Parts of Speech II.pdf
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Transcript of Parts of Speech II.pdf
i
Preface
This paper is about English verbs, prepositions, conjunctions and
interjections. The writer concentrates his mind on the use of finite and non
finite verbs, regular and irregular verbs, transitive and intransitive verbs,
inchoative verb, and verb of perception.
The materials in this are addressed to English students at the
beginning level of university, especially for students in faculty of teacher
training of FKIP Nommensen P. Siantar in English Department. The
materials are specified at the second semester of their study.
The materials being talked about are discussed or described in
simplified way that the students can understand them easily, as they are
also supplied with examples.
The writer hopes some critics from the readers to make this paper
more complete and ready to be developed.
The writer
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VERB……………………………………………………………… ........ 1
DEFENITION………………………………………………….. ............. 1
TYPE OF VERBS…………………………………………………… ..... 1
FINITE AND NON FINITE VERBS……………………………… ....... 2
FUNCTION OF FINITE AND NON FINITE VERBS………………… 5
BE ( AM, IS, ARE, WAS, WERE ) AS AUXILIARY………………..... 5
BE+ INFINITIVE…………………………………………….. ............... 6
BE AS ORDINARY VERB………………………………………. ......... 7
HAVE, HAS, HAD AS AUXILIARY AND ORDINARY VERBS ...... 10
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE……………………………………… .... 10
PAST PERFECT TENSE……………………………………................ 12
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE………………………………….............. 13
HAVE IN CAUSATIVE………………………………………………..14
HAVE IN QUESTION TAG………………………………………… .. 15
HAVE AS ORDINARY VERB……………………………… .......... …15
DO, DOES, DID……………………………………………….............. 15
DO AS ORDINARY VERB……………………………………… ....... 16
CAN AS ABILITY……………………………………………… ......... 17
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CAN AND MAY AS PERMISSION………………………….............. 18
MAY, MIGHT, CAN SHOWING POSSIBILITIES…………… .......... 21
OUGHT, SHOULD, MUST, HAVE AS OBLIGATION……………... 22
USE OF DARE……………………………………………….. ............. 26
NON FINITE VERB……………………………………………. .......... 28
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS……………………………... 34
INCHOATIVE VERBS………………………………………… .......... 48
VERBS OF PERCEPTION………………………………………......... 49
PREPOSITION……………………………………………... ................ 50
DEFENITION……………………………………………………. ........ 50
KINDS OF PREPOSITION……………………………………… ........ 51
SIMPLE PREPOSITION…………………………………… ........ ……51
COMPOUND PREPOSITION……………………………. .................. 54
PHRASAL PREPOSITION………………………………………… .... 56
POSITION OF PREPOSITION……………………………… .............. 57
CONJUNCTIONS……………………………………………….......... .59
TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS…… .. ………………………………….59
CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS………………………… .............. 59
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS……………………………… ...... 60
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS…………………………………….......... 61
SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS…………………………… ......... 62
iv
RELATIVE PRONOUNS……………………………………............... 64
INTERJECTION………………………………………………… ......... 66
PUNCTUATING INTERJECTIONS……………………… ................. 67
DIAGRAM INTERJECTION…………………………………… ......... 68
EXERCISE…………………………………………………… .............. 69
REFERENCES……………………………………………… ................ 92
1
I. VERB
1. Definition
Verb is a word which says something about subject. Something
here means one which states the existence of subject, tell what the subject
does. Notice the following sentences:
a. July is a teacher in elementary school.
b. The Presidents declares the Olympic game open.
Sentence (a) above consists of the verb is which tells the existence of
subject (July), that she is a teacher. While sentence (b) shows that the
subject does a job of declaration. So, English verbs play a very important
role in sentence construction, because it is a must for the verb to be present
in a sentence.
2. Types of Verb
Types of verbs discussed in this paper are:
A. Finite and Nonfinite Verb
B. Regular and Irregular Verb
C. Transitive and Intransitive Verb
D. Inchoative Verb
E. Verb of Perception
2
A) FINITE AND NONFINITE VERB
A finite verb is one that predicates something, for which it is
referred to a condition that an activity implies a fact. In other words, a
sentence consisting of finite verb has a truth value. Let’s see the example
below:
a. John is honest.
b. She reads interesting novels.
c. He bought some pens yesterday.
Sentence (a) implied a fact that John is honest. Te message brought by the
sentence contents a truth which has been base on empirical experience. A
fact in sentence (b) is showed by the verb present of reads; meaning that
the activity done constitutes a habit, a habit of the past, today and of the
future. Whereas the verb past tense (bought) in sentence (c) gives a fact on
an activity completed at a single point in the past.
A Nonfinite verb is a verb which less predicates, that in it there is
only a little fact referring suggestion, desire, supposition, assumption,
command, emotion, the status of semi activity as well as condition. For
further understanding, we can analyze the following examples:
3
a. I suggested that you be on time.
b. He desires that we be quiet.
c. Stand silent!
d. To sit here with you is nice.
e. Smoking can be dangerous.
f. I will come if you invite me.
Sentence (a) which is identified as suggestion is showed by the
infinitive verb be, as also seen in sentence (b). The command in sentence
(c) is identified in the verb stand, in which it begins the sentence. So,
sentence (c) implies that the activity done is command which does not
mean a fact, as it is not a deed yet, and identified with the infinitive verb
stand. As has been said that nonfinite verb can also be found in semi verb,
like in sentence (d). The verb to sit here with you is not fully a verb, but it
tends to be functioning as noun which is derived from a verb. The same
case is found in sentence (e), that is, the verb smoking is not completely a
verb, but a noun derived from a verb. The last sentence (f) is a conditional,
one which refers to an activity that would be fulfilled if the condition is
present.
4
From the analysis above we can say that the verbs in the six
sentences do not give fact, and therefore, they less predicate, as what is
called non finite verb for their name.
Below is a chart if finite and non finite verb
Non- Finite Verbs Finite VerbsInfinitive Present Past Present Past Tense
participle Participle Tensebe being been am, is, are was, werehave having had have, has haddo doing done do, does didkeep keeping kept Shall shouldwrite writing written Will wouldsmoke smoking smoked Can could
May mightMustOughtNeed
usedDare
(Hornby, 1975:1)
It is clearly seen from the chart above, that the finite verb is of two
parts, they are in present tense and in past tense. As verbs which predicate,
they refer only to those classified into ordinary verbs, not as auxiliaries.
The Non-finite verbs are classified into three; they are infinitive or
to infinitive, present participle, and past participle.
5
*Function of Finite and Non-Finite Verbs
According to Hornby (1975) Finite Verb can be called Anomalous
Finite or the 24 Finites. They are called anomalous as they can be directly
added not in negative form and contracted with n’t.
As seen in these sentences:
a. Jojor isn’t at home.
b. The Orphan weren’t happy.
c. We mustn’t be cruel.
d. They may not park here.
e. I can’t type those papers.
A verb which cannot be added not in negative is called non-
anomalous. Anomalous Finite (AF) functions as auxiliary as ordinary verb.
As auxiliaries, they help other verbs in a construction, and as ordinary
verbs, they can stand alone as full verb.
*Be (am, is, was, are, were) as Auxiliaries
According to Martinet and Thomson (1986), be as auxiliary can
function to form tenses such as, present continuous, passive sentences, and
be+ infinitive construction.
In present continuous, be is very often and operational in daily
sentences, like in the following examples:
a. Father is reading a newspaper.
b. My aunt was waiting for the bus.
c. We are learning English word.
6
d. Boys were standing while girls were running.
e. Are you leaving?
In forming passive voice, be is also a must, like seen below:
a. The car is driven dangerously.
b. The President was elected directly.
c. The book is firstly printed and then published.
d. When the test was administered it should be valid.
e. I am called by the interviewer.
Be is forming the construction be + infinitive can be explained in
these ways;
*Be +Infinitive, which has some use as;
- To convey orders or instruction (see Martinet, 1986);
a. You are to pay tax soon.
b. No one can enter the room.
- To convey a plan:
a. She is to get married soon.
b. The soldiers are to attack the enemies.
c. The President is to speech tomorrow.
d. He was to leave for Paris.
- To express the idea of destiny (that which happens) in past tense.
7
a. I am not afraid of working on the assignment
myself; I am ready to receive if the lecturer
was to cross my work.
b. Anybody cannot look down the mountain
activity, it was to explode soon.
The pattern be + infinitive can be added by about, and placed
between; be + about + to infinitive. This pattern refers to activity in
immediate future;
a. He is about to leave.
b. We are about to begin the lesson.
c. Hardy is about to finish working on the
sums.
d. The managers of Indonesian hotels are about
to enter the meeting.
*Be as an Ordinary Verb
As an ordinary Verb, be refers to or expresses the existence of
subject realized in three pattern;
- Subject + be + Noun
- Subject + be + Adverb
- Subject + be + Adjective
The existence of subject as noun can be seen in these sentences:
a. Lina is a nurse.
b. The prime minister was a generous man.
8
c. Jakarta is a hot city.
d. We are not the fools.
e. Siti was a doctor.
The following sentences exemplify the existence of subject as one
of place:
a. The orphans are in an orphanage.
b. The crowds are at the railway station.
c. They were at the office when the
earthquake began.
d. The teacher was at his office reading
theoretical book.
e. Nora is in the hall to see the contest.
The existence of subject as an adjective expresses the quality
referring to mental or attitude as well as features. Notice these
examples:
a. Jim and George are clever.
b. Not only Linda but also Susi is smart.
c. All the participants of the beauty contest
were happy.
d. The room is very quiet.
e. They were afraid of high prices.
Be can be used to Express the concepts of price, age, size or
measurements, names, etc :
a. What is the price of sugar?
9
b. How old are you?
c. What is depth of the river?
d. What is your name?
e. What are their surnames?
f. How long is our journey?
Be is also used in Question tag :
a. You are happy, aren’t you?
b. She is not at home, is she?
Be is used with There to make an introduction :
a. There are two policemen in the hall room looking for robbers.
b. There is only a simple room left.
c. There was a very cruel king reigned for 20 years
d. There were plenty of people gathering in the capital building
e. There has been a heavy rain
f. There is nothing wrong with my shirt.
g. There seems to be something bad in this house.
h. There is nothing to worry
i. Is there anything wrong with his motorcycle?
10
Be is used with It :
a. It is cloudy
b. It was summer when I stopped working
c. It was very sunny
d. It is a long, long way to Buenos Aries
e. It is time to have lunch
f. It was me who knocked the door
Have, Has, Had, as Auxiliary and Ordinary Verbs
As auxiliary have can form tenses such as: present perfect, past
perfect, and future perfect.
Present Perfect Tense
The form of Present Perfect Tense is:
Subject + Have / Has + Past Participle Verb:
a. I have arrived in the city since 2003
b. She has cooked rice half an hour
The use of Present Perfect Tense can be much referring to thecombination of present and past. It means that an action has begun acertain time in the past and has the connection to the present. In theexample, I have arrived in the city, the activity of arrival has beendone, and we can see the person (subject) is now in the city. So,Present Perfect Tense is very operational in daily communication suchas in conversations, letters, and television or radio program.
There are three kinds of Perfect Tense:
11
a. Continuative Perfect
b. Perfect of Result
c. Perfect of Experience
Continuative Perfect is one the shows and action began at
sometime in the past and continuing up to the moment of speaking:
a. I have been teaching English since 1987.
b. We have known each other for 3 years
c. How long have you been unconscious?
d. I have seen lions in the forest
Perfect of Result denotes a past action connected with the present
through its result:
a. Edi has had a bad motorcycle crash (he is still in hospital now)
b. Room 34 has been locked
c. My pen has broken
Perfect of Experience denotes an action experienced by speakers or
writers once or more than once:
a. I have sat by the bank of river waiting for a fish to bite
b. Our hairs have grown in a single night
c. They have walked for hours on a sunny day; they have done the same
activity the next day.
12
The Present Perfect which is used with just shows an immediate
completed action:
a. They have just gone out
b. Renta has just left school
c. I have just opened the door
The Present Perfect Tense can be used to denote an action (recent)
in which the time is not mentioned:
a. We have listened to the lecture’s explanation but we don’t understand
it.
b. Have you had lunch? Yes, I have
Present Perfect Tense can also be used to denote an incomplete
period:
a. Ridwin has come to see my house three times in the morning (the
speaker said this at 11.am).
b. Has the postman arrived this morning? (The habit of the arrival is from
10 to 11).
Past Perfect Tense
The Past of Present Perfect Tense is Past Perfect Tense. Past Perfectdenotes an action that began sometime in the past and it can be still, ascontinuing at the time, finished or stopped or just before it, and stoppedsometime before the moment of speaking. Notice these examples(Quoted from Thomson and Martinet, 1986):
13
a. Bill was in uniform when I met him. He had been a soldier for ten
years / since he was seventeen, and planned to stay in the army till he
was thirty.
b. The old Oak tree, which had stood in the church yard for 300 years /
since before the church was built, suddenly crashed to the ground.
c. He had served in the army for ten years, and then he retired and
married. His children were now at school. (Since cannot be used here
or the Past Perfect Continuous)
Past Perfect is also the parallel equivalent of simple past, whichdenotes back in earlier time:
a. The train had gone when I arrived at the station
b. I had just dressed when Bill knocked on the door
Future Perfect Tense
Future Perfect Tense is used to denote an action predicted to have
finished at a future time, and the action has begun sometime in the past. It
is always used by the adjunct of time such as: by then, by that time, by 31st
December, etc. Notice these sentences:
a. By the end of this month I will have finished my paper
b. Brown will have followed the examination by then.
If the action is continuous or progressive, Future Perfect
Continuous would be better:
14
^ By the end of this month he will have been writing his paper for one
year.
Have used in Causative Have can be used in causative in patterns such as :
a. S + Have + Object (person) + infinitive
I have my son buy a newspaper
b. S + Have + Object (person) + Participle Verb
I have my hair cut
Had can be used with better plus infinitive to show an advisory
activity :
a. Badu had better stay at home, he had a high fever
b. You had better go on diet
Have + Object + Present Participle, with a future time mentioned
in period shows a persuasion or rather an effort :
a. I’ll have you typing in one week
b. He had them singing
c. They had me joining
15
Other than those uses, this pattern can also happen to the speaker:
a. Don’t turn up the radio at night; you’ll have your neighbors
complaining.
b. If you give your phone number written in the agenda you’ll have
them ringing up.
Have is also used in Question Tag
a. You have breakfast, haven’t you?
b. She has not got any sugar, has she?
Have as an Ordinary VerbAs an Ordinary Verb, Have means:
Posses :
a. The doctor has some houses
b. I have one hundred dollars in my drawer
Take (a meal, drink, party) :
a. We have dinner together
b. They have chicken curry in their lunch
c. She has a party, celebrating birthday
Do, Does, DidDo, Does and Did have various function in helping other verbs in
forming constructions:
16
Do is used to form negative and interrogative :
- I do not like sweets
- Does he make some cakes?
Do is to avoid repetition of the main verb :
- Do you stay at home? Yes, I do / No, I don’t
- John work harder than Robert does
- He didn’t pass but I did
Do is to emphasize when the speaker feels doubt of what he
performs. Do is followed by infinitive :
- Did you really check the word in dictionary?
I did check it
- They do not survive. We do survive
Do is added with infinitive to make strong request :
- Do come to my party
- Do visit her every week
Do as Ordinary VerbDo as Ordinary Verb also have various contexts in use. Notice the following examples:
- How did you do your home work? I did it well.
- What do you do? I am a painter
- Will the chopper do? The knife will do
- What is she doing now? She is writing now
17
Can as Ability
Can is used in relevant with be + able, or be able. The Present
Tense is the formal form can, be able (am able, is able, are able). The past
forms are was able, were able. We can see these in the following examples:
- I can drive / I am able to drive
- They can jump over the table / They are able to jump over the table
- Tina can see in the dark / Tina is able to see in the dark
Here, can is more usualCould can be used to show ability in present if there is an idea of
condition:
- We could get scholarship (if we passed the admittance)
- You could enter the summit. (if you have the pass)
Could also can be used in polite request:
- Could you pass me the salt, please?
- Could you accompany me to the library, please?
The past forms of can are could and was able or were able:
- When I was a child I could ride a bicycle (normal ability)
18
- When the bus slipped, there was a big stone in front of it, so the
passengers were able to get down and safe (here were able is used for
particular action)
The ability in future is formed by shall / will plus be able:
- I shall be able to join the sport club next month
- The athletes will be able to train continuously as they enter the training
center
When the ability or action is not performed the perfect with could
is used:
- He could have finished writing the paper (He did not finish it)
- I could have helped (Why didn’t you ask me to help)
Can and May for PermissionCan and May which are used for Permission are differentiated in
use of person.
First Person
The most common form for this is can:
- We can give our assignments after the semester term
May here is not usual and rarely used. It is better used in indirect and
formal speech:
19
- You may go home. He says / said we may / might go home
- You may leave your umbrella, the rain is over. He says we
may leave our umbrella.
Second Person
The most usual form for the second person is May, especially if there ispermission from the speaker:
- You may stay in my house
- You may park here
When it is informal can is used:
- You can stay in my house
- You can park here
If there is a condition reflected in the expression, could is used:
- If you want to see the doctor, you could use my car
- You could talk with the dean. (if you think that is the best
thing)
In indirect speech with the past in the main verb, could is used:
- He said I could join the party
Third Person
Permission which is used in third person is commonly in impersonalstatements referring to power or permission:
20
- In a flight, one may ask a steward for something
- No attribute may be brought to school without permission
May be able to be use with he, they, if there is permission from the
speaker:
- He may use my phone
- They may take my car
In informal style can is used:
- She can take our answer sheets
- They cannot enter this room
In past tense, could or was / were allowed to be used for permission:
- In the former time we could / were allowed to pay tax late
- Before, I could / was allowed to borrow more than two books.
In request, could I is the most common, where as can I is the most
informal. May I is more formal than could I. Might I is a little in quality of
permission than May I.
21
May, Might, Can, ShowingPossibility
As a matter of fact May and might are used for possibility whichshows uncertainly, of which might is showing more doubt. May and mightbe able to be used both for present and future:
- It may rain this afternoon- It might rain this afternoon
May and might be able to also denote expectation:- As the weather gets brighter, we may gather for voting- All of us may wait for a democratic election.
When the possibility is based on the knowledge or ability, it isexpressed by the words: possible, possibility, possibly or perhaps:
- It is possible he arrives today- The possibility of his visiting me makes me happy- He possibly passes the exam- Perhaps she stays away.May is very seldom begins a sentence, it is placed in the middle
position:- When may we come to your house?- What may be the fact today?
Might be able to be used in condition in Past Tense:- If you helped him he might survive- They said they might have with us
22
Can showing possibility is different with that of May in that thecircumstance always determines the quality of possibility:
- You can play now (There is no kid)- We cannot step on this way (It’s dangerous)
Can is also showing possibility occurs rarely:- Streets in this city can be very smooth- Girls can be generous
The Past Tense of can here is can:
- They could be very angry- She could love me
Ought / Should, Must / Have to As Obligation
Both ought and should are used for obligation considered as duty
of subject but should is more usual:
- You should do the assignment given
- We should keep silent
Ought and should can also denote an action which is sensible:
- We shouldn’t sleep in this room, it is too small.
- There should be air conditioned in this room, it is very hot.
Ought and should are followed by continuous to show an action
that is not performed as the obligation, and reflect foolish deed:
- You ought to be studying hard. You shouldn’t be keeping talking all
the time.
- Passengers should be wearing safety belt.
23
Perfect infinitive used with ought and should denote unperformed
action:
- You should have replied my letter
- They ought to have helped the poor
Should is always used in formal statements to show that the obligationlooks gentle:
- Each visitor in the city should show a visa
- You should have a caution passing by
Ought and should can be used to denote advice of suggestion:
- You ought to go on diet. You look fat
- You should visit a doctor, your face is pale.
Must is an obligation which is stronger than any other obligation.
The obligation here is internal or derived from the speaker:
- You must do all the homework (said by a teacher)
- You must stop smoking (said by a doctor)
Must when used with the third person always refers to written
statements, or orders:
Librarian : Students must return books on time incase of fine
Dean : Lecturers must deliver experiences of researching.
24
If we comment on one obligation like those mentioned above, we usehave to:
- In this faculty each of the lecturers has to deliver experiences of
researching.
- Students have to return books so that they are not fined.
Have to be used to denote an obligation which is external:
- I have top go to bed early (said by a boy)
- You have to study hard for the semester term
Compared to must in first person, have to be not much different,
but for repeated action or habit, have to be better:
- I have to clean the floor twice a day
- We have to frequently see our training center
Must is preferred when it is an insist for the speaker, or force him
to say to:
- I must inform you the message from home
- We must tell you that there would be the next earthquake.
25
Need as Showing Absence ofObligation
Need added with not shows that an action is not necessary. In this
case the speaker may give permission for an action not to be performed.
(Speaker’s authority or advice).
- You need not change your clothes
- We need not bring umbrella but we must use jackets.
As auxiliary, need in affirmative is rarely applied, except when
other expression precedes it:
- I am not sure I need inform you this news
- Do you intend that we need go?
Unimportant action which has occurred can be shown by needn’t +
perfect:
- I needn’t have answered all his questions because some were written in
the direction.
- You needn’t have signed this document, it was wrong.
In didn’t need to……the action is not performed
- I didn’t need to sign the letter
- He didn’t need to come here
- He didn’t have to travel away
26
In a sense of to require need is followed by to or other concepts:
- Every body needs to be careful
- My hair needs cutting
- The floor needs to be cleaned
Use of DareDare can be used whether with or without to. In negative (ordinary)
it is followed by to, although it is always omitted out. Also the same in
interrogative:
- I didn’t dare (to) stay longer in this forest
- Do you dare (to) argue on my opinions?
Dare has two forms in negative and interrogative, as the
consequence that it can be used both as auxiliary and ordinary verb. So, it
can be conjugated as: dare not, dares not, dare you? dared he ?, do not
dare, does not dare, did not dare. In this case the ordinary one is more
general:
- I did not dare to stay in this forest
- Did you dare to enter the ware zone?
- They dare not say anything
27
As, what has been said before, dare is seldom used in affirmative,
except in daresay or dare say which has two concepts of meaning,
supposition and acceptance :
- I daresay there would be transportation in this village.
- I dare say you take a leave but I hope you come back soon.
When the use of dare followed by how, the indication of strongobjection occurs:
- How dare you wear my trousers?
- How dared she take the money?
Dare as an ordinary verb means to encourage or motivate:
- They dared me to attack
- They dared me to open the bag
The use of UsedUsed is commonly followed by to: used to, to denote an action in
the past that now it is stopped.
- He used to drive a car (now he ride motorcycle)
- I used to smoke hard (now I stop smoking)
According to Martinet and Thomson (1986), used to can represent
a past routine in which it has no relation to the above used to, and it can be
replaced by would.
28
Tom and Ann was a young married couple. Every morning
Tom used to kissed Ann. Ann used to stared at the window and
wave goodbye. In the evening she used to welcome him home and
ask him to tell her about his day.
(1986: 151).
The expressions above can be replaced by would:
Every morning Tom would kiss Ann and set off for work.
Ann would stand at the window and wave goodbye, etc.
Used to can be considered as adjectives as it explains the noun
followed. It is followed by be, become, and get:
- I am used to musical room
- We will soon get used to internet
- She become used to driving on the left
- They are used to working at night
Used to is always present, so the negative and interrogative forms would
be, did not use to, did you use to?
Non – Finite VerbsThe non-finite verbs as has been explained in the previous part can beas: (to) infinitive, present participle, and past participle.
29
To InfinitiveTo infinitive is a verb (the plain verb) which is preceded by to: to
smoke, to stand etc.
Function of infinitive can be: subject, object appositive,
complement.
To Infinitive as Subject
- To sit here is nice
- To smoke in the classroom is forbidden
To Infinitive as Object
- I want to pay tax
- They refused to go
To infinitive as Appositive :
- My activity, to fish is cheap
- Her hobby, to swim makes her happy
To Infinitive as Complement
- His ambition is to be a pilot
- Our hope is to win
Bare infinitive, without to be much used in subjunctive as explainedvariously in the following part (Harman, 1950).
Denoting a wish in the third person
- Thy kingdom come
Denoting a curse or blesses
- Family ties be damned
- God bless us
30
Denoting a command in the first or third person
- Raise we now hearts and voices
- Come one, come all.
Denoting advice with the insertion of had + rather or had + better
- You had rather stay than go
- You’d better see the doctor
All the subjunctives above are in the main clause. The following aresubjunctive stated in subordinate clauses:
In noncommittal conditional clause
- Be he alive or be he dead, I’ll grind his bones to make my bread.
Subjunctive is used in subordinated clauses subordinate by, as if and as
though :
- He looked as if he were rich
- She behaves as if she were a child
Subjunctive can be used to show conditions a contrary of fact
- If I were you I would never surround
- If we had been an American, we would never have laid down our
arms.
In supposition it also be used :
- Be it so gentle, everybody likes to gather
- Though they scold me, I am not angry
In purpose clause there would be the use of subjunctive
- Judge not that you be not judged
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Subjunctive can also be used in clauses after verbs of wishing,
advising, demanding, warning, etc.
- I desire that he be promoted
- We wish you would wait
- They demand that we be punished
- It is proper that you obey your parents
- It is necessary that this letter be sent
The non-finite in Present Participle can be seen in ing form, like in
continuous and adjective:
- They are gambling
- I buy some writing books
- Crying, the baby was left alone.
Gerund is also included as the non-finite verb. The function of gerundis as: subject, object, complement, appositive, and used afterpreposition.
Gerund as subject- Smoking can be dangerous
- Fishing in the river is interesting
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Gerund as object- We enjoy living close to the hill
- I keep waiting
Gerund as complement- His hobby is fishing
- Seeing is believing
Gerund as appositive- His hobby, playing tennis is expensive
- Their activity, checking dictionary may be difficult
Gerund used after preposition- John is fond of collecting stamps
- What can you do besides driving?
- We are tired of playing football
- She is interested in joking
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Participle used in non-finite expresses the subjunctive function (as hasexplained and exemplified) and adjectives function. In adjectivefunction, it comes before the word it odifies:
- The educated people are more appreciated
- The drunk boy never obey rules
Sometimes the modified words are omitted out:
- The educated are more appreciated
- The drunk never obey rules
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B. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBSRegular verb is the form of verb which takes ending Ed in the past
and participle. Ending Ed is pronounced: / t /, / d /, / /, and / id /. It is
pronounced / t / when the sound of stem word ends in voiceless
consonants:
Walked / /
Washed / /
Talked / /
Passed / /
Watched / /
Stopped / /
Jumped / /
When the final sound of the stem word is voiced it would be
pronounced / d /:
Cleaned / /
Banned / /
Begged / /
Joined / /
Moved / /
Dragged / /
Peeled / /
Boiled / /
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When the final sound of the stem word is / t / or / d /, or vowel it is
pronounced / id /:
Wanted / /
Needed / /
Played / /
Skied / /
Irregular verb is the form of verb which does not follow the rule in
regular verb, but the forms in past and participle are certain forms. Notice
the following examples:
Sit - sat - sat
/ / / / / /
Sleep - slept - slept
/ / / / / /
Sing - sang - sung
/ / / / / /
There are about two hundreds and sixty one irregular verbs in Englishthat make other than these numbers are regular verbs. So, the numberof irregular verbs is limited to such amount.
The is a certain way of learning irregular, that is by classifying it
into group which vary according to the sounds they make.
For example, we can take a certain group of some sound – like of
irregular verbs such as:
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Speak - spoke - spoken
/ / / / / /
Steal - stole - stolen
/ / / / / /
Write - wrote - written
/ / / / / /
Drive - drove - driven
/ / / / / /
From the examples written above we can see that the first group has aset of same sound – like such; /
From the list of irregular verbs, we can also find that there are
verbs in which there is not change in past or participle, like:
Put - put - put
Bet - bet - bet
The following are classifications of irregular verbs based of the
same sound-like:
GROUP I
bid bid bid
be bet bet
broadcast broadcast broadcast
built built built
cast cast cast
cost cost costcut cut cut
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hit hit hit
hurt hurt hurt
quit quit quitlet let let
put put put
rid rid rid
set set set
shed shed shed
shut shut shutslit slit slit
split split splitspread spread spread
thrust thrust thrustwet wet wet
GROUP 2
bleed Bled Bled
breed Bred Bred
flee Fled Fled
creep Crept Crept
dream Dreamt Dreamt
feed Fed Fedfeel Felt Felt
leap Leapt Leapt
leave Left left
lead Led Ledkeep Kept Kept
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Kneel Knelt Knelt
lean Leant Leant
meet Met Met
mean Meant Meant
sleep Slept sleptsweep Swept sweptweep Wept weptspeed Sped speddeal Dealt dealt
GROUP 3
Drink Drank Drunk
Ring Rang Rung
Shrink Shrank Shrunk
Sing Sang Sung
Sink Sank Sunk
Spring Sprang SprungStink Stank Stank
Swim Swam Swam
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GROUP 4
Write Wrote Written
Thrive Throve Thriven
Strive Stove Striven
Stride Strode Stridden
Smite Smote Smitten
Rise Rose RisenRide Rode Ridden
Drive Drove Driven
Arise Arose Arisen
GROUP 5
Hide Hid Hidden
Chide Chide Chidden
Bite Bit Bitten
Beat Bit Bitten
Arise Arose Arisen
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GROUP 6
Throw Threw Thrown
Know Knew Known
Grow Grew Grown
Draw Drew Drown
Blow Blow Blown
Fly Flew Flown
GROUP 7
Wring Wrung Wrung
Swing Swung Swung
String Strung Strung
Sting Stung Stung
Stick Stuck Stuck
Spin Spun SpunSlink Slunk Slunk
Sling Slunk Slunk
Fling Flung Flung
Cling Clung Clung
GROUP 8
Take Took Taken
Undertake Undertook Undertaken
Slay Slew SlainShake Shook Shaken
Forsake Forsook Forshaken
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GROUP 9
Bend Bent Bent
Lend Lent Lent
Rend Rent Rent
Learn Learnt Learnt
Spend Spent Spent
Send Sent Sent
GROUP 10
Give Gave Given
Forgive Forgave Forgiven
Forbid Forbade Forbidden
Eat Ate Eaten
Bide Bade Bidden
GROUP 11
Swell Swelled Swollen
Strew Strewed Strewn
Sow Sowed Sown
Show Showed Shown
Sew Sewed Sewn
Saw Sawed SawnMow Mowed Mown
Hew Hewed Hewn
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GROUP 12
Break Broke Broken
Freeze Froze Frozen
Speak Spoke Spoken
Steal Stole Stolen
Weave Wove Woven
Cleave Clove ClovenChoose Chose Chosen
shine Shone Shown
Swear Swore Sworn
Wake Woke WokenTread Trod Trodden
forget Forgot Forgotten
Tear Tore Torn
Shear Shore Shorn
Awake Awoke Awoken
GROUP 13
Build Built Built
Burn Burnt Burnt
Dwell Dwelt Dwelt
Gild Gilt Gilt
Gird Girt Girt
Spill Spilt Spilt
Spell Spelt SpeltSmell Smelt Smelt
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GROUP 14
Bring Brought Brought
Seek Sought Sought
Teach Taught Taught
Think Thought Thought
Beseech Besought Besought
Catch Caught Caught
Fight Fought Fought
Buy Bought Bought
GROUP 15
Swear Swore Sworn
Beget Begot Begotten
Get Got Gotten
Befall Befell Befallen
Come Came Come
Hold Held Held
Behold Held Held
Bear Bore Born
for bear for bore for born
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GROUP 16
Abide Abode Abode
Bind Bound Bound
Pay Paid Paid
Cloth Clad Clad
Dare Durst Durst
Dig Dug Dug
Grind Ground Ground
Hang Hung Hung
Hear Heard Heard
Hold Held Held
Lay Laid Laid
Light Lit Lit
Make Made Made
Wind Wound Wound
Wind Won Won
Understand Understood Understood
Tell Told Told
Strike Struck StruckStand Stood Stood
Spit Spat Spat
Slide Slid Slid
Sit Sat Sat
Shoot Shot Shot
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Shoe Shod Shod
Say Said Said
Sell Sold Sold
GROUP 17
Be Was Been
May Might Might
Must had to had to
Do Did Done
Have had to had to
Shall Should Should
Will Would Would
Can Could Could
Mow Mowed Mowed
Lie Lay Lain
Begin Began Begun
Crow Crew Crown
Go Went Gone
wear Wore Worn
See Saw Seen
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C. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBTransitive verb according to Harman (1950) is a verb which refers
to an action yielding as going across or passing over from a subject or doer
to an object or receiver. So from this, it is a verb that needs an object:
- He kicks the ball
- Henry wrote some letters
- Rina visited her friends yesterday
Some transitive verbs appear to have object present in the sentence:
- I want some apples (I want, is not an English sentence)
- We have some good blankets.
Other transitive verbs don’t need an object but they are understood asthe object of the verb:
- He smokes hard
- She writes every day
The transitive which shows caution is said to be causative verb:
- I have him do my assignment
- He has fallen the tree
The transitive verbs which always present an object of its own that
resembles to the verb is called cognate verb:
- Renta lives a bad life
- We have done some good deeds
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- He slept a wonderful sleep last night
Transitive verbs can commonly be changed into passive in case that ithas object:
- The ball is kicked by him
- Some letters were written by Joko
The way how to change active into passive voice based on the
conjugation of tense. The most crucial key word for forming passive voice
is be and past participle:
- The book will be published
- The documents have been sent abroad
- John is being interviewed by the manager
- I was being checked by a doctor
There are some verbs which looks as if they were not transitive,
water, mother:
- Lina water the flower every day
- She mothered me in such away that I went away
Intransitive verb is a verb without an object, and for this condition thiskind of verb cannot be transferred to passive voice:
- She walks quickly
- Miduk went to Medan last week
- He is clever student
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- They appear monsters
- We become happy
The verb in intransitive can only be completed by complement
mostly adverbs. To know whether a verb is intransitive is only by checking
dictionary in which the symbol IV represents Intransitive Verb, and TV for
Transitive Verb.
Whenever a verb has two object, one must direct and another indirectobject:
- I give him a prize
- We ask the teacher some advice
D. INCHOATIVE VERBInchoative verb is a verb expressing an action that undergoes a processof beginning, medial and final phase. Such kinds of verbs are: get,become, grow, come, go, turn, fall, run, and wear:
- The weather gets brighter
- He is getting older
- She became richer and richer
- It grows longer
- Her dream came true
- His hair turns white
- We then fell asleep and tired
- My shirt wears thin
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The common thing that can be seen from the inchoative is that all ofthem can be followed by adjective. Some of them can be followed bynoun:
- He became a liar
- John turns a foolish
E. VERB OF PERCEPTIONThis kind of verb refers to one that is in relation with our senses ormind. The main verbs of perception are, see, hear, smell, taste, andfeel. And others like, notice, observe, recognize:
- I see the lady but I don’t look at him
- Did you listen to him? No, but I hear his voice
- Can you see the black bird on the tree?
- The mango tastes sour
- I feel happy
- The dog smelt a man coming
- Can you smell something awful?
- They notice that there were some examples excluded.
- I observe all the classroom realities
- We recognize all the people in the house
Verbs of perception are used in various ways, not limited in certaincontext like that of inchoative verbs.
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II. PREPOSITION
2.1. Defenition
A preposition is a particle of sentence used with a noun or pronoun
to form a phrase. The particle itself is a part of a word or a word
equivalent. A preposition is usually used infront of the noun or pronoun.
The phrase which is formed of preposition performs the function of an
adjective and an adverb, for instance : some food for breakfast, walking in
the rain, a call from my office, talking about the hot issues, etc. There are
several distinct character of prepositions, such as, suggesting position ( at,
above, on, in, under); direction ( to, toward ); time ( during, at, since );
limit of otion ( to, into); source ( from, of), etc.
Lets study the sentences below.
I need some food for breakfast (adjective).
They are walking in the rain ( adverb )
There is a call from my office ( adjective )
This TV program is talking about the hot issues ( adverb )
In the sentences we see the relation between the prepositions and the noun
or the pronoun as its object. We now know that the object called the
object of preposition. The object of preposition is the principal term in the
prepositional phrase. The phrase may contain only the peposition and its
object, or it may contain modifiers of either or both. Below are the
examples of the sentences.
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He came from town ( the prepositional phrase contains only the
prepositions from and the object , the noun town ).
I miss the fresh air in my little village ( there are two modifiers
of the object of the preposition, the article the, and the descriptive
adjective little.
He arrived just before Christmas ( the adverb just restricts the
preposition before).
2.2. Kinds Of Preposition.
There are three kinds of prepositions, they are
1. Simple Prepositions
2. Compound Prepositions
3. Phrasal Prepositions
2.2.1. Simple Prepositions
Simple Prepositions are those which are the simplest in form,
whereas many of them being monosyllabic : afer, at, but, by, down, for, in,
of, off, on, over, sinc, through, to, till, under, with. All of the prepositions
which have just mentioned could stand as adverb as well as prepositions.
Or in the other words the simple prepositions have two functions. Once,
that they could be prefixed to verbs, and therefore were called prepositions
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( before position). At, by, down, for, in, of, on, over, through, under, up,
and with are prepositions when they precede nouns or pronouns, but they
are adverbs when they merely modify verbs and do not show relationship
between words. After, but, for, since , and till are prepositions when they
govern noun or noun- equivalents, but they are pure conjunctions or
relative (conjuntive) adverbs when they introduce and join clauses.
Now, let’s compare the group of sentences below.
A. (1) I live by the mill. B. (1) I shall come by early tomorrow.
(2) They came down the hill (2) They came down after supper.
(3) The thief was in my room. (3) The thief came in after I left the
house
(4) We walked through the wood (4) We must carry this project
through.
In column A the italicized words are prepositions, while in column B the
same words are adverbs. Now, let’s compare these net two group of
sentences.
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A. (1) They came after sunset B. (1) They came after the sun had set.
(2)There was no one but the janitor to (2) There were no volunteers to help, but the
assist us janitor assisted us
(3) My brother has not been here since (3) My brother has not been here since he left
Christmas. Christmas Eve.
(4) They played football work till noon (4) They played football till their mother
called them at noon.
In column A the italicized word are all prepositions, while in column B the
same words have some variaty functions, such as, after,since ,and till are
relative adverbs; but is pure coordinating conjunction; and in sentence ‘ I
would be plesed to help you for you are a very kind girl’. The word for
functions as pure subordinating conjunction. We also usually find
sentence with the preposition which introduces an adjective phrase loses its
objects, or its object is ommited to avoid verbal repetition, the preposition
may functions as an adjective in the appositive position. Study these
sentences!
(1) You may enter the room beside ( this room).
(2). Remember not to play on the floor below ( this floor).
(3) I will move to England a year after ( this year)
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(4) He has just got married the month before ( that month).
(5) Do you know the man in the picture above ( this picture)?
2.2.2. Compound Prepositions
Compound Prepositions are those which are formed by
combination to show relations which the simple or primary prepositions
could not express.. For instance, into is compound by in and to. Ofcourse,
in and to are different in meaning and in use with into. Another examples
are upon is from up and on,within is from with and in.
Compound Prepositions are formed by various combinations such as
mentioned below.
a. Compound Prepositions which are formed by the combination
between two primary prepositions .
Let us now compare the use of the two forms on the following sentences.
1. They came in to see me.They came into the room.
2. We have no enough money to go with in the weekend.I shall be there within one hour.
3. Mr. Smith came up on the last train.The anemy’s plane flied upon us, suddenly.
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b. Primary prepositions which are combined with nouns, adjectives, and
adverbs. Many of these prepositions are very old and from original English
so that the components are not easily to recognize. Some of them have the
prefix a- ( means on,in ) and be- (by) : aboard; across; along; among;
amidst; around; below; before; behind; beside; between; beyond; etc.
There are also the combinations between the adverb out and noun, or the
combination between prepositions as a prefix or a suffix and the adverb
out like outside, without, throughout.
Now, Let’s see the use of them in sentences.
1. He is the cleverest among us
2. We walk around the village, then we saw that it changes now.
3. They went without any permission from their parents.
4. I knew that the man was standing behind me.
5. I walked outside the house and I found the girl was keeping on waiting
for me.
c. A number of recent prepositions which are derived from verbs, usually
from present or past participial form forms of verbs, such as : barring,
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concerning, considering, during, excepting, including, regarding, etc. Some
of these prepositions are sometimes used as conjunctions.
2.2.3. Phrasal Prepositions
Phrasal Prepositions are formed by combining prepositions with
other part of speech. A Phrasal Preposition consists of two or more words
written separately but used as a single unit to show relation between a noun
or a noun- equivalent and some other sentence element. Examples are :
according to, along with, as far, as to, becaause of, instead of, out of,
regardless of, etc.
Below are the use of them in sentences.
1. According to a beliefable news, the King of Pop had been in trouble for
many years.
2. I had been so late because of the heavy rain.
3. You would be better staying at home instead of going outside alone in
the night.
4. Miss Morina has been getting along with John and they will get married
soon.
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There are also another types of phrasal prepositions which are followed
by prepositions like, by means of; in accordance with; in addition to; in
front of; in spite of; with reference to; etc. Another types of the phrasal
prepositions are those in ellipsis, two prepositions are brought together and
havr the value of one; as, from over the hill ( from a place over the hill) ,
from under the porch ( from a place under the porch), etc.
2.3. Position of Preposition
The most common position of preposition is before its object, but
how ever, many various positions are also usually taken by preposition in
different types of sentences with different meaning to convey. As long as
the position taken is to convey the meaning effectively, these different
positions tend to be normal.
The common position as before its object like in sentences below:
- I live at Sutomo Street number 12 A.
- You should arrive before night.
- After having her lunch, she got back to work.
- I really prepared everything just for you.
- They were talking about Jim’s problem.
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When the preposition governs an interrogative pronoun to
introduce a direct or indirect question, the preposition is frequently
placed at the end of the sentence.
- Who are you waiting for?
- I wonder what she is thinking about.
- Where did the guy get in?
- I don’t know whom he is writng to.
- What the program plays after?
If we transpose the positions to before their objects, the meaning will not
be conveyed effectively that we may have another understanding about the
sentences. How ever, the usage of prepositions before its object is not
stated as a wrong grammar rule. The following sentence patterns apply it.
- For what did you do that?
- With whom did you go to the party last night?
- Since when are sitting here?
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III. CONJUNTIONS
A conjunction is a word or word equivalent used to join words,
phrases, or clauses and in cotinuous discouirse, the conjunction may be
employed to join sentences or even paragraph ( Harman, 1950 ).
TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS
1.CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
Co-ordinate conjunctions join words that are the same part of speech: a
noun with a noun; an adjective with an adjective; and so on. There are only
seven co-ordinate conjunctions:
and yet nor
for or
but so
Some people use the mnemonic FANBOYS to remember them
The cat and the dog always eat and sleep together (2 nouns; 2
verbs)
After the hike and before dinner, they peeled vegetables and told
stories.
(2 prepositional phrases; 2 verbs)
The young and restless children ran quickly and effortlessly.
(2 adjectives; 2 adverbs)
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The girls sang, and the boys danced. (2 complete ideas)
I want to go, but I can’t find the time. (2 ideas)
You can write a report, or you can make a speech. (2 ideas)
I can’t finish this dessert, nor can I drink my coffee. (2 ideas)
She couldn’t attend school, for she had no money. (2 ideas)
He always gets lost, yet he never carries a map. (2 ideas)
It rained, so they cancelled the outing. (2 ideas)
2. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
This small group of joining words are similar to co-ordinate
conjunctions, but they are always used in pairs
- not only/but also
example: Harold was not only late, but also at the wrong address
- neither/nor
example: Harold was neither on time, nor at the right address
- either/or
example: Harold was either late, or lost
- whether/or
example : I don't care whether Harold gets here or not
- both/and
example: Both Harold and Steve arrived two hours late
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3. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
Conjunctive adverbs are used to join two complete sentences that
are very closely related in meaning.
- Lightning struck the old farmhouse.
- The old farmhouse burned to the ground
Although these could be two unconnected events, in this case, the
house burned down because it was struck by lightning. A writer might
choose to say
Lightning struck the old farmhouse; therefore, it burned to the ground.
Lightning struck the old farmhouse; consequently, it burned to the ground
When a conjunctive adverb is used to join two complete sentences, place a
semicolon in front of it and a comma after it.
Here is a list of some common conjunctive adverbs
Therefore moreover
Consequently as a result
Nevertheless hence
Besides anyway
Meanwhile furthermore
Thus otherwise
However instead
still
If these words do not join two complete ideas, they are adverbs. Compare
to this sentences.
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It snowed last night; therefore, we didn’t go.
We did, however, call them to explain
4. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
Another group of words are often used as conjunctions. These are
called subordinate conjunctions. They are used to join two ideas which
otherwise would require two separate sentences.
She was confused. She didn’t ask any questions.
Although she was confused, she didn’t ask any questions.
The road was slippery. The truck drivers stopped carefully.
The truck drivers stopped carefully because the road was slippery.
I will be able to come sometime. I am not sure when that time will be.
I am not sure when I will be able to come
Here are some examples of other subordinate conjunctions at work.
We stopped at the grocery store after we bought gas.
If I were you, I would start studying now.
Since she got that job, she hasn’t been able to go to school.
You won’t be able to write your GED unless you sign up now.
As soon as you can, make sure Mark is alright.
Her boyfriend will do whatever she asks
Notice that every sentence that contains a subordinate conjunction has at
least two complete verb phrases. Module 6 explains this in more detail.
Here are some common subordinate conjunctions
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after* since * whether
although while where
as than* why
as if though when
because unless how
before* until*
even if if
The words with an asterisk (*) may sometimes be used as prepositions.
You must look at the sentence carefully to determine whether these words
are used as prepositions or conjunctions. If the word is a preposition it will
be followed by only a noun or pronoun. If it is a subordinate conjunction it
will be followed by a noun and a verb. Module 6, Parts of the Sentence
gives more details on identifying subordinate conjunctions. Look at the
following sentences and decide which contain subordinate conjunctions
and which have prepositions
- Before the party started, we went to the store.
- Before the game, they bought popcorn and a drink.
- Because she lost her wallet, she couldn’t go to the concert.
- Because of her loss, she was unable to afford the plane ticket.
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- Since I won the lottery, I decided to buy a new car.
- Since the election, the politicians have stayed in Fredericton
5. RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Relative pronouns, which you learned in the pronoun section, are
also used as conjunctions. These words are relative pronouns: who, whom,
which, that, whomever, whichever. Do not confuse them with interrogative
pronouns, used to start a question or pronouns.
Example:
That club always has good entertainment. (Demonstrative
adjective)
That is a good idea! (Demonstrative pronoun)
Ivan said that he will be working. (Relative pronoun)
What did you say? (Interrogative pronoun)
They guessed what I was giving them for Christmas. (Relative pronoun)
Who is the designated driver? (Interrogative pronoun)
The driver who was hired last week was laid off. (Relative pronoun)
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Most students need more practice identifying prepositions and
conjunctions than can be provided in any one textbook. All grammar books
contain exercises suitable for extra practice. It is the student’s
responsibility to decided when he/she needs extra work and to locate the
practice exercises he/she needs. The instructor may suggest sources for
supplementary work. You can practice identifying parts of speech using
sentences from the newspaper or magazines. You can write your own or
trade with a class mate. As well, any of the exercises in the Practice
Exercises Booklet may be used to practice identifying parts of speech
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IV. INTERJECTION
What is an interjection?An interjection is a word that shows emotion. It is not grammatically
related to the rest of the sentence.
Interjections are usually one to two words that come at the beginning of asentence. They can show happiness (Yippee!), sadness (Aww!), anger(Grrr!), surprise (Holy cow!), or any other emotion.
It is not grammatically related to the rest of the sentence.
What the heck does that mean, anyway? Well, it means that unlike all of
the other parts of speech, the interjection does not interact with any other
words in the sentence. It does not modify anything, it does not get
modified by anything. It does not play the role of subject or verb.
It pretty much just sits in its lonely little interjection corner and expresses
emotion. Geez,... that sounds pretty sad... poor little guys.
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4.1. Punctuating Interjections
Interjections are punctuated with an exclamation mark or a comma.
Use an exclamation mark if the emotion is very strong.
Wow! I won the lottery!
Use a comma if the emotion is not as strong.
Wow, I have a peanut butter and jelly sandwich for lunch.
Beware!
Don't get fooled into thinking that all introductory words followed by anexclamation point or a comma are interjections - they're not!
Hmmm... what is an interjection? Do you remember?
It is a word that shows emotion. So, if the word in question does not showemotion, it is probably not an interjection.
Let's take a look:
Maria! Come and see the lion!
Names like this one are not interjections. They are nouns because theyname people. When you say someone's name while you talk to him, it iscalled direct address.
Names also don't fit our definition of an interjection because they do notshow emotion. The tone of voice that you say them in may show emotion,but the name itself does not.
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Stop! The lion will eat you!
The word stop is not an interjection. It is a verb because it shows action.
Although the sentence as a whole does convey a sense of urgency (Whowants to get eaten by a lion?), the word stop is not showing emotion, it istelling you what to do.
4.2. Diagram Interjections!
Diagramming sentences is a visual way to show how the words in asentence are related to each other.
It will be easy to see that they are not grammatically related to the rest ofthe sentence, and it will help you to get an even better understanding of thequestion, "What is an interjection?"
To diagram an interjection, you simply float it on a line hovering above therest of the sentence.
Interjections sit on a line above the subject of the sentence, and they arenot joined to any other part of the sentence.
That's a pretty good way of showing that they aren't related to any of theother words, isn't it?
Here is an example for you to check out:
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EXERCISE.
I. Using the words in parentheses, complete the text below with the
appropriate tenses.
1. You look really great! (you, work)_______________________ out
at the fitness center recently?
A: What (you, do)____________________________ when the
accident occurred? B: I (try)___________________________ to
change a light bulb that had burnt out.
2. B: I (try)___________________________ to change a light bulb
that had burnt out.
3. I (have)______________________ the same car for more than ten
years. I'm thinking about buying a new one.
4. If it (snow)___________________ this weekend, we
(go)________________ skiing near Lake Tahoe.
5. A: What do you call people who work in libraries? B: They
(call)____________ librarians
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6. I came to England six months ago. I started my economics course
three months ago. When I return to Australia, I
(study)________________________________ for nine months and
I (be)_______________________________________ in England
for exactly one year.
7. Sam (arrive)_______________________________________ in
San Diego a week ago.
8. Samantha (live)_______________________________________ in
Berlin for more than two years. In fact, she (live)-
____________________________________ there when the Berlin
wall came down.
9. If Vera (keep)______________________________________
drinking, she (lose,
eventually)________________________________________ her
job.
10. The Maya established a very advanced civilization in the jungles of
the Yucatan; however, their culture (disappear,
virtually)____________________________________ by the time
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Europeans first
(arrive)_____________________________________ in the New
World.
11. Shhhhh! Be quiet! John
(sleep)__________________________________________
12. It (rain)_____________________________________ all week. I
hope it stops by Saturday because I want to go to the beach.
13. Listen Donna, I don't care if you
(miss)___________________________________ the bus this
morning. You (be)_______________________________________
late to work too many times. You are fired!
14. I am sick of rain and bad weather! Hopefully, when we
(wake)____________________________________________ up
tomorrow morning, the sun
(shine)_____________________________________________
15. I have not traveled much yet; however, I
(visit)__________________________________ the Grand Canyon
and San Francisco by the time I leave the United States.
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16. I (see)__________________________________________ many
pictures of the pyramids before I went to Egypt. Pictures of the
monuments are very misleading. The pyramids are actually quite
small.
17. In the last hundred years, traveling
(become)______________________________ much easier and
very comfortable. In the 19th century, it
(take)_______________________ two or three months to cross
North America by covered wagon. The trip
(be)__________________________________________ very
rough and often dangerous. Things
(change)_______________________________________ a great
deal in the last hundred and fifty years. Now you can fly from New
York to Los Angeles in a matter of hours.
18. Joseph's English (improve,
really)__________________________________ , isn't it? He
(watch)________________________________ American
television programs and
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(study)____________________________________ his grammar
every day since he first arrived in San Diego. Soon he will be
totally fluent.
19. When I (arrive)____________________________________ home
last night, I discovered that Jane
(prepare)_______________________________________ a
beautiful candlelight dinner.
20. If you (need)__________________________________ to contact
me sometime next week, I
(stay)___________________________________________ at the
Sheraton in San Francisco.
II. Complete questions 1-10 below with the appropriate tenses.
1. When Carol (call)__________________________ ast night,
I (watch)____________________________ my favorite show on
television
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2. I (work)______________________________________ for this
company for more than thirty years, and I intend to stay here until I
retire!
3. Sharon (love)________________________________________ to
travel.
She (go)______________________________________ abroad
almost every summer. Next year, she plans to go to Peru.
4. Thomas is an author. He
(write)______________________________________ mystery
novels and travel memoirs.
He (write)____________________________________________
since he was twenty-eight. Altogether, he
(write)_____________________________________ seven novels,
three collections of short stories and a book of poetry.
5. We were late because we had some car problems.
By the time we (get)___________________ to the train station,
Susan (wait)__________________________ for us for more than
two hours.
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6. Sam (try)______________________________ to change a light
bulb when he (slip)__________ and
(fell)_________________________
7. Everyday I (wake)________________________________
Everyday I (wake)_________________ breakfast at 7 o'clock and
(leave)_________________________________ for work at 8
o'clock. However, this morning I
(get)_______________________________ up at 6:30,
(skip)_____________________ breakfast and (leave)-
____________________________ for work late because I
(forget)__________________________________________ to set
my alarm.
8. Right now, Jim
(read)_______________________________________ the
newspaper and Kathy
(make)___________________________________ dinner.
Last night at this time, they (do)__________________________
the same thing.
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She (cook)_________________________ and he
(read)_________________________________. They are very
predictable people!
9. By this time next summer, you
(complete)__________________________________ your studies
and (find)____________________________________ job. I, on
the other hand, (accomplish,
not)_________________________________________ anything. I
(study, still)______________ and you
(work)________________________ in some new high paying job.
10. The students (be,
usually)_____________________________________ taught by
Mrs. Monty.
However, this week they
(teach)_____________________________________ taught by
Mr. Tanzer.
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III. Answer the questions below !
1. Jane talks on the phone.
Bob has been talking on the phone for an hour.
Mary is talking on the phone.
Who is not necessarily on the phone
now?_____________________________
2. I'm going to make dinner for Frank.
I'm making dinner for Judy.
I'll make dinner for Mary.
I make dinner for Ted.
I will be making dinner for Tony.
Who are you offering to make dinner
for?_____________________________
3. Jane left when Tim arrived.
Bob left when Tim had arrived.
When Tim arrived, Mary was leaving.
John had left when Tim arrived.
After Tim arrived, Frank left.
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Who did not run into
Tim?___________________________________
4. Jane is talking in class.
Bob always talks in class.
Mary is always talking in class.
Whose action bothers
you?_____________________________________
5. Jane never left Jamestown.
Bob has never left Jamestown.
Who is still alive?____________________________
IV. Specify whether the underlined verbs are finite or non- finite.
1. Father Groser, in recording these events, noted that the pamphlet
was prefaced by a biblical text.
recording =…………………..
noted =…………………
2. The new act also empowered the minister to draw up scales of
outdoor relief as a guide to the London area.
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empowered =…………………
draw = …………………
3. It was an improvement on the payments of some unions.
Was =……………..
4. They were accused of wasting public money and encouraging
idlers.
accused =…………….
encouraging=………………
5. Further, some guardians were reluctant to apply the means test.
Were =………………
apply =………………
V. Complete the sentences using the suitable modal auxiliary.
1. You seem to be having trouble there. _________ I help you?
2. I don't have enough money to buy lunch. __________ you lend me
a couple of dollars?
3. That ice is dangerously thin now. You ________ go ice-skating
today.
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4. It's way past my bedtime and I'm really tired. I ________ go to bed.
5. He ______________ have committed this crime. He wasn't even in
the city that night.
6. John is over two hours late already, He ___________ missed the
bus again.
7. I'm really quite lost. _______________ showing me how to get out
of here?
8. That bus is usually on time. It _________ to be here any time now.
9. I read about your plane's near disaster. You ____________
terrified!
10. It's the law. They ____________ have a blood test before they get
married.
11. _________ I have more cheese on my sandwich?
12. You _________ eat more vegetables.
13. I _________ like to buy the same television for my house.
14. _________ I have a coffee please?
15. You _________ smoke near children.
16. The passengers _________wear their seatbelts at all times.
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17. We _________ go to the concert if the rain stops. We don't know
for sure.
18. I _________ ice skate very well.
19. The boys _________wake up earlier than 7:30 am. They have class
at 8:00 am.
20. The rock band _________play very well last year. Now they are
much beter.
VI. Complete the Conditional Sentences with the correct form
1. If I ……..stronger, I’d help you carry the piano.
2. If we'd seen you, we…………………………..
3. If we………………….him tomorrow, we’ll say hello.
4. He would have repaired the car himself if he ……..the tools.
5. If you drop the vase, it ………………..
6. If I hadn’t studied, I …………………….the exam.
7. I wouldn’t go to school by bus if I…………….a driving licence.
8. If she …………………….him every day, she’d be lovesick.
9. I………… ………….. to London if I don’t get a cheap flight.
10.We’d be stupid if we……………him about our secret.
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VII. Construct the conditional sentences.
1. ______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________
7. ______________________________________________________
8. ______________________________________________________
9. ______________________________________________________
10. ______________________________________________________
VIII. Construct sentences using inchoative verbs : get, become, grow,
come, go, turn, fall,run, and wear
1.____________________________________________________
2.____________________________________________________
3.____________________________________________________
4.____________________________________________________
5.____________________________________________________
6.____________________________________________________
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7.____________________________________________________
8.____________________________________________________
9_____________________________________________________
IX. Make Passive forms from the given phrases. Mind the tenses in
brackets.
1. a new car- drive ( Simple Past)
2. stories –to tell ( Simple Present)
3. the Newer Edition of Times – to buy ( Simple Past)C
4. volleyball- to play ( Simple Past )
5. a prize- to win ( Simple Past )
6. film- to watch ( Simple Present)
7. a friend-to visit ( Simple Past)
8. an old wood- to cut ( Simple Present)
X. Fill the gaps with the correct prepositions.1. The Wampanoag are the native American tribe that helped the
Pilgrims……… the Mayflower to survive their first year……….
the New World.
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2. The tribe was divided………. smaller groups, and each group was
ruled………. a chief.
3. The Wampanoag lived………. Villages………. the southeastern
coast……… North America. Their name means ‘people of the
east’.
4. One member………. the Wampanoag, Squanto, knew English
because several years before he had been kidnapped and
taken……….. Europe.
5. Squanto was the first to meet the Pilgrims and he welcomed
them…………. English.
6. The Wampanoag shared their knowledge………….. hunting and
fishing……… the European settlers and showed them how to
grow corn and beans.
7. …………. autumn, the harvest was so good that the settlers invited
the Wampanoag…….. a great feast that is now remembered as the
first Thanksgiving.
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8. A treaty………. the Wampanoag and the settlers secured
peace……….. about 40 years, but then the settlers claimed more
and more land and treated the Wampanoag……….. disrespect.
9. This finally led…….. war……… the English and the Wampanoag
(1675-1676)…….. which the Wampanoag were defeated.
10. The Wampanoag left their lands and moved………. the
islands…….. Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard.
11. Today there are only about 2,000 Wampanoag people
living……….. the United States.
XI. Decide whether to use since or for.
1. I have been waiting……….4 o'clock.
2. Sue has only been waiting……..20 minutes.
3. Tim and Tina have been learning English…….. six years.
4. Fred and Frida have been learning French…….1998.
5. Joe and Josephine have been going out together……… Valentine's
Day.
6. I haven't been on holiday……….. last July.
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7. Mary has been saving her money………. many years.
8. I haven't eaten anything…….. breakfast.
9. You have been watching TV……..hours.
10. We have been living here……….2 months.
XII. Complete the exercise with the correct prepositions.
1. The first McDonald’s restaurant was opened…….Dick and Mac
McDonald…..the 15th……. May 1940.
2. The best selling products……………… their restaurant were
hamburgers.
3. So the McDonald brothers thought……………. a way to produce
hamburgers more quickly.
4. This was introduced……………1948 and became
known…………. the Speedee Service System.
5. The first franchised McDonald’s restaurant was
opened…………..1953, and today you can find McDonald’s
restaurants……….. more than 100 countries.
6. The meats…………. the burgers vary…………. the
culture…………. the country.
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7. Franchisees and future managers…………….. McDonald’s
restaurants are trained…….. Hamburger University, which is
located…………… Oak Brook, a suburb……… Chicago.
8. McDonalds is also known………. its sponsorship……………
various international sport events.
XIII. Choose whether each of the following sentences requires on, in,or at.
1. Will you be ________ home today?
2. He is never late. He always comes ________ time.
3. How many students are ________ your class?
4. The teacher wrote something ________ the board.
5. Many people work ________ this building.
6. I will meet you ________ 7:00 PM.
7. Let's meet ________ Wednesday.
8. I am going to Japan ________ seven days.
9. I met John ________ my friend's party.
10. She was sitting ________ her car.
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XIV. a. Construct the sentences using Simple Prepositions!
1. ______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________
b. Construct the sentences using Compound Prepositions!
1. ______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________
c. Construct the sentences using Phrasal Prepositions
1. ______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________
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XV. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate subordinate conjunctions!
1. Wait here ____ I get back.
2. I'll visit you ____ I have time.
3. We'll be ready ___ the time you get back.
4. We'll leave ____ we're ready.
5. I'll be glad ____ it's finished.
6. We must finish it ____ we leave.
7. I hurt myself ____ I was playing tennis.
8. I'll give her the message ____ she arrives.
9. I'll be ready when she ____.
10. I'll only pay you ____ you finish the work.
XII. Fill in the blanks with but, and, or, so.
1. We will visit Australia ......... New Zealand during our next
vacation.
2. My teeth were hurting ......... I made an appointment to go the
dentist.
3. Have you seen ......... heard the latest musical by Andrew Lloyd
Webber?
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4. I wanted to go to the rock concert ......... all the tickets were already
sold.
5. I wanted to eat sushi for dinner ......... I went to a Japanese
restaurant.
6. I wanted to eat fish for lunch ......... the fish and chip shop had
closed for the day.
7. I am going to do my homework ......... take a shower when I get
home from school.
8. My father wanted to watch a soccer match on television ......... my
mother was already watching another program.
9. My brother wanted to buy a novel ......... he went to the book store
after he finished work.
10. I wanted to visit my grandmother last week ......... she had an
accident and had to be taken to hospital.
XIII. Fill in the blanks with subordinate conjunction.
1. ________________ he claims that he is innocent, everyone knows
he is guilty.
2. ________________ you're here, I'm going to tell you a secret.
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3. ________________ you like him personally, you have to agree that
he's done a lot for the company.
4. ________________ I prefer to live in an apartment, my wife wants
to buy a house.
5. ________________ I had seen that movie three times, I watched it
again.
6. ________________ you already know the answer, why are you
asking me?
7. ________________ you go to the beach, call your brother.
8. ________________ giving the money to my sister, I gave it to my
cousins.
9. ________________ she calls me, I feel happy.
10. ________________ the test starts, you will not be able to talk.
XIV. Construct sentences using correlative conjunctions.
1. ______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________
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REFERENCES
Fries, C. (1952) The Structure of english, New York.New York :Prentice-
Hall,Inc
Harman,SE. (1950) Descriptive English Grammar. New York : Prentice-
Hall, Inc
Hornby, AS. (1974) Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary of Current
English. Oxford : Oxford University Press
Martinet, AV & Thomson, A.J.A Practical English Grammar. Oxford :
Oxford University Press
Wright, AL.(1960). Practice Your English. New York: American Book
Company
Zandvoort, R.W. (1966). Handbook of English Grammar. London :
Longman
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http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/prepositions/exercises?06
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