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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FOUNDATION

This chapter presents the theoretical description of speaking,

framework of thinkking and objective of the research.

A.Theoretical Description

1. Speaking Skill

a. Definition of Speaking

According to Nunan (in Kayi,2006:1) defines speaking as the

use of language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses,

which is called as fluency. According to Chaney (1998:13) speaking is

the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal

and nonverbal symbols, in a variety of contexts.

According to Thorburry (2005) speaking is a part of daily life

that we take it for granted. Brown (2001) defines speaking as an

interactive process of constructing meaning, involving producing,

receiving, and processing information. It is form and meaning are

dependent on the context in which it occurs, including the participant,

their collective experiences, the phsyical environment, and the

purpose of speaking. Related to the process of interaction, they who

are involved interaction will get valuable feedback from each other.

While another expert, Harmer (2007:284) states speaking is the

ability to speak fluently and presupposes not only knowledge of

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language features, but also the ability to process information and

language ‘on the spot’.

From the above definition, the researchers conclude that

speaking is the ability to produce the language and share their ideas to

other people.

b. Types of Speaking

Nunan (in Brown, 2001:250) writes that generally there are

two types of spoken language, as follow :

1) Monologue

Brown states monologue is the speaking where mono

speaker uses spoken language for any length of time, such as in

speeches, lectures, readings, news broadcasts, and the like, then the

listener have to process the information without interruption and the

speech will go on whether or not the listeners comprehends what the

speaker means.

2) Dialogue

It is different with monologue, Nunan says that dialogue is

the speaking that involves two or more speakers. The interruption

may happen in the speech when the interlocutor does not

comprehend what the speaker say. Like Nunan, according to

Harmer (2007:343) finally, we might make a difference between

speaking, that is planned (such as lecture or weeding speech) and

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speaking that is unplanned, such as a conversation that takes place

spontaneously.

c. The Importance of Speaking in Language Learning

Speaking is considered as a very important aspect of learning a

foreign language. As stated by Bailey and Savage (in Celce and

Murcia, 2001) that speaking in a second language or foreign language

has often been viewed as the most demanding of the four skills.

Teaching speaking means to teach students to produce the

English speech sounds and sounds patterns, to use word and sentences

stress, intonation patterns, and the rhytm of the second language, to

select appropriate words and sentence according to the proper social

setting, audience, situation and subject matter, to organize their

thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence, to use language as a

mean of expressing values and judgments, to use the langauge quickly

and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called as fluency

(Nunan:2003).

In line with Nunan (2003) Burns and Joyee state that one of the

most important aspects of speaking is that it always occurs within

context. When we speak we are both using language to carry out

various social functions and choosing forms of langage which relate in

relevant way to the cultural and social context.

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Nunan (1991) says learning to speak in a second or foreign

language will be facilitated when learners are actively engaged in

attempting to communicate. Speaking is closely related to self-

realization; much of impression about people comes from what they

say and how they say it. For the reason, the teaching of speaking

should be able to give contribution to the improvement of students’

abilities.

d. The Problems in Teaching Speaking Skill

Students sometimes have some problems when they actually

want to talk in front of public, or in this case is talk in front of the

classroom. According to Ur (1996:121) the problems in speaking

activities are follows :

1) Inhibition

Students are often inhibited about trying things in foreign

language classroom, afraid to make mistakes or to be critized, and

shy to utter words.

2) Nothing to say

Students sometimes find fault that they do not have

something to say. In other words, they cannot express themselves.

3) Low or uneven participation

Only one participant talks because of some learners

dominate, while other speaks a little or not all.

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4) Mother tongue use

In the class, all students share the same mother tongue,

so they fell unnatural to speak in the foreign language. They are

also less exposed and les disciplined or motivated one.

To sum up, the problems in speaking might happen to

the students in the teaching-learning process, especially the feeling

of anxiety. Thus, in teaching speaking, teachers should always

encourage the students, not allowing students to become

discouraged when they make mistakes. They have to understand

that making mistakes is part of the learning process.

e. How to Teach Speaking

Now many linguistics and ESL teachers agree on that students

learn to speak in the second language by “ interacting”.

Communicative language teaching and collaborative learning serve

best for this aim. Communicative language teaching is based on real-

life situations that require communication. By using this method in

ESL classes, students will have the opportunity of communicating

with each other in the target language.

In brief, ESL teachers should create a classroom environment

where students have real-life communication, authentic activities, and

meaningful tasks that promote oral language.

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According to Scott Thorbur in his book (2005) how to Teach

Speaking, there are some point which the meaning: what speakers do

and what speakers know. This is below short explained :

1) What Speakers Do

a) Speech Production

The first point to emphasize is that speech production

takes place in real time and is therefore essentially linear.Words

follow words, and phrases follow phrases. Likewise, at the level

of utterence (that is to say, the spoken eqivalent os sentences),

speech is produced utterence-by-utterence, in respone to the

word-by-word and utterence-by-utterence productions of the

person we are talking to (our interlecutor).

b) Conceptualization and formulation

At some stage, the words needs to be ‘glued together

by then insertion of the appropriate grammatica’ markers, such

us articles (the, a etc), auxiliary verbs (is, did, have etc), and

word endings ( -ing, -er,-ed, and so on). Accasionally, even

native speakers make slipts as this level, producing I buyed it for

I bought it, for example, although they are always quick to

correct these slips.

Also at the formulation stage, the words need to be

aaigned their pronounciation. This will include, not only the

individual sounds of the words but the appropriate placement of

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prominence (stres) and the meaningful use of intonation (pitch

direction). Because sentence stress and intonation are implicated

in the way new or important information is signalled, it is likely

that choices at this level have been made at the initial ‘laying

out’ stage.

c) Articulation

Articulation involves the use of the organs of speech to

produce sounds. A stream of air is prodced in the lungs, driven

through the vocal cords, and ‘shaped’ by, among other things,

the position and movement of the tongue, teeth, and lips. Vowel

sounda are produced primaly by the action of the tongue and the

lips. Consonant sounds are determined by the point at which the

air stream is obstructed- e.g. at the lips or teeth – and the kind of

constriction the air steam, is subjected to, e.g. wheather it made

to ‘pop’ or to ‘buzz.

d) Self-Monitoring and repair

This quick self-correction of Kath’s is an instance od

Self-monitoring, a process that happens concurently with the

stages conceptualization, formulation, and articulation.

e) Automaticity

All this conceptualizing, formulating, articulating, and

monitoring mean that a speakers ‘attentional’ resources are

very thinly stretched. In order to achieve any automaticity is

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necessary. Automaticity allows speakers to focus their

attention on the aspect of the speaking task that immediately

requires it, whether it is planing or articulation.

f) Fluency

What exactly is fluency, then ? when we talk about

someone as being ‘a fluent speaker of French‘ or when we say

‘She speaks the language fluenty?, what do we mean? is

Fluency simply the ability to speak fast? speed is factor, but it

is by no means the only- or even the most important one.

Research into listener’s perceptions of a speaker’s fluency

suggest that pausing is equally important.

g) Managing talk

(1) Interaction

So far have been describing what speakers do as if

they were speaking in a kind of vacuum, but of course

most speaking takes the form of face to face dialogue and

therefore involves interactioan.

(2) Turn-taking

This delicate moment is successfully negotiated

because the speakers are familiar with the rules and skills

of turn-taking. The fundamental rule of turn-taking is

speakers should take turns to hold the floor.

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(3) Paralingustics

The interactional use of eye gaze and gesture are

known as paralingustics.

Conclusion : We noted that speaking consists of at

least three stages: conceptualization, formulation and

articulation. During which the speaker is also engaged in

self-monitoring.

2 ) What Speakers Know

a) Extralingustic Knowledge

The kinds of extralingustic knowlwdge, that affect

speaking include such things as topic and cultural knowledge,

knowledge of the context, and familiarity with the other

speakers

Sociocultural knowledge:

‘ In X country long silences are tolerated in conversation‘, and

‘ In Y country you don’t normally ask people why they are not

married ‘.

Statments like these belong to the area of Sociocultural

knowledge. This is knowledge about social values and the

norms of behaviour in a given society. Including the way these

values and norms are realized through language sociocultural

knowledge can be both extralingustic and lingustic.

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(1) Lingustic knowledge

Lingustic knowledge is often ranged along a cline

from ‘the big ficture‘, e.g. knowledge of the way an

anecdote typically unfolds, to the ‘fine print’, e.g.

knowledge of grammar and vocabulary.

(2) Genre knowledge

Very broadly, there are two main purposes for

speaking. Speaking serves either a transactional function,

in that its primary purpose is to convey information and

facilitate the exchange of goods or services, or it serves an

interpersonal function, in that its primary purpose is to

estabilish and maintain social relations.

(3) Discourse knowledge

Knowing how to organize and connect individual

utterances, as well as how to map this knowledge on the

turn-taking structures of interactive talk, is called discourse

competence.

(4) Pragmatic knowledge

Pragmatic describes the relation between

language and its contexts of use, including the purposes for

which language is being used. In this case, there are :

Speech acts, the co-operative principle, politeness and

register.

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b) Grammar

It is theoritically possible to have short

conversations where each utterance consists of nothing but

a single words or short phrase.

The following list summarizes facts about the distribution

and frequency of verb vorms in spoken language : Present

tense forms out number past tense forms by 2:1, Simple

forms outnumber progressive and perfect forms by over 10 :

1, The past perfect and present perfect continous are rare,

Passive verbs account for only 2 % of all finite verbs forms

in speech and Will, would, and can are extremely common

speech.

c) Vocabulary

Here we need to distinguish between the words that

speakers use (their productive vocabulary) and the words

that they recognize (their receptive vocabulary). Research

suggests that the former is only half the size of the latter.

And the number of words used in speaking is less than the

number used in writing. That is to say, in speech fewer

words go further. According to some estimates, a

vocabulary of just 2,500 words covers nearly 95 % of

spoken text (compared to 80 % of written text).

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d) Phonology

The ‘lowest level’ of knowledge a speaker drows on

is that of pronounciation. Normally, the way we pronounce

individual words, and the sounds that they are composed of,

is not something that involves conscious choices.

e) Speech conditions

Speech conditions is, what factors make speaking

easly or difficult. Researchers have isolated a number of

factors into three categories : Cognitive factors, affective (

that is, emotional ) factors, and performance factors.

Conclusions : The kinds of knowledge that speakers

being to the skill of speaking comprise extralingustic

knowledge, such us background knowledge of topic and

culture, and lingustic knowledge, including discourse

knowlwdge, speech act knowledge, and knowledge of

grammar, vocabulary and phonology.

f. Activities to Promote Speaking

According to Kayi (2006), activities to promote speaking there are:

1) Discussions

The students may aim to arrive at a conclusion, share

ideas about an event, or find solutions in their discussion

groups. Before the discussion, it is essential that the purpose of

the discussion activity is set by the teacher. In the way, the

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discussion points are relevant to this purpose, so that students

do not spend their time chatting with each other about

irrelevant things.

2) Role Play

One other way of getting students to speak is role-

playing. Students pretend they are in various social contexts and

have a variety of social roles. In role-play activities, the teacher

gives information to the learners such as who they are and what

they think or feel. Thus, the teacher can tell the student that “

You are David, you go to the doctor and tell him what happened

last night, and..” (Harmer ,1984).

3) Simulations

Simulations are very similiar to role-plays but what

makes simulations different than role plays is that they are more

elaborate. In simulations, students can bring items to the class to

create a realistic environment. For instance, if a student is

acting as a singer, she brings a michrophone to sing and so on.

Role plays and simulations have many advantages. First, since

they are entertaining, they motivate the students. Second, as

Harmer (1984) suggests, they increase the self-confidence of

hesitant students, because in role play and simulation activities,

they will have a different role and do not have to speak for

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themselves, which means they do not have to take same

responsibility.

4) Information Gap

In this activity, students are supposed to be working in

pairs. One student will have the information that other partner

does not have and the partners will share their information.

Information gap activities serve many purposes such as solving

a problem or collecting information. Also, each partner plays an

important role because the task cannot be completedif the

partners do not provide the information the others need. These

activities are effective because everybody has the opportunity to

talk extensively in the target language.

5) Brainstroming

On a given topic, students can produce ideas in a

limited time. Depending on the context, either individual or

group brainstroming is effective and learners generate ideas

quickly and freely. The good characteristics of brainstroming is

that the students are not criticed for their ideas so students will

be open to sharing new ideas.

6) Storytelling

Students can briefly summarize a tale or story they heard

from somebody beforehand, or they may create their own

stories to tell their classmates. Story telling fosters creative

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thinking. It also help students express ideas in the format of

beggining, development, and ending, including the characters

and setting a story has to have. Students also can tell riddles or

jokes. For instance, at the very beggining of each class session,

the teacher may call a few students to tell short riddles or jokes

as an opening. In the way, not only will the teacher address

students’ speaking ability, but also get the attention of the class.

7) Interviews

Students can conduct interviews on selected topics with

various people. It is a good idea that the teacher provides a

rubric to students so that they know what type of questions they

can ask or what path to follow , but students should prepare

their own interviews questions.Conducting interviews with

people gives studrnts a chance to practice their speaking ability

not only in class but also outside and helps them becoming

socialized.

8) Story Completion

This is very enjoyable, whole-class, free-speaking

activity for which students sit in a circle. For this activity, a

teacher starts to tell a story, but after a few sentences he or she

stops narrating. Then, each student starts to narrate from the

point where the previous one stopped. Each students is

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supposed to adda from four to ten sentences. Students can add

new characters, events, descriptions and so on.

9) Reporting

Before coming to class, students are asked to read a

newspaper or magazine and, in class, they report to their friends

what they find as the most interesting news. Students can also

talk about whether they have experienced anything worth telling

their friends in their daily lives before class.

10) Playing Cards

In this game, students should from groups of four. Each

suit will represent a topic. Each student in group will choose a

card. Then, each student will write 4-5 questions about that

topic to ask the other people in the group. For example : If the

topic “ Clubs : Best teacher” is selected, here are some possible

questions : “Is best teacher important in your learning

process?,or “ What do you think about a teacher ? Etc.

However, the teacher should state at the very beggining of the

activity that students are not allowed to prepare yes-no

questions, because by saying yes or no students get little

practice in spoken language production. Rather, students ask

open-ended questions to each other so that they reply in

complete sentences.

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11) Picture Narrating

The activity is based on several sequential pictures.

Students are asked to tell the story taking place in the sequential

pictures by paying attention to the criteria provided by the

teacher as a rubric. Eubrics can include the vocabulary or

structures they neew to use while narrating.

12) Picture Describing

For this activity students can form groups and each

group is given a differnet picture. Students discuss the picture

with their groups, then a spokesperson for each group describes

the picture to whole class. This activity fosters the creativity and

imagination of the learners as well as their public speaking

skills.

13) Find the Difference

For this activity students can work in pairs and each

couple is given two different pictures, for example , picture of

boys playing football and another picture of girls playing tennis.

Students in pairs discuss the similiaritis and/or differences in the

pictures.

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2. Storytelling Technique

a. Definition of Storytelling

Storytelling, as part of speaking activities in class, is an effective

teaching tool that enables students to focus on story structure. Coconi

(2013) defined Storytelling is the communicating of events through the

use of words and sounds. This is an art of expression and improvisation,

which revolves around a plot and or narrative point of view. There are

number of different types of storytelling that are shared within many

different cultures of the world , aiming to spread moral values,

entertainment, inspiration and advice.

Barzaq (2009) defined storytelling as a knowledge management

technique, a way of distributing information, targeted to audiences and

a sense of information, she added that stories provide natural

connection between events and concepts.

“ Storytelling is a task shared by storyteller and story listeners,

it is the interaction of the two that makes a story come to life “ (Baker

and Grenne, 1985) I emphasize the story has its own components;

storyteller, story listener and a topic , and most of the stories are taken

from real life.

Another definition is stated by Dujmovic on his journal with the

tittle’Storytelling as a method of EFL teaching ‘. He said that

storytelling is the original form of teaching and has the potential of

fostering emotional intelligence and help the child gain insight into

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human behaviour. Storytelling also promotes language learning by

enriching learners’ vocabulary and acquiring new language structures.

Morever, storytelling can provide a motivating and lowanxiety context

for language learning.

From those explanation above, the writer views that storytelling

is an activity that enables the students to understand the story and able

to tell the story with their own languange development.

b. Types and Purposes of Storytelling

There are some types and purposes of storytelling, Coconi

(2013) divided it into cultural storytelling, family storytelling,

personal storytelling, and aporcryphal storytelling.

1) Cultural Storytelling

Cultural storytelling is defined by the transmitting and

conveying of certain values, morals and beliefs. These stories are

passed down from generation to generation in an engaging and

memorable from. The stories that are given to children in an

attempt to teach them the meaning of religion might be

understood as cultural stories.

2) Family Storytelling

Family storytelling is thought of as the spoken history of a

family, maintaining and preserving a long line of various events

and experiences, while keeping traditions and expectation alight.

Storytelling that concerns a family heritage allows for a family

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identity to emerge, often bringing with it the finest traits of an

ancestral history as a reminder to live up to something. This type

of story can provide those who hear it with the motivation to live

up to past family achievements.

3) Personal Storytelling

Through living, everyone is in the constant and on going

process of composing a personal story. The stories are formed

personally and concern individual lives. They are composed to

rememver, change and find meaning to life. Through personal

storytelling, the teller is able to share his experiences with others

and possibly motivate and inspire. Personal storytelling might

also take the form of a biography or a biographical novel.

4) Apocryphal Storytelling

Apocryphal stories are presented to the listener as

unlikely and often unbelieveable truths, or doubtful stories told as

fact. These stories are more commonly known as “urban myths”.

“ Apocryphal” derives from the Greek word “apocrypho”,

meaning “hidden”. Generally, this is a type of storytelling that

revolves around things of fear or things that cannot be fully

understood.

c. Benefits of Storytelling

We often give stories to our students to read,but how often do

we tell them astory? Storytelling is a unique way for students to

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develop an understanding, respect and appreciation for other cultures,

and can promote a positive attitude to people from different lands, races

and religions.

Benefits of using storytelling in the classroom:

1) Promote a feeling of well-being and relaxation

2) Increase children’s willingness to communicate thoughts and

feelings

3) Encourage active participation

4) Increase verbal proficiency

5) Encourage use of imagination and creativity

6) Encourage cooperation between students

7) Enhance listening skills

d. Performance Techniques and Skills of Storytelling

1) Perfomance Techinques of Storytelling

Telling a story can captivate an audience; that is, with the

right techniques and a little practice.

Remembering and retelling the plot:

a) Map the plot as a memory technique

b) Use story skeletons to help you remember the key events

c) Think of the plot as afilm or a series of connected images

d) Tell yourself the story in your own words

e) Create your own version of the story (adapt and improvise)

f) Retell it numerous times until it feels like a story

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2) Perfomance Skills of Storytelling

Remember to:

a) Vary the volume, pitch and tempo of your voice (enunciate clearly

and exaggerate expression)

b) Use your face, body and gestures(let your body speak)

c) Make your body and face respond to the tale

d) Have a clear focus and maintain concentration

e) Maintain engaging eye contact with the audience/individual

listeners

f) Create a charismatic presence (make the audience believe in you)

g) Use different, exaggerated character voices

h) Use your space/be dynamic

i) Remember to pace yourself

j) Always remember to regain your style as a narrator

k) Use silence and pauses to add dramatic effect

e. How to Teach Storytelling

Storytelling techniques may incorporate a combination of tone

usage, animated sounds and gestures, and digital tools. Here are strategies

for teaching storytelling.

1) Learn effective storytelling techniques

Teach others the art of telling stories by first becoming an

engaging storyteller.

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a) Take a storytelling class. Sign up for a storytelling workshop at a

college or community center.

b) Practice telling stories. Strengthen yor storytelling skills by taking the

opportunity to tell relevant stories whenever possible to your

colleagues, students, friends, relatives and neighbors.

2) Notice the reactions of others to your stories

Attentiveness, laughter, an emotional response and/or sustained

eye contact are indications that you are achieving your storytelling goal.

A listener’s attemps to change the subject, fidgety mannerisms and

general inattentiveness may indicate a need to adjust the pace, tone,

details or other elements of your storytelling technique.

3) Improve your storytelling skills

If you are losing the attention of your listeners, make sure that

you story is relevant to your audience and that it has a clear beginning,

middle and an end. Identify your reason for telling the story and whether

it will meet the needs of your listener.

Use props, sounds and visual tools. If teaching young children,

a story about a cat with a strange meow will capture their attention more

if accompained by your enactment of the actual meow. To persuade

adults to conform to your opinion or to sell a product, using pictures and

presentation software may enhance the story and help you to achieve the

storytelling goal.

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4) Determine if you are ready to teach storytelling to others

You will know that you have mastered storytelling when

children ask that you retell a story or adults ask you to share the story

with others. Others indications that you are a stortelling master are

sustained engagement on the part of your listeners and/or positive

changes in behavior as a result of telling a story.

5) Identify the age group of your storytelling class

Your students may be young children in a school where you are

already a teacher. Or they may be adults who report to you in a

marketing firm where you are a manager.

6) Assess the needs of the specific age group and plan accordingly

a) Give explanations and structure to children. Young children need

structured activities, continual guidance and verbal instructions.

b) Provide a syllabus, handout and reading materials to adults. Teens

and adults are more self-directed and benefit from materials that they

can read on their own, such us an explanation of storytelling

techniques and upcoming assignments.

7) Teach storytelling tecniques

Share the knowledge and skills that you gained in the process of

becoming an effective storyteller.

Ask the class to think of an interesting story. Provide ideas related to

the particular age group and goal of the class. A public speaking class

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intended to improve an adults social life will tell different types of

stories than a group of salespeople trying to sell a product.

8) Give feedback to students

Observe your own engagement while listening to students’

stories, as well as classmates’ reactions. Pay particular attention to the

storytelling speed, tone, details, gestures, props and graphics tools.

a) Encourage students by providing positive feedback. Public speaking

is a prevalent fear, so comment on things that students did well to

generate a desire to continue perfecting their storytelling skills.

b) Provide constructive criticsm. Instead of saying that a story was

boring, draw the student’s attention to areas of the story that can be

enlivened by adding interesting details or voice inflections.

B. Framework of Thinking

In an effort to improve the quality of teaching and learning process

the application of the appropriate learning model is very important. As a

mentioned in the previous chapter, there are problem related to teacher,

students, and teching learning process aspect of students’ speaking ability

for the tenth grades students’ SMK PGRI Subang. The problem can be

solved using storytelling technique, especially the problems happened in

the speaking ability in English classroom.

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This research has two variable, namely :

1. Independent Variable : Storytelling Technique (The researcher concludes

that storytelling is a technique to order massage from storyteller to audience

and storytelling is one of the activities to promote speaking in the

classroom).

2. Dependent Variable : Speaking Skill (The researcher concludes that

speaking is the ability to produce the language and share their ideas to other

people).

In the teaching and learning process aspect, storytelling technique

will influence the interaction of students and make the students more

interested with the classroom activities. Every students more has

conversation with other students. So, intraction among the student with

student with teacher will better than that of previous meeting. The

motivation of the students will increase by the better interaction in the class.

Based on that explanation, it can be concluded that

storytelling technique have influence the students’ speaking ability

for the tenth grades students in SMK PGRI Subang.

C. Objective of the Research

The objective of the research is to know the influence of storytelling

technique toward students speaking ability and the influence of storytelling

on the students speaking in the classroom of SMK PGRI Subang in academic

year 2019/2020.