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♦ PAPER ABSTRACTS ♦ ■ Keynote Speech: ILETO, Reynaldo C. The American War and the Japanese War in Post-1946 Philippine Politics One of the classic debates in Southeast Asian historiography concerned the significance of World War II in the region. Was the Japanese occupation a catalyst for change, leading to anticolonial nationalist revolutions and the rise of independent states in subsequent decades? Or was this a relatively brief and insignificant moment in the long duration of the region's history? Since the Philippines can be hooked on to either argument, this paper reviews the main historiographical trends since the 1950s that culminated in the persuasive turn towards the "continuity" thesis in the 1970s. This paper goes on to argue that the dominant meaning of the "Japanese occupation" in Philippine historiography rests on established and embedded histories of the earlier occupation by the United States. These are premised on essential difference rather than sameness between the two wars of occupation, and are the basis of continued imperial domination. Nevertheless, minority discourses have contested this construction of the past and have attempted to at least place the U.S. on an equivalent plane to the Japanese. This paper briefly discusses the construction of the dominant view after 1901 and the alternatives to it. The main focus is on how conflicting memories and histories of the two invasions have figured in Philippine politics since independence. ■ Plenary Session: The Philippines and Japan under the US Shadow GO, Julian The Philippines and US Imperial Identity This essay places US colonialism in the Philippines in the broader context of US imperial practice to show the ways in which American global political identity was predicated upon its colonial exchanges in the Philippines. After WWII the US shifted from employing direct colonial rule to informal modes of imperial exercise while claiming that its informal modes marked a unique, anti-colonial, and benevolent American character. Throughout, the model was democratic tutelage in the Philippines. Yet democratic tutelage did not stem from American unique anti-colonial and ostensibly special democratic culture; it rather emerged from American officials' appropriations of the discourses of the Filipino elite. This essay therefore shows how American identity was dependent upon its appropriation of local discourses in the Philippines, even as American identity elides its Philippine origins.

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RIVERA, Temario C. American Rule and Elite Restoration in Postwar Japan and the Philippines After the Second World War, both Japan and the Philippines largely succeeded in restoring and reconstituting the “old guard and traditional levers of elite rule”. In the context of the upheavals provoked by the war and the occupation period, by no means was this outcome guaranteed. For both countries, the war and its immediate aftermath in fact resulted in significant challenges to traditional elite rule. In Japan, this postwar power realignment was initially generated by political reforms imposed by the American occupation. Likewise in the Philippines, the war opened up new opportunities for political formations and alliances that sought to challenge traditional oligarchic control of national and local politics. This paper analyzes how American occupation policies in fact undercut and redirected these opportunities for challenging traditional elite rule resulting in the eventual entrenchment of conservative hegemonic rule in Japan and the perpetuation of oligarchic, dynastic rule in the Philippines. SALMAN, Michael Tortuous Memories and Prisons of Forgetting: From Water Cure to Water Boarding, From Bilibid to Abu Ghraib Prisons and the experience of torture remain endemic to modern colonialism and the wars that establish it. Prisons as places of trauma and torture as traumatic experience connected the Philippines, Japan, and the U.S. in different ways at different times, and have left a legacy as sites of memory and forgetting. The imprisonment of revolutionaries and nationalists was extensive in the American colonization of Philippines and so, too, was the use of torture. Imprisonment continued, but its history took unusual turns. Bilibid Prison was a site of violence, rebellion, illness, and medical experimentation on inmates, but then became a symbol of progress, disciplined order, and modern humanitarianism claimed by both colonizers and nationalists. Later, during the Pacific War, Bilibid became a POW camp, along with cognate institutions like military bases and the University of Santo Tomas. In 1945, the old Bilibid Prison became home to the Philippine National Library, providing a new intersection of history and memory. Another symbol of overlapping colonial histories would be Sugamo Prison in Tokyo. Built for political prisoners in the 1920s, after the Pacific War Sugamo was controlled by the US Army, operated by a Japanese staff, and housed alleged and convicted war criminals from trial to execution. In Sugamo one could see the close congregation of the three occupations - the U.S. over the Philippines, Japan over the Philippines, and the U.S. over Japan – brought together in one place. But then, afterwards, what would be remembered of this confluence? That is the question of memory, and forgetting. NAKANO, Satoshi Work of Mourning and Memories of Wars in the Post World War II U.S. –Philippine -Japan Relations As Reynaldo Ileto (2001) pointed out, the Filipino experiences under the Philippine-American War and the Japanese Occupation might have been “the same banana,” especially for the regions where the revolutionary forces and the anti-Japanese

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guerrilla forces vigorously fought against the occupiers. This has naturally led us to ask why the one (American war) was completely forgotten while the other (Japanese war) is so well remembered. We have observed in recent years, however, amnesia has become reality even in the latter war, while the war memories or the memories of past atrocities in general could be reconstructed as well as revived at any time in any ways. The underlying question therefore should be how the selective memories of and amnesia on past wars and atrocities have interactively functioned in the social and national psyche of the three peoples across the Pacific, for which psychoanalytical concepts such as work of mourning, object loss, manic defense and melancholia might be helpful as shown in such works as Alexander Mitschelich, An inability to Mourn (1967) and David L. Eng and David Kazanjian, ed., Loss: The Politics of Mourning (2003) as well as recent discussions on transitional justice (see http://www.ictj.org) . ■ Session 1: The Philippines-US-Japan Relations in Historical Perspectives CAMPOMANES, Oscar V. The Japanese Analogy as Liminal Crisis-Effect in Initial Filipino-American Encounters, 1899-1901 This paper examines the shadowy emergence and obsolescence of the “Japanese Analogy” in contemporary accounts of the politics of encounter between representatives of the American Empire and the Philippine Republic during the first years of the Philippine-American War. Arguing that this invocation and operation of the “Japanese Analogy,” while seemingly insignificant, present a productive case of the semiotic of (imperial and nationalist) politics and the politics of expansionist and anti-imperialist semiosis, this paper highlights the diplomatic offensives of Felipe Agoncillo and the Hong Kong Junta/Comité Central Filipino in the fierce geopolitical struggle with US imperialist emissaries for setting the terms of encounter/engagement both in the realm of war propaganda and in the domain of international relations. Likened by credulous American writers to the Japanese in the absence of an adequate language of representation at the moment of initial US-Filipino contacts, Filipino revolutionists saw a cleverly designed “diplomatic” campaign as their best and most effective weapon against the formidable forces and resources of the emergent (American) New Empire. QUIBUYEN, Floro C. Imagining America and Japan: A Genealogy of Filipino National Consciousness from the Revolution to W.W II. A productive way to explore how we Filipinos have imagined ourselves as a nation is by exploring how we have imagined the two countries which have, for better or for worse, intervened in our modern history—Japan and America. Filipino revolutionary nationalists, from the late nineteenth century to the American conquest, looked up to Japan as their model and ally. Under American rule, Japan was replaced by America in the popular imagination. The contrasting political biographies of Artemio Ricarte and Manuel Quezon demonstrate this shift in the national consciousness. However, a comparative study of the

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nationalist politics of India, Indonesia and Burma during WWII shows that the behaviour of Ricarte was in fact the pattern in these countries. This underscores the peculiarity of the post war issue of collaboration in the Philippines, and attests to the United States’ hegemonic success in creating the new postcolonial Filipino—evident even in today’s school children. OKADA, Taihei American Colonial Education in the Philippines in the Context of "Progressive Education" American colonialism emphasized public education as one of the most important components of its project. Although there have been a few notable studies on this topic, almost all of them had a rather narrow focus on the educational ideology as it circulated among the American colonial administrators and American teachers in the Philippines. This research method falls short, partly because it disregards the effects of "progressive education" as a global educational movement and concentrates too much on the ideas of the American colonialists. In the early part of the 20th century, educational institutions were rapidly expanding and teaching became more professionalized in the US as well as in different parts of the globe. In addition to analyzing the ideology of "progressive education," it is important to regard teachers as an occupational category and take into account its place in society. By focusing on the socioeconomic aspect of the teachers in the Philippines and making brief comparisons and contrasts with those in Japan and Korea under the Japanese colonialism, I will argue that the colonial education in the Philippines was an extension of "progressive education" and its implications are still relevant in this age of globalism. JOSE, Lydia Yu The Philippines and the Beginnings of Japan's Soft Power While scholars of Japan's foreign policy and foreign relations agree that in the decades following World War II Japan engaged in economic diplomacy, it is not widely acknowledged that side by side with this economic policy is a softly-launched cultural policy. In the Philippines Japan tried the waters of cultural policy in the 1960s with the opening of the Japan Information and Cultural Center and the first Japanese Studies Program in Southeast Asia. This paper will trace the development of cultural relations between the Philippines and Japan and analyze the significance of the opening of cultural relations between the two countries much earlier than in most other Southeast Asian countries. The paper argues that the sustained success of economic policy is partly due to its being done side by side with cultural policy. ■Session 2: Filipino Diaspora: Local, Regional and Global Perspectives ALEGADO, Dean T. From an Archipelagic Nation-State to a Deterritorialized Global Nation: The Philippine State’s Efforts to Re-Inscribe Overseas Filipino

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While the dominant political ethic of the Philippines -- and most countries in the world -- continues to demand that citizens, both native born and naturalized, swear allegiance only to a single nation-state and define their political identity within its borders, the transnationalism of increasing numbers of its citizens promotes new political constructions in labor-sending states. Facing situations of deepening economic impoverishment and dependency, Philippine political leaders are developing constructions of the nation-state that encompass those residing abroad as part of their country’s body politic. These constructions, which Basch, Glick Schiller and Szanton Blanc (1994) have called “deterritorialized nation-states,” define state boundaries in social rather than geographic terms. According to this reading of the nation-state, the border of the state spread globally to encompass all migrants and their descendants wherever they may settle and whatever legal citizenship they may have attained. This paper attempts to explore some of the implications of transnationalism and the efforts of the Philippine nation-state -- highlighted by the recent efforts of the Philippine Congress to pass the Overseas Filipino Absentee Voting and the Dual Citizenship acts. -- to re-incorporate the transnational Filipino communities in its development strategy in the early 21st century. The paradox of our times, and one that must be central to our understanding of ethnic studies and of the identities and current dilemmas of current day immigrants is that the “age of transnationalism” is a time of continuing and even heightening nation-state building processes. In the current heightening of nationalist sentiments in a globalized economy, transnational migration is playing a complex, significant, yet little noted role. It lies as a silent subtext that contributes to the actions, motivations, and sensibilities of key players within the political processes and debates of both states that have histories of population dispersal and states that have primarily been and continue to be recipients of population flows. As national institutions have become eroded by transnational processes of the re- structured global economy, it is less possible to maintain the old national myths. Transnational immigrants and their multiple connections furnish the political leadership of both countries that send migrants and countries in the developed capitalist economies that receive migrants with new possibilities of maintaining discourses of nationalism. TSUJIMOTO, Toshiko Migrant Women in a Crossing-Border and Value Space: Transnational Experiences of Filipinas in Korea and Their Challenges Migration is not merely a process of moving from one physical space to another but even accompanying the transformation of one’s thoughts and behaviors. Moreover, the experience of crossing-border renders a person to view her/his world or phenomenon surrounded them in a comparative method that often provides them with critical insights. The concern of this paper is in such a dynamic aspect of migration. Especially in the age of women on migration in Asia, how the migrant women go through such a process inside migrant communities which are the crossing points with local and global as well as traditional and evolutional factors. The paper tries to direct its attention on bilateral aspects of Filipino migrant communities abroad as ‘home’ away home but reconstructing of nationhood through rules and norms back in the Philippines. Specifically, the paper tries to illustrate the gendered discourses reproduced inside

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Filipino community and experiences of Filipinas in Korea where is a site of intra-regional and continuing migration in Asia as well as destination for both Filipinos and Filipina migrants. Many studies about Filipino migrant issue have tended to focus on significant factors of Catholic Church as a source of networking and assistance provided for migrants. However, fewer studies have focused on contradicting aspects of religious based Filipino communities abroad. Especially these studies have not much focused on differences narrated by Filipinas and Filipinos and gendered ideologies manipulating those discourses. The paper also aims to look at how such transnational experiences of Filipinas challenge to its traditional norms by propounding their new insights and even they develop it as forming new spaces for women. These women’s transnational migration experiences are also translated as process of transferring from the limitation of nationhood to being a selfhood. TAKAHATA, Sachi The Filipino Community in Downtown Nagoya: Local and International Networking The paper aims to reconsider the mechanism of local as well as international networking of a Filipino community in the city of Nagoya, which holds second largest Filipino population among Japan’s cities. What is striking with the Filipino community is that while confronting and handling various social problems of their countrymen that stem from their legal vulnerability, they try to establish a friendly relationship with the local Japanese organizations of the area. Their awareness to give importance on the harmony with local people impressed even most conservative persons of the local community. On the other hand, their networking with other overseas Filipino groups strengthened their organization as well as extended their support to migrant groups of other nationalities. Through the closer look at the Filipino community in downtown Nagoya, the author will discuss the social mechanism that enabled the weakly funded organization’s survival, local/international networking and establishing the inter-ethnic relationship. ASIS, Maruja Moving Terms of Reference: Engaging with Overseas Filipinos in the Time of Transnationalism This paper focuses on the international migration of Filipinos since the 1970s and specifically examines the implications of engaging with overseas Filipinos in a globalizing and transnationalizing context. The realities, opportunities and problems engendered by different migration flows have contributed to the formation of a rich array of organizations addressing the interests and concerns of Filipinos abroad. Various migration contexts -- permanent migration, labor migration, forced displacement, legal vs. unauthorized migration -- suggest a different nature and level of inclusion of overseas Filipinos in the Philippines and in countries of destination. Issues of protection, for example, are more salient for migrant workers, whereas for permanent settlers, mobility concerns may be more important. As “migrants’ voices,” this paper advances that migrants’ associations and NGOs representing migrants’ concerns may have to reframe their agendas and approaches in light of transnational possibilities and other

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emerging realities. This paper focuses on the international migration of Filipinos since the 1970s and specifically examines the implications of engaging with overseas Filipinos in a globalizing and transnationalizing context. The realities, opportunities and problems engendered by different migration flows have contributed to the formation of a rich array of organizations addressing the interests and concerns of Filipinos abroad. Various migration contexts –– permanent migration, labor migration, forced displacement, legal vs. unauthorized migration –– suggest a different nature and level of inclusion of overseas Filipinos in the Philippines and in countries of destination. Issues of protection, for example, are more salient for migrant workers, whereas for permanent settlers, mobility concerns may be more important. ■Session 3: Filipinos and the Catholic Church in Japan KASUYA, Maria Carmelita The Filipino Catholics in Japan: Learning their Faith, Living their Faith, Sharing their Faith Driven by poverty and/or the desire to improve the quality of life to ensure a brighter uture for the family, Filipinos come to Japan. Once in Japan, they experience a lot of adjustments related to culture, language, working styles and climate. Uprooted from their own culture, Filipinos are faced with emotional problems like loneliness and helplessness. One of the ways to cope is to find solace and comfort in the church – alone, or with friends. Not only do they find spiritual refuge and joy in being at home with a community of the same faith, the church also gives them the opportunity to express their talents and to be of service, hence increasing their self-worth and brings about a new meaning to their existence with a stronger sense of identity. Coming from a predominantly Catholic country, most of the Filipinos come to Japan with their faith intact. While some learn more about their faith in Japan, others continue living their faith and have taken the challenge of sharing their faith. However, the differences in the expression of faith between the Japanese and Filipinos, the difficulty in integrating into the local church, the language barrier and lack of programs and structure to support migrants are among the problems that the Filipino Catholic in Japan need to overcome. ZARATE, Robert Paul The Filipino Catholics: Hand in Hand with the Church in Japan in Taking Care of Bi-Cultural Children Filipinos in Japan enjoy a sense of freedom and feel at home whenever they are in a Catholic Church. It is in Church where they can be themselves, where they feel they can do and give something to the Church and to society as well. Their presence in the Church in Japan is a sign of faith, happiness and religious enthusiasm. However, there is a lingering worry on how this vivacity can be sustained. The hope lies on their children, born or raised here in Japan, but there are issues that the children themselves face within the Church and within Japanese society. For those who can go to Church, they are asked to mingle with other Japanese kids in Church like they do in school. This is good.

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However, the Church can give them more than just Sunday mass and Sunday school. Many of them suffer a sense of identity-crisis, and there is a need for them to recognize, appreciate and share the richness of the two cultures they are raised in. Filipino and Catholics must address this specific problem of bi-cultural children together, from its awareness stage to the implementation of its solutions. LAGDAMEO, Ressurecsion P. The Filipino “Floating” Community in East Asia: Convergence around the Catholic Churches Economic resources determine the flow of migration; and this holds true to Filipinos who have left the Philippines. The mid-1970s up to the present marks the third-wave of Filipino migration mostly to Middle East and East Asia. Filipino men initially dominated the labor force. However, in the recent development, Filipino women share a substantial number dispatched as Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW).In the capitalist economy of Hong Kong, hundreds of thousands of Filipino domestic helpers get a niche to be helpers of Hong Kong residents and expatriates. Some of these women have been working in Hong Kong for more than 20 years. Every individual has a story to tell about their sacrifices living away from family. And every Sunday, the Statue’s Square (also known as “Black Man”) becomes the landmark of Filipino gatherings, where they come to meet with fellow OFWs and hear mass in a nearby church. In South Korea on the other hand, it is a male dominated labor force of Filipinos. Their presence can strongly be felt on Sundays as they meet fellow Filipinos (kababayan) who are to hear mass in Hyehwa-dong and or in other Catholic Churches. In this inquiry, the presenter would like to delve on the kind of Filipino communities being formed in Hong Kong and South Korea, the role of the Catholic Church in the formation of the community, and how Filipinos living abroad perceive the Church. ■ Session 4: Gender, Sexuality, and Filipino Global Migration: Wives, Nurses, Caregivers, and Entertainers TOLENTINO, Rolando B. Spectacles of Masculinity and the Commerce of Men’s Bodies Philippine development uses especially young bodies as sites of exploitation and progress. In more recent times, men’s bodies have become feminized spectacles of the individual and nation’s mobility. This paper analyzes some of the cultural texts that use men’s bodies as spectacles of national masculinity: macho dancing contests, Bench underwear fashion show, and popular films. Such spectacles allow a more explicit sexualization of men’s bodies in support of intensifying national development. The paper connects the spectaculization of men’s bodies with issues of transnational capitalism as especially effected and affected from within the nation-space.

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CHOY, Catherine Ceniza Caring Unbound: A Diasporic Perspective of Filipino Nurse Migration to the United States Since the late 1960s, the Philippines has been the world’s leading exporter of professional nurses. Although the leading destination for Filipino nurse migrants has been the United States, in more recent decades, hospitals in the Middle East, United Kingdom, Canada, and Singapore have also recruited nurses from the Philippines. A new agreement between Japan and the Philippines, for example, will enable several hundred nurses from the Philippines to work in Japan. Although the historical origins of Filipino nurse migration overseas can be traced to the early twentieth century during the U.S. colonial period in the Philippines, media reports throughout the world portray their migration as a contemporary phenomenon devoid of any history. This paper explores how and why the Philippines became the world’s leading exporter of nurses in the second half of the twentieth century, and the challenges faced by sending and receiving hospitals of Filipino nurse migrants as well as the migrants themselves. It will focus on the changing dynamics of Filipino nurse migration overseas from the 1960s to the present, specifically the change from U.S.-bound professional immigrant to global contract worker and the shifting gendered and class composition of the Philippine professional nurse labor force. ASATO, Wako Globalization of Care and the Position of the Filipino Workers: Reconfiguration of Care Work and Migration The purposes of this presentation are to clarify the mechanism of globalization of care and to clarify the strategic position of Philippines among competing sending nations, taking up cases of East Asian Economies in Asian countries: namely, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan as receiving societies and Philippines, Indonesia and Vietnam as sending nations. Accordingly to the advent of aging, the demand for care work has been increasing while the care has not been supplied enough due to decreasing labor force and negative preference toward the job and lower wages for locals. This is the rational of the introduction of foreign workers. From the standpoint of working conditions and benefits given to foreign domestic/care workers, two sets of hierarchy are observed. One is the hierarchy by workers’ nationality and the other is the hierarchy among receiving societies. Those hierarchies are reflected upon the strategy of sending countries, and immigration and labor policies of receiving countries. Though the share of Filipino workers in the labor market has been eroded due to aggressive strategy of emerging sending nations like Indonesia and Vietnam by dumping workers’ working conditions, the Philippines Government has been trying to survive in the labor market competition by emphasizing the “high quality” workers. LOPEZ, Mario And God Walks in the Suburbs: On Affectivity and Dialogue within Japanese-Filipino Marriages From an anthropological perspective, ‘affect’ can be said to be the actualization of various potentials. However, what is ‘affect’ when we deal with International Marriages

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in Japan? Is the production of a transformation which is responding to certain transnational and postcolonial conditions whereby gendered ‘bodies’ meet? Or is it something more than this? This presentation probes the meanings of 'affect' within the context of Japanese/Filipino marriages, and how they deployed, shared and used within long term marriages. As part of transnational relations between Japan and the Philippines, international marriages have continued to rise. In the context of this presentation I will question what ‘affects’ are produced or discarded between individuals who have met through such conditions. This presentation shares some narratives of couples who are neighbours and whose stories are very much intertwined. It is through the 'affects' of these individuals that I would like to comment on what binds them together. These ‘affects’ are the sovereignty of a ‘masculine’ God and Christian Dogma that resides within couples’ narratives. This presentation will tentatively suggest that Christian faith and a transcendental God who walks the Japanese suburbs play substantial roles in maintaining and creating dialogues between some couples. ■ Session 5: Who are the Religious Others? : Process of Differentiation and Institutionalization in the Philippines KAWADA, Makito Wonder in the Cave: Plurality of Local Contexts and Catholic Church in the Philippines Through the colonization and evangelism by Spain since 16th centuries, Filipino had been converted voluntarily or forced to be Christians. Due to this historical background, it seems to be no doubt that Filipino people, especially ‘lowlanders’, are well-trained Christians which consist of majority of Filipino people until now. Of course, it goes without saying that they are ‘real’ Christians, but is it really no way to sidestep monolithic representation for them? In this paper, I explore a possibility to see plurality in Filipino folk, which is usually regarded as ‘standard’ of Christian Filipino, and to find otherness for Catholicism in them. Led by splendid articles titled “The Woman in the cave” and “Stalking the Virgin” written by Resil Mojares, I adopt the practice of worship for Virgin of Guadalupe in Cebu City as a case study. The Parish of Guadalupe has a chapel of the cave in mountainous hinterland of the parish church. While the cave is directed as ‘holy/miraculous place’ in Catholic context, it has polysemic connotations for the folk, such as wonder, fear, fertility, and so on. I will consider this context gap as a production device of otherness in contemporary folk life of Filipino. AZUMA, Kentaro Rethinking “Folk Catholicism” in the Philippines In this paper, I aim to rethink the concept of “folk Catholicism”, which is to analyze and to describe the religious situation in the lowland Christian Philippines. Folk Catholicism, which was conceptualized by Frank Lynch, placed not only ‘official’ Catholic belief and practice but also ‘non-official’ and ‘popular’ ones in the continuum of Catholicism. Although some scholars have criticized the concept of folk Catholicism, I mainly pay

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attention to the criticism and objection raised by ordinary believers in this paper. In their voice, elements of indigenous belief or syncretism in localized Catholicism are denied and orthodoxy in the official Catholicism is emphasized. It is because the bearers of folk Catholicism are not believers themselves but hegemonic discourses in the Philippines such as Catholic Church, anthropologist and nation state. However, the potential of folk Catholicism is still left. Originally, folk Catholicism was to shed light on the reality of local practice against the universal but vague doctrine of Catholicism. Here, I introduce the notion of “folk Catholicism from the below” in order to re-examine the concept from the point of locality. Some case studies of popular belief and practice from my fieldwork will be shown to verify the validity of notion. MIYAWAKI, Satoshi “Others” Described by the Philippine Catholic Church: Folk Catholicism, Protestants, Fundamentalists, Muslims, and Other “Citizens of Good Will” One of the most significant issues of Catholicism in the Philippines is that it is regarded as "majority". Catholic Church authority's understanding on this Catholicism's being majority and how it finds its place in that context has been one of the important factors in this respect, especially since this is strongly connected to the dynamism of the Church's involvement in socio-political issues. Inseparably related to this is that the Church as a champion of democracy nowadays, is called to be major moral leader and at the same time one of the equal participants of democratic process among many other segments of the society. I will present here mainly the analyses on its official documents, on how it deals with the difficult task of theoretically harmonizing the contradiction of moral supremacy based on the Catholic majority and promotion of democracy, also in the context of the various divisions inside the Church itself. Also presented here are its categorization of non-Catholics, its characteristic approach to Protestants, Muslims, Iglesia ni Kristo and Secularists, etc. MORI, Masami Contested Religious Values and Practices: Legal Pluralism concerning Muslims in the Philippines Law has power to give the basis for a nation and a state and it also sets the boundaries in society and categorizes the people. Legal postulates usually include the religious values and these values come into the reality of life of the people through everyday practices. Being minority in the Philippines, recognition and realization of the religious and cultural rights of Muslims have been one of the political considerations of both national government and Muslims themselves. As a national institution, Muslim Personal Code of the Philippines has been codified and implemented for almost 30 years but it still contains some problems and limitations. In this paper, I would like to discuss political and legal constellation concerning Muslims in the Philippines. For that purpose, by briefly reviewing the regulations on marriages and divorces both in the Muslim Personal Code of the Philippines and Family Code of the Philippines, some contested issues are clarified. The problems and limitations of implementation of Muslim Personal Code are also pointed out. Based on the legal anthropological research, I will, as well, present some conflict management cases in which both Muslims and Christians are

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involved to examine the possibility of a national institution. ■ Session 6: New Discoveries of Philippine Archaeology in the Past Ten Years RONQUILLO, Wilfredo P. Significant Finds from a Decade of Philippine Archaeological Research: 1996-2006 Ten years after the last Philippine Prehistory Session at the International Philippine Studies Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii Philippine archaeological research continue to result in the generation of unique and important prehistoric data undertaken by the Archaeology Division of the National Museum of the Philippines. Still the only institution undertaking archaeological research in the country on a year-round basis the decade 1996-2006 has seen important advances in this field in spite of the limited funding from the National Government due to the financial difficulties in the country. The creation of the Archaeological Studies Program at the University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City in 1996 was a turning point in the history of archaeology in the country. For the first time the academic arm of the discipline was instituted in the premier university of the country ensuring additional archaeological research undertakings, continued source of well-trained archaeologists some of whom are already members of the Archaeology Division of the National Museum and a vibrant archaeological community in the country. This paper presents a summary of the terrestrial archaeological research activities undertaken in the Philippines, data generated to reinforce previous questionable C14 datings of important early man fossils from the Tabon Caves and the important networks and linkages with foreign archaeologists during this ten-year period and indicates their usefulness in the larger Southeast Asian region archaeological community. GARONG, Ame M. Reconstruction of the Subsistence Strategies and Deciphering Shell Midden Formation of the Prehistoric Shell-Gathering People in Northern Philippines The Cagayan Valley Archaeological Project has been in existence for more than ten (10) years covering the three municipalities of Gatarran, Lal-lo and Camalaniugan. They have been explored, surveyed and excavated focusing on shell midden sites and upland/open sites. The Cagayan River, the longest river in the Philippines runs through these three municipalities and it has been found out that the river has provided food such as shells and fish for the inhabitants through time. Archaeological activities have been concentrated more in Lal-lo because of its huge and extensive shell midden deposits. Fish and freshwater bivalve shells locally known as cabibi (Batissa sp.) abound from this river, as well as other gastropods. In 1985, twenty-one (21) shell midden deposits were discovered by a team of archaeologists and geologists from the National Museum of the Philippines and Japan. The sites explored were along the riverbank, limestone formation, inland and upland areas. From the 21 sites identified thirteen (13) were systematically excavated yielding shells, animals and human bones, potteries of different types and other cultural materials of great importance to Philippine

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archaeology. The middens ranged from 1 to 2 meters high and extended approximately for 2 kilometers along the riverbank. Interestingly, the huge midden deposits were basically made up of bivalve freshwater shells locally known as cabibi with minimal number of freshwater gastropods. This present research project has studied 13 shell midden sites including 2 upland-open sites. They have been excavated allowing for the establishment of a local chronology. This present paper attempts to present and discuss the possible changes in strategies and subsistence pattern of prehistoric people through time using the shell midden and the different cultural and faunal remains associated within. The paper will also present findings that will lead to a better understanding and interpretation of the formation of the shell midden deposit that is different from one site to another. TANAKA, Kazuhiko Micro Sequence of the Iron Age Pottery of the Bangag I Shell-midden Site, Lal-lo, Cagayan. In prehistoric archaeology, it is very important to establish the pottery sequence as the relative time scale. The pottery sequence becomes the basis of all archaeological discussion. In the lower reaches of the Cagayan River, the large framework of the pottery sequence was established by efforts of Prof. Hidefumi Ogawa, myself and others. However, the detail of the sequence is not yet totally clarified. My paper will give such detail of the sequence as the micro- sequence focusing on the Iron Age in Northern Luzon. The Bangag I Shell-middle Site is revealed an iron fragment from Layer VI. So it is possible to say it is the Iron Age site. It had a thick deposit of shells of thickness of 2m 80cm. This shell deposit was divided into 11 layers. All layers revealed the pottery. On the basis of these layers, it is possible to establish the micro-sequence of the pottery. And the C14 dates are also available. The animal bone of Layer II revealed a C14 date of 1750±30B.P. The animal bone of layer VI revealed a C14 date of 1915±50 B.P. The animal bone of layer XI revealed a 14 dating of 1965±40 B.P. NOGAMI, Takenori Hizen Porcelain Transported by Manila Galleon Trade Hizen porcelain was exported from Nagasaki, Japan to Southeast Asia by the Dutch VOC ships and Chinese junks between the late 17th century and the middle of the 18th century. It is known that many pieces of Hizen porcelain were found at the archaeological sites in Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia and Indonesia. But there was no evidence that Hizen porcelain was exported to the Philippines before our research. In March 2004, we examined the shards of porcelain unearthed at Intramuros in Manila. Although they were mainly the shards of Chinese porcelain produced between the late 16th century and the 19th century, we found several pieces of Hizen porcelain for the first time. Then we have examined the shards unearthed at several excavated sites in Manila, and we found about sixty pieces of Hizen porcelain. The finding strongly supports that Hizen porcelain was imported to Manila, and it implies that Hizen porcelain was transported from Manila to Acapulco by Spanish galleon ships, because several shards of Hizen porcelain found at Intramuros were identical to the shards of blue and white plates unearthed in Mexico City and Guatemala.

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■ Session 7: Cross-Cultural Relationship between the Philippines and Japan YONENO-REYES, Michiyo Songs of Modernity and “US” Shadow: Comparative Perspectives on Salidummay and Shōka This paper discusses the cultural impact of the “US shadow” to the northern Luzon highland in the 20th century, as manifested by the history of the so-called salidummay songs, a modern folk song genre of the region. The ethnographic knowledge on salidummay is compared with secondary knowledge on shōka, Japanese pedagogical songs, as recent progress of Japanese musicology on Meiji era reveals. Both salidummay and shōka are characterized by metered rhythm and unhemitonic pentatonic scales, thus to facilitate group singing – in unison or with simple tonal harmonization. In other words, both reveal the traits of Anglo-Saxon Protestant hymns at the turn of the 20th century which had tremendous impact at early stage of music education both in the Philippines and Japan. Furthermore, largely because of aforementioned musical features, the both eventually got utilized as war songs during World War II. The ethnomusicological discourse on Westernization that hints on the trinity of church, education and military (Nettl), interwoven with that on identity – of largely Andersonean- serves as theoretical framework to the study. ESPIRITU, Augusto The Japanese in the Filipino American Imagination My paper, "The Japanese in the Filipino American Imagination," explores the imagery and imagining of Japan, the Japanese, and Japanese Americans in Filipino diasporic literature in the USA, especially in the post-war (World War II) period. It will explore the ways in which both pro-Japanese and anti-Japanese discourses were crucial to the construction of Filipino nationalism as well as ethnic and gender identities among Filipinos in the United States, especially in relation to US neo-colonialism and racial ideology. SUZUKI, Nobue Love Triangle: Filipinos, Japanese, and Locations of Colonial Power In Filipino national formation, as Vicente Rafael argues, the notion of translation has played a vital role. Translation involves the double process of appropriating and replacing what is foreign while keeping its foreignness in view. In this paper, I locate the intermarriages of Filipinas and Japanese men in this translational and transnational process in order to provide alternative views of their subject formation and spousal power relations. While the work on Filipina-Japanese relationships predominantly places them within the bounded gender roles and geopolitical spaces of the “North” and “South,” Filipinos’ and Japanese differential relations to the West does not actually allow them to remain within such boundaries. In fact, Filipinos’ colonial heritages have paradoxically empowered them with the English language and other cultural

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capital, and to the eyes of some Japanese men their wives sometimes emerge as powerful “Westerners.” The paper first offers some ways in which the previously unambiguous boundaries of power are destabilized in the process of the men’s translating Filipinos’ colonial history, as it is embodied and enacted by their wives. In the second half of the paper, however, I explore the areas in which Filipinos’ “Western” attributes are mistranslated, resulting in betrayals and violence. TAKANO, Kunio Ang Imahe ng Sudalong Hapon sa Napiling Akdang Pampanitikan Sa apat na akda, Without Seeing the Dawn ni Stevan Javellana (1947), Mga Ibong Mandaragit ni Amado Hernandez (1969), Pamulinawen ni Jose Bragado (1995) at When the Elephants Dance ni Holthe (2002), ipinapakita ang mga sundalong Hapon. Bagamat higit na negatibo ang pagkakalarawan sa kanila, makikita natin ang sari-saring papel na ginagampanan nila sa bawat akda. Inilarawan ni Javellana ang mga sundalong Hapon bilang bahagi ng makasaysayang karanasan ng mga ordinaryong Pilipino na dapat ipaalam sa susunod na henerasyon. Para kay Hernandez, ang mga sundalong Hapon ay katumbas ng mga may-kapangyarihang Pilipinong nagsasamantala sa kanilang mahihinang kapwa. Sa akda naman ni Bragado, si Kapitan Furikawa ay isa ring bayani ng mga Hapon. Bagamat maaaring tingnan na isa siyang kontrabida sapagkat sumasalungat siya sa pinuno ng gerilyang Pilipino, ipinapakita pa rin ni Bragado ang makataong saloobin ni Furikawa, kung kaya naman, hindi nasasalamin na mayroon siyang personal na poot dito. Sa kabilang banda, hindi man sinasadya, naisalin sa kasalukuyang henerasyon ang mga dalumat ni Javellana sa pamamagitan ng akda ni Holthe, isang Filipino-American na naninirahan sa California. Sa pagkakataong ito, muling nabuo ang imahe ng mga sundalong Hapon ayon sa mga istoryang narinig niya sa kanyang ama. Sa kabuuan, masasabing ang mga imahe ng sundalong Hapon ay nanggagaling sa larangang pansemantiko at iniimpluwensiyahan ito ng kultural na yunit at ideolohiya ng panahon. Ang nilikhang imahe ng manunulat ay muling nabubuo ng mga mambabasa at ito’y nabubuo na naman sa mga taong nasa paligid hangggang walang katapusan. [English Translation] The Images of Japanese Soldiers in Selected Literary Works The Japanese soldiers are depicted in all the four literary works, which are Stevan Javellana’s Without Seeing the Dawn (1947), Amado Hernandez’s Mga Ibong Mandaragit (1969), Jose Bragado’s Pamulinawen (1995) and Holthe’s When the Elephants Dance (2002). Although the delineation of the soldiers is relatively negative, we can see their various characteristics in each works. Javellana depicted the Japanese soldiers as a part of historical experiences among Filipino folks which should be taken over to the next generation. In Hernandez’s work, Japanese soldiers are positioned as same as Filipino capitalists and opportunists exploiting their own countrymen. Bragado describes Captain Furikawa as another hero, but on the side of the Japanese. Although Furikawa could be regarded as an antagonist, since he fights against Filipino guerillas, Bragado still portrayed his humane side. Thus, there has not such personal hatred seen in his work. On the other hand, Javellana’s thoughts and aspirations had been rendered

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to the present generation through the work of Holthe, a Filipino-American residing in Carlifornia. This time, the images of Japanese soldiers had once again been formed according to the stories she heard from her father. Therefore, it could be concluded that the images of Japanese soldiers come from the semantic field which is influenced by the cultural unit and the ideology of the time. The images created by the author are re-formed by the readers and once again among people and so on. ■ Session 8: Issues and Issues and Challenges of Political Reform in the Philippines and Japan TEEHANKEE, Julio C. Comparative Electoral Reforms in the Philippines and Japan Japan and the Philippines share a common history of extensive electoral politics. Elections in these countries, however, have been long saddled by clientelism and patronage politics. Hence, electoral reforms were introduced to broaden political participation and representation. Both countries adopted variations of a mixed electoral system combining single member districts and proportional representation. The passage of the “Electoral Reform Law” in 1994 by the Japanese Diet replaced the archaic electoral system of single non-transferable vote in multimember districts for the lower chamber. The Philippine Congress passed the “Party List Law” in 1997 in accordance with a constitutional provision that mandates the introduction of a list proportional representation scheme of electing one-fifth of the members of the House of Representatives. While these electoral reforms have yet to deliver on its objective of fostering issue-based elections, the new systems have been tested in four elections in Japan (1996, 2000, 2003, and 2005) and three elections in the Philippines (1998, 2001, and 2004). This paper will study the process and outcome of introducing electoral reforms in Japan and the Philippines through a comparative institutional approach, and provide an initial assessment of the new electoral systems adopted by these countries. NISHIMURA, Kenichi People’s Participation in the Local Governance in the Philippines Fifteen years have passed since the Local Government of Code 1991 - the aims of which are democratization, devolution, de-bureaucratization and decentralization - was promulgated. To realize these aims, the law has provided several mechanisms such as the Local Special Bodies, which include the Local Development Council. Among the main purposes of the Council is to enhance the people’s participation in the process of local governance such as the developmental policy making and implementation. For that purpose, the law provides that not less than one-fourth of the Council members should be representatives of the NGOs and POs. Should the Local Development Council have functioned as expected, the people’s participation in the local developmental governance would have been successfully realized. However, the reality has fallen short of expectations because the Councils have not been functioning as provided by the law or not convened at all. With this fact as background, this paper first explains the features of the Local Development Council and examines the way the

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Council has been carried out. Then, based on the author’s field research in some of the local governments, the paper tries to identify the problems and discuss possible remedies to improve the system. IGARASHI, Seiichi The Role of Civil Society toward Democratic Development in the Philippines After more than a dozen years of authoritarian rule, the Philippines restored democracy by the overwhelming ‘people power’ uprising in 1986. According to some democratic indicators, the Philippines have so far been generally evaluated as settled democracy. In fact, surviving coups attempts, it has experienced the peaceful changes of government via elections. But going into the details, it is often observed that democracy does not function as expected. In spite of the 20 years’ experiences, there still remains the gap between the democratic institutions and practices. Moreover, it is hard to say that the substantive dimension of democracy has been sufficiently attained. The words such as ‘elite democracy,’ ‘partyless democracy,’ and ‘shallow democracy,’ seem to expose such realities. Hence one of the major tasks in post-Marcos era is how to transform defective democracy into developed democracy. As leading actors in response to such need, I will focus upon civic organizations empowered through ‘people power’ revolution. They have tried to make restored democracy more deepened and consolidated by participating in the decision-making processes. By overviewing their various activities, I will explore the potentials and limits of civil society toward democratic development and prospect the future direction of the Philippine democracy. THOMPSON, Mark R. Presidentas and People Power in Comparative Asian Perspective The Philippines was not the first Asian country in modern history with a national female leader. Sirimavo Bandanaraike became prime minister of Sri Lanka in 1960, Indira Gandhi the leader of India in 1966. But Cory’s leadership of revolutionary and anti-authoritarian people power differed from the female-led dynastic democracies in Sri Lanka and India. Her symbol as a moral alternative to a corrupt regime was far more important than dynastic considerations. Cory can better be compared to former Indonesian president Megawati Sukarnoputri who led a protest movement and was a symbol of the opposition‘s moral ascendancy over corrupt dictatorship. Comparisons can also be made in other Asian countries influenced by the Philippine example. The revolutionary legacy of people power in the Philippines was evident when another female leader, Gloria Macapagal, arose during a popular, mass uprising against a corrupt (although in this case elected) leader in 2001. But instead of establishing herself as a moral leader, Arroyo has become a “neo-traditional politician,” mixing populist appeals with clientelism (and her critics claim corruption and electoral fraud as well). Female-led people power has thus come full circle: moral appeals against corrupt autocrats have been replaced by efforts to preserve dynastic rule at all costs.

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■ Session 9: Dynamism of Diaspora in and out of the Philippines: History and Present SUGAYA, Nariko Chinese Immigrants in the Spanish Philippines: Looking through the Story of Hay Bing or Juan Imbin of Caysasay, Taal, Batangas. The Virgin of Caysasay is one of the well-known Catholic religious images that attract devotees from different parts of the country. This image is unique in that it has also been revered among Chinese Filipinos as their goddess Matzu, while Taal is the town known to have no Chinese community. This paper shows how the Chinese immigrants in the Spanish colony were perceived in the eyes of Spanish religious people and identifies the historical factors behind it. Among the miraculous stories attributed to the Virgin, the most notable is the story of Hay Bing or Juan Imbin, a Christian Chinese stonecutter, who was killed by the local people in the massacre of 1639, but was brought back to life by the Virgin to continue the construction of her shrine. When his devotion to the Virgin lapsed after many years, his water buffalo attacked him to death in the field. Recorded in the present form during the eighteenth century, the story suggests not only the presence of Chinese devotion to the Virgin in the colony, but also the Spanish colonial perception at the time of Chinese immigrants and their faith. GYO, Miyabara Locality beyond the Transnationality: The Biopolitics of Chinese in Cebu In Soujourners and Settlers Jamie Mackie writes that Chinese diaspora in Southesast Asia demonstrates cases of total integration into the host society, long-term coexistence and competition with it, and of a variety of options in between [Mackie, 1996:xiii.] The phrase “a variety of options in between” shows not only the history of Chinese transnationality but also the multiplicity of the imagined Chinese overseas. Focusing on gendered knowledge on intermarriage, reproduction, and interment, this essay illustrates the biopolitics of the Chinese population in Cebu and the Philippines, allowing a reconsideration of Chinese ethnicity. As they adapt to the global economy of the 1990s, Anthropologists now see the mobility of the Chinese population not only in its modern national context but also in its post-modern transnational context. Here Chinese agency is de-territorialized, displaced, and disembodied. Furthermore, the Chinese are described as essentialized beings, immediately reacting to and are even highly vulnerable to the world’s political economy. Recently, however, a growing gap between new-comers and old-timers has caused the Chinese in Cebu to revert back to their local context. The politics of sexuality, reproduction, and interment provides a unique perspective into this re-localization of the Chinese in Cebu and in the Philippine locality. AFABLE, Patricia O. Baguio's Early 20th Century Japanese Community: Culture, Society, and Work in an American Mountain Resort Within a few years of the U.S. annexation of the Philippines, the colonial government forged a regional space out of the northwest Luzon highlands, with the goal to exploit

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its geographical and mineral resources. From the beginnings of a “hill station” at Baguio, American, Chinese, and Japanese migrants and lowland Filipinos flocked there in search of gold, commerce, and wage work. As participants in the building of vehicular access routes into the mountains and an urban infrastructure for a summer capital, Japanese construction workers, farmers and small merchants helped lay the foundations of Baguio as Northern Luzon's economic and tourist capital. Improvements in transportation in the 1910s spurred the expansion of American-sponsored forest, mining, and agricultural industries. Alert to these opportunities, Japanese settlers moved into commercial farming, while developing occupational and service niches in other fields and augmenting their skilled work force with relatives from Japan. Marriages with Cordillera women introduced them to local kin groups and to labor sources and technological and ritual exchange. This paper examines these initiatives within the Japanese community's broad cultural, social, and institutional responses to life and work in the multiethnic Baguio frontier. It is based on ethnographic materials, U.S. archival sources, and oral history. BALLESCAS, Maria Rosario Piquero Understanding Filipino Migration to Japan Filipino migration to Japan is analyzed within the context of history, globalization, and gender. The presentation intends to explain how, across time periods, Filipino migration mirrors the world and the specific worlds of Japan and the Japanese as well as that of the Philippines and the Filipinos. The presentation will also analyze the various waves and stages of Filipino migration to Japan and the various implications of these for the 2 countries as well as for the rest of the world and for migration studies as well. The so-called export of “care” culture, often associated with Filipino migrants, is also included for discussion and reflection. Linking with the other discussants for this panel, the presentation hopes to ask and present initial reflections on the significance of Filipino diaspora in today’s world. At the core of this presentation is the consultation about and sharing of an integrative perspective of migration that highlights not only the economic and structural but the human, social, cultural and personal dimensions of migration as well. ■ Session 10: History and the Politics of the Philippine Nation-State RAFAEL, Vicente L. The Afterlife of Empire The Philippine nation-state, like other postcolonial regimes, is marked by an imperial inheritance. Both Spanish and US colonial rule have left behind a certain idea of sovereignty rooted in Christian thinking. It is an idea of sovereignty that gives the ruler the absolute freedom to take exception to the law. Whether embodied by the king, by the state or, in its nationalist revolutionary moment, by the people, sovereignty entails the power to define and decide upon what is exceptional, so exceptional as to warrant the breaking of existing laws in view of establishing new ones. The sovereign as "he

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who takes exception" is thus one who has the power of life over death. He is invested with the capacity to decide on who should live or who should die, who is a friend and who is an enemy, who is a citizen and who a foreigner. It is the legacy of this absolutist notion of sovereignty that constitutes the afterlife of empire. It haunts every articulation of democracy in postcolonial societies, the ghost that both enables and poisons the nationalist struggles for freedom and social justice. In this paper, I will ask how and to what extent this paradoxical notion of sovereignty comes about in the Philippines by way of the history of Spanish and American imperialism, looking especially at the role of Christian conversion, nationalist revolution and counter-revolution. SUZUKI, Nobutaka Assimilation or Segregation: "Moro" Muslim Integration and Agricultural Colony Project in Cotabato, Mindanao This paper will examine the process on how the "Moro" Muslim were, politically and socially, integrated into an agricultural colony project. This project, originally designed as a part of Mindanao colonization programs during the American period, was more widely known as "rice colony" project so as to alleviate food shortage and an unequal distribution of population over the Philippines." With regard to Mindanao colonization and its political complexity, a number of studies and works have been so far made to reveal the political integration of the "Moro" Muslim into American colonial system and its dynamics over a century. The authors like Ralph Thomas (1971), Samuel Tan (1973), and, more recently, Patricio Abinales (2000), Thomas McKenna (2000), Michael Salman (2001), have, partially or briefly, dealt in their works with "rice colony" as a first step towards successful Mindanao colonization at the early American colonial times, however, unfortunately little has been known about a fact that such the rice colony was planned to accept applications from not only Christians immigrants, but also the "Moro" Muslim residing in Cotabato as primary benefactors. The statistical data demonstrates that a surprising fact that the number of the "Moro" Muslim, allowed to settle in the colony and provided with a parcel of land for cultivation, excelled that of the Christian settlers migrated from densely populated regions like Cebu. It deserves close examination that why such a number of the "Moro" Muslim were so anxious to reside in the colony site, and how they came to be recruited under the circumstances where the antagonism towards the American was so strong. In this paper, in order to present a new account, more emphasis will be placed on two dimensions: 1)"Moro" integration into the colony project by a careful examination of primary roles played by three "Moro" datus (Datu Pinag, Datu Almada, and Datu Ampatuan), and 2) the colonial policy and its formation towards "Moro" Muslim by the American principal administrator on Mindanao affairs (Frank Carpenter) and military officers (Jeff Gallman as colonial agent). As for main source of information, Bureau of Insular Affairs Records (Record Group 350), kept in the National Archives of Washington, D.C. will be used as primary data. JOSE, Ricardo T. The Philippines in Japanese Military Strategic Planning, 1941-1945 Various aspects of World War II in the Philippines have been examined in various

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studies. However, the Japanese Army and Navy’s strategic plans for the Philippines have not received much attention, particularly during the occupation proper. This paper will examine the Japanese Army and Navy strategic plans for three distinct periods. The first period is the outbreak of the war until the surrender of the USAFFE forces – the reasons for invasion and subsequent takeover. The second period is the occupation proper, from June 1942 to July 1944, when the Philippines was placed under the direct command of Tokyo as a supply base for operations in the South Pacific, and a center for rest and recuperation of Japanese troops from the South Pacific battlegrounds. Domestic military policy at this time was to subdue the guerrillas whilst adjusting military needs with Philippine “independence.” The third period marks the change in planning after the fall of Saipan, in which the Philippines became the front line. Japanese strategic plans provided for the serious defense of the Philippines, including airfield construction, sending of reinforcements and reorganization of military units already in the Philippines. The paper will also identify specific military and naval units in the Philippines (at least on a preliminary level) and where they were assigned. AQUINO, Belinda A. Political Reform in the Philippines: Is Federalism the Answer? In the past five years, various groups in the Philippines, especially the Congress, have been actively debating the need for political reform by amending the present Constitution to establish a federal-parliamentary form of government to replace the presidential-unitary system that has been in existence since the country regained its independence in 1946 from the United States. This revolutionary move is favored by the Arroyo administration and its supporters, not only in the Congress but also in local governments, but opposed by a whole array of groups, which argue, among other reasons, that it is too radical a change that the country may not be prepared for. The timing of it is also seen as "suspect," coming at a time when President Arroyo is faced with persistent pressures to step down, and needs to defuse the escalating political tension. At this writing, another impeachment move is being mounted by her opponents in the Congress. This paper will attempt to present the major issues in the debate, which can be summarized as follows: 1) Is federalism-parliamentarism the answer to the country's continuing social, economic and political problems? 2) Can the present constitutional system remain but reformed to accommodate substantial doses of local autonomy? 3) What have been the results of various local autonomy laws, such as the Local Government Code, which have been passed by various Congresses over the years? And finally, 4) In terms of the people, will they be better off in terms of standard of living under a federalized structure? I will present a cautionary perspective on the issue, and opt for the view that the political problems of the Philippines are "beyond federalism," which is to say that a real understanding of the country's political culture would add clarity and substance to the larger question of federalism.

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■ Session 11: Philippine Historical Emplotments and the Politics of Culture BAUTISTA, Julius J. Remembering the Past through the Santo Niño de Cebu In what ways have Cebuanos constructed or ‘revived’ a glorious past autonomous from colonial-prescribed emplotments of their racial and ethnic origins? How is the oldest religious icon in the Philippines, the Santo Niño de Cebu, involved in this process? This paper addresses the discursive ‘localization’ of the Santo Niño by examining historical accounts that sought to deny its foreign affiliations while supplanting to it a distinctly “Filipino” or Asian provenance. Through this discussion, this paper shall also trace how Cebuano devotion to the Santo Niño became allegorically and metaphorically associated with Cebu’s own claims to political legitimacy vis-à-vis the national capital and the Asian region as a whole. BRIONES, Nikki Serranilla The Staging of Christian-Muslim Conflict The Moro-Moro, a theater form that features Christian soldiers in combat with Muslims, was a popular form of entertainment in Christianized parts of Spanish Philippines. Discussions on the Moro-Moro, from Spanish scholars to present writers, make use of a “Christian-Moro Conflict framework” for describing the origins and function of this form of theater. The Moro-Moro is commonly seen to have emerged out of a historical context of “Moro Wars,” and is believed to have been used by colonial authorities to commemorate Spanish victory over Moros in promoting the superiority of their race and religion. The continued staging of the Moro-Moro in contemporary times caused some representatives of the Moro nation to call for the eradication of this type of theater as it creates unfair portrayals of Muslims. The Moro-Moro is traditionally performed as an offering to a town's patron saint and forms part of the fiesta rituals of Christian townsfolk. This paper specifically looks at Christian performers’ portrayal of their “Muslim other.” Using data gathered from recent Moro-Moro performances, I shall propose a counter-intuitive notion: that capacity for peace can be manifested in a theater of war. I will endeavor to escape the “Christian-Moro Conflict framework” by revisiting the question of origins and showing that Moro-Moro performances today, while successfully retaining a lot of traditional elements, have slowly evolved to accommodate growing sensitivity towards Moros, and now put Christians and Muslims on a more equal footing on stage. NAMIKI, Kanami Japanese Influence on Philippine Theater Folkdance Leonor Orosa Goquinco, a National Artist for Dance, pioneered a new genre of theatricalized dance called Folkloric Ballet which paved the way for the development of Philippine Theater Folkdance in the late 1950's. I will analyze the historical emplotment used by Orosa Goquinco in her production entitled “Trend: Return to the Native,” which is the country's first theatricalized folkdance presentation. In “Trend,” the history of Philippine dance styles was traced in five segments, namely: Primitive (Cordillera),

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Morolandia (Muslim), Asalto (Spanish Influenced), American Jazz, and finally, the New Native. I will show how the “New Native” meant a new creative Philippine theater dance which was a mixture of foreign and local elements.This paper will also examine the context in which “Trend” was created and explore two ways in which a Japanese connection could be established. First, Orosa Goquinco was part of the first Philippine Cultural Mission to Japan in the late 1930's, right before she staged “Trends.” Second, the Japanese Cultural Propaganda's emphasis on Asian heritage could have encouraged the development of Folkdance Theater such that some historians claim that during the Japanese Occupation, there was a “golden age of theater,” a period when numerous theater productions using native material were staged. ■ Session 12: Ecology, Environment and Socio-Economic Issues of the Philippines BAUTISTA, Germelino M. The Philippine Environmental Crisis, Ecological Losses, and Policy Frameworks This article discusses depletion or loss of the country’s natural capital (its forests, watersheds, rivers, mangroves, coral reefs and other habitats) and identifies the immediate and underlying causes of deforestation, biodiversity loss, watershed and water quality degradation, mangrove and coral reef destruction, and fishery depletion. As a result, the natural provision of ecological services and their support to human communities is also curtailed. The article advances the need to evaluate the consequences and costs of ecological losses and the need to address the limitations of existing policy frameworks. In particular, the state’s commodity bias and forestland classification and use policy, and the open-access system in marine and water resources need to be reexamined. The article also discusses the groundwater depletion in major cities, urban air pollution problem and its health impacts, and climate change and global warming. The contribution of the American economy to the global warming problem and the non-acceptance of the Kyoto protocol by the Bush administration cast an ominous future for coastal areas and the global community as a whole. SEKI, Yoshiki Regenerating Tropical Forest in Complex Adaptive System: From Illegal Logging to Sustainable Forestry Commercial logging operations in the Philippines are almost end after heavy exploitation of timber resources. However, illegal logging is still rampant. Many of illegal loggers are previously logging workers employed by timber companies those became jobless after logging ban. In this presentation, a case is analyzed that illegal loggers choose to shift their livelihood to sustainable small-scale plantation forestry. Loggers have been becoming planters. Complex Adaptive System theory is adopted to analyze this historical phenomenon. Because this is a morphogenesis system emerged through interactions of many elements such as depletion of natural resources, rise of timber price, land tenure, community organization, people's consciousness, technology, and other institutional arrangements by the government. Illegal loggers have tried to

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adapt changes of external elements such as market, natural environmental condition, and institution by changing their internal cultural elements (meme). I will also point out problems of present CBFM program that often becomes an obstacle of spontaneous shift. Some recommendations will also be proposed how to revise CBFM program. HAYAMA, Atsuko Devolution in Forest Management: Creating New Space for Local Interests or for Public Goods? In the Philippines, the state forest management has been strong as well as weak. When the country was then thickly forested, the State had been subsumed into strong market drives, and with its laws and regulations, the State could easily replace local forest management practices. However, it hardly been able to restore forests in extended deforested state forest lands despite related laws and regulations as well as various programs. Therefore, institutional arrangements such as those under Local Government Code and Community-Based Forest Management policy in which state control over the forest lands are devolved into the local level are rational, enabling local communities and civil society to take part in forest governance. Devolution in forest management is a new challenge not only to local communities, local governments and civil society but also to the central government which still doubts the managerial ability of the local institutions. It is observed that many communities are still posited as mere participants of the state programs blueprinted by the central government, eventually failing to achieve its goal. Whether devolution in forest management function well or not relies on how much new space is created by the State for the process of reaching mutual consensus among different stakeholders, especially the local communities, local government and the State. MAKABENTA-IKEDA, Maria P. & CARLOS, Maria Reinaruth Filipino Migrant Location Decision: Effects of Market Potential, Quality of Life and Information Networks This paper analyzes market potential in the context of migrant location decision. Market potential is a measure of likely demand for migrant labor given his individual skills and characteristics. New Economic Geography theories predict that the higher the market potential in a region is, the more profitable the region is for businesses and the more attractive it is for consumers to locate-- thus triggering agglomeration forces for production and consumption activities to cluster in that region. The contribution of this paper is twofold: 1) to empirically test the above relationship using data of Filipino migrants and 2) to examine the effects of non-market income aspects by analyzing the effects of perceived quality of life (such as community and family life, health, political stability and freedoms, etc.) on the migration decision. In addition to this, we also explain the role of information networks as "drivers" (or catalysts) in the migration process. The hypothesis is that these information networks have indirect feedback effects on international migrant location decision by affecting the formation of perceived overseas market potential and quality of life conditions.

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■ Session 13: Individual Papers on Political Economy in the Philippines TAKAGI, Yusuke Breaking a Spell of Lande: Philippine Party Switching Revisited The study of Philippine politics seems to have overestimated the works of Carl H. Lande for decades. It is true that Lande has successfully traced party switching, act of politicians who would switch to the likely or actual winning party before and after election, to the disposition of political parties to seek economic profit without particular adherence to policy or ideology. This influential Lande’s framework on political parties, however, deserves three fundamental questions. First, he fails to pay much attention to the stability of two-major party system from 1946 to 1972. Second, his analysis on party switching contradicts the fact that most politicians have not actually switched their party affiliations. Under two-major party system with a total of seven elections, large-scale party switching only occurred three times and pork-barrel motivations does not provide full explanations to it. Finally, the total of party switching over a period of time doesn't reflect frequency. Unlike Lande’s theory, that party switching occurred only on rare occasions explains the facts that the predominant one-party system did not emerge and that the major opposition party did not significantly diminish its ability to seize power. I tackle these points with using Lande’s as well as own-research data. SAKUMA, Miho Local Politics and Development in the Philippines This study is an analysis of the relationship between Philippine local politics and development with great emphasis on the local government related laws. Economic development has been elusive to the Philippines and it is often said that “too much politics” is to blame. The local economy has often been discussed in association with the rise and fall of political families/leaders. Some studies have emphasized the predatory character of these political families/leaders. However, after the Aquino administration introduced a set of decentralization laws, the emergence of creativity and innovation at the local level has been observed. Through case studies on local government-led export processing zone project, this paper shows that there have been local governments that continue implementing these projects for almost ten consecutive years. Such long-term local development efforts have not been reported before. The paper aims to propose a framework that can accommodate developmental local politicians/governments as well as predatory ones. The paper also analyzes what makes failures and successes of the said development projects through case studies and discusses what makes local governments/politicians as developmental or predatory. OTA, Kazuhiro The Impact of Japan’s ODA on Philippine Politics The paper examines how the Japan’s ODA influenced the decision making process in Philippine politics, focusing on Metro Cebu Development Project. The dynamism of Philippine politics is determined not only by domestic factors but also by external factors. It is the case especially in the era of liberal globalization. Metro Cebu

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Development Project funded by JBIC (formerly OECF) is unique in that a part of the programs are planned and implemented directly by the local government based on the decentralization policy. The main points to be considered here are: Firstly, to what extent both of the national and local governments hold autonomy in the decision making process with regard to the large ODA funded project, where there exist implicit pressures by the donor government. Secondly, how the civil sectors like the urban poor relate themselves to the decision making and implementation processes of the project. In some cases, it is not the local government but the donor government that takes an initiative to protect the rights claimed by the civil sectors affected by the project. The power relation might be changing in this process. KURITA, Hideyuki Can the Philippines Overcome ‘Resource Curse’? Institution for Sustainable Development of Natural Resources under the Context of Glocal Network The correlation between abundant of natural resources and social instability, especially economic stagnation is called ‘Resource Curse’. The Philippines is one of such trapped countries. Richness of mineral resources was one of main reasons for debt crisis during Marcos era. Moreover, from Spanish period up to now, development of natural resources has always caused strong conflicts. The institution for sustainable development of natural resources established by initiative of the World Bank and UNDP aims to overcome social instability. The Philippines is one of the first countries which introduced the institution. Under the institution, self-regulation of TNCs (Trans National Corporations) including international financial organizations is the key to cover insufficient ability of other stakeholders. Implementation of the institution soon produced two aspects. In spite of principle in the institution, strong conflict and serious damages still occur all over the Philippines. On the contrary, some cases where affected people can gain negotiation power to mitigate their damages through NGO network has come to be observed. This report focuses on these two aspects by two glocal networks, both stretched from local to global level, to show that the institution should be analyzed by glocal context, and to explicit the dilemma of development. ■ Session 14: Individual Papers on Labor and Migration of the Philippines CHIBA, Yoshihiro The Formation of Regional Zone: Labor Mobility in Manila and Central Luzon from the 19th Century to the Early 20th Century This study discusses the labor mobility in a regional zone of Manila and Central Luzon, from the nineteenth to early twentieth century. From the late eighteenth century, the Philippine islands were incorporated into the world capitalistic economy and the several regions specialized the agricultural crops to sugar, abaca, tobacco, coconut and rice. Up to the end of the nineteenth century, Manila, Iloilo and Cebu organized the flow of labor and goods, in addition to Sulu. Here it is important to regard Manila as a knot of the regional economy incorporating the Central Luzon. However, in the Central Luzon, the

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area including the provinces of Tarlac and Nueva Ecija absorbed many Filipino immigrants northward from the provinces of Pampanga and Bulacan, and southward form Ilocano region and Pangasinan province. Until the 1920s, in Manila and Central Luzon, the village to village mobility had predominated rather than the village to city mobility. Nevertheless, up to the end of the nineteenth century, Manila had accepted the immigrants from a neighboring coastal area of Manila Bay including Bulacan and Pampanga provinces. Such labor mobility made the employment structure that the people from the Central Luzon predominated in over American colonial times. NORIMATSU, Suguru Japanese Perception of Asia Reconstructed through Oriental Championship: Focusing on the Boxing Exchanges between Japan and the Philippines in the 1950’s & 1960’s This study considers how the games against the Filipino pugilists in the Boxing Oriental Championship excited Japanese people. It is shown that these games foster Japanese a new perception of Asia instead of “the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere”. Most scholars concluded the friendly dialogue between them must have been limited, because the harsh occupational policy by Japanese army had provoked Filipino’s antipathies. However, in 1952, four years before the Philippines ratified the reparations agreement with Japan and their peace treaty, both promoters had already held the first Oriental Championship in postwar Japan. The number of games for the belt amounted to 84 times in 1950’s (the Philippines vs. Japan games mainly). Boxing became important contents prior to Pro-Wrestling at the dawn of TV broadcast. Therefore I interviewed the people concerned “Flash” Elorde, ex-Oriental and ex-World Champion, who had led the Japanese boxing to the world standard. The results are as follows. Oriental championship was originally the pretense to draw audience to boxing game. Nevertheless the title encouraged Japanese, and make them venerate the Philippines produced many Oriental titleholders. It means the exchanges provided Japan with an elementary mutual understanding for a kind of reunion with Asia. TESHIGAWARA, Kayoko International Labor Migration of Filipino Nurse: The Commercialized Medical Japanese government is planning to start to receive Filipino nurses from this year through FTA in order to make up for the shortage of nurses in Japan. I, having been working as a nurse in Japan, am interested in what is connote in nurses immigration in Japan. And I suspect that the government and investors are trying to hire Filipino nurses with lower salary than Japanese nurses to arrange privatization of the public hospitals. Thus I started to study. Generally, the studies about the exodus of nurses are focused on the background of the exodus and the negative impact on the quality of the medical skills in the Philippines. However this study will interpret the exodus of the nurses as one of the maladies of the commercialized medical through the perspective of the peace study. This study will focus on the people who are left in the shortage of health service in the Philippines and reveal the existence of people who are deprived the health service of a human right by commercialized medical. Although, it is said that Filipino nurse labor migration interrupt an improvement of the Philippines’ medical condition, I

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suppose that it is not appropriate. I mean that the privatization and the corruption would interrupt the improvement of the medical condition in the Philippines. So this time, I would like to report about this point. SEO, Okja Filipino “Entertainers” in US Military Camptowns in South Korea: Beyond the Representation of “Victims of Tafficking” The focus of this paper is on the Filipino women working as “entertainers” in sex industry around US military camptowns in South Korea. They are the largest group of foreign women involved in the military prostitution. Thus, they are chosen for shedding light on a relationship between US military bases and migration of women. This paper examines the representation of Filipino entertainers, which is “victims of trafficking”. Much of the existing scholarship on Filipino women working in overseas sex industry focuses exclusively on the problems such as poor working conditions, exploitation, human rights abuse etc., identifying this phenomenon as migration that has been achieved through force or deception for the purpose of coerced prostitution or sexual slavery. In this sense, the Filipino entertainers appear as socio-structural “victims”, who have been forced out from their own country as well as “victims of international trafficking”. However, I have found that they are not just “victims” rather they are material subject making their own histories through the fieldwork. Fieldwork research has been conducted in Kyeonggi-do area for 8months in 2005. ■ Session 15: Individual Papers on Culture, Communication and Socio-Economic Issues in the Philippines SERIZAWA, Takamichi The Exploitation of Mankayan Copper Mining during Japanese Occupation Period: Focusing on Local Miners Cooperating with Mitsui Mining Company I will examine the complicated “encounter” of Japanese occupation and modern mining exploitation in the Philippines, by virtue of focusing on local miners cooperating with Mitsui Mining Co. Mankayan copper mining is located in Cordillera Mountains in northern Luzon where supply of mineral resources is abundant. When the Pacific War has broke out in 1941, Japanese imperial government decided to send a detachment of Mitsui Mining Co. to Mankayan for securing military supply exhausted by long wars in China. Before the detachment arrived at January 1942, Mankayan was destructed by USAFFE guerrilla. It is a well known fact that anti-Japanese movement was held more intense in the Philippines than in other South East Asian nations. Destroying Mankayan was also meant crucial issue for local miners becoming unemployed. Under American colonial period in the 1920’s, A large number of capitals has been invented in this area, and local people have been converted to low pay miners. Mitsui Mining Co. could manage this mining around 2 and half years because of mobilization of, and cooperation with local miners who once lost their job. But at the same time, these local miners also needed to support guerrilla for not being target of guerrilla attacks. I will explore this

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complicated relationship among the detachment, local miners, and guerrilla, while mainly analyzing a memoir of the detachment edited in Mistui Company in 1974. FUJII, Miho Social Relations in a Small Coconut Farming Community: A Case Study of "Itaas" in Laguna (Philippines) This is a research on land-related activities in a rural community in the Philippines. Research on land in the Philippines has mainly dealt with lowland rice farming and landowner-tenant relationship. This research, on the other hand, focuses on small coconut landholders in an upland area in Laguna province. It probes the history of social and economic relations that arose from activities related to coconut land. The slopes of Mount Banahaw in Laguna province are called “itaas” by the people in the province. The people who live in the “itaas” claim that they do not have land-tenancy relationships unlike in lowland rice farming areas, and there is not much gap between the economic and social classes. This research finds that the existing social relations in this area revolves around the concept of “maylupa”. People respect those who are “maylupa” (literally, people who own land) who occupy a higher social rank. The concept of “maylupa” does not seem to have mere economic meaning (in terms of land possession, productivity, etc.) but underlies the basic values of the people. A “maylupa” is a descendant of a person considered to be a “maylupa”, inherited most of the land, and resides on it. Being a “maylupa” means having honor and prestige which should be translated into everyday behavior. The “maylupa” has to manage the land well (keep it clean and productive), celebrate village fiesta and religious events with much feasting, generously offer food and drink to others on ordinary occasions, and provide alms to the poor for their daily needs. These community expectations on “maylupa” means that land has a complex meaning, consisting of economic and social values. The ancestors of the villagers started cultivating land on the slopes of Mount Banahaw in late 19th century. Since then the village started to develop. This research explains the social relations that developed between the “maylupa” and those who are not. It also describes the conflicts among members of the same family arising from land inheritance, the attempt of some villagers to gain the social status of “maylupa”, the occasional disharmony in the community, the history of the “bayan” (poblacion) where the village ancestors come from, and the influence on the village of social and economic changes in the province and the country. HIRAI, Akira The Change in the People's Communication: From the Study of the Grass Root Religious Activities in Negros Occidental, the Philippines The present writer is continuing citizens’ own solidarity and survey through exposure in Negros Occidental, the Philippines, as a practice of “Communication that surmounts developmentalism”. A communication (the process of "conscientization") that the people recognizes the violence which threatens their subsistence is done and the communication to share that recognition among the community and to appeal a joint struggle to outside is also done in “Kalbaryo”, a stage play of the Passion being done by young farmers there during every Holy Week. In other words, Kalbaryo is realized once

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as a process of the communication that surmounts developmentalism that protects subsistence. But in the reality, far from getting over developmentalism, it is in the conditions pointed out even deterioration with Kalbaryo. The path of Kalbaryo, which began as an autonomous movement of expression by the rural youth, is analyzed in comparison to the case of BCC (Basic Christian Community) activities in the urban squatters area in this paper. Conscientization argued by Paulo Freire is possible to be realized between the people and the Catholic Church that has performed double roles in the Philippine history, isn’t it? The problems of the grass root peoples’ religious networking movement and possibility of conscientization are verified. DOCOT, Ma. Ledda Brina Cultural Diplomacy of Japan to the Philippines: The Case of Japan Foundation Manila and its Eiga Sai Program In the last decade, Japan Foundation Manila Office (JFMO) has been the primary and legitimate institution that acts towards the delivery projects aimed at cultural diplomacy of Japan to the Philippines. Japan Foundation, as an evolving organization, engages in a continuous process of adjustment and readjustment of its annual cultural programs to suit the similarly changing cultures of target countries. Like all other Japan Foundation offices worldwide, the processes involved in the selection of activities that seek to showcase Japanese culture to the Philippines, bring about discussions on how legitimate organizations define and redefine representations of Japan and Japaneseness, how patterns of selections are paralled to mainstream local culture, and how the selected respresentations coincide with the popular Japanese culture that had already penetrated local preferences. This paper considers JFMO’s sustained Eiga Sai (Film Festival) project to identify its patterns of selection of cultural representations. By looking at the organizational evolution of the Japan Foundation, the continued mainstreaming of Japanese popular culture in the Philippines, while also considering the political-economic atmosphere between the two countries, this paper seeks to discuss the processes undertaken by the JFMO in the selection of projects targeting cultural diplomacy.