P A S T A N D P R E S E N T R O L E O F T H E I N D I A N - F I G P R I C K L Y - P E A R

( O P U N T I A F I C U S - I N D I C A (L.) M I L L E R , C A C T A C E A E )

I N T H E A G R I C U L T U R E O F S I C I L Y 1

G I U S E P P E BARBERA, FRANCESCO C A R I M I , AND P A O L O INGLESE

Barbera, Giuseppe a n d F rancesco Carimi ( IstRuto di Coltivazioni Arboree, Universitd di Palermo, 90128 Italy), and Paolo Inglese ( Istituto di Colture Arboree, Universitdz di Reggio Calabria, 89100 Italy). PAST AND PRESENT ROLE OF THE INDIAN-FIG PRICKLY-PEAR (OPUNTIA FICUS-INDICA (L.) MILLER, CACTACEAE) IN THE AGRICULTURE OF SICILY. Economic Botany 46(1):10-20. 1992. Of prickly-pear cacti occurring in Sicily, the most widespread and economically important is Opuntia ficus-indica (L.)"Miller. In Sicily it has, since its introduction, played an important role in the exploitation of marginal areas. The Sicilian experience is described with reference to the historical outlines and the present intensive production of late fruit. Information on historical and actual uses of the plant and its products (flowers, cladodes, fruits) is given.

Pasado y presente del cultivo de el nopal (Opuntia ticus-indica (L.) Miller, Cactaceae) en la agricultura de Sicilia. Entre los nopales que se pueden encontrar en Sicilia lamas difundida es ta Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller. Esta especie desde hace su introduccion ha sido l a m a s disfrutada en las explotaciones de las zonas marginales. En este trabajo los Autores retiren sobre la historia y sobre la actual situacion productiva, tinalisada a la producion de higos de retallo. Se retire tambien sobre su uso y sus productos (roTes. cladodios, frutos).

Key Words: agriculture, history; agriculture, Sicily; Indian-fig prickly-pear; Opuntia ficus- indica.

The agricultural development of arid and semi- arid areas has been until now largely based on species coming from tempera te or t ropical regions. Such species have been able to reach standards of production suitable for the needs of the farmers and the population only if supported by high inputs, especially in terms of irrigation water (Nabhan and Felger 1985). In many cases such crop production systems involve a serious degradation of the envi ronment and, as a result of that, much concern for the future of these territories.

Therefore it is certainly of great interest to identify crops characterized by highly efficient water use consistent with the available environ- mental resources, and to be able to provide a wide range of economic products not only for the local population but also for the international markets.

The Indian-fig prickly-pear cactus Opunt ia f i -

L Received 10 April 1990; accepted 21 June 1991.

cus-indica (L.) Miller could partially meet this demand. Throughout the Mediterranean coun- tries and especially in Italy, prickly-pear culti- vation has long had an important role both in subsistence agriculture and in the intensive fruit production. In Sicily, prickly-pear has, since its introduction, played an important role in the ex- ploitation of marginal areas. In view of the in- adequate circulation of any knowledge derived from this experience and from the research which has been carried out (Barbera et al. 1988a), it was considered useful to provide an account of the development, the characteristics, and extent of prickly-pear cactus cultivation in Sicily.

Of prickly-pear cacti occurring in Sicily, the most widespread and economically important is Opuntiaf icus- indica (L.) Miller, whereas O. amy- claea Ten. and O. dillenii Haw. are used as or- namentals or as hedges for gardens, orchards and rural settlements. O. amyclaea was used long ago for fruit consumption, and the fruits of O. dillenii were used to color hemp ropes red (Tornabene 1878). O.ficus-indica as cultivated in Sicily is 2-

Economic Botany 46(1) pp. 10-20. 1992 © 1992, by The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458 U.S.A.

1992] BARBERA ET AL.: OPUNTIA FICUS-INDICA IN SICILY

TABLE 1o AVERAGE FRUIT PARAMETERS OF THE SICILIAN CULTIVARS OF PRICKLY-PEAR.

11

Fruit Percent Stage of weight flesh Seeds in flesh Acidi ty c Soluble

cv. Peel cotor a Flesh color a fruit t' (g) (%) (n/g) (g/100 ml) solids (%)

Gialla yellow- yellow 1 85 60 6.9 0.047 14.16 orange yellow 2 125 65 5.9 0.048 13.40

Rossa red red 1 77 62 7.3 0.047 14.15 2 127 65 4.5 0.047 14.70

Bianca pale- white- 1 87 63 6.2 0.046 14.70 cream cream 2 123 64.5 5.5 0.048 14.90

a At full maturity.

b I = 1st flush fruits; 2 = 2nd flush fruits. c As malic acid.

3 m high with cladodes 30--40 cm long, 15-25 cm broad and 1.5-3 cm thick. Each cladode has 130-160 areolae spaced 40--60 mm apart. The cultivated specimens are spineless, though spines occasionally occur. The color of the petals is yel- low at full bloom, becoming bright orange by "petal fall." Flowering occurs in the last two weeks o f May and the first half o f June. A further flow- ering can be artificially induced by completely removing flowers and cladodes coming from the spring flush at full bloom. This practice is named scozzolatura from the word scozzolare which means " to take the berries away"; this will be discussed in detail below. Each flower stays open from 36 to 48 hours and is visited by bees and especially by bumblebees (Bombus terrestris L.). At full bloom the anthers dehisce and the already receptive stigma is abundantly sprinkled with pollen. Flower fecundation may take place by cleistogamy (Damigella 1957). All the cultivars prove to be self-compatible (Damigella 1958). Fruits can be oval to oblong in shape and some- times pedunculate. The characteristics of fruits vary according to the cultivar and the flowering period (Table 1). Fruits produced by the spring flowering ripen during the last ten days o f August and the first ten of September, 90-110 days after anthesis; fruits produced by the artificially in- duced flowering, called late fruits or bastardoni ripen between the second ten days of October and the first ten o f November , 110-120 days after anthesis.

The chromosome numbers o f the Sicilian spe- cies and cultivars (Sajeva et al. 1988; Mazzola et al. 1988)are as follows: O. ficus-indica 2n = 88; O. amyclaea 2n = 88; O. dillenii 2n = 66.

The cultivars of Indian-fig prickly-pear cactus described in Sicily are not numerous (Damigella 1958; Pasquale 1872; Portolano 1962). How- eve'r, three groups may be distinguished accord-

ing to the pulp color at maturity: Gialla (yellow), Bianca (white), Rossa (red). Variations of such cultivars are also known and are defined accord- ing to the density of the pulp (Trunzare). The Gialla is most abundant in the plantations (90%), as it is thought to be the most productive, suit- able to be handled and well-liked by the con- sumers. However both the Rossa (8%) and the Bianca (2%) are also present. A seedless variety is also known but its commercial cultivation has never been attempted because o f the poor quality of the fruits.

PRICKLY-PEAR CACTI IN THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN AND THEIR

ROLE IN THE SICILIAN AGRICULTURE

OPUNTIA SPP.

Prickly-pear cacti were brought to Europe by the first Spanish conquerors between the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century. They were attracted not only by their unusual morphology but also by the importance the Aztecs attached to prickly-pear cacti in their economic, social, and religious life. Among the various uses o f these species, that of the greatest commercial interest was linked with the produc- tion of a red dye which was obtained from the body of a cochineal insect (Dactylopius coccus Costa) the host of which is certain species of Opuntia. The first quantities o f the dye which arrived in Europe were so highly-valued that soon an attempt at cultivation of prickly-pear cacti was made in the Canary Islands and Spain (Nobel 1988; Russel and Felker 1987). The attempt was successful only in the Canary Islands where, on Lanzarote, the breeding of the cochineal is still carried out today. Prickly-pear cacti also became widespread in many European countries as an ornamental species or botanical curiosity (Mat-

12 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 46

Nel primo lib. di Diofcoride. F I C O I N D I A N O .

J I I

Fig. 1. European botanical engraving by Matthioli Sanese (1568).

thioli Sanese 1568) grown in the orchards and roof-gardens of the aristocracy (Bahuin 1651). In the milder Mediterranean areas, at first in the territories controlled by the Spanish Empire, namely Sicily and southern Italy, then in north- ern Africa, prickly-pear cacti proved to be so well-suited to the environmental conditions that they quickly became na tu ra l i zed (Mat th io l i Sanese 1568). They spread by vegetative prop- agation near the cultivated fields and, through birds feeding on the fruits, spread by seed to more distant areas. Prickly-pear cacti soon became so widespread in the Mediterranean landscape that frequently and even quite recently (Scaramella Petri et al. 1988) it was suggested based on un- certain references to it in classical literature (The- ophrastus, Pliny) that they were part of the Med- iterranean flora long before the discovery of America. However the complete lack of reliable historical and iconological references prior to the 16th century (Fig. l, 2) makes this quite im- probable. Actually, the first references to the dif- fusion of prickly-pear species in Sicily can be

found in a manuscript of the 17th century by Bonanno (in Biuso Varvaro 1895) who wrote about their presence in the small scale farming system typical of the so-called "Mediterranean gardens," where fruit-trees and vegetables were intercropped by the farmers in order to maximize returns from their limited resource base.

OPUNTIA FICUS- INDICA

The first paper dealing specifically with O. fi- cus-indica is by Coppoler (1827). It may be in- ferred from it that in the 17th century O. ficus- indica was widely cultivated both in some of the inland and coastal areas with different aims and farming systems. In the inland areas this prickly- pear cactus had to face environmental con- straints such as infertile soils, unpredictable wa- ter availability, and steep and rocky slopes. In these conditions it was widely used in converting marginal lands into productive ones, providing at the same time both fresh food (fruits) for hu- man consumption and water-rich forage. It played such an important role in the diet of the rural population of these areas that De Gasparin, a French agronomist who visited Sicily in 1840, described the Indian-fig prickly-pear as "the manna, the blessing of Sicily" and asserted that "'it means what the banana means in the equa- torial countries and the breadfruit in the islands of the Pacific Ocean" (in Biuso Varvaro 1895). Such words may appear as literary over-empha- ses just as the Sicilian agronomist Alfonso Spag- na (1884) may perhaps exaggerate when he says that the consumption of grain decreased among the rural population during au tumn season be- cause of the widespread use of prickly-pear fruits. The one certain thing is that in 1854 the first official statistics report that 7077 ha were grown as specialized plantations, 1709 as mixed ones (Mortillaro 1854), and prickly-pear cultivation ranked third after grape and olive among fruit crops.

In this extensive, semi-commercial system, in the foothills of the mountain chains and in hilly areas, O.ficus-indica was grown in a mixed brush ecosystem, irregularly planted according to the slope and land morphology. On very steep slopes it was placed along the contour lines to deter erosion and to allow the accumulation of the soil in banks which could later be successfully ex- ploited by other crops. It was also planted near rural houses and stables, where it formed thick

1992] BARBERA ET AL.: OPUNTIA FICUS-INDICA IN SICILY 13

Fig. 2. Still life by an anonymous Sicilian painter of the 17th century (in Spagnolo 1989).

bushes spaced according to the land availability, or it was intercropped with fruit trees able to survive water shortage such as a lmond (Amyg- dalus communis L.), carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.), pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) or Sicilian sumac (Rhus coriaria L.).

In the coastal areas surrounding the main towns (Palermo and Catania) prickly-pear cactus first occurred in the Mediterranean gardens. Later, nearby markets made possible the development of commercial fruit production destined for local consumers of the middle and upper classes, and for exportation to the mainland (Naples). These specialized plantations were established in con- t inuous hedge-shaped rows, spaced 6-8 m apart, with very little space within the row (0.2 m). Various leguminous plants were usually inter- cropped. Organic manuring and pruning were occasionally practiced. In the second half of the 19th century the plain around Palermo was the object of an impressive program of land im- provement. The introduction of hydraulic pumps which, in comparison with the traditional meth- ods of Arabian origin, were able to draw water

from greater depths and resort to backfilling in order to make the soil deeper made the culti- vation of Citrus (lemon) possible and caused the destruction of the pre-existing prickly-pear or- chards (Cusmano 1861). The same factors which favored the success of Sicilian citrus on the in- ternational markets, such as the spread of steam navigation, the opening of customs barriers, and increased emigration of the Sicilian rural popu- lation, drew the attention of the national and international markets (Genoa, Marseille, Lon- don and, later, also New York) towards prickly- pear fruits. Such events quickened the establish- ment of new plantations located in the hilly areas near the towns. The plantation lay-out mean- while changed, as the multiple-row system was introduced. Plants were placed closely within the multiple rows (90 × 25 cm) with wide intervals between the multiple rows (8 m). Commercial success was also favored by the spread of the above mentioned scozzolatura which provided high quality fruits in a season traditionally lack- ing fresh fruits (October-November) (Alfonso Spagna 1884). The origin of this technique is, in

14 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 46

Fig. 3. Specialized orchard in San Cono area.

a way, representative ofthe typical culture of the archaic rural world of Sicily. Coppoler (1827) tells a story about a farmer from Capaci, a village close to Palermo, who refused to sell his crop to a neighbor who took revenge on him by remov- ing the flowers, at full bloom, from the plants. Some time later the plants unexpectedly bloomed again and produced even better fruits. Alfonso Spagna (1884) also discusses the origin of the practice, stating that in 1819, in Ventimiglia Si- cula (another village in the province of Palermo), a young farmer th inned the flowers in order to increase the size of the remaining ones. Though it certainly was a rational practice, his father re- garded it as so improper that he angrily removed the remaining flowers. The plants then bloomed again a short time later.

The commercial significance of prickly-pear cactus as a fruit crop decreased in the period between the two world wars, even if in 1929, 8146 ha were surveyed as specialized plantations (Speranza t 955). Nevertheless its mult ifunction- al characteristic was of such value to the fascist economy, that it was defined as an "autarkic'"

plant (Tallarico 1941). Anyway, it continued to be basically a species for fruit production and in the early 1950s, in some areas of southwestern and southeastern Sicily, specialized plantations began gradually to replace rainfed almond, olive or vinegrape groves (Portolano 1962). Indeed the shortage of irrigation water and/or the shallow soils make these environments marginal for the development of intensive cult ivation of crops other than prickly-pear cactus. Today prickly- pear plantations, managed with techniques pe- culiar to intensive fruit production, grow on over 1000 ha (Crescimanno 1982) (Fig. 3), while tra- ditional plantations, whose technical features have remained virtually unchanged over the years, are still present all over the territory, with a higher concentration in the foothills of Mt. Etna. They are no longer managed and can be regarded as "'wild" plantations with an ecologi- cal, but economically poor role.

It is worthwhile noting that the establishment of the intensive prickly-pear cactus fruit industry has not been promoted by any specific policy and can thus be regarded as a spontaneous trend which

19921 BARBERA ET AL.: OPUNTIA FICUS-INDICA IN SICILY 15

depends both on the need to find al ternat ive crops due to the surplus o f t radi t ional crops such as '~*' wheat and grape and the recent increase in con- G0 sumpt ion o f exot ic fruits in Europe. Nowadays 2000 tons reach foreign markets ; the c o m m u - 40 nit ies o f emigrants f rom the Medi te r ranean Basin to nor thern Europe (mainly France and Bel- gium), the U.S.A. and Canada are the mos t im- 20 por tan t consumers o f the Sicil ian fruits.

T H E P H Y S I C A L S E T T I N G

O. ficus-indica is widespread in Sicily up to 600 m e levat ion , on a great range o f soils, pro- v id ing they are no t exceedingly clayey.

It f requent ly occurs on volcanic soils, on the foothil ls o f Mr. Etna or on many o f the small is lands sur rounding Sicily. In these env i ron- men t s it is na tura l ized and is a p r edominan t spe- cies in the landscape. It is in fact perfectly suited to the soils character ized by soil associations such as eutr ic regosols, l i thosols, and euthr ic cambi- sols (according to F A O soil classification). The m o d e r n special ized planta t ions are located on soil associat ions def ined as ch romic luvisols, cal- cic cambisols , and l i thosols (Fierott i 1988) which form the characterist ic "Medi te r ranean red soils'" such as in the area o f Santa Margheri ta Belice, where about 300 ha are cul t ivated. They are very shallow, poor in organic mat te r and nutr ients and with a very low water-s torage capacity.

Ano the r 700 ha are cu l t iva ted in the south- eastern part o f the island, in the area o f San Cono. In this area the soils belong to the soil associat ion def ined as eutr ic f luvisols and ch romic a n d / o r pell ic luvisols on sandy or conglomera te rocks. They have a sandy loam texture, subalkaline pH, good structure, and a sufficient level o f organic m a t t e r and nutr ients . The c l imate is typical o f the Medi t e r ranean regions with mi ld rainy win- ters and hot, dry s u m m e r s (Fig. 4). In the areas where O. ficus-indica is widespread, the t emper - ature se ldom falls below 0°C. The average m o n t h l y t empera tu re dur ing the flowering sea- son ranges f rom 19 to 26°C (June, July), while dur ing the harves t ing season (October , Decem- ber) it ranges f rom 18 to 13°C. The average al- t i tude in these distr icts ranges between 250-450 m. The a m o u n t o f yearly rainfall even i f consid- erably high, tends to be unrel iable from year to year in both a m o u n t and dis tr ibut ion. Unl ike what has happened in o ther regions, Opuntiafi- cus-indica has neve r become a weed in Sicily.

S. MARGHERITA {m 447} 577.8 mm 1G.179S

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o !

/ \ \ !

I I [ I I I I I I I I

J F M A M J J A S 0 N 0

120

80

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6O

R a i n ?el, t mm (--~

40 " , \ o

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20 ~ " "

0 I I 1 ] I I I I I I I J F M A M J J A S 0 N 0

Fig. 4. Climatic characterization of the main grow- ing areas (Bagnouls-Gaussen diagram).

S. CONO (m 510} 557.9 mm 16.0~eC

Temperature ~C (-) 120

80

40

0

I N T E N S I V E P R O D U C T I O N AND U T I L I Z A T I O N OF PRICKLY-PEAR

C A C T U S F R U I T S

O v e r the years, the managemen t o f the prickly- pear orchard underwent some changes l inked es- pecially with the plantat ion features, with the scozzolatura becoming an annual process and with i rr igat ion dur ing the last fifteen years. Other techniques (propagat ion, pruning, harvesting) re- m a i n e d vi r tua l ly unchanged. Anyway, the cul- t iva t ion pract ices are consis tent with the low de- mands o f the species in terms o f agronomica l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l needs. An energy analysis o f the main I ta l ian systems of fruit p roduct ion has shown that in tens ive pr ickly-pear cactus culti- va t ion thr ives on the lowest inputs (Fig. 5) (Bal- dini et al. 1982).

Orchards are established by plant ing direct ly in the field the two-year c ladodes which them- selves bear one or two younger ones (Alberghina 1984; Barbera et al. 1988b). Cut t ings are usually planted late in spring, about one mon th after being cut, as soon as the cut becomes dry. Only a very few growers plant cuttings late in summer , because o f the l ikel ihood of rot. The planting

3:

3d

2

2~

I

ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 46

~alhalyear

16

PEACH VtNE(3RAPE APPLE CITRUS PEAR PRICKLY-P EAR

Fig. 5. Mean yearly energy cost of different fruit crops in Italy (from Baldini et al. 1982).

time also depends on the availability of propa- gation material which is usually chosen from the residuals of pruning. Plants are placed at regular intervals of 4-5 m within rows and 5-7 m be- tween rows. The rows are usually N-S facing. This spacing allows better lighting of the canopy and more rational orchard management. Plants are trained in a full vase with 3-4 branches de- veloping at 30-40 cm from the soil. Vegetables such as artichoke or legumes are seasonally in- tercropped while intercropping with other fruit crops, such as vinegrape or almond, is also, though rarely, practiced.

The scozzolatura is made about three or four years after planting, as soon as the plants begin to produce a commercially useful amount of fruits (Fig. 6). This practice is carried out in the ma- jo r i ty of special ized pr ick ly-pear orchards , whereas the August fruits, though also favorably received on the markets (Chessa and Agabbio 1987), usually come from mixed plantations. The only exception is the summer production of white (cv. Trunzara Bianca) fruits which has been es- tablished recently in some areas of eastern Sicily (Biancavilla, Paternr).

At full bloom, the spring flush (flowers and cladodes) is fully removed by hand. Some 15- 20 days later, a new sprouting of flowers and cladodes occurs and flowering takes place one month later. The removal time affects the amount of reflowering, the ripening time, and the char- acteristics of the fruits. Barbera et al. (1988c) showed that the earlier the flowers are removed, the higher the degree of reflowering and the ear- lier the fruits ripen (10 days as compared with the regular time). If the spring flush is removed after bloom (10 days later) fruits ripen 20-30

days after the usual ripening time; they will be of a bigger size both because of their lower num- ber and, consequently the reduced competition, and the higher occurrence of rainfall late in the season. Farmers are encouraged to vary the t im- ing of removal in order to avoid a too concen- trated ripening period of the fruits, which may result in harvesting and marketing problems, the latter related to the storage ability of the fruits. The fruits derived from the scozzolatura are larg- er and have a higher flesh percentage and a lower number of seeds per unit weight of flesh than the summer fruits (Table 1). The reflowering rate of the plant seems to be affected by the tempera- tures which occur during the flowering season; an average day temperature less than 20°C neg- atively affects reflowering (Alfonso Spagna 1884; Portolano 1962).

Pruning is done in spring, in order to lighten the canopy, and after the scozzolatura, when the cladodes coming from the second flush are thinned. Fruits are also thinned, leaving 8-10 per fertile cladode.

The usual manuring is with chemical fertilizers during winter. Fertilization is based only on the personal knowledge of the farmers since exper- imental information on the absorption rate of each nutrient is still not available. The intro- duction of irrigation in the orchard management is very recent. It is used only in the intensive plantations for late production. It is indispens- able for obtaining late fruits of sufficient size, due to the scarcity of rainfall during the period of fruit growth. In the prevailing conditions, an amount of 70 mm/yr, given soon after flowering and 25-30 days later during the stage of intensive fruit growth, ensures very good productive re- sults both in quantitative and qualitative terms (Barbera 1984). Basin irrigation is used while microjets have been introduced only recently.

The species is vulnerable to the Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata Wied.) and to root- rot (Phytophtora spp.) mainly as a result of in- correct management of irrigation. Finally, it is vulnerable to scab (Phyllosticta opuntiae) which is probably today the most aggressive and nox- ious disease.

The harvesting is by hand, with the help of ladders, it takes place soon after the color break- age of the peel without following any maturity- index, which could be useful to define the best quality of fruits for consumption and/or storage. The average yield of a mature orchard (over 8

1992] BARBERA ET AL.: OPUNTIA FICUS-INDICA IN SICILY 17

Fig. 6. Plant of prickly-pear cactus just after spring flush removal (scozzolatura).

years old) ranges from 12 to 30 tons/ha. The income is about 2000 to 6000 US$/ha. The crop is often evaluated and sold while still on the plant, even some months before harvesting. The buyer is responsible for harvest and processing.

After harvest, the fruits are usually washed and brushed to remove the glochids. Nowadays these are removed by means o f mechanical brushes while traditionally brooms were used. The fruits are then sorted according to their size and weight. Extra large fruits are those over 160 g, first class t 20-160 g, second class 80-100 g and third class below 80 g. Then fruits are placed in wooden or plastic boxes, mixing fruits of different cultivars to obtain a pleasant visual effect. The only co- operative working in Sicily at the present t ime is in Santa Margherita. It involves the majority o f the local producers and is concerned with the processing and marketing of the members ' prod- uct. The marketing season of late-ripening fruits starts in October and lasts until December-Jan- uary, but could be extended by suitable storage technology. The traditional method of storing the fruits, leaving them attached to a thin portion o f cladode, is still practiced, but the storage o f

the fruits up to two or three months from har- vesting at 6°C and 90% relative humidity has also been achieved (Chessa and Barbera 1984).

Fresh consumption is not the only use o f the fruits. According to tradition, especially that of eastern Sicily, the August harvested fruits are sun-dried and consumed during winter. Another way of processing consists o f boiling the juice until it forms a dense and syrupy liquid which is used as a sweetener similar to the Mexican "miel de tuna." Through a further concentration of such liquid a special kind of mustard can be obtained. It is similar to Mexican "melcocha de tuna" and may be mixed with wheat flour and chopped almonds to prepare a kind of traditional cake called "'mustazzoli." A jam is also produced though it is seldom marketed. The peel of prick- ly-pear fruits is sometimes used for human con- sumption, but the use of the young cladodes sim- ilar to Mexican "nopali tos" is not practiced in Sicily. Fruits have also been used in the produc- tion of alcohol. A factory was working in 1853 which was able to process 25 tons of fruits a day (Inzenga 1872). The attempt was not successful because o f the spontaneous fermentation o f the

18 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 46

pulp. The production of alcohol was reintro- duced during the Second World War (Rovesti 1942) when the needs of the war economy en- couraged a search among the Mediterranean flo- ra for species which could be used for the pro- duction of ethanol. Subsequently many problems linked to the fermentation phase were solved but only at the experimental level (Ferreri 1955).

OPUNTI.4 FICUS-INDICA AS A MULTIUSE SPECIES

Although fruit production has always been the main use of prickly-pear cactus in Sicily, the oc- currence of plantations created primarily for oth- er purposes (hedges, forage, windbreak) is com- mon in the Sicilian agricultural landscape. As happens in many arid and semi-arid regions (Monjauze and Le Houerou 1965, Russet and Felker 1987), in Sicily the cladodes are used as forage because their high water content (85-90%) can help to satisfy the water requirements of the cattle in the driest months of summer. Hedges, bushes and spontaneous plantations are still used today in this way, while specialized plantations for forage production, which had an output of about 200 tons/ha (fresh weight) and were suc- cessful in the last century (Chicoli 187 l) are no longer common in Sicilian livestock farming. The smaller islands are the only exception. Linosa (archipelago of Pelagies) is half-covered by a grid of rows of prickly-pear cactus which mark the limits of little plots where vegetables and grapes are grown. Prickly-pear cactus is indispensable for the feeding of cattle, the earnings from which represented for a long time the island's greatest resource. The cladodes cut into 2 cm strips can be used. The scraps of the fruits could integrate the diet by means of their high sugar content.

Because of their high water content, the clad- odes had many other functions in the character- istic rainfed agriculture of Sicily. They were bur- ied at the base of fruit-trees or used as organic mulch (Biuso Varvaro 1895, Donzella 1937). They also proved useful in the maturing process of manure, in order to increase the water content of hay and beddings. The wooden residuals of the orchard explant after being sun-dried were used as domestic fuel. The single cladodes are still today used in horticulture as windbreaks. Furthermore the convex-shaped cladodes were formerly used in the country in a peculiar way, that is, as bowls for eating. Today they are still used to collect manna, the sap extracted from

Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl (Fatta Del Bosco 1989). Prickly-pear cactus is still used as a pop- ular medicine in Sicily as it was in the past (Pitr6 1896). The flower decoction has a strong diuretic effect which derives (Arcoleo et al. 1961) from a flavonoid substance (isoramnetjny). The clad- odes are used as a local ant i - inf lammatory rem- edy for edemata and arthrosis, as regulators of smooth musculature in the treatment of whoop- ing cough and as anti-infective agents.

CONCLUSIONS

Opuntia ficus-indica in Sicily has shown its adaptability to intensive and extensive agricul- tural systems, which are characterized by limited resources. In the inland areas it has played the role of an important source of subsistence for the local populations. Its products have assured food of high nutritional value for human consumption and fodder or forage with high water content for animals. Fruit, its most important product has provided a trading asset, in some areas, the only available one. In fact the choice of appropriate techniques of planting and management has al- lowed an intensive system to develop of great economic interest where the limited resources made it impossible to resort to other species. This has been possible because the intensifica- tion of the cultural system is consistent with a limited recourse to energy inputs. In this way prickly-pear cactus can be considered an exam- ple of an ecocrop as defined by Russel and Felker (1987). A wider diffusion of cultivation should be matched by an adequate enlargement of to- day's knowledge, especially that linked with the biology of fructification, propagation, orchard management (fertilization, irrigation), and qual- itative improvement of the product, as well as that regarding storage techniques and processing management. It should also be accompanied by detailed market strategies to overcome the lack of knowledge and confidence of the consumer. For this reason the cooperation recently realized among researchers of different nations within an international network (International Organiza- tion for Succulent Plants, IOS) and congresses, is welcome.

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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON POLLINATION IN TROPICS (Under the auspices of: IUSSI-IBRA-ICPBR)

August 8-13, 1993 Bangalore, India

The symposium is planned to be organized under the following sessions: I. Flower biology in relation to pollination (Organized by R. U m a Shaanker and K. N. Ganeshaiah, India); 2. Insect behavior in relation to pollination (Organized by J. A. Nunes, awaiting confirmation); 3. Pollination by insects and other animals in natural communities (Organized by K. S. Bawa, USA); 4. Insect pollination in commercial production of seeds and fruits (Organized by S. W. T. Batra, USA); 5. Pollination problems in tropical crops (Organized by M. Mardan, Malaysia); 6. Conservation and management of pollinating insects (Organized by A. G. Matheson, UK); 7. Population dynamics of pollinators (Organized by D. W. Roubik, USA).

For information contact:

Dr. K. N. Ganeshaiah, Secretary International Symposium on Pollination in Tropics Depar tment of Genetics and Plant Breeding Universi ty of Agricultural Sciences Bangalore 560 065, I N D I A

or

Prof. G. K. Veeresh Director of Instruction (Agriculture) Universi ty of Agricultural Sciences, G.K.V.K. Campus Bangalore 560 065, I N D I A Telephone (office): 330153 Ext. 231 or 276

(residence): 332482 Telex: 8458393 U A S K I N Telegram: U N I V A G R I S