusive study. The testinstruments used only provided someinformation on students’ proficiencyin reading and writing, while listeningand speaking skills were completelydisregarded. Therefore, it is suggestedbased on this study, that acomprehensive test must be designedthat would test students’ proficiencyin English language. The testinstruments must be designed tomeasure all four components oflanguage i.e. Listening, Speaking,Reading and Writing. Thus, acomprehensive test conducted by theuniversity would be able to providevaluable information as to the level ofproficiency that students who enterhigher learning institutions have. Thisin return will enable higher learninginstitutions to develop languagecourses that would bridge the gap inlanguage needs between secondaryand tertiary education.

References

Asia Magazine. 1993. Vol.31, No 11-14, April23 - 25.

Asmah Haji Omar 1979. Language Planningfor Unity and Efficiency. Kuala Lumpur:University of Malaya Press.

Gaudart, H., Hughes, R. and Michael, J. 1996.Towards Better English Grammar. Fajar BaktiSdn. Bhd. Malaysia.

Gerson, S.J. and Gerson, S.M. 1997. TechnicalWriting: Process and Product, second edition.Prentice Hall: New Jersey.

Leki, Ilona. 1995. Academic WritingExploring Process and Strategies, secondedition. St. Martin’s Press: New York.

Rogers, B. 1993. The Complete Guide toTOEFL. Heinle & Heinle Publishers: USA.

Tan, S.H. 1992. The Role of English inMalaysia. Paper presented at the conferenceon The Role of Foreign Language in SoutheastAsia. Kuala Lumpur.

TOEFL Practice Tests, fifth edition. 1995.Educational Testing Service, Princeton: NewJersey.

APPENDIX I

Table A: SPM and 1119 Grading Scheme

Grade SPM 1119

A1 and A2 Distinction Distinction

C3, C4, C5, C6 Pass-with-credit Ordinary-level-pass

P7 and P8 PassFail

F9 Fail

Source : Education Ministry of Malaysia

Table B: Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS’ Grading Scheme

Percentage Grade

80 - 100 A

75 - 79.9 B+

65 - 74.9 B

55 - 64.9 C+

50 - 54.9 C

40 - 49.9 D

Below 40 F

Table C: Correlation of the Placement Test results with the SPM Englishand the 1119 English grades

SPM 1119 Placement

Test

PearsonSPM 1.000 0.717** –0.531**

Correlation1119 0.717** 1.000 –0.657**

Placement Test –0.531** –0.657** 1.000

Note: ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)



INTRODUCTION

Current trends in education, jobmarket demands and impact of newtechnologies are influencing theapproach in the teaching and learningprocess [1]. In higher education, thereis a significant shift from traditionalteaching to practical education,project-based and independentlearning [2]. This is to producegraduates with adequate skills to meetindustry needs. The advancement intechnologies also plays an importantrole in accelerating these changes.



Suziah Sulaiman

Dayang Rohaya Awang Rambli



This paper focuses on campus facilities, namely computer labs in higher learning institutions. The main objective is todetermine the type of computer labs needed to support the Information Technology/ Information Systems (IT/IS)curriculum and their research activities. It is necessary to examine the curriculum in order to design computer labs whichare robust and responsive enough to meet the changing needs in education.

An investigation based on the IT/IS curriculum at Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP) was conducted for thisresearch purpose. The exercise involved dividing the curriculum into five major groups: programming, multimedia,networking, application, others (project, seminar, research). These groups were used as a basis for participants in theinvestigation to propose suitable computer labs to support the curriculum.

The findings suggested two major categories of labs: dedicated teaching labs and dedicated research labs. For each category,several types of labs were proposed. Another type, which is flexible lab, was also suggested to facilitate independentlearning. All these program-driven labs possess two inter-related characteristics which are flexible and of multiple-usage.It is envisaged that the proposed labs are able to support the current trend in the IT/IS curriculum and to accommodateany changes in the future.

Keywords:

Computer labs, data communication lab, usability lab, virtual reality lab, multimedia lab

Today’s educational institutions areaccredited mainly on the basis of thequality of their curriculum, campusfacilities, resource centre and researchcredentials of faculty [2]. Highereducational institutions are facing achallenge to provide excellentprograms together with well-equippedcampus facilities such as state-of-the-art classrooms, laboratories, resourceand research centres. It is thennecessary to ensure that thetechnology is sufficiently available inthe classrooms, libraries, computerlabs and departments.

This paper will present arecommendation for designingcomputer labs in higher education. Inorder to determine what types of labsare appropriate and needed, thecurrent patterns associated with theacademic programme issues needinvestigating. A report on issues andemerging trends in higher educationhas noted that independent learning,practical education and project-basedlearning normally make up the patternin academic programmes [1]. Thisreport emphasises two significant areasin higher education, namely teaching

This paper was presented at the International Conference on Computers in Education, Chiba, Japan, 4-7 November, 1999.



and research-based learning. Thepresent investigation thus addressesthe question:

• What are the types of computerlabs needed to support theInformation Technology/Information Systems (IT/IS)curriculum and their researchactivities?

METHODOLOGY

The investigation was carried out byanalysing the IT/IS curriculum atUniversiti Teknologi PETRONAS(UTP) [3]. The curriculum waspreviously reviewed by a team of localand foreign experts. For thisinvestigation, the curriculum isdivided into 5 major groups based onthe nature of courses.

• Programming• Application• Multimedia• Others: project, seminar, research• Networking

The exercises involved a series ofbrainstorm sessions carried out by allmembers of the IT/IS programmestaff. The team consisted of eightlecturers and three trainee lecturers.They were to decide on the type oflabs required in supporting theprogrammes based on the coursesoffered. During the brainstormsessions, techniques involvingscenario-based design [4,5] were usedto facilitate the discussions. Thesetechniques required a consensus fromall participants before any decision wasmade.

After completing these tasks,participants were to document theirfindings and justify theirrecommendations. For example, ifanyone in the team suggested aparticular lab, a justification should be

provided as to why such a lab wasneeded.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

Based on the reported work whichemphasised practical and project-based education as mentioned inSection 1, participants suggested thatthe computer labs should be groupedinto two major categories: dedicatedteaching and dedicated research. Theformer was designed for students toput their theoretical knowledge intopractice. Tutorials and lab sessionswould be heavily scheduled in this lab.On the other hand, the latter was forconducting research activities and alsoacted as an extension of the teachinglab.

As the suggested categories were toobroad and general, the participantssuggested that a further refinementwas needed. Several types of labs wereproposed for each category. It wasnecessary to have various types so asto cater for the five major groups ofcourses offered as mentioned inSection 2. It was suggested thatprogramming, application andmultimedia labs be under thededicated teaching category, whereasdata communication, usability, virtualreality, project and research weresuggested for the dedicated researchlab. These findings are summarised inTable 1.

It can be seen from Table 1 thatprogramming, application andmultimedia labs are suggested basedon the list of courses offered. They aregeneric enough to accommodate anychanges in the future. There will beno major effect on the type of labseven if new courses are introducedlater. These labs will be equipped withComputer Based Training (CBT)software to assist in the teaching andpractical activities.

Just like those labs in the dedicatedteaching category, the datacommunication, usability, virtualreality, project, research labs are alsodesigned based on the IT/IScurriculum requirements. However,they are categorised under dedicatedresearch because of their intendedfunctions, namely, to supportintensive research activities. These labsare also designed to promote andenhance collaboration between theuniversity and industry in order toestablish a win-win relationship. Theuniversity can offer companies theopportunities to invest in researchwork by transferring IT knowledgeand skills [4,5]. The research carriedout would result in usable andinnovative products, which couldbenefit not only the university but thecommunity as well.

To address the independent learningissue as mentioned in Section 1, aflexible lab is proposed. This lab isneither dedicated teaching norresearch. Its intended function is tofacilitate students’ independentlearning, which includes onlinelearning. Students could do their ownwork without interruption from anyscheduled classes and tutorials.

Even though the categories and typesof labs proposed are to address the IT/IS curriculum, their usage can beextended to other programmes.Computer-related courses whichinvolve programming, simulation andevaluation can still utilise the IT/ISlab facilities. This is to encourageinterdisciplinary sharing ofinformation and resources among allprogrammes in the university.

CONCLUSION

This paper has highlighted findingson an investigation, which determinesthe types of computer labs needed to



Table 1: Proposed computer laboratories and their functions

Programming

CATEGORY

Application

Multimedia

Dedicated Research

Data Communication

Usability

Virtual Reality (VR)

Project

Research

Others

Flexible

Intro to C++, Object Oriented Program, Database Sys.,

Advance Database, Operating Systems, Advance Operating

Systems, Techniques of Database Admin, Decision Support

Sys, Artificial Intelligence, Commercial Program, Information

Systems Analysis, Discrete Mathematics

Computers & Info. Age, Computer Organisation, Software

Engineering, Systems Development Tools & Techniques,

Computer Project Management, Mathematics

Computer Graphics, Human Computer Interactions,

Interactive Multimedia, Multimedia Technology, Network

Multimedia System

Data Communication, Multimedia Technology, Network

Multimedia, Operating Systems

Human Computer Interactions, dedicated to research work

Artificial Intelligence, dedicated to research work

Projects

Research work

All courses as listed in Programming, Application and

Multimedia laboratories.

Consists of programming language compiler

• To enable students to develop computer

programs

Consists of application programs such as

business, engineering and sciences

• To enable students to write their reports,

projects and coursework

• To support non-programming and

introductory courses

Includes multimedia related software

consisting textual, audio & video

• To enable students to develop interactive

applications

Consists of tools for designing and networking

installation

• To enable students to obtain “hands-on”

experience in networking

Consists of equipment and facilities for testing

product usability

• To support projects or researches involving

the usefulness of a particular product or

system

Consists of equipment and facilities for

designing VR

• To support projects or researches which

involve developing virtual environment

Consists of all facilities as in the Dedicated

Teaching labs

• To support specially the final year students’

individual project work

Consists of all facilities as in the Dedicated

Teaching labs with additional of groupware

application

• To support post graduate students’ research

and their special interest group

Consists of all facilities as in Dedicated

Teaching labs and for online learning purposes

• To facilitate independent learning as it acts

as a learning resource centre

NATURE OF LAB & JUSTIFICATION LIST OF COURSES

Dedicated Teaching



support the IT/IS curriculum andtheir research activities. Two categoriesof labs are recommended based on areported work: dedicated teaching anddedicated research. From theinvestigation, which analysed therespective curriculum at UTP, severaltypes of labs under each category wereproposed. The intended functions ofthe labs include supporting teachingand learning, encouraginginterdisciplinary sharing of resourcesand promoting collaboration betweenthe university and industry. Thesuggested categories and types of labsare flexible and broad enough to covera wide range of IT/IS courses. Theselabs are able not only to support thecurrent trends in the IT/IS curriculumbut also to accommodate any changesin the future.

AcknowledgementThe authors would like to thank Dr Abas MdSaid, Normashida, George Cheah, Hasnah andSumathi for reviewing the earlier drafts.

References[1] Report on Issues and Emerging Trends

in Higher Education, In UniversitiTeknologi PETRONAS Master PlanStudy, Vol. III, (1997) (unpublished).

[2] Coopers& Lybrand, The Transformationof Higher Education in the Digital Age,Coopers& Lybrand L.L.P, (1998). (Alsoavailable at http://consulting.us.coopers.com/HIGHEDU/index.htm).

[3] Dokumen Permohonan PerakuanAkreditasi, Bachelor of Technology(Hons.) Information Technology,Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS,Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia, (1998)(unpublished).

[4] Karat J, Scenario use in the Design of aSpeech Recognition System, In Scenario-Based Design: Envisioning Work andTechnology in System Development,Carroll J.M. (ed.), John Wiley & Sons,Inc. (1995)

[5] Nielsen J., Scenarios in DiscountUsability Engineering, In Scenario-BasedDesign: Envisioning Work andTechnology in System Development,Carroll J.M. (ed.), John Wiley & Sons,Inc. (1995)

[6] Maier et al, Using Technology inTeaching and Learning, Kogan Page,London, (1998).

[7] Lee WE and Rhinehart RR, Do WeReally Want “Academic Excellence”?,Chemical Engineering Progress, (1997).

NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

Instructions to Authors

Authors of articles that fit the aims,scopes and policies of this journal areinvited to submit soft and hard copiesto the editor. Paper should be writtenin English. Authors are encouragedto obtain assistance in the writing andediting of their papers prior tosubmission. For papers presented orpublished elsewhere, also include thedetails of the conference or seminar.

Manuscript should be prepared inaccordance with the following:1. The text should be preceded by

a short abstract of 50-100 wordsand four or so keywords.

2. The manuscript must be typedon one side of the paper, double-spaced throughout with widemargins not exceeding 3,500words although exceptions willbe made.

3. Figures and tables have to belabelled and should be includedin the text. Authors are advisedto refer to recent issues of thejournals to obtain the format forreferences.

4. Footnotes should be kept to aminimum and be as brief aspossible; they must benumbered consecutively.

5. Special care should be given tothe preparation of the drawingsfor the figures and diagrams.Except for a reduction in size,they will appear in the finalprinting in exactly the sameform as submitted by the author.

6. Reference should be indicatedby the authors’ last names andyear of publications.

Publisher



31750 Tronoh

Perak Darul Ridzuan

MALAYSIA



A. Majdi Abd Rani, Azmi Abd. Wahab, Rahmat Shaarani

& Dr. Abd. Rashid Abd. Aziz.

Role of Global Positioning System (GPS) in Hydrocarbon Exploration

– Subsidence Monitoring of the Offshore Platform

Dr. Abdul Nasir Matori & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Halim Setan


Collector

Balbir Singh Mahinder Singh & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fauziah Sulaiman

The Tensile Characteristics Of Fibre Reinforced Bituminous Mixtures

Ir. Dr. Ibrahim Kamaruddin





Dr. Mohammed Halib

The Application Of Interference Optical Microscopy In Measuring

Window Thickness Of Rigid Polyurethane Foams

Dr. Puteri S Megat-Yusoff & Prof. A. J. Ryan

Pinch And Exergy Analysis On A Brown-Boveri Steam

Turbine Power Plant

M. Shuhaimi & D. Y. Lim



Sumathi Renganathan



Suziah Sulaiman & Dayang Rohaya Awang Rambli

P L AT F O R M

Volume 1 Number 2 Jul - Dec 2000

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