Peer Relations of Chinese Adolescent Newcomers: Relations of Peer Group Integration and Friendship...

Peer Relations of Chinese Adolescent Newcomers:Relations of Peer Group Integration and FriendshipQuality to Psychological and School Adjustment

Zuhra Teja & Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl

Published online: 23 September 2012# Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

Abstract The association between peer relations and adjustment was examined in121 Chinese adolescent newcomers (11–19 years) attending public schools in anurban Canadian city. Data were collected via self-reports of peer relations (i.e., peergroup integration, friendship quality) and psychological adjustment (i.e., depression,anxiety), and teacher reports of school competence, externalizing problem behaviors,and learning problems. Results revealed that in their best friendship, girls reportedhigher levels of closeness, help, and security than did boys, and boys reported higherlevels of conflict than did girls. Results of hierarchical regression analyses revealedthat several of the dimensions of peer relations significantly predicted adjustmentoutcomes. Most notably, peer group integration significantly predicted psychologicaladjustment above and beyond friendship quality. The cultural and policy implicationsof these findings are discussed.

Keywords Peer group integration . Friendship . Adjustment . Adolescence . Chinesenewcomers

In 2008, there were 247,243 immigrants in total arriving as permanent residents toCanada. Of these, 52.8 % arrived from Asia and Pacific regions. The largest immi-grant population over the last 5 years has been from the People’s Republic of China(Citizenship and Immigration Canada 2009). Various projections indicate that by2017, Canada’s immigrant population is likely to account for approximately 22 % ofthe population, and 47.5 % of the visible minority population will be of Chineseorigin (Statistics Canada 2005). Immigrant youth have become the fastest growingsegment of the child population, representing 34 % of the total youth population in2006 (Statistics Canada 2006). Taken together, these statistics indicate that theChinese adolescent newcomer population in Canada is significant.

Int. Migration & Integration (2013) 14:535–556DOI 10.1007/s12134-012-0253-5

Z. Teja (*) :K. A. Schonert-ReichlDepartment of Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education,University of British Columbia, 2125 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canadae-mail: [email protected]

Newcomers have been commonly defined as immigrants who have resided intheir host country for a maximum of 4–6 years (e.g., Goodenow and Espin1993; Horenczyk and Tatar 1998). Newcomer youth can face stressors associatedwith relocation (Cole 1998; Minister of Supply and Services Canada 1988), accul-turation (e.g., Berry et al. 2006; Motti-Stefanidi et al. 2008), and transition to a newschool context (Hyman et al. 2000). The putative stressors that newcomers face canbecome even more exacerbated during adolescence, a developmental period in whichcognitive, social, and biological changes occur in a relatively short time span result-ing in a “stress pile-up.”

Given the number of stressors associated with migration during adolescencecoupled with the developmental challenges that occur, research identifying thefactors that may buffer the effects of stressors that adolescent immigrantsconfront is needed in order to prevent deleterious outcomes for these youth.Yet, there is little extant research identifying the factors associated with positiveadjustment outcomes among Chinese adolescent newcomers (e.g., Chow 2007).The present study redresses the relative paucity of research by examining themanner in which perceptions of peer group integration and friendship qualitysingularly and jointly predict the psychological and school adjustment outcomesof Chinese adolescent newcomers. To our knowledge, this represents the firstempirical examination of Chinese adolescent newcomers in which friendshipquality and peer group integration were examined together in one study. Asmigration becomes more common (United Nations 2005), such research is nec-essary to inform theoretically and empirically derived interventions that promote thepositive adjustment of adolescent newcomers.

Importance of Peer Relations During Adolescence

According to Sullivan (1953), it is during adolescence in which individuals developthe skills that set the stage for positive adult relationships. During the teen years,individuals spend more time with peers and build a wider friendship network andstable peer group from whom they can seek support and companionship (Parker et al.2006). Empirical evidence has demonstrated that adolescent peer relationships canprovide a unique and important protective resource above and beyond that of parents(Hartup 1993). For instance, a study conducted by Kan and McHale (2007) revealedthat even adolescents with high parent-reported parental acceptance experienceddepressive symptoms when they did not perceive themselves to have strong peerrelationships. Overall, research indicates the value of peers particularly during ado-lescence in promoting positive adjustment (Buhrmester 1990).

In the extant literature on peer relations in childhood and adolescence,researchers have typically distinguished between relationships in the peer groupand friendships. The peer group relation is a polyadic relation based oncompanionship with a group of same-age peers who adhere to group normsand values and interact regularly with one another, thereby fulfilling an impor-tant social need to “hang out” (Savin-Williams and Berndt 1990). Peer groupintegration refers to the feeling that one belongs to and is accepted by a peer group(Hayden Thomson 1989). Friendships are intimate dyadic relationships that are

536 Z. Teja, K.A. Schonert-Reichl

committed, voluntary, reciprocal, and in which both adolescents have equal control(Birch and Ladd 1996). Positive aspects of close dyadic friendships include compan-ionship, help, validation, intimacy, and conflict resolution, while negative aspectsinclude conflict and betrayal (Parker and Asher 1993). Lower friendship quality isassociated with a variety of dimensions of adjustment, including behavioral problems(Schonert-Reichl 1995), loneliness (e.g., Asher et al. 1984), and depression (Feldmanet al. 1988).

To date, the majority of studies on peer relations have focused on a singledimension, such as peer groups (Kiuru et al. 2008) or friendships (e.g., Guroglu etal. 2007). Those studies that have focused on both dimensions (e.g., Lansford et al.2003) have examined adolescents in Western countries. Overall, studies of NorthAmerican adolescents demonstrate that having both a sense of belonging to a peergroup and having a friendship that is characterized as high in quality predicts positiveadjustment (e.g., Rubin et al. 2006). The present study extends the literature byexamining both dimensions of peer relations in a single study in a sample of Chineseadolescent newcomers—a population for which there is relatively little research. Theneed to examine peer groups and friendships separately in the present study issupported by previous findings demonstrating that the nature of friendships is notdependent on the nature of the peer group (Degirmencioglu et al. 1998). Hence, thepresent study examines their relative contributions to adjustment of Chinese adoles-cent newcomers.

Studies of Western samples that have focused on the nature of friendships havedemonstrated that friendship quality is negatively correlated with behavioral prob-lems (Schonert-Reichl 1995), loneliness (e.g., Parker and Asher 1993), and depres-sion (e.g., Asher et al. 1984). Findings provide strong evidence that close friendshipsthat are high in quality promote adjustment among adolescents.

Similar to friendship quality, peer groups play a significant role in adjustmentaccording to results of studies of Western samples (e.g., Brown and Klute 2003;Dishion et al. 1999) and immigrant samples (Kupersmidt et al. 1996; Portes 1999). Astudy by Portes (1999), for example, of 4,288 adolescent immigrants of differentethnic backgrounds lends support to this contention. Specifically, results of hierar-chical regression analyses revealed that peer group rejection was a significant andnegative predictor of standardized math and reading scores. These results providesome evidence that peer groups play a critical role in promoting school adjustment ofadolescent immigrants.

Studies on peer relations have consistently reported sex and age differences in thecontent and quality of peer relations. Research has revealed that girls seek intimacyand report more self-disclosure in their friendships than do boys, whereas boys seekmore companionship than do girls (Rose and Rudolph 2006). Findings of genderdifferences with regard to peer group relations have been equivocal in studiesof both Western and non-Western cultures (Kan and McHale 2007). Somestudies have shown no significant differences between boys and girls (Chen et al.2008), whereas other studies have shown that peer groups serve different functions forboys and girls (Maccoby 1995).

Regarding age differences in friendship and peer group relations during adoles-cence, studies in North America have found that friendships increase in importancefrom early to late adolescence (Furman and Buhrmester 1985; Worthen 2012), while

Peer Relations and Chinese Newcomers 537

peer groups show no relation or a linear decrease in importance with age (Rubin et al.2006). Although early adolescence is characterized by an increase in friendshipintimacy, parents continue to play an influential role in the social lives of theirchildren. In contrast, older adolescents’ friendships are characterized by significantlygreater influence on behavior than are emerging adolescents’ friendships. Worthen(2012), for example, found that positivity toward friends negatively predicteddelinquent behavior during late adolescence but not during middle- or earlyadolescence and for boys but not for girls. The dramatic difference in peerrelations from early adolescence to late adolescence and between girls and boyspoints to the need to examine peer relations of early adolescents separatelyfrom the peer relations of middle/late adolescents and peer relations of girlsseparately from peer relations of boys.

Although sparse, research on Chinese adolescents in China has found nosignificant differences in the importance of peer relationships across adoles-cence (Chen et al. 2008). To date, no studies to our knowledge have examined ageand sex differences in the peer relations of Chinese adolescent newcomers in aWestern context in a single study. Thus, the present study represents an importantextension to the literature by examining both age and sex differences across twoimportant dimensions of adolescent peer relations—perceived peer group integrationand friendship quality.

Chinese Adolescents and Peer Relations in Cultural Context

The recent expansion of research findings on adolescent peer relations to include non-Western cultures has demonstrated that the formation and function of friendships andpeer groups are influenced by cultural values (Chen et al. 2006). To date, the majorityof research on adolescent peer relations has been conducted with adolescents inWestern cultures—cultures that have been characterized as valuing individualism,in which personal autonomy takes priority over social responsibility (Chen et al.2006) as opposed to collectivism, in which “groups bind, and mutually obligateindividuals” (Oyserman et al. 2002, p. 5). In a meta-analyses of the empiricalliterature, Oyserman et al. examined the characterization of 48 countries identifiedas either individualistic or collectivistic. Their findings demonstrated that collectiv-istic values of “maintaining group harmony” and “duty to the group” were significantamong Chinese samples in both China and America.

Of interest in the present study is the degree to which group functioning rather thandyadic functioning is emphasized among Chinese adolescent newcomers in Canada.The literature on the importance of Chinese adolescent peer relations to their psy-chological and school adjustment suggests that belonging to a peer group plays agreater role than the friendship dyad in predicting adjustment among Chinese ado-lescents (see Chen and French 2008 for a review). For example, Liu and Chen (2003)conducted a study of 296 junior high school adolescents in China. Participants wereasked to list up to 10 friends in their peer group. Findings revealed that groupmembers (i.e., individuals connected exclusively to other group members) scoredsignificantly lower on teacher reports of learning problems and psychologicaladjustment (i.e., loneliness) and significantly higher on self-reports of social


competence and school records of leadership involvement than did the dyads(i.e., having only one paired link). Results suggest that membership in a peergroup plays a more significant role in the adjustment of Chinese adolescentsthan having a dyadic friendship.

The Present Study

Studies conducted with Chinese populations have focused either on Chinese adoles-cents living in China (Chen et al. 2000) or on the general adjustment of American orCanadian-born Chinese adolescents (e.g., Chen and Tse 2008; Way and Chen 2000).The present investigation is seen then as both necessary and significant, providinginsight into the peer relations and adjustment of Chinese adolescent newcomers—thelargest immigrant population in Canada over the last 5 years, but one that hasreceived little attention in previous research (Chow 2007).

The primary focus of our research was to address two general questionsabout Chinese adolescent newcomers, namely (1) What are the relations amongperceived peer group integration, friendship quality, self-reported psychologicaladjustment (i.e., depression, anxiety), and teacher-reported school adjustment(i.e., school competence, externalizing problem behaviors, learning problems)?and (2) How do perceptions of peer group integration and dimensions offriendship quality singularly and jointly predict self-reported psychologicaladjustment and teacher-reported school adjustment? These questions werespurred by existing research that demonstrates that positive peer relations arenegatively associated with maladaptive outcomes, including anxiety (e.g., Erathet al. 2008) and depressive symptoms (e.g., Uba et al. 2009) and positively associ-ated with adaptive outcomes, such as school competence (Buhs et al. 2006). Withregard to depression and anxiety, the present study fills a gap in the research literatureby examining their unique relations with friendship quality and peer group integra-tion. Anxiety, in particular, has received limited attention in this regard (Schwartz-Mette and Rose 2009).

The adjustment of adolescents in Canada is of particular concern given thatepidemiological reports estimate that 20 % of children and adolescents experiencemental health problems severe enough to warrant clinical services, with 70 % of thoseaffected not receiving the services they need (see Hymel et al. 2006 for a review). Themost common problems are those related to anxiety and depression, problems thathave been on the increase among adolescent populations in the past decades and thatare examined in the present study.

We hypothesized that dimensions of perceived friendship quality and peergroup integration would predict self-reported psychological adjustment andteacher-reported school adjustment among Chinese adolescent newcomers andthat peer group integration would be a stronger predictor of adjustment thanwould quality of the best friendship given the emphasis on group norms andvalues in Chinese culture. Given the findings from previous research indicatingsex and age differences in adolescent peer relations (Schwartz-Mette and Rose2009), we also examined whether Chinese adolescent newcomers’ peer group inte-gration and friendship quality varied as a function of sex and age.


Method

Participants

Participants were recruited from three public secondary schools and 16 public elemen-tary schools located in one school district in a largeWestern Canadian city. Schools werechosen based on their representativeness of the range of socioeconomic and racial/ethnicdiversity of students in the school district. Chinese adolescents from Mainland China,Hong Kong, and Taiwan from sixth through 12th grade classes who reported living inCanada for <6 years were recruited for participation. This 6-year time frame wasselected based on previous research that identified newcomers as individuals who hadresided in their host country for a maximum of 4–6 years (e.g., Goodenow and Espin1993; Horenczyk and Tatar 1998). Moreover, this definition of newcomer is similar tothe definition provided by Citizenship and Immigration Canada (2010).

The sample was comprised of 121 adolescents (61 male and 60 female) with anaverage age of 13.80 years (SD01.96) and a range from 11.40 to 19.80 years. Ofthese, 73 were early adolescents (6th and 7th grade) and 48 were middle/lateadolescents (8th to 12th grade). Means and standard deviations of length of residence,peer group integration, dimensions of friendship quality, and self- and teacher-ratedadjustment are presented in Table 1. Participants’ length of residence in Canadaranged from 1 to 65 months, with a mean length of residence in Canada024.46 months (SD017.58). Of the participants, 74 % reported arriving directly fromChina, 21 % reported arriving directly from Hong Kong, 1 % reported arrivingdirectly from Taiwan, and 4 % reported arriving via other countries. All reported thatthey emigrated from China within the past 6 years.

Table 1 Means and standard deviations of length of residence, peer group integration, friendship quality,and adjustment variables

Variables Mean SD Range

Length of residence (in months) 24.46 17.58 1.00–65.00

Friendship quality

Companionship 3.83 0.84 1.00–5.00

Conflict 1.79 0.75 1.00–4.50

Help 4.06 1.01 1.00–5.00

Security 3.97 0.80 1.40–5.00

Closeness 4.24 0.78 1.80–5.00

Peer group integration 3.80 0.77 1.43–5.00

Self-reported adjustment

Depression 2.11 0.80 1.00–4.20

Anxiety 2.61 0.89 1.00–5.00

Teacher-reported adjustment

School competence 3.43 0.82 1.60–5.00

Externalizing problems 1.50 0.79 1.00–4.33

Learning problems 1.83 1.02 1.00–5.00


After university and school board permission had been provided to conductthe research, the researchers mailed an initial letter describing the objectives,procedures, and implications of the study to each principal in schools identifiedas eligible (i.e., low-income, large proportion of Chinese students). Schoolprincipals identified (via school records) those Chinese students whose lengthof residence in Canada was 6 years or less. Following this, the first author metwith potential participants to describe the study and distribute parent/guardianconsent forms and participant assent forms. Two research assistants fluent inMandarin, Cantonese, or both, orally translated the description of the study toeach potential student participant. Consent forms were translated into traditionalChinese for Cantonese-speaking participants and simplified Chinese for Mandarin-speaking participants. As an incentive for returning permission slips, students were toldthat they would be entered into a draw for a $15 gift certificate for a local music store ifthey returned their slip with either a “yes” or a “no.”

Procedure

Data were gathered in the Spring semester in the school in which participants wereenrolled. Small groups consisting of no more than 15 students each completed thequestionnaires in the same room during class sessions. All students signed assentforms that stated assurances of confidentiality and that data would be accessible onlyto the first author. The first author provided instructions on how to complete thequestionnaires (e.g., providing an example and explaining the response scales). Eitherone or two research assistants fluent in Mandarin, Cantonese, or both, translatedinstructions for non-English speaking participants. The study was presented as asurvey of Chinese students’ opinions about themselves, their peer relationships, andtheir school experiences. Students were told that there were no right or wronganswers and that they could withdraw from participating at any time. Teachers weregiven 2 weeks to complete one Teacher Child Rating Scale (T-CRS; Hightower et al.1986) checklist on each of their participating students and were provided with a self-addressed stamped envelope to mail to the first author.

Measures

All student questionnaires were written in English and translated into complexChinese and simple Chinese using a back-translation method. The method of trans-lation–back-translation is consistent with other research in the area of friendshipsamong immigrant adolescents (Florsheim 1997).

Demographic Questionnaire A demographic questionnaire was administered to stu-dents in order to gather information about their age, grade level, sex, immigrationstatus, length of residence in Canada, previous country of residence, and familycomposition.

Peer Group Integration The Relational Provisional Loneliness Questionnaire(RPLQ; Hayden Thomson 1989) was used to assess perceived peer group integration.The RPLQ consists of four subscales: family personal intimacy, family group


integration, peer personal intimacy, and peer group integration. For the purposes ofthe present study, only the peer group integration subscale was utilized. This subscalecontains seven items measuring the extent to which the individual feels that he/shebelongs to a peer group, on a scale of 1 (not true) to 5 (always true). Examplesinclude “I feel part of a group of friends that do things together” and “I have a lot incommon with other adolescents.” The internal consistency of the peer group integra-tion subscale was found to be adequate in the original sample of 310 children andadolescents (Cronbach’s alpha00.87) and in the replication sample of 172 childrenand adolescents (Cronbach’s alpha00.82). Test–retest reliability for the subscale was0.79, indicating that scores were fairly stable over a 2-week period. In the presentsample, a mean score was calculated by averaging responses to each of the items,with higher scores indicating greater peer group integration. The internal consistencyin the present study, as assessed via Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.87.

Friendship Quality The Friendship Qualities Scale (FQS; Bukowski et al. 1994) wasutilized to assess the perceived quality of each participant’s best friendship. The FQShas been used in studies on Chinese adolescent populations (Cheung and McBride-Chang 2011). The FQS is a 23-item self-report measure designed for children andearly adolescents and contains five subscales representing the most salient features ofadolescent friendships: companionship (4 items) (e.g., “My friend and I spend all ourfree time together”), conflict (4 items) (e.g., “I can get into fights with my friend”),help (5 items) (e.g., “If I forgot my lunch or needed a little money my friend wouldloan it to me”), security (5 items) (e.g., “If I have a problem at school or at home, Ican talk to my friend about it”), and closeness (5 items) (e.g., “I feel happy when I amwith my friend”). Following the work of Parker and Asher (1993), we followed atwo-step process. First, adolescents were asked to report separately the names (firstnames only) of their close or best friends. In the second step, participants were askedto select one of these who they identified “as their very best friend” and insert thatbest friend’s name at the top of each page of the FQS and indicate how true eachstatement was about their one best friendship the way it is now, on a 5-point ratingscale ranging from 1 (Not at all true) to 5 (Really true). Research on the FQS providessupport for the factor structure of the FQS and demonstrates that these scalesrepresent distinct, but related, domains of friendship quality (Bukowski et al.1994). Additionally, previous research has found high internal consistency withineach subscale, ranging from 0.71 to 0.86, and support for the validity of the FQS wasdemonstrated with higher ratings for reciprocal and stable friendships than fornonreciprocal and unstable friendships. In the present study, internal consistency(Cronbach’s alpha) was found to be in the adequate range for each of the five FQSsubscales: companionship00.69, conflict00.72, help00.90, security00.69, andcloseness00.83.

Self-Reported Psychological Adjustment The International Comparative Study ofEthnocultural Youth questionnaire of psychological symptoms (ICSEY; Berry et al.2006) was used in the present study to assess adolescents’ self-reports of psycholog-ical adjustment. This scale was constructed for use with adolescent immigrants andhas been used with adolescent Chinese immigrants (Berry et al. 2006). It is comprisedof three subscales: depression (5 items) (e.g., “I feel unhappy and sad”), anxiety (5


items) (e.g., “I feel nervous and shaky inside”), and psychosomatic symptoms (5items) (e.g., “I feel tired”). The ICSEY was developed taking relevant items from thefollowing scales: Hopkins Symptom Checklist (Mollica et al. 1987), Vietnamese-Language Depression Rating Scale (Kinze et al. 1982), Revised Children’s ManifestAnxiety Scale (Reynolds and Richmond 1985), Children’s Depression Inventory(Kovacs 1980/81), Health-Related Questions (Beiser and Flemming 1986), andCenter for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (Radloff 1977). Previous researchsupports the validity and reliability of the ICSEY (Berry et al. 2006). Of the threesubscales, only the Depression and Anxiety subscales were seen as relevant to thepresent study. Although these two dimensions are related to one another, they are seenas distinct dimensions of psychopathology in the extant literature (Nitschke et al.2001). In the present study, the internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) was 0.80 forthe anxiety subscale and 0.80 for the depressive symptoms subscale.

Teacher-Rated School Competence and Problem Behaviors The T-CRS (Hightoweret al. 1986) was completed by teachers for each participant in his or her class.Teachers were asked to rate, on a 5-point scale, how much each item described theparticipant. The 38-item measure consists of subscales that assess behaviors withineach of two domains. The 18-item problem behaviors domain assesses externalizingproblem behaviors (e.g., “Disruptive in class,” 6 items), shyness/anxiety (e.g., “With-drawn,” 6 items), and learning problems (e.g., “Poor work habits,” 6 items); and the20-item school competence domain assesses frustration tolerance (e.g., “Acceptsimposed limits,” 5 items), assertiveness (e.g., “Defends own views under grouppressure,” 5 items), task orientation (e.g., “Completes work,” 5 items), and peersociability (e.g., “Is friendly towards peers,” 5 items). Note that we excluded thepeer sociability subscale from the present study because we did not want to confoundteachers’ ratings of peer sociability with self-reports of peer relations (i.e., perceptionsof peer relations cannot be entered as both independent and dependent variables). Ofthe seven subscales, five clearly represent positive versus negative adjustment andtwo—shy/anxious and assertiveness—are seen as more equivocal and may not beappropriate to use with Chinese adolescents (Chen et al. 2005). Chen et al. (2005)posit that although the research on adolescents in North America has found the shy/anxious dimension of the T-CRS to be associated with negative outcomes, thisdimension has been found to be positively associated with peer relations in Chineseadolescents. Luthar (1995) found that adolescents who were viewed by peers as shy/anxious received good grades, while assertiveness was sometimes associated withaggressive behaviors. Accordingly, in the present study, the shy/anxious and asser-tiveness subscales were excluded from our analyses.

In the study of Hightower et al. (1986), reliability coefficients for each subscaleranged from 0.85 to 0.95, and test–retest reliability ranged from 0.61 to 0.90. Inaddition, intercorrelations between subscales ranged between 0.22 and !0.85. Sup-port for the validity of the T-CRS is strong, showing differences between well-adjusted and poorly adjusted students (Hightower et al. 1986). Moreover, the T-CRS has proved to be reliable and valid when used with Chinese children (Chen et al.1995). In the present study, factor analysis on the items from two subscales of theschool competence domain, resulted in a single competence factor. Thus, we usedonly the global total “school competence” score in this study. In accord with


Hightower et al., factor analysis of the two subscales from the problem behaviorsdomain resulted in a two-factor solution that corresponded to the externalizingproblem behaviors’, and learning problems’ dimensions. Internal consistencies(Cronbach’s alpha) for the present study were as follows: 0.94 for school competence,0.92 for externalizing problem behaviors (disruptive/acting out), and 0.93 for learningproblems.

Results

Overview of Analyses

Results are presented in three sections. The first reports results on sex- and age-leveldifferences on dimensions of peer relations. The second section reports results fromcorrelational analyses among demographic, peer relational, and adjustment variables.Finally, results from our hierarchical regression analyses examining the unique andcombined contributions of friendship quality and peer group integration inpredicting school and psychological adjustment among Chinese adolescent new-comers are presented. In order to determine the magnitude of effects beyondstatistical significance, we calculated partial eta-squared (!2p ) effect sizes for ourMANOVA and ANOVA analyses examining sex and age differences. According tothe criteria proposed by Cohen (1988), 0.0099 is considered to be a “small effect,”0.0588 is considered to be a “medium effect,” and 0.1379 is considered to be a “largeeffect.”

Sex and Age Differences

Peer Group Integration To examine sex- and age-level differences regarding thedegree to which Chinese adolescent newcomers felt that they belonged to a peergroup, a 2 (sex)!2 (age level: early adolescents vs. middle/late adolescents) ANOVAwas conducted with perceived peer group integration as the dependent variable andsex and age level as the independent variables. Table 2 reports statistically significantsex- and age-level differences. As can be seen in Table 2, girls reported significantlyhigher levels of peer group integration than did boys. Neither the main effect for agelevel nor the sex!age level interaction was significant.

Friendship Quality To assess sex and age level differences on dimensions of quality ofbest friendships, we conducted a 2 (sex)!2 (age level) multiple analysis of variance(MANOVA), with sex and age level as the independent variables, and the five dimen-sions of the FQS as the dependent variables. Findings revealed a significant multivariatemain effect for sex, Wilks’ lambda F(5, 113)02.97, p<0.01, !2p 00.12. Follow-upunivariate ANOVAs were used to assess the effect for each of the five friendshipquality dimensions. Table 2 reports sex- and age-level differences that reachedstatistical significance. As can be seen in Table 2, boys reported higher rates ofconflict, and lower levels of help, closeness, and security in their friendships than didgirls. No significant sex differences were found with regard to companionship.


Neither the multivariate main effect for age nor the sex!age level interaction wassignificant.

Interrelations Among Variables

Table 3 reports intercorrelations among demographic, peer relational, and adjustmentvariables. As can be seen, perceived peer group integration was found to be signif-icantly and positively associated with teacher-rated school competence, and signifi-cantly and negatively associated with self-reported depression and anxiety. Positivedimensions of friendship quality (i.e., help, security, and closeness) were positivelyand significantly correlated with positive adjustment (i.e., school competence),whereas negative dimensions (i.e., conflict) were correlated significantly and posi-tively with negative adjustment (i.e., externalizing problems, learning problems, anddepression).

Predicting Adjustment from Peer Group Integration and Friendship Quality

One focus of the present investigation was to determine the extent to whichdimensions of peer relations, namely, peer group integration and friendshipquality, singularly and jointly predict dimensions of self- and teacher-reportedadjustment.

In the first set of hierarchical regression analyses, after first entering “fixed”variables (Luthar 1993) of age, sex, and length of residence in Canada, peer groupintegration was entered, followed by the friendship quality variables (model 1). Giventhe heterogeneity of the length of residence, ranging from 1 to 65 months, it wasnecessary to control for this variable. Hence, length of residence was entered firstwith age and sex. In the second set of analyses, after first entering age, sex, and length

Table 2 Friendship quality and peer group integration as a function of sex: results of ANOVAs (N0121)

Sex

Girls Boys

(n060) (n061)

Variables M SD M SD F Partial

!2

Peer group integration 4.00 0.70 3.61 0.78 9.98** 0.064

Friendship quality

Companionship 3.86 0.89 3.73 0.79 0.66 0.006

Conflict 1.64 0.68 1.93 0.79 4.55* 0.037

Help 4.30 0.88 3.90 1.06 5.22* 0.043

Security 4.26 0.62 3.72 0.86 14.52*** 0.110

Closeness 4.42 0.68 4.08 0.83 5.68** 0.046

*p"0.05; **p"0.01; ***p"0.001


Tab

le3

Intercorrelatio

nsam

onggender,age,lengthof

residency,peer

relatio

nvariables,scho

oladjustment,andpsycho

logicala

djustm

ent

12

34

S6

78

910

1112

1314

Sexa

–!0

.04

0.06

0.27**

0.05

!0.18*

0.24**

0.35**

0.23*

0.40**

!0.40*

*!0

.28*

*0.01

0.06

Age

–0.08

!0.02

!0.13

!0.04

0.21*

0.09

0.11

!0.04

0.03

0.20

*0.06

0.15

Lengthof

residence

–!0

.17

0.10

0.16

0.01

0.03

!0.04

0.13

!0.10

!0.11

0.21

*0.16

Peer

groupintegration

–0.28**

!0.27**

0.53**

0.45**

0.40**

0.32**

!0.14

!0.13

!0.30*

*!0

.37**

Com

panion

ship

–0.01

0.39**

0.34**

0.28**

0.04

0.06

0.04

!0.09

!0.06

Con

flict

–!0

.36**

!0.42**

!0.37*

*!0

.34*

*0.23

*0.23

*0.26

**0.11

Help

–0.66**

0.62**

0.24**

!0.10

!0.11

!0.16

!0.10

Security

–0.68**

0.34**

!0.13

!0.22*

!0.15

!0.06

Closeness

–0.27**

!0.19*

!0.26*

*!0

.08

!0.05

Com

petent

behaviors

–!0

.62*

*!0

.71*

*!0

.12

!0.16*

Externalizingproblems

–0.66

**0.05

0.12

Learningproblems

–0.15

0.18

*

Depression

–0.74

**

Anx

iety

–

*p"0

.05;

**p"0

.01

aGenderwas

codedsuch

that

10bo

yand20girl

bAge

was

codedsuch

that

10earlyadolescent

and20middle/late

adolescent


of residence, the friendship quality variables were entered second, followed bypeer group integration (model 2). Therefore, each analysis allowed for anexamination of the unique contribution of each dimension to each of our fiveadjustment outcomes, after controlling for the other. Results of these analysesare presented in Table 4.

The hierarchical regression results for self-reported depression and anxietyshowed that the full model accounted for 17 % [F(9, 111)02.44, p00.01], and20 % [F(9, 111)03.05, p<0.001] of the variance, respectively. For both of theseoutcomes, when entered first in the model (after accounting for sex, age, and lengthof residence), peer group integration significantly contributed to the proportion ofvariance. Specifically, model 1 indicated that peer group integration contributed asignificant amount of variance to depression and anxiety. Entering dimensions offriendship quality into the model did not account for a significant increase in totalvariance. In model 2, peer group integration continued to be a significant and uniquepredictor of depression and anxiety above and beyond the effects of sex, age, andfriendship quality.

Hierarchical regression analyses for the teacher-rated school competence,externalizing problem behaviors, and learning problems also indicated that thefull model was significantly predictive of these outcomes. More specifically, wefound that the full model accounted for 30 % of the variance in predictingteacher-rated school competence [F(9, 111)05.39, p<0.001], 23 % of the variance inpredicting teacher-rated externalizing problem behaviors [F(9, 111)03.66, p<0.001],and 23 % of the variance in predicting teacher-rated learning problems [F(9, 111)03.66, p<0.001]. For school competence and externalizing problem behaviors,both peer group integration and friendship quality added an additional amountof variance after taking into consideration the other. For teacher-rated learningproblems, friendship quality was a unique predictor above and beyond peergroup integration. For each of friendship quality and peer group integration,inspection of the standardized Beta weights revealed that conflict was thestrongest negative predictor of competence and closeness was the strongestnegative predictor of learning problems.

In sum, results of the hierarchical regression analyses revealed that (1) peer groupintegration and friendship quality, when considered in combination, significantlypredicted dimensions of self-reported and teacher-rated indices of adjustment; (2)peer group integration was a unique and significant predictor of self-reported depres-sion and anxiety, and (3) friendship quality was a unique and significant predictor ofteacher-rated learning problems.

Discussion

The main aim of the present study was to examine the manner in which dimensions ofpeer relations—namely, peer group integration and friendship quality—uniquely andjointly predicted multiple dimensions of adjustment in a sample of Chinese adoles-cent newcomers. The preliminary objective was to demonstrate whether perceptionsof peer group integration and friendship quality differed as a function of sex and age.Results indicated that feelings of peer group integration were higher among girls than


Tab

le4

Summaryof

hierarchical

regression

analyses

forvariablespredictin

gself-andteacher-reportadjustment(N

012

1)

Self-reports

Teacher-reports

Depression

Anxiety

School

competence


Learningproblems

Predictors

"R2

#R2

"R2

#R2

"R2

#R2

"R2

#R2

"R2

#R2

Mod

el1

Step

1:demog

raph

ics

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.17

**0.17**

0.16

**0.16**

0.13

**0.13**

Sexa

!0.01

0.06

0.39**

!0.39**

!0.27**

Age

0.05

0.15

!0.04

0.02

0.20

Lengthof

residence

0.21

*0.14

0.11

!0.08

!0.11

Step

2:peer

grou

p0.12**

0.08**

0.19**

0.14**

0.23

**0.06**

0.17

**0.01

0.13

**0.01

Integration

!0.30*

*!0

.40*

*0.26**

0.06

!0.09

Step

3:friendship

quality

0.17**

0.04

0.20**

0.01

0.30**

0.07*

0.23**

0.06

0.23**

0.10*

Com

panion

ship

!.05

0.04

!0.08

0.10

0.16

Con

flict

0.21

*0.05

!0.23*

*0.19

0.15

Help

!0.01

0.02

!0.07

0.04

0.06

Security

!0.06

0.02

0.09

0.18

!0.01

Closeness

0.14

0.05

0.05

!0.19

!0.26*

Mod

el2

Step

1:demog

raph

ics

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.17

**0.17**

0.16

**0.16**

0.13

**0.13**

Sexa

0.01

0.06

0.39**

!0.39**

!0.27**

Age

b0.05

0.14

!0.04

0.02

0.20*

Lengthof

residence

0.20

*0.14

0.11

!0.08

!0.11

Step

2:friendship

quality

0.12

0.07*

0.08

0.03

0.27**

0.10**

0.22**

0.06

0.23**

0.10*

Com

panion

ship

!0.07

0.00

!0.06

0.09

0.16


Tab

le4

(con

tinued)

Self-reports

Teacher-reports

Depression

Anxiety

School

competence


Learningproblems

Predictors

"R2

#R2

"R2

#R2

"R2

#R2

"R2

#R2

"R2

#R2

Con

flict

0.22

*0.07

!0.24*

*0.19*

0.14

Help

!0.11

!0.15

0.01

0.01

0.04

Security

!0.08

!0.02

0.12

0.17

!0.01

Closeness

0.13

0.04

0.06

!0.19

!0.26*

Step

3:peer

grou

p0.17**

0.05**

0.20**

0.12**

0.30

**0.03*

0.23

**0.01

0.23

**0.00

Integration

!0.26*

*!0

.44*

*0.22*

!0.07

!0.04

Standardized

weigh

tsareshow

n.Sexwas

codedsuch

that

10bo

yand20girl

*p"0

.05;

**p"0

.01


among boys. Regarding friendship quality, girls reported more help, more security,and more closeness in their best friendships than did boys. These sex differences areconsistent with findings from earlier studies (Parker and Asher 1993; La Greca andLopez 1998). La Greca and Lopez, for example, found that adolescent girls reportedgreater feelings of peer acceptance and closer friendships than did boys. In the presentstudy, girls also reported less conflict in their friendships than did boys, which isinconsistent with previous findings that showed no sex differences with respect toconflict (e.g., Claes 1994; Parker and Asher 1993).

The main objective was to examine the relative impact of peer group integrationversus friendships on adjustment outcomes. It is important to note that levels ofadjustment appeared good overall. Nonetheless, our findings revealed that peer groupintegration emerged as one of the most significant predictors of psychologicaladjustment above and beyond sex, age, length of residence, and friendship quality.Friendship quality overall, however, was not a significant predictor of psychologicaladjustment above and beyond peer group integration. Specifically, findings of thepresent study indicate that after controlling for sex, age, length of residence, andfriendship quality, Chinese adolescent newcomers who reported greater peer groupintegration reported less anxiety and depression than did adolescents who reportedlesser peer group integration. Regarding friendship quality, however, none of the fivedimensions of friendship quality emerged as a significant predictor of anxiety, andonly conflict emerged as a significant predictor of depression. This finding isconsistent with previous research that suggests that in many non-Western cultures,the peer group plays a greater role in psychological adjustment than does the overallquality of the friendship dyad (e.g., see Chen and French 2008 for a review).

As mentioned, one aspect of friendship emerged as a significant predictor ofdepression—conflict. Chinese adolescent newcomers whose friendships were highin conflict reported more depressive symptoms. This evidence is consistent withprevious evidence that adolescents with psychological adjustment problems reportedgreater conflict in their peer relations than their well-adjusted peers (Feldman et al.1988). Earlier studies on Asian adolescents (DuongTran 1996) provide similarevidence that peer-related conflict is a significant predictor of depression.

In addition to psychological adjustment, school adjustment was associated with theconflict dimension of friendship quality. Specifically, the present study demonstratedthat friendships high in conflict were associated with lower teacher-rated schoolcompetence. This finding extends previous research that suggests that adolescentswhose friendships are high in antisocial or aggressive behavior demonstrate lowschool competence (Guroglu et al. 2007). In a study on social functioning andadjustment of Chinese pre- and early adolescents, Chen et al. (1995) found thathigher peer-rated aggressive behaviors were predictive of lower teacher-rated schoolcompetence. Another finding of the present study was that Chinese adolescent new-comers who demonstrated friendship quality high in closeness demonstrated lesslearning problems. This finding is consistent with previous research demonstratingthat friendship quality high in supportiveness and care predicts positive schooladjustment (e.g., Berndt 1996). Overall, findings of the present study contribute tothe extant research on the relationship between peer relations and psychologicaland school adjustment. Furthermore, the present study contributes to the liter-ature by demonstrating the significant role of peer group integration over and


above friendship quality in predicting psychological adjustment among Chinesenewcomer adolescents.

Strengths and Limitations

Findings of the present study are in accord with previous research indicating that thepeer group plays a more central role than the friendship dyad in the adjustment ofChinese adolescents (Oyserman et al. 2002). One important and unique contributionof the present study was the inclusion of a newcomer minority population that hasreceived little attention in previous research, yet is representative of a significantnumber of Canadian youth. Despite the strengths of this study, there are severallimitations that are necessary to mention. First, our study is correlational in natureand, therefore, we cannot offer any firm conclusions about the direction of therelation of friendship quality and peer group belonging to psychological and schooladjustment of Chinese adolescent newcomers. It may, for example, be that theadjustment of Chinese adolescent newcomers influences their peer relations. Consis-tent with some previous studies on Chinese adolescents, school problem and com-petent behaviors may predict social functioning (e.g., Chen et al. 1999). Alongitudinal study of newly arrived adolescent newcomers examined at intervals overthe course of several years would enable us to more confidently address the causalinfluence of peer relations on adjustment over time. Furthermore, given that length ofresidence emerged as a significant predictor of depression in the present study, alongitudinal study of this nature would enable us to examine this variable moreclosely. Alternatively, follow-up analyses using a person-focused rather than avariable-focused approach in which adolescents would be categorized by adjustmentlevel (e.g., poor vs. moderate/high) may provide further elucidation about the natureof the relationship between adjustment and peer relations in Chinese adolescentnewcomers.

A second limitation is that our findings provide only modest support for therelation between peer relations and adjustment, suggesting that acculturation issues(e.g., Oppedal et al. 2005), play a significant role in the psychological adjustment ofChinese adolescent immigrants. A study of adolescent immigrants in Norway, con-ducted by Oppedal et al., indicated that acculturation issues such as ethnic identitycrisis, perceived discrimination, and host and ethnic cultural competence were sig-nificantly associated with psychological adaptation. The extent to which acculturationfactors predict the adjustment of Chinese adolescent newcomers above and beyondthe effects of peer relations may be investigated in future studies. A third limitation isthat both the independent variable of peer relations and the dependent variable ofpsychological adjustment were self-report measures. Future studies may consider acombination of self- and peer ratings of the independent variables in order to addressthe potential issue of same-source variance. This may be addressed by examiningreciprocity in friendship nominations as a predictor of adjustment. Moreover, giventhat early adolescents in the present study attended elementary school and middle/lateadolescents attended secondary school, the role of school context also requiresconsideration (e.g., teacher–student relationships and aspects of peer culture). Finally,the relatively small sample size in our study may have contributed to insufficientstatistical power to adequately discern the influence of age, sex, and each of the peer


relational variables on each of the dependent variables. A larger sample size would berecommended for future studies in order to examine these relationships.

Future Directions and Policy Implications

Findings from the present study indicate that positive peer relations significantly andpositively predict psychological and school adjustment among Chinese adolescentnewcomers. Nonetheless, further research is needed to clarify the role of peerrelations in predicting their adjustment. Future research might further explore whetheradolescent newcomers who prefer to speak English report greater peer group inte-gration and mental health than newcomers who prefer to speak their native language.This question emerges from the argument that immigrants who adopt the values of thehost society may experience greater integration into the host society (Schwartz et al.2006), but greater rejection from immigrant peers of similar cultural background(Florsheim 1997).

Future studies may also explore whether length of residence influences adjust-ment. A comparative study between Chinese adolescent newcomers, Chinese ado-lescents who have lived in Canada for more than 6 years, and Canadian-born Chineseadolescents would be an important first step to identify similarities and differencesbetween groups. This type of comparative study would clarify how the role of peergroups and friendships may change as length of residence in the host cultureincreases.

Results of the present study, although exploratory in nature, have educationalpolicy implications that are relevant and necessary in Canada and internation-ally, as migration continues to be on the rise (United Nations 2005). Resultsregarding the role of peer group integration on adjustment suggest a need foreducational services that foster peer group integration. Schools are the most logicalcontext for adolescent immigrants to gain the linguistic and cultural knowledge foreffective integration into host society. School policies may mandate training of schoolcounselors, teachers, and student leaders to act as “cultural brokers”—individualswho act as a bridge between the newcomer culture and their host culture. In practice,cultural brokers would be responsible for promoting peer group integration throughlanguage acquisition and cultural programs, for example, that promote an exchangeof values between newcomer and host peers. Given the significant and uniqueinfluence of peers during adolescence, special attention may be given to creatingpeer-facilitated programs. Two such programs include “All Kids Are VIPs” inGermany and “You are young, you will succeed” in Spain (Cities of Migration2012). These programs encourage grade 5–12 students to submit proposals on howto improve integration at their school, through activities such as “Welcome” eventsand celebrity-supported events that demonstrate the value of cultural diversity and thepositive contributions of immigrants. Programs of this kind may be easily replicatedin Canada, and other countries in which pluralism is valued. Peer tutoring andmentoring programs led by students from similar cultural backgrounds or immigrantexperiences can be mutually beneficial: Newcomers receive the social support that iscritical during the early phase of their transition, while peer mentors gain theconfidence and social support required for long-term adjustment. For policy makers,a primary consideration is how best to integrate adolescent newcomers into the host


culture while providing opportunities to preserve their cultural identity. As migrationcontinues to be on the rise globally, there is an urgency for school policies thatpromote positive peer relations in order to curb the risks of alienation, discrimination,and conflict, and promote long-term positive psychological and school adjustment.

Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, ornot-for-profit sectors.

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Peer Relations of Chinese Adolescent Newcomers: Relations of Peer Group Integration and Friendship...

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