Palaeoenvironments and site formation processes at the Neolithic lakeside settlement of Dispilio,...

Geoarchaeology: An International Journal, Vol. 26, No. 1, 83–117 (2011)© 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI:10.1002/gea.20338

*Corresponding author; E-mail: [email protected].

Palaeoenvironments and Site Formation

Processes at the Neolithic Lakeside

Settlement of Dispilio, Kastoria,

Northern Greece

Panagiotis Karkanas,1,* Kosmas Pavlopoulos,2

Katerina Kouli,3 Maria Ntinou,4 Georgia Tsartsidou,1

Yorgos Facorellis,5 and Theodora Tsourou3

1Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology–Speleology of Southern Greece, Ardittou 34b,

Athens 11636, Greece2Faculty of Geography, Harokopio University, El. Venizelou 70, Athens, 17671,

Greece3Department of Historical Geology–Palaeontology, Faculty of Geology and

Geoenvironment, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis 15784, Athens,

Greece4Department of Management of Cultural Environment and New Technologies,

University of Ioannina, G. Seferi 2, 30100 Agrinio, Greece5Laboratory of Physico-Chemical Methods and Techniques, Faculty of Fine Arts

and Design, Department of Antiquities and Works of Art Conservation,

Technical Educational Institute of Athens, Aghiou Spyridonos, 12210 Egaleo,

Athens, Greece

Dispilio is a lakeside settlement by the Orestias Lake, Kastoria, northern Greece. The site wasinhabited from the Middle Neolithic to the Chalcolithic, with some surface evidence of BronzeAge occupation. Microfacies analysis of the sediments, supported by a suite of environmen-tal indices, has provided detailed paleoenvironmental data and elucidated the main processesinvolved in the formation of the site and its history of occupation. The settlement was estab-lished on the lakeshore, on a shallow sand ridge and a shore marsh. Initially, houses were builton raised platforms above the water. After a major conflagration, a range of depositionalmicroenvironments were established that caused local changes in the sedimentation rate.Therefore, some areas quickly emerged and became dry land, while some others continued tobe flooded as part of the transitional supra-littoral environment. On the dry land, houses werebuilt directly on the ground, whereas in the transitional areas houses continued to be built onraised platforms. Thus, gradually, a mound was formed and further shaped by subsequentlake-level fluctuations. One of the lake-level rises is tentatively related to the abandonment ofthe mound in the Chalcolithic and the development of a hardpan on its surface. There is alsoevidence of later occupation during the Bronze Age in the form of a few, mostly surface, archae-ological remains. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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INTRODUCTION

Prehistoric lakeside settlements are well known across Europe and have beenstudied extensively in many regions (see Orcel, 1981; Pétrequin, 1986, 1997; Menotti,2004, and references therein). In particular, the study of lacustrine sediments hasbeen focused primarily on the location of the settlements in respect to the fluctuat-ing position of the lakeshore (Krier, 1997; Hoelzmann et al., 2001; Magny, 2004; Magnyet al., 2006). There is also a large literature on lake level changes and related pale-oenvironmental and climatic reconstructions (Digerfeld, Sandgren, & Olsson, 2007,Harrison & Digerfeld, 1993; Holmes et al., 2007; Magny, Mouthon, & Ruffaldi, 1995;Magny et al., 2003; Mees et al., 1991; van der Meer & Warren, 1997; Ringberg & Elström,1999). However, very few studies have attempted to understand the detailed inter-actions between the cultural and natural processes involved in site formation in suchcontexts (Krier, 1997; Wallace, 1999, 2003; Mallol, 2006; Tsatskin & Nadel 2003).

This paper presents a study of the sediments of the Neolithic lakeside settlementof Dispilio, Greece, providing detailed paleoenvironmental data and analysis of siteformation processes. In most lakeside sites it is not easy to determine the extent towhich natural processes have distorted the anthropogenic signal. In such settle-ments, pile dwellings are often constructed on raised platforms and the underlyingdeposits are therefore not directly related to the actual anthropogenic activities.Cultural materials falling in the water are moved, sorted, and graded by wave action,and redistributed by erosion during lowering of the lake level and bioturbation in thelittoral zone. Several indices have been used to locate prehistoric lake shorelines,such as proportions of minerogenic to organic matter, grain size distribution, mol-lusks, diatoms, ostracods, aquatic plants, and pollen (Mees et al., 1991; Magny,Mouthon, & Ruffaldi, 1995; Digerfeld, Sandgren, & Olsson, 2007; Kouli, 2007; Kouliet al., 2009). Micromorphology, the study of undisturbed sediment and soil samplesunder the microscope (Courty, Goldberg, & Macphail, 1989), has been successfullyused to study aspects of sedimentary processes, mainly in natural lacustrine depositsof the offshore (profundal) zone (Mees et al., 1991; van der Meer and Warren, 1997;Ringberg & Erlström, 1999; Lücke & Brauer, 2004). This microfacies sedimentary analy-sis of lacustrine sediments has the advantage of revealing subtle sedimentary changes,differentiating syn- from post-depositional processes, and most importantly observ-ing the relationships and arrangements of the materials investigated by other meth-ods, and putting cultural deposits in context (Krier, 1997; Wallace, 1999; Mallol, 2006;Tsatskin & Nadel, 2003). In this study, the analysis of the Dispilio sediments is basedon this microfacies approach supported by data from pollen, “non”-pollen paly-nomorphs, phytoliths, ostracods, and wood charcoal analysis.

SITE AND REGIONAL FEATURES

Dispilio is a prehistoric settlement located on the southern shoreline of LakeOrestias, Kastoria, northern Greece. Lake Orestias (known also as Lake Kastoria) isa small, shallow lake, extending to 32.4 km2, with a mean and maximum depth of 4.5 mand 9.1 m, respectively. It is a hydrologically open lake, having a natural outlet to

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GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 26, NO. 184

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PALAEOENVIRONMENTS AND SITE FORMATION PROCESSES

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the nearby Aliakmon River (Figure 1). Today the outlet is artificially controlled. Itspresent altitude is about 627 m asl. Several streams discharge into the eastern, northern,and western parts of the lake, with the most important, the Xeropotamos, dischargingto the eastern shoreline. Today, Lake Orestias is considered to be a dimictic, eutrophiclake, with generally alkaline pH values that range from 5.9–8.2 during winter to6.8–9.5 during summer (Kousouris, Diapoulis, & Balopoulos, 1987). Hydrologicallyopen lakes do not show dramatic fluctuations in lake level, particularly those thatare not affected by enhanced direct evaporation (tropical lakes) or glacioisostaticrebound (Talbot & Allen, 1996). The sediments of Lake Orestias are predominantlyclastic with a minor biogenic component (Panagos, Conispoliatis, & Varnavas, 1989).The climate is characterized as semi-humid to humid with moderate dry summers (C2sB1b3 type according to Thornthwaite; Karras, 1973). The mean annual temperature

Figure 1. Topographic map of the coastal area of Lake Orestias near Dispilio village, with the prehistoricmound. The inset shows the location of Dispilio in Greece.

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and precipitation are 12.5°C and ca. 558 mm, respectively, with precipitation show-ing a double fluctuation within the year (maxima in December and May; Balafoutis,1977). Modern vegetation and land use are quite varied, with cultivated areas and pas-ture land accounting for ca. 44% of the catchment area, mainly in the lower elevations.In hilly areas, mixed deciduous oak forests (Quercus sp.) intersperse with openshrubby vegetation and stands of chestnut (Castanea sp.), while beech (Fagus sp.)and coniferous forests occur in the mountainous areas of Vermo. Closer to the lake,there are willows (Salix sp.), poplars (Populus sp.), plane trees (Platanus orien-

talis), elms (Ulmus sp.), and other water-loving trees and shrubs. At the lakeshore,reeds (Phragmites australis) and rushes (Typha sp.) form extensive marshes, par-ticularly along the southern shore of the lake where Dispilio is located. Many speciesof aquatic plants (e.g., Nyphaea alba, Trapa natas, Myriophyllum sp.) have alsobeen observed.

The lake settlement of Dispilio is located in the hinterland of western Macedonia,Greece. In the broader area there is archaeological evidence for the presence offarming communities from the Early Neolithic (7th millennium B.C.). The identifiedsites are usually situated in close proximity to water courses but are predominantlytells or flat sites on dry land (Andreou, Fotiadis, & Kotsakis, 1996). So far the onlylake settlement systematically investigated is Dispilio, with a chrono-cultural sequencespanning from the Middle Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. As one of the earliestlake site settlements in Europe (cf. Menotti, 2004), this unique—for the Mediterraneanconditions of Greece—site offered an opportunity to investigate the full repertoireof choices that Neolithic people made in their selection of land, land-use, andresource-use practices in wetland environments. Settlement organization and theuse of space in the lake setting have been a primary focus of the excavations atDispilio, building on related approaches employed by relevant research in lakesidesettlements of the broader local alpine area (Hourmouziades, 1996).

Systematic excavations at Dispilio were started in 1992 by the University ofThessaloniki under the direction of Professor G.H. Hourmouziades and continuetoday. The area of the settlement forms a low, mound-like feature about 10,000 m2

and 1.3 m high (Figure 1). Excavation of the deepest parts is hampered by the highwater table and only during exceptionally dry periods it is possible to study these lev-els. The archaeologically sterile natural layers of the site have been reached in theeast excavation sector (Figure 2), some 2.2 m below the site datum (datum is at629.29 m asl and coincides with the general elevation of the mound; the highest pointis 20 cm above). The earliest phase of the settlement has been exposed in an area of450 m2, where a destruction layer was also revealed. Excavations in the western,eastern, and southern sectors, as well as some test trenches made for the exposureof the surface ruins of a ring wall of unknown yet age, are still ongoing (Figure 2).In the western and southeastern sectors of the excavations, only very limited expo-sures in the natural layers have been revealed (squares 69 and 289; Figure 2). Indeed,one of the objectives of this work is to correlate the sedimentary facies of the dif-ferent trenches, find any discrepancies in the sedimentary evolution of the differentsectors, and thus determine target areas for future excavations.

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According to the archaeological finds so far, occupation of the settlement startedin the Middle Neolithic (ca. 5800–5300 B.C.) and ended during the early Bronze Age(Hourmouziades, 1996, 2002; Sofronidou, 2008). The lower layers of the site (below1.60 m) preserve wooden piles in upright position and other wooden structures,most of them with signs of burning. In the upper layers, only postholes are found, butalso remains of mudbrick structures in the uppermost parts. Pottery styles are attrib-uted mainly to the Middle Neolithic (5800–5300 B.C.), Late Neolithic I (5300–4800 B.C.),and Late Neolithic II (4800–4500 B.C.), but with some phases assigned to theChalcolithic (4500–3200 B.C.) and Early Bronze Age (3200–2100 B.C.) in the upper-most and more disturbed layers of the excavation (Sofronidou, 2008).

METHODOLOGY

Undisturbed and oriented blocks of sediment were collected from the excavatedtrenches for micromorphological study. Continuous systematic sampling was per-formed in two of the excavated profiles (Figure 3), whereas selective sampling wasemployed in several other profiles. In total, 41 large monoliths (15 to 30 cm long) ofundisturbed sediment were collected in the field. The samples were oven-dried at 40oCfor several days and then impregnated with polyesteric resin under vacuum. Thecured blocks were cut into thin slabs and 114 thin sections of medium (55 � 40 mm)

Figure 2. The excavation grid of Dispilio site showing the core locations (G1 � DSG1, G2 � DSG2, G4 �GSG4, and G5 � GSG5). The peripheral light shaded squares mark the edge of the mound and generallyfollow the ring wall. Each excavation square is 5 � 5 m. NE–SW and NW–SE lines mark the sectionsshown in Figures 5 and 6.

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and large (70 � 50 mm) format were prepared. The thin sections were studied usinga stereomicroscope at magnifications of 5 to 40� and a polarizing microscope andincident UV light microscope at magnifications ranging from 50 to 400�. The termi-nology used for the description of pedogenic features follows that of Bullock et al.(1985) as modified by Stoops (2003).

In order to obtain information about the pre-occupation environment, but also tocomplete the picture of any lateral depositional changes, four sediment cores (DSG1,DSG2, DSG4, and DSG5) were extracted with a portable drilling rig. Three of thecores were taken from the excavation area inside the mound and one from outsidethe mound close to the lakeshore (Figure 2). They reached depths ranging from 2.92

KARKANAS ET AL.


Figure 3. Drawings of west (a) and east (b) profiles of square 2 with the different microfacies (A to G)and the location of the micromorphology samples. See Table I for description of the microfacies. Darkgray features are postholes. Black rectangles characterize the burnt destruction layer, and floating thickblack lines mark charcoal-rich laminae.

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to 5.12 m below site datum. The cores were cut in half lengthways and subsampled.An additional set of 43 large format (70 � 50 mm) petrographic thin sections were pre-pared from the cores and were processed and studied as described above. The upper1 to 1.5 m or so of the cores was not sampled for micromorphological analysis becausethe sediments were strongly indurated and lost their integrity during coring. Subsamplesfor phytolith and wood charcoal analysis were taken from three of the cores (DSG1,DSG2, and DSG4) and for pollen and ostracod analysis from core DSG2, which wasconsidered representative of the main part of the excavation.

For wood charcoal analysis, subsamples ranging from 5 to 30 cm were selectedfor wet sieving, depending on the thickness of the sampled layer and a visual esti-mation of the charcoal content. A metallurgical dark/bright field incident light micro-scope with 50� to 500� magnifications and Schweingruber’s wood anatomy keys(1978, 1990) were used for the botanical identification of the wood charcoal frag-ments. The results were compared to the detailed wood charcoal analysis of theexcavation completed in previous years (Ntinou, 2002).

In total, 17 subsamples from core DSG2 available for palynomorph analysis werechemically treated with HCl (37%), HF (40%), acetolysed, and sieved using a 10-mmmesh. Residues were mounted in silicon oil and a minimum of 200 pollen grainscounted during microscopic analysis. Pollen and spores were identified followingMoore, Webb, and Collinson’s (1991) and Reille’s (1992–1998) pollen floras, whilenon-pollen palynomorph identification was based on van Geel et al. (2003) and vanGeel, Coope, and van der Hammen (1989). A percentage pollen diagram was con-structed on the basis of a pollen sum of regional pollen grains, excluding aquaticand hydrophilous plants and pteridophyte spores. Pollen from aquatic andhydrophilous plants, algal and fungal remains, as well as other palynomorphs wereused as indices of various depositional environments. The study of the pre-occupationsediments was focused on reconstructing the paleoenvironment just before the occu-pation and on creating tie points for correlation with two well-studied cores to thenorthwest of the site (Kouli & Dermitzakis, 2008, 2010).

Phytolith analysis was performed in selected samples from all cores inside themound. Following Tsartsidou et al. (2008), 0.5 g of sediment was heated in a furnaceat 500 oC for four hours. The ash was treated with 1N HCl and centrifuged in deion-ized water. The acid-insoluble fraction was centrifuged with heavy liquid (sodium poly-tungstate), following Albert et al. (1999). By this process, the denser minerals wereseparated from the less-dense silica phytoliths. About 1 mg of silica was placed ontwo slides and Entellan glue (Merck) was added. Whenever possible, 200 phytolithswith consistent morphology (see Albert et al., 1999, for a definition) were countedin each slide. This has an error of �23%, as has been demonstrated by Albert andWeiner (2001). The total number of phytoliths on the slide (consistent and variablemorphology) was then determined and related to 1 g of sediment following Albertet al. (2000).

A total of 11 samples from core DSG2 were selected for ostracod analysis. Ten gramsof sediment from each sample was disaggregated and washed through a 125-mm sieve.The residues were dried in an oven at 60°C and analyzed under a stereomicroscope.

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All ostracod specimens were picked, and the identification of the taxa was based onMeisch (2000).

RESULTS

Sedimentary Microfacies

Based on field descriptions, excavation trenches, and core stratigraphy and micro-morphological observations, the following sedimentary microfacies were identifiedfrom the bottom to the top (all given depths are below the site datum) (Table I andFigures 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Microfacies K, I, and H

Below ca. 300 cm in the core outside the excavated mound (core DSG5) and belowca. 230 cm in all cores in the area of the excavation (DSG1, DSG2, and DSG4), sed-iments consist of gray, bluish, and greenish muds (microfacies Ka) (Figure 4b) withsome sand intercalations (microfacies Kb), which are more prominent in core DSG5or dominate the sequence in core DSG2. Horizons with olive gray muds and brown-ish mottling were also observed (microfacies Ia; Figure 7a). The muds are composedof silty clays with undifferentiated, unistrial, or cross-striated birefringence fabrics(Figure 8a). The silts consist of mica flakes, quartz, and detrital calcite. Horizonswith brownish mottling are rich in decayed organic matter. Grading and faint lami-nations were also associated with one of the studied brownish horizons, in whichthere were indications of root passage with iron-rich hypocoatings. However, coreDSG2, from 200 cm to 292 cm, shows a monotonous alternation of gray, bluish, andgreenish sands (microfacies Kb), with intervening brownish mottled horizons (micro-facies Ib). For example, a sample of the sandy sediments in core DSG2 shows bluishgray sands (microfacies Kb) in between two layers of light olive gray sand with fre-quent brownish mottling (microfacies Ib). The contact of the bluish sands with theunderlying olive gray sands is abrupt, whereas the contact with the overlying olivegray sand layer is gradational. The olive gray sands have root passages with iron-richhypocoatings and dispersed or aggregated decayed amorphous organic matter. Thesand fraction is well sorted, subangular to rounded, and consists of quartz, lime-stone, calcite, and chert with subordinate quartzite and mica flakes.

At about 230 to 200 cm in all cores in the excavated mound and at about 300 cmin the core outside the mound, an abrupt change in sedimentation pattern is evi-dent. The sediment shows an abrupt increase in intact diatoms, sponge spicules,and decayed organic matter with microscopic stratification (microfacies Ia and Ib)(Figures 4b, 8a). Above this feature, through an erosional contact, a layer of graymedium well-sorted sand (microfacies H; Figures 4b, 7a) is found in all cores exceptGSG4, which is closest to the present lakeshore. Core GSG4 shows only traces of thisfeature (Figures 5, 6). This sand consists predominately of clastic calcite with somecoarser lenses of quartz. Root passages are common (Figure 7a). This sandy layerand the shell-rich horizon found in the overlying microfacies G (see below) form adistinct stratigraphic marker (Figures 4b, 8b). As depicted in the reconstruction

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Tab

le I

.Su

mm

ary

of f

ield

and

mic

rosc

opic

des

crip

tion

s fo

r th

e m

icro

faci

es.

Mic

rofa

cies

Col

orF

ield

Des

crip

tion

Mic

rom

orph

olog

y D

escr

ipti

on

A2.

5Y 5

/2 g

rayi

sh b

row

n–To

p sa

ndy

clay

soi

l wit

h m

ostl

y gr

anul

ar

Mos

tly

gran

ular

, but

als

o an

gula

r bl

ocky

and

cha

mbe

r m

icro

stru

ctur

e;2.

5Y 4

/1 d

ark

gray

stru

ctur

e an

d ab

unda

nt r

oots

.ab

unda

nt e

xcre

men

tal f

eatu

res.

B2.

5Y 4

/1 d

ark

gray

Cal

care

ous

hard

pan.

Laye

red

surf

ace

calc

itic

cru

st; r

oot

encr

usta

tion

s an

d fi

lam

ents

.

C2.

5Y 3

/1 v

ery

dark

gra

y–M

assi

ve, i

ndur

ated

san

dy s

ilt lo

am w

ith

som

e pe

bble

s.

Cha

mbe

r m

icro

stru

ctur

e; o

pen

porp

hyri

c-re

late

d di

stri

buti

on p

atte

rn;

2.5Y

4/1

dar

k gr

ayA

bund

ant

char

coal

, she

rds,

mud

bric

k, b

one,

and

oth

erca

lcit

ic c

ryst

allit

ic b

-fab

ric;

loos

e ex

crem

enta

l inf

illin

gs; c

alci

tic

arch

aeol

ogic

al m

ater

ials

. Gra

dual

low

er c

onta

ct.

hypo

coat

ings

; wea

kly

impr

egna

ted

dend

riti

c or

gani

c no

dule

s.

D5Y

3/1

ver

y da

rk g

ray–

Het

erog

enou

s, s

truc

ture

less

silt

y cl

ay w

ith

Mos

tly

cham

ber

and

chan

nel m

icro

stru

ctur

e. A

bund

ant

silt

y 5Y

2.5

/1 b

lack

abun

dant

arc

haeo

logi

cal r

emai

ns. H

igh

coat

ing

but

also

som

e ca

lcit

ic h

ypoc

oati

ngs;

wea

kly

impr

egna

ting

amou

nts

of c

harc

oal.

Abr

upt

low

er c

onta

ct.

dend

riti

c or

gani

c no

dule

s; lo

cally

ban

ded

dist

ribu

tion

of

silt

and

char

coal

pie

ces

(mic

rofa

cies

Da)

.

E5Y

3/2

dar

k ol

ive

gray

Het

erog

enou

s sa

ndy

clay

loam

wit

h ab

unda

nt

Mas

sive

to

cham

ber

and

chan

nel m

icro

stru

ctur

e w

ith

loca

llyar

chae

olog

ical

rem

ains

. Alt

erna

ting

san

dy

para

llel t

o th

e su

rfac

e pr

efer

red

orie

ntat

ion

of s

and,

silt

, and

and

clay

ey in

crem

ents

. Gra

dual

low

er c

onta

ct.

char

coal

pie

ces;

silt

y co

atin

gs in

voi

ds.

F5Y

4/2

oliv

e gr

ay–

Silt

y sa

nd w

ith

abun

dant

larg

e pi

eces

of

Mas

sive

mic

rost

ruct

ure

wit

h lo

cally

ban

ded

dist

ribu

tion

of

5Y 2

.5/1

bla

ckch

arco

al a

nd s

ome

arch

aeol

ogic

al r

emai

ns.

elon

gate

d ch

arco

al p

iece

s, a

rtic

ulat

ed p

hyto

liths

, san

d, a

nd s

ilt, w

ith

Cha

rcoa

l-ric

h la

min

ae a

re p

rese

nt. A

brup

tpa

ralle

l to

the

surf

ace

pref

erre

d or

ient

atio

n (m

icro

faci

es F

a); v

esic

les

low

er c

onta

ct.

and

chan

nel v

oids

.

Gb

5Y 5

/1 g

ray–

M

ediu

m t

o co

arse

san

d w

ith

fine

lam

inae

, B

ande

d di

stri

buti

on o

f sa

nd, s

ilt, b

urnt

fis

h bo

ne, a

nd e

long

ated

5Y 2

.5/1

bla

ckri

ch in

cha

rcoa

l and

som

e sh

ell f

ragm

ents

.ch

arco

al p

iece

s w

ith

para

llel t

o th

e su

rfac

e pr

efer

red

orie

ntat

ion.

Ga

2.5Y

4/2

dar

k gr

ayis

hH

omog

enou

s si

lt lo

am t

o sa

ndy

loam

wit

h so

me

Ban

ded

dist

ribu

tion

of

silt

, org

anic

mat

ter,

and

she

ll fr

agm

ents

wit

hbr

own–

2.5Y

7/1

ligh

tch

arco

al a

nd s

hell

frag

men

ts. A

brup

t lo

wer

con

tact

.pa

ralle

l to

the

surf

ace

pref

erre

d or

ient

atio

n. S

ome

char

coal

pie

ces.

gray

; 5Y

7/1

ligh

t gr

ay–

Sand

-fill

ed r

oot

pass

ages

.5Y

4/1

dar

k gr

ay

H5Y

6/1

gra

yH

omog

enou

s m

ediu

m t

o co

arse

san

d w

ith

an

Coa

rse

mon

ic (

sing

le g

rain

) re

late

d di

stri

buti

on p

atte

rn o

f so

rted

san

d er

osio

nal l

ower

con

tact

.w

ith

sim

ple

pack

ing

void

s.

Ia5Y

6/2

ligh

t ol

ive

gray

Het

erog

eneo

us lo

amy

sand

to

silt

loam

wit

hU

ndif

fere

ntia

ted

unis

tria

l fab

ric;

mod

erat

ely

impr

egna

ted

iron

an

abu

ndan

ce o

f br

owni

sh r

oot

mot

tles

.no

dule

s; r

oot

pass

age

wit

h ir

on-r

ich

hypo

coat

ings

.G

radu

al lo

wer

con

tact

.

Ib5Y

5/2

ligh

t ol

ive

gray

Hom

ogen

ous

med

ium

to

coar

se s

and

wit

h C

oars

e m

onic

(si

ngle

gra

in)

rela

ted

dist

ribu

tion

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GEA261_07_20338.qxd 12/8/10 9:54 AM 1

Figure 4. (a) Photograph of the southern profile of square 42 with the sedimentary facies. Ga marks thedestruction layer. (b) Part of core DSG1 (depth 200–256 cm) showing the different microfacies. The arrowmarks the shell-rich horizon.

Figure 5. Northeast–southwest section of the mound through cores DSG1, DSG2, and DSG4. The differentmicrofacies and 14C ages (calibrated) are shown. See Table I for description of the microfacies. Blackand white square features mark on-land mudbrick constructions. Other drawn shapes as in Figure 3.

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93

shown in Figures 5 and 6, it caps the underlying layers in all cores and thins outtoward the present lake shore. The total thickness of the layer ranges from 7 to 1 cm.We interpret all the sediments below this stratigraphic marker (microfacies H, I, and K)as belonging to pre-occupation lake sediments.

Microfacies G

The next microfacies, G, is gradually enriched in mollusk shell fragments (congeria)and ends up with alternations of silts rich in intact diatoms and coarse sand con-sisting of quartz, quartzite, chert, feldspars, and some minor epidote, mica-rich frag-ments, pyroxenes, and limestone (Figures 7b, 8b). In the more landward core DSG1,overlying the sand layer of microfacies H, a ca. 20-cm-thick layer of organic-rich siltswith intact diatoms is present, composed mainly of quartz, mica flakes, and clasticcalcite (Figure 7b). Root passages filled with sand were also observed. Some of thepassages continue below inside the coarse sand. In the uppermost part of microfa-cies G, scattered charcoal fragments were identified for the first time, the deepestone at 275 cm in core DSG5 (outside the mound) and in all other cores at 220 cm to210 cm. In the west sector, square 69 (Figure 2), the same shell-rich horizon wasfound at 235 cm and the first horizon with charcoal at 229 cm. In the southeasterncorner of the mound, the deepest anthropogenic layers were reached at 190 cm

Figure 6. Northwest–southeast section of the mound through cores DSG4 and DSG5, showing the dif-ferent microfacies and 14C ages (calibrated). See Table I for description of the microfacies. Black andwhite square features mark on-land mudbrick constructions. Other drawn shapes as in Figure 3.

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KARKANAS ET AL.


Figure 7. Photographs of thin sections. (a) Brownish stained lacustrine silts (microfacies Ia) with a rootpassage are covered by sands (microfacies H). Sample DSG14. (b) Laminated sand and silt of microfa-cies H are overlain by organic-rich silts of microfacies G. Sample DSG13b. (c) Rippled and laminatedsilts and sand couplets rich in bedded charcoal pieces (microfacies Ga). Sample D5d. (d) Stratified siltwith bedded charcoal pieces and burnt fish bone (orange) of uppermost microfacies Ga. On the very topof the section, laminated fine charcoal fragments can be observed (microfacies Fa). Sample DSG21c. (e) Microfacies Ga of stratified loam and charcoal surrounding construction materials (right lower edge:destruction layer) gives way to the crudely stratified sandy loam of microfacies F. Sample DSG12b. (f) Crudely bedded silts of microfacies E. Note the appearance of chamber porosity. Sample D988a. (g) Bioturbated mud of microfacies D with organic dendritic nodules (example with arrow). Sample D9810b.(h) Unsorted mud with a crudely bedded sand increment in the upper part of the thin section (microfacies D).Sample DSG1B2b. (i) Moderately indurated mud with organic dendritic nodules and chambers loosely filledwith earthworm excrements (microfacies C). Sample D9812a. (j) Calcareous hardpan (microfacies B) in themiddle of the section capping anthropogenic rich sediments of microfacies C. Sample DS103.

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95

Figure 8. Photomicrographs in PPL except (e), which is in XPL. (a) Stratified silts of microfacies Ka.Sample DSG15a. (b) Shell fragments in organic-rich matrix overlain by fine sand (lowermost microfa-cies G). Sample DSG13b. (c) Stratified silt and sand with bedded charcoal pieces and some rounded soilaggregates. A coarse lens with schist fragments occurs in the upper part of the photo (microfacies Ga).Sample DSG5a. (d) Laminated charcoal and phytoliths (upper part of the photo) with channel, vesicular,and vughy porosity (microfacies Fa). Sample D982a. (e) Calcitic hypocoatings in microfacies D. SampleDSG1B1. (f) Crudely bedded silts with organic dendritic nodules and some charcoal pieces (microfaciesDa). Sample D9812b. (g) Anthropogenic-rich mud with organic dendritic nodules (m), charcoal pieces,bone, and mudbrick fragments (c) in microfacies C. Sample D9825. (h) Detail of the calcareous hardpanwith biogenic structures (microfacies B). Sample D9904Ab.

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depth. It is important to note that evidence of anthropogenic materials was not foundbelow the aforementioned marker layer.

Above these sediments the anthropogenic input increases dramatically (micro-facies Ga). A notable change is evident in mineralogical composition as mica schistand calcite–mica schist fragments predominate. They are mostly angular, unsorted, andshow signs of intensive weathering to clay, particularly in the coarser sections.However, most sand laminae are well sorted and show higher amounts of quartz andclastic calcite but mica schist predominates. Burnt bone, mostly of fish, and largeamounts of charcoal are stratified, mainly within the sandy increments that occa-sionally show ripple stratification (Figures 7c, 7d, 8c). Mud aggregates are founddispersed in the coarser increments. They consist of a mixture of dark brownishclay and weathered mica-schist rock fragments or brownish silty clay dominated byfine charred material.

In the area of the east sector, at a depth of about 195 cm (western part), 180 cm(eastern part), and 170 cm (middle northern part), the samples are dominated byvery coarse angular fragments of the mud aggregate types described above, largenumbers of sherds and charcoal, and some clasts (we refer to this as the destructionlayer). Core DSG1 shows the same increase from a depth of 185 cm and core DSG2from 160 cm. Cores DSG4 and DSG5 do not show such an increase. In the westernsector, a similar layer, very rich in charcoal, is observed at 200 cm depth. Some ofthe above mud aggregates have straw imprints and show clear signs of burning, hav-ing a dark charred halo or outer part. All these are enveloped by a sorted sandymatrix with signs of fine stratification similar to microfacies Ga (Figure 7e). In thesoutheastern corner of the mound (squares 288 and 289; Figure 2), above microfa-cies G at a depth of 160 to 130 cm, low-angle cross-bedded coarse sands and gran-ules with discrete charcoal-rich intercalations are present.

Microfacies F

In the eastern part of the east sector, a layer of around 20 cm in thickness is found(160–145 cm depth), consisting mainly of thinly laminated fine charred material witha wavy appearance (microfacies Fa; Figures 7d, 8d). Most of the charred material is asso-ciated with long articulated phytoliths, some of them showing evidence of burning. Thelaminated fine charred material is intercalated with silty and fine sandy calcite. The contact with the sands below is gradual at a microscopic level; sand laminae alter-nate with laminae rich in charred material. The contact with the overlying sedimentsthat display a comparable composition but no stratification (microfacies F; Figure 7e)is also gradual. The same picture is observed in the other areas but with some devi-ations. For example, stratified charcoal-rich laminae (microfacies Fa) may alternatewith massive silty siliciclastic and char-rich sediment (microfacies F). The depthrange of the layer characterized by microfacies F is between 145 and 130 cm in thewestern part of the eastern sector. Some aggregates and even thin laminae of woodash crystals are clearly visible in the uppermost parts of microfacies F, but it is notclear whether they are in situ features or transported by water. Another feature ofthis microfacies that clearly distinguishes it from the underlying sediment is the

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amount of chamber and channel voids, which increases substantially (5–15%). A few of them show silty coatings. Note that the cores at about the same depth rangedo not show clear development of charcoal-rich laminae but rather show stratifiedalternations of siliciclastic silts and sands with high amounts of charred material(microfacies F). In the western sector, the deepest excavated trenches have reachedmicrofacies F at a depth of 170 cm. This is a relatively homogenous silty sedimentwith some intercalations of fine sand but without much charred material.

Microfacies E and D

At depths of 170 cm in core DSG4, 160 cm in core DSG1, 155 cm in core DSG2,145 to 120 cm in the eastern sector, and 160 cm in the western and southeastern sec-tors, a thick layer is present, characterized by microfacies E and D and several in situ

anthropogenic features and constructions (see below). In general, microfacies Eis described as crudely bedded silty clay loam with locally about 10% of sand andchamber and channel voids (Figure 7f). Upwards, the sediment becomes more het-erogeneous, with a chaotic structure that is very rich in anthropogenic materials(microfacies D; Figure 7g, 7h). However, in some areas, light brownish, well-sorted, bed-ded silts, with almost no anthropogenic input are observed (microfacies Da; Figure 8f).Individual laminae show faint grading and evidence of sediment settling in a very low-energy environment, most likely in small stagnant water bodies. Organic dendriticnodules are common (Figures 7g, 8f, 8g). For the first time in the sequence, cham-ber and channel voids (up to 30%) present calcitic hypocoatings (Figures 7f, 8e).Shell, sherd, bone, construction debris, and charcoal are ubiquitous and increaseupwards. In situ combustion features in the form of thick wood ash layers havebeen located in the eastern sector from a depth of 130 cm. Aggregates of wood ashcrystals forming pseudomorphs after plant tissues and a general layered structureof the ashes are evidence of undisturbed burnt remains on the ground. An importantchange associated with microfacies E and D, but already marginally seen in micro-facies F, is the disappearance of preserved wooden elements, together with theappearance of postholes lined with mud. A thin section of a sample from a postholelining (sample D29) shows a material similar to the surroundings but characterizedby flame-shaped and folded sand and dusty silt intercalations interpreted as water-escape structures (cf. van der Meer & Warren, 1997). These features are most likelyrelated to the deformation of the wet sediment used to pack the posthole.

Microfacies C

Upwards, from about 120 to 100 cm in all sectors, the sediments become indurated(microfacies C). They contain large amounts of mudbrick fragments and this producesa brownish color (Figures 7i, 8g). However, this change in color is more prominentin the western sector, where more reddish hues are observed. Organic mottles arelarger and more frequent in the eastern sector, implying a fluctuating water tableand, thus, a less oxidizing environment than the western sector. Gradually, the sed-iment of this facies becomes plugged with calcitic cement and a calcretic soil isformed. Calcitic root encrustations and hypocoatings are ubiquitous. It seems likely

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that some of the matrix calcite is reworked and recrystallized calcitic wood ash (cf.Courty, Goldberg, & Macphail, 1989; Karkanas et al., 2007). In addition, from approx-imately 110 cm, depth channel and chamber voids are loosely infilled with earth-worm excrements (Figure 7i). Ground construction remains—in the form of smallpiles of burnt mudbrick—are found from depths of about 115–100 cm in the easternsector.

Microfacies B

Finally, the indurated layer of microfacies C is capped by a series of calcareoushardpans (microfacies B; Figures 7j, 8h), which are prominent at depths rangingbetween 80 to 60 cm in the east sector, 40 to 50 cm in the west sector, and 60–70 cmin the southern sector. The deepest hardpan is observed in the southeastern cornerat a depth of 90 cm. However, hardpans were not found in all excavated trenches.Microscopic analysis of thin sections from such areas in the western sector showsthat hardpans were present, but they are fragmented and reworked—possibly bylater anthropogenic activities. Nonetheless, biological activity might also have playeda role in their destruction. The calcareous hardpans are thin undulated and induratedhorizons. In some cases they are thicker and directly developed on the top of theindurated sediments of the underlying layer, showing gradational contacts with it. Whendeveloped in series, they are separated by thin layers of soil with signs of intense bio-logical activity (granular microstructure with excremental pedofeatures). Root encrus-tations and calcareous filaments are associated with the hardpans (Figure 8h). It shouldbe noted that discontinuous microscopic calcareous crusts have been observed froma depth of 130 cm inside the underlying indurated layer (microfacies D).

Microfacies A

The uppermost layer (microfacies A) is a soil with developed pedological fea-tures. In summary, it is light gray–brownish sandy silt to clay loam with fluctuatingamounts (but mostly less than 5–10%) of fine construction debris. The soil is not asrich in charcoal as the layers below, and it is not indurated. It has a subangular blockymicrostructure that grades upwards to granular. Calcitic hypocoatings and fine nod-ules are common, as well as excremental pedofeatures and root casts. Some differ-entiations were observed, namely pit-like features that in their lower part are filledwith ash, charred material, and burnt cereal seeds. It also appears that in some placesthere is more than one pedogenetic cycle separated by sediment accumulation. Thislayer is part of the modern topsoil, and it has been affected by modern disturbance.A detailed analysis was therefore not carried out.

Paleoenvironmental Indices

Pollen

Most of the samples studied yielded abundant pollen and spores as well as numer-ous algal and fungal remains (Figure 9). The lower part of the sequence, corresponding

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Figure 9. Percentage pollen diagram of selected palynomorphs from core DSG2.

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to the pre-occupation period (microfacies I/K), is characterized by a rich and diverseflora, where arboreal taxa prevail and herb pollen appear restricted. Pinus and Quercus

are the dominant arboreal taxa, though the occurrence of Carpinus/Ostrya, Fraxinus

excersior, Abies, and Fagus is also important. These findings are in accordance withthe occurrence of dense, mixed deciduous oak forests at intermediate and low altitudesand coniferous and beech forests on mountainous areas, recorded after 8200 cal. B.P.in Kastoria basin (Kouli, 2007; Kouli & Dermitzakis, 2008, 2010) and in the wider Balkans(Willis, 1994). Riparian vegetation is represented by Alnus and, to a lesser extent, Salix

as well as by Cyperaceae, Apiaceae, and other aquatic herbs (e.g., Sparganium emer-

sum, Typha latifolia). Furthermore, numerous algal coenobiums of Pediastrum

boryanum, Pediastrum simplex, Pediastrum kawraiskyi, and Botryococcus havebeen recorded. In microfacies G, an increase in the abundances of Sparganium emer-

sum, Typha latifolia, and other hydrophilous herbs is evident. P. simplex showsremarkably high percentages, with significant counts for Spirogyra and type 353 (vanGeel, Coope, & van der Hammen, 1989). Similarly, fungal remains gradually increasetoward the upper part of this microfacies (Ga). At this level, the presence of Neolithicpeople is indicated by the abrupt rise in the percentages of Cerealia type.

The two samples analyzed from microfacies F record a decrease in all Pediastrum

species and a minor increase in Bortyococcus and Spirogyra. Fungal remains, espe-cially type 200, exhibit high percentages, while Cerealia type reaches 32% of thepollen sum.

Microfacies E is characterized by a marked drop in all algal remains that do notexceed 10% of the pollen sum. Botryococcus appears to be the only persisting algae,though in low percentages. A concurrent decrease in Cyperaceae, Apiaceae,Sparganium emersum, Typha latifolia, and other hydrophilous herbs is observed.Type 200, however, exhibits its maximum values throughout the whole sequenceand a further increase in Cerealia type is recorded.

The two upper assemblages studied come from microfacies D and B/C and exhibitcertain similarities. Both are characterized by the complete absence of pollen fromaquatic plants and algal remains, and they contain abundant coprophilousSordariaceae spores, type 207, and other fungal remains. Low pollen diversity hasbeen recorded, especially in microfacies B/C, where the erosion-resistant Cichoideaedominate the pollen sum.

Phytoliths

In the pre-occupation lacustrine sediments very few wild grass phytoliths werefound in one sample (core DSG1, microfacies Ka). More phytoliths were identifiedin the organic-rich sediment just below the shell-rich horizon (Figure 10; DSG2,microfacies Ib). They are mainly phytoliths of variable morphology attributed towood. Wood produces very low numbers of phytoliths per gram of plant material, andthese are mainly variable-morphology phytoliths (Tsartsidou et al., 2007).

Microfacies G, the first sediment with high amounts of anthropogenic input, isquite rich in phytoliths (in the range of several hundreds of thousands per gram of

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sediment; Figure 10). Wild grasses and reeds, as well as cereals (wheat and barley),have been recovered, and these confirm the significant anthropogenic impact.

In a thin section of microfacies Fa (sample D21d), stem and husk phytoliths, pos-sibly of cereals, were recognized. Sedge and grass phytoliths were also identified inthin section D15e from microfacies F (Figure 3). Phytoliths in microfacies F are richin both stem and husk phytoliths (Figure 10). They represent wild grasses with somereeds and sedges, but also barley and dicot leaves. The number of phytoliths fluc-tuates, but all except one do not have more than a few hundreds of thousands pergram of sediment. The sample that shows the highest number of phytoliths, almost6 million (Figure 10; DSG1), has evidence of burning and signs of incipient melting.

Figure 10. Phytolith diagrams of cores DSG1, DSG2, and DSG4, showing the number of phytoliths pergram of sediment and the percentage of plant types and taxa.

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These features are related to the destruction layer (see also below). In addition, for thefirst time a sample (Figure 10; DSG2) shows higher amounts of grass inflorescencethan stem phytoliths.

Microfacies E does not show any remarkable differences from the previous micro-facies, but the number of phytoliths in one of the samples (Figure 10; DSG2) is veryhigh, and again it has more grass seed that stem phytoliths. This sample also preserveswheat and barley, whereas the presence of wild grasses is minor.

In microfacies D, all samples are relatively enriched in phytoliths, with most of thesamples showing numbers of a few million per gram of sediment. In this microfacies,the phytoliths are still dominated by wild grasses, reeds, sedges, and cereals.

All samples coming from microfacies C have several million phytoliths per gramof sediment. The samples from core DSG2 show consistent concentration of grasshusk phytoliths and cereals (wheat and barley). An important observation is that inthe samples coming from the core DSG4, the nearest to the present lakeshore, cere-als were not identified. This places the center of anthropogenic activity in the areaof core DSG2, which is richest in cereals. Another important contrast is the sub-stantial increase in wild grass phytoliths, mostly chloridoids, in the samples of coreDSG1. They indicate the presence of animal dung, which was also verified by the pres-ence of dung spherulites (cf. Canti, 1999). As will be shown below, these samplesbelong to a totally different chronological period than the rest of the samples.

In a thin section (D28b) from a pit-like feature of microfacies A, barley phytolithswere identified.

Charcoal

The very few identifiable charcoal pieces from the cores belong to deciduous oak(Quercus sp. type deciduous: 10 pieces), Pinus nigra (2 pieces), and Fraxinus sp.(1 piece). The presence of these taxa is in agreement with the results of wood char-coal analysis of the eastern excavation sector sediments (Ntinou, 2002). The studyof Ntinou (2002) is correlated to the sedimentary facies sequence on the basis of themicromorphological observations, and the results are summarized below and inFigure 11.

Quercus sp. deciduous type and Pinus nigra are the dominant taxa in thesequence, while other deciduous taxa of mixed woodland, open, and riparian for-mations are present throughout. Oak woodland was the most abundant vegetationtype in the area. Forests with Pinus nigra and other mountain conifers were a promi-nent feature of higher altitudes. The lakeshore vegetation is represented by Salix andAlnus glutinosa. Open formations included Juniperus and other sun-loving taxa.

The settlers of the Neolithic village used the mixed deciduous oak woodland forfirewood and timber throughout the Middle to Late Neolithic and the ChalcolithicPeriods (microfacies G–C) (Figure 11). Despite its continuous use for several mil-lennia, the oak woodland experienced little change, perhaps because of the small scaleand stable farming activities combined with the high potential for vegetation regrowthin this hinterland area.

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Figure 11. (a) Wood charcoal diagram of the sedimentary microfacies sequence. (b) Vegetation com-position of the sedimentary microfacies.

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Riparian trees were used systematically during the earliest occupation (microfa-cies G), but this practice was not maintained (microfacies D, C). The establishmentand proximity of the settlement to littoral (microfacies G) and supra-littoral (F, E)environments during the earlier habitation phases would explain a more intensiveuse of the riparian vegetation.

The open woodland formed part of the activities that took place in close proxim-ity to the settlement throughout its use (microfacies G to C) (Figure 11). Such vege-tation would have been easily managed (sparse cover) for pastureland and for theopening of small plots for cultivation. According to the evidence from the destruc-tion layer from the earliest occupation phase (microfacies G), the same formationswould have provided Juniperus timber for the poles used in the construction of theplatforms of the raised dwellings (Ntinou, 2002, Chatzitoulousis, 2008).

Mountain conifers, Pinus nigra in particular, were progressively used more fromthe Middle–Late Neolithic to the Chalcolithic (Figure 11). Pine timber was probablyused in the construction of the dwellings. Its wider use toward the upper phasescould be related to the expansion of the terrestrial settlement (microfacies E, D, C),with greater need for large poles to be directly implanted on firm ground.

Ostracods

Ostracods were present only at three levels of core DSG2, and the ostracod assem-blages consisted of 25–30 specimens per sample, including adults and juveniles. In particular, ostracod faunas occurred at depths of 1.79 to 1.82 m and 1.88 to1.92 m,which correspond to the lower part of microfacies G in this core. The ostracod faunaincludes the species Candona neglecta and Candona sp. juveniles. Additionally, anostracod assemblage consisting of the species Candona neglecta, Candona sp.Juveniles, and Paracandona sp. was present at a depth of 1.35 to1.41 m. This cor-responds to the middle part of microfacies E in core DSG2.

Candona neglecta Sars, 1887 is widespread in springs, brooks, and ponds con-nected to springs, and in lakes, where it is found from the shallow littoral zone downto great depths (Meisch & Wouters, 2004). The species shows a preference for coolerwater, and it is distributed throughout the Holarctic ecozone (Meisch, 2000). It isalso tolerant of water with a low oxygenation status (Danielopol et al., 1985;Danielopol, Handl, & Yu, 1993).

In the pre-occupation period, where the sedimentary environment of core DSG2is dominated by medium coarse sands representing an environment of relativelyhigher energy, ostracods are absent. This probably indicates an environment inimi-cal to the survival or preservation of ostracods.

THE CHRONOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

Twenty-three 14C dates have been obtained from the Dispilio sedimentary sequence(Table II; Figures 5, 6). Twenty-one are from the present study and two from earlierwork by Facorellis and Maniatis (2002). Ten ages were obtained from the cores oncharcoal fragments and one on an unburnt wood fragment (Table II). All the radio-carbon ages have been calibrated using CalPal 2007 (Weninger & Jöris, 2004).

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Tab

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I.Su

mm

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of r

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carb

on s

ampl

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nd a

ges

from

Dis

pilio

.

Lab

Cod

eR

adio

carb

on A

ge (

yr B

.P.)

Cal

ibra

ted

Age

s B

.C.

Loca

tion

and

Dep

th o

f Sa

mpl

e (c

m)

Des

crip

tion

of

Dat

ed M

ater

ial

RT

T-50

3537

20 �

4521

20 �

70C

ore

DSG

1, 1

40–1

70C

harc

oal,

Qu

ercu

sty

pe d

ecid

uous

LTL-

1085

A37

73 �

5522

00 �

90C

ore

DSG

1, 1

40–1

70C

harc

oal,

Qu

ercu

sty

pe d

ecid

uous

LTL-

1519

A38

28 �

5523

00 �

100

Cor

e D

SG1,

140

–170

Cha

rcoa

l, M

olo

ideae

RT

T-50

3148

60 �

4536

40 �

60Sq

uare

55a

eas

t, 4

5C

harc

oal,

Fraxin

us

sp.

RT

T-50

3251

25 �

5039

00 �

70C

ore

DSG

2, 4

5–66

Cha

rcoa

lR

TT-

5034

5180

�60

3990

�70

Cor

e D

SG4,

175

Cha

rcoa

l, Q

uercu

sty

pe d

ecid

uous

LTL-

1084

A52

53 �

5541

00 �

90Sq

uare

55a

eas

t, 4

5C

harc

oal,

Fraxin

us

sp.

RT

T-50

3353

95 �

4542

50 �

70C

ore

DSG

2, 8

2–10

5C

harc

oal,

Qu

ercu

sty

pe d

ecid

uous

LTL-

1086

A57

74 �

6046

30 �

70C

ore

DSG

5, 2

05W

ood,

Pin

us

type

nig

raG

rN-3

0956

6040

�30

4940

�50

Squa

re 5

9b, 8

0C

harc

oal

LTL-

1520

A61

33 �

6550

90 �

100

Cor

e D

SG2,

145

–161

Cha

rcoa

l, Q

uercu

sty

pe d

ecid

uous

GrN

-309

6362

00 �

5051

60 �

80Sq

uare

25a

, 55–

60C

harc

oal

GrN

-309

6162

10 �

8051

60 �

110

Squa

re 1

39g

, 76

Cha

rcoa

lR

TT-

5037

6220

�60

5180

�90

Cor

e D

SG1,

221

Cha

rcoa

l, Q

uercu

sty

pe d

ecid

uous

RT

T-50

3862

20 �

5051

80 �

90C

ore

DSG

4, 2

24C

harc

oal,

Qu

ercu

sty

pe d

ecid

uous

DE

M-6

56*

6269

�29

5260

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Microfacies G

Three dates (GrN-30959, GrN-31012, GrN-30960) are available from the deepest lay-ers of the excavation (210–217 cm), which correspond to microfacies Ga. They showa range of 5460–5300 B.C. Another three dated samples come from the lowermostsediment layers containing anthropogenic remains (microfacies G) in DSG1, GSG4,and DSG5 cores (RTT5037, RTT5038, and RTT5039, respectively). Their range isbetween 5440 and 5110 B.C., with the one coming from core DSG5 (RTT5039) out-side the excavated mound being a little older (5440–5320 B.C.) than the other twofrom the excavation area (5270–5110 B.C.). Radiocarbon dates were also obtainedfrom the outer rings of standing wooden piles found in the lower layers of the exca-vation associated with microfacies Ga (Facorellis & Maniatis, 2002). The obtainedages are 5330 � 40 B.C. (DEM-657) and 5225 � 45 B.C. (DEM-656). A sample froma destruction layer inside microfacies Ga in core DSG1 (RTT5036), 20 cm higherthan the lowest anthropogenic levels, gave an age of 5240 � 60 B.C. From a similardepth, a sample from the destruction layer in the area of the eastern excavation sec-tor (GrN-30958) was dated to 5270 � 40 B.C. It is of interest to note that ages thatare not much younger have been obtained from sediments much higher above thedeepest anthropogenic levels in core DSG2, at 145–161cm depth (5090 � 100 B.C.:LTL1520A), correlated with the upper part of microfacies Ga.

Microfacies F

In core DSG5, a sample of wood, ca. 70 cm above the lowermost anthropogeniclevels (contact of microfacies G and F), gave a notably younger age of 4630 � 70B.C. (LTL1086A). The wood fragment was indentified as Pinus cf. nigra, the woodtype most used for making wooden materials in the site (Ntinou, 2002; Chatzitoulousis,2008). In view of the fact that the natural environment of this species is not thenearshore area (Ntinou, 2002, Kouli, 2007), it is probably safe to assume that it is ofanthropogenic origin.

Microfacies D

At 175 cm depth in core DSG4 (RTT5034), in sediments of microfacies D, an ageof 3990 � 70 B.C., was obtained. However, in core DSG2 at 102–85 cm depth, cor-related with the boundary of microfacies C and D, a sample gave an age of 4250 �70 B.C. (RTT5033). In addition, in core DSG1 from 140–170 cm depth (microfacies D),ages of 2400–2050 B.C. have been obtained (samples RTT5038, LTL1519A ,andLTL1085A).

Microfacies C

In contrast to the general trend described above, in the western sector—wherethe excavation has not proceeded to the lower levels of the site in all squares—threesamples from depths of 55 to 80 cm, corresponding to microfacies C, gave ages

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between 5300 and 4860 B.C. (GrN-30956, GrN-30961, and GrN-30963). These ages cor-relate with those of the deepest parts of the cores and to those of the deepest levelsof the eastern excavation sector (i.e., microfacies Ga). At slightly higher elevations,and still in the western sector (square D55a), two samples from the uppermost layerof microfacies C, just below the hardpans, gave ages of 4100 � 90 and 3640 � 60B.C., respectively (LTL1084A and RTT5031).

All the above dates are discussed in relation to the sedimentary history of themound in the following section.

SEDIMENTARY HISTORY AND SITE FORMATION

The lacustrine sediments of the pre-occupation period show relatively deep-lakesedimentary environments (bluish muds and sands) with discrete horizons of olivegray sediment associated with root casts, organic staining, and decayed organic mat-ter, indicating falls in lake level (Figure 4b). The predominance of Pediastrum overBotryoccoccus coenobiums indicates deposition in a relatively deep lacustrine envi-ronment (Talbot & Livingstone, 1989). Before the Neolithic occupation, pollen spectrarecord the occurrence of an open lake environment. On land, the riparian vegetationconsisted of some Alnus and Salix trees and a large variety of herbs such asCyperaceae, Poaceae, Apiaceae, and several pteridophytes. Aquatic plants includedSparganium emersum, Typha latifolia, and Nymphaea (Figure 9). Deciduous oakwoodland was the dominant vegetation in the area (Figures 9, 11) probably growingtoward the southern and topographically smoother part of the Kastoria basin.Mountain conifers would have been growing at higher elevations, but it is possiblethat Pinus nigra stands would have been present a small distance from the lake on the northwestern and western part of the basin, where elevation changes abruptlyto ca. 1000 m. Open woodland formations of Juniperus and various sun-loving shrubsand small trees were probably growing on the flat plain—especially the east-southeastern part (Ntinou, 2002; Kouli & Dermitzakis, 2008, 2010).

The core stratigraphy and micromorphological study of the sediments allow us toreconstruct the configuration of the nearshore environment at the time the Neolithicoccupation began (microfacies G; Figure 12). A mostly submerged sand ridge (areaof core DSG2) separated a shallow littoral zone (area of core DSG1) from an off-shore zone (area of core DSG4) (Figures 5, 6). In times of low lake level, this ridgewas occupied by aquatic plants such as Sparganium emersum, Typha latifolia, andNympaea, as was the nearshore area landward. Just before the onset of Neolithicoccupation, a fall in lake level is evident by the increase in Botryococcus andCeratophyllum, while at the same time an expansion of hydrophilous vegetation isrecorded by the increase in aquatics and in type 353, which lives in periphyton (Haas,1996). Sediments become enriched in intact diatoms and some phytoliths at thistime. These and the ostracod assemblages are characteristic of a shallow nearshoremarsh environment with rich aquatic vegetation. A sand layer with large amounts ofmollusk fragments blankets all underlying sediment (Figures 4b, 5, 6, 8b). This prob-ably reflects the impact of a storm in the nearshore environment. Phytolith analysissuggests the presence of some trees in the nearshore environment, while pollen and

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charcoal confirm the presence of Alnus and Salix trees in the riparian vegetation.Differences between correlated layers inside and outside the occupation mound(e.g., cores DSG1 and DSG5) suggest that the area of the mound was ca. 70–50 cmhigher than the surrounding nearshore area at that time (Figure 6).

All available dates point to the beginning of the occupation close to the end of theMiddle Neolithic, with the oldest ages clustering around 5500–5400 B.C. (Table II;Figures 5, 6). Houses were built on raised platforms in the littoral zone. The increasedpresence of Pediastrum simplex in pollen spectra can be attributed to eutrophica-tion of the local environment, as this species is considered as polysaprophytic(Janssen, 1968), and its presence in other Greek lakes has been connected with

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Figure 12. Evolution of the environment of Dispilio prehistoric mound from ca. 5500 to 2300 B.C.

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human activities (Bottema, 1974, 1982). Furthermore, Pediastrum simplex wasfound to dominate algal associations in the anthropogenic deposits of core G26 fromthe western part of the lake (Kouli, 2007). Neolithic activity in the area is indicatedby the abrupt increase in Cerealia type and Brassicaceae (Figure 9). Phytolith num-bers increase, and for the first time cereal phytoliths are recorded in the sediment(Figure 10). It is suggested that the protected environment behind the sand ridgepreserved most of the archaeological remains from the very beginning of the occu-pation. The increase in Spirogyra during this microfacies points to shallow stag-nant water (van Geel, Coope, & van der Hammen, 1989) in the area of core DSG2.However, continuous wave action has led to mixing of materials from different occu-pational periods. Indeed, the layers corresponding to microfacies G show a range ofages from 5500 to 5200 B.C. without always being in stratigraphic order (Table II;Figures 5, 6).

An interesting consequence of the occupation is the enrichment of the clasticsediments with compound mineral grains, weathered rock fragments, and mud aggre-gates, which are not observed in the pre-occupation sediments. The site is locatedaway from the main inflow streams, and thus sediments are deposited in the areamainly by waves and currents working the sediment and producing more maturetextures, enriched in quartz and monomineralic and fresh rock fragments. Therefore,the above increase is attributed to the disintegration of construction materials suchas daub and mudbricks. Their contribution is clearly seen in some levels associatedwith other destruction and burnt materials and identified during the excavation asa destruction layer. However, although there is a level with clear signs of burning(melted sherds and phytoliths, burnt daub, burnt wooden piles, and other woodenmaterial), there are also areas where the destruction level is found in slightly higherpositions. All these features are found inside microfacies Ga and embedded insidelaminated sorted and elutriated sands that point to a nearshore but submerged envi-ronment affected by waves (Figures 7c, 7d, 7e). There is no indication of exposurein this microfacies (see below for the overlying microfacies), and the preservationof some subtle sedimentary structures (e.g., ripple lamination) indicates rapid bur-ial, restricted bioturbation, and an absence of anthropogenic activities on the surface.In our opinion, the differences observed in the level of the destruction layer areprobably attributed to the taphonomic history of the burnt houses. Not all of themcollapsed at the same time after the burning episode. When collapsed, some of them fell en masse, giving the impression of in situ wooden structures on the ground.However, the sedimentary features clearly show that these had fallen into the water,as suggested by timber pieces which were half-burnt, burned only on the outer sur-face, or on one side. Moreover, when houses collapsed in this very shallow envi-ronment, the fallen construction material acted as a sediment trap for finer charredmaterial that was floating (see microfacies Fa below). However, it should be addedthat we cannot totally exclude seasonal brief episodes of exposure that would prob-ably have left no sedimentary record. Correlating the depth of the lowest destructionevidence with the available dated samples suggests that this occurred at the begin-ning of the Late Neolithic I, between 5300 and 5200 B.C. [i.e., GrN-30958 (squareD8d, 182 cm: 5313–5227 B.C.), RTT5036 (core DSG1, 201–204 cm: 5300–5180 B.C.)].

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Special attention should be drawn to the low-angle cross-bedded coarse sands ofmicrofacies G that are interpreted as a beach bar (cf. Renaut & Owen, 1991). Theseare found at an elevation (160–130 cm depth) in the southeastern sector, whereas inall other areas microfacies E predominates at the same depth (see below).

Microfacies F shows an alternation of laminated or massive siliciclastic andcharred material in large quantities. It points to a very shallow environment, with somesediments exposed, reworked, and bioturbated but with others still preserving depo-sitional features characteristic of settling in a shallow water body while still capa-ble of moving sand-size clasts. The decrease in Pediastrum species points to gradualshallowing (Figure 9), while the presence of type 200 is indicative of temporary des-iccation (van Geel, Coope, & van der Hammen, 1989). Nevertheless, the persistenceof an aquatic environment is indicated by the presence of the green algaeBotryococcus (Talbot & Livingstone, 1989) and Spirogyra, which characterize shal-low stagnant waters (van Geel, Coope, & van der Hammen, 1989). Microfacies Ffollowed the burning episode but should be mostly an indirect result of it. The highamounts of construction material that fell into the nearshore area produced an arti-ficial shallowing where the light charred remains preferentially settled (Figure 12).The very high concentration of charred material in microfacies Fa, preserving longarticulated phytoliths of grass straw (Figure 8d), some of them melted, point to adestruction layer (burnt roof or barn?) rather than dumped burnt remains.

Microfacies E represents a totally different environment, with evidence of bio-turbation, reworking, and exposure (calcitic hypocoatings; Figure 8e). However, theinfluence of the lakeshore environment was still strong and seasonal flooding wasprobably frequent, as seen in the crude, layered appearance of the sediment, theintercalations of some sand increments, and the silty void coatings. The presence ofpreserved wood ash is also evidence for the absence of long-term standing water,aided also by the alkaline pH of the groundwater. The predominance of fungal remainsover algae is also indicative of desiccation of the depositional environment.Nevertheless, the ground was periodically flooded, as indicated by the persistence,though in small numbers, of Botryococcus, Pediastrum, and Spirogyra and ofhydrophilous herbs (Figure 9). Indeed, the occurrence of a thin layer (135–141 cm)with a characteristic ostracod fauna consisting of Candona neglecta, Candona sp.Juveniles, and Paracandona sp. could be related to a sudden increase in lake leveland flooding of the mound. Occupation continued in this microfacies after the destruc-tion phase. Houses were still raised because the ground was humid, but postholeswere dug rather than created by wooden piles driven directly into the soft lake bot-tom as in the previous phase. Microfacies E and F, which are transitional faciesbetween the littoral and supra-littoral zone, are also characterized by a substantialincrease in the total number of phytoliths and in the cereal husk component (Figure 10).The increase in the number of phytoliths is probably a result of the depositionalenvironment rather than a change in plant communities or use of the site. Naturalplant material from everyday use decayed in situ and was not moved by water cur-rents. In addition, some activities related to food processing (e.g., winnowing) wouldhave taken place only on the ground, whenever it was dry. However, phytoliths do

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show a lateral and vertical change in the spatial use of the site, and this will be dis-cussed below.

It also appears that there were small microenvironments with different anthro-pogenic inputs, such as areas located around previously damaged and abandonedhouses. This is seen in some pure natural siliciclastic sediments with good preser-vation of primary sedimentary features (microfacies Da; Figure 8f). Intensively bio-turbated and reworked sediments (perhaps by trampling) with preserved earthwormexcrements and abundant anthropogenic remains mark a gradual change to a moreterrestrial environment. Nevertheless, the matrix of the sediment in microfacies Dresembles that of the previous microfacies, albeit it appears reworked and heavilymixed. The complete absence of aquatic elements, both algae and plants, indicatesthe complete desiccation of the ground (Figure 9). In addition, the preservation ofcoprophilous Sordariaceae spores indicates animal dung (van Geel et al., 2003),while for the first time in situ anthropogenic features (such as preserved openhearths) are seen on the ground.

Microfacies C corresponds to a dry land environment, with evidence for the con-struction of houses directly on the ground (Figure 12). The calcretization of thedeposits implies a dry environment, as evidenced by the massive root encrustationsand calcitic hypocoatings, but probably with seasonal fluctuations of the water table,as indicated by the persistence of organic mottles (Courty, Goldberg, & Macphail,1989). This microfacies exhibits extremely low pollen diversities and dominance ofthe erosion-resistant Cichoideae, Chenopodiaceae, and Cistaceae, confirming a drydepositional environment (Figure 9). Furthermore, the increased abundance of thefungal spore type 207 indicates active soil formation processes (van Geel, Coope, &van der Hammen, 1989). Human input increases dramatically, and in places the sed-iment can be regarded as of pure anthropogenic origin. The development of the hardpan(microfacies B) at the top of microfacies C is the result of the gradual cementation ofthe underlying sediment. This led to the formation of temporary stagnant ponds of water that facilitated the formation of calcareous crusts. These crusts are evap-orative in origin and may have formed quite rapidly. Biogenic processes also playeda role (calcification of root mats, algae, and fungi) (Wright & Tucker, 1991). Notethat the thickness of this indurated layer (microfacies C and B) is directly related to water table fluctuations and lake level changes. Calcretization happens above thewater table, but it can be a recurrent process. Taking into account the complexitiesof this and the underlying transitional microfacies, what follows is a discussion ofthe occupation of these environments through time.

The available dates for the above transitional environment range from 5200 to2100 B.C., implying a complex pattern of occupation in relation to the position of thelakeshore through time (Figure 12). Based on the archaeological findings and the avail-able dates from approximately 5200 to 5000 B.C. (i.e., early part of the LNI), thesupra-littoral transitional and dry land environment were occupied in the western sec-tor, while the littoral zone was occupied in the eastern and southern sectors. This wasprobably an indirect consequence of the previous destruction phase, which had a dif-ferent impact on the sedimentation pattern in the western and eastern sectors. Thus,

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an area above the water level formed early in the western sector, whereas in the east the lake waters started to regress a little later. However, the existence of thebeach bar at depths of 160–130 cm at the southeastern corner of the mound, tenta-tively dated with pottery to the middle late LNI (i.e., ca. 5000–4800 B.C.), suggests arise in the lake level at this time. This rise only marginally affected the main part ofthe excavated mound, where the environment was mainly dry, but a thin layer richin ostracods found in core DSG2 can be related to this event. This suggests that a smallisland was already established from the early LNI, as seen in the age of occupation inthe dry land of the west sector.

Regarding the occupation pattern from around 5000 to 4300 B.C. (late part of LNI,LNII, and early part of the Chalcolithic), there is evidence of occupation only in thetransitional (eastern and southeastern sectors) and dry land (western sector) envi-ronment, but the very few available dates cannot support intensive occupation of themound at this time. If there was occupation of the littoral zone during this period,the corresponding archaeological layers are now probably submerged or are out-side the excavated mound. Between 4300 and 3900 B.C., we have evidence of occu-pation on the dry land environment. The fact that transitional microfacies dated to4000 B.C. are found deep in the core nearest the present shore (GSG4 at depth 170 cm;Figure 5) might be interpreted as sediment affected by the occupants during a periodof lowering of the lake level (Figure 12). Unfortunately, the available informationcomes only from the core and therefore it is impossible to determine the nature ofsuch a truncation feature. Nevertheless, a drop in the lake level at about the sametime was identified from the palynological study of Kouli (2007), suggesting that thisscenario is plausible. This lake level change would probably have shifted the core ofthe settlement toward the present lake.

The formation of the main part of the hardpan can be dated to around 3600 B.C.,within the Chalcolithic Period. It is likely that this feature marks an abandonmentof the site, because it is unlikely that these laminated indurated horizons could formand survive in an area of intensive anthropogenic activity and trampling. It is inter-esting to note that there is evidence of later anthropogenic activity in the transi-tional supra-littoral environment at the end of the Early Bronze Age (2300–2100 B.C.)at a depth of ca. 140–170 cm, at some distance from the present lake on the south-ern edge of the mound (core DSG1; Figure 5). This activity might be related to thebuilding of the ring wall, but more work is needed to confirm this. The associatedsedimentary change should imply a relative rise of the lake level at that time or ear-lier (Figure 12), and in this respect the ring wall could have been constructed to pre-vent flooding. It is tempting to associate this occupation hiatus with the rise of thelake level, which would have resulted in loss of the shallow littoral area in front ofthe mound. Moreover, based on the palynological study of the lake sediments (Kouli,2007), it is proposed that a considerable rise in the lake level occurred at around3600 B.C., which is in agreement with the above scenario. This relatively high lakelevel persisted for some time during the Bronze Age. It is important to note thatthese fluctuations of the lake level shaped the mound and gave it its present form(Figure 12). Finally, the Bronze Age deposits that were above the water table grad-ually became calcretized and cemented. It is of interest that the phytolith assemblage

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from the Bronze Age samples from core DSG1 indicates large amounts of animaldung. This might indicate a change in the socioeconomic structure of the site. The strong agricultural component during the Neolithic probably changed to a pas-toral one during the Bronze Age. We also note the absence of dicot leaf phytolithsfrom almost all these dung-rich samples. Since it has been suggested that goat dungpreserves high amounts of dicot leaf phytoliths (Tsartsidou et al., 2008), their absence,together with the presence of phytoliths of short wild grasses, might indicate that theanimals at the settlement were grazers (sheep and cows) rather than browsers(goats). We should also note that the available archaeological data from the excavationof this time period are meager because they come from the uppermost disturbedsediments.

CONCLUSIONS

Sedimentary facies analysis based on coring, field observations, micromorpho-logical studies, palynological, wood charcoal, ostracod, and phytolith analysis hasestablished a complex occupational pattern at the lakeside site of Dispilio from theMiddle Neolithic to Chalcolithic Period. This was the result of the interaction ofchanging lake levels and the variable input of anthropogenic sediments.

The occupation begun during the Middle Neolithic in a lakeshore environmentcharacterized by a shallow sand ridge and a shore marsh. Houses were built onraised platforms above very shallow water. By the end of the Middle Neolithic, aconflagration destroyed the settlement and produced a complex mosaic of microen-vironments with different depositional histories. In the western sector, the destruc-tion layer soon led to the formation of dry land. The eastern sector continued to bea transitional supra-littoral environment, and only much later, at the beginning ofthe Chalcolithic, did it become totally dry. In the transitional environment, housescontinued to be constructed on raised platforms, whereas on dry land they werebuilt directly on the ground. Fluctuations in the level of the lake further shaped thesmall mound. One of these changes is tentatively related to the abandonment of the excavation area during the Chalcolithic and the development of a hardpan on itssurface. Occupation reappeared later during the Bronze Age, as indicated by the fewmostly surface archaeological finds.

The present study shows that the Neolithic occupants of Dispilio were buildingtheir dwellings both on dry land and in the littoral environment. The building tech-nology was obviously different in these environments, and this would have had impli-cations for the use of space in the settlement. Some activities related to food processing (e.g., winnowing) might have taken place only on dry land, as the studyof phytoliths suggests. Large storage vessels have been found only in the littoral phasesince other storage facilities such as pits would not have been possible (Sofronidou,2008). Unfortunately, only a very small part of the littoral phase of the settlement hasbeen excavated, and it would be premature to suggest definite differences in the use ofspace other than those related to construction technology. Indeed, one of the aims of this study is to provide a framework for future excavation strategies that will tar-get specific questions about the use of space in different environments. Future research

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at Dispilio should focus on relating the depositional facies between the western andeastern sectors, which show different depositional histories after the earliest lakeshoreoccupation. Excavations should also target the identification of possible shifts of set-tlement during particular time periods, such as the LNII and Chalcolithic. These move-ments could only be revealed by undertaking studies in the area of the present lakeand of the mound toward the east of the archaeological site. Eventually, it will be possible to establish whether both the dry land and the littoral environments wereoccupied at the same time and if there were any related differences in the organiza-tion of space in relation to subsistence and production. So far, the available archae-ological finds do not show any particular change in the nature of the settlement fromits very beginning in the Middle Neolithic to the Chalcolithic, irrespective of the typeof the environment occupied, which included a mixed farming economy supple-mented by fishing and some hunting activities (Sofronidou, 2008; Phoca-Cosmetatou,2008; Theodoropoulou, 2008). A shift to more intensive pastoral activities during thereoccupation of the site in the Bronze Age is a strong possibility.

The authors are indebted to the director of the excavation, Prof.G. Hourmouziades, for his invaluablesupport during fieldwork. We are also grateful to M. Sofronidou and the rest of the Dispilio excavationteam for their helpful discussions. PK gratefully acknowledges a Research Fellowship granted by theWiener Laboratory, American School of Classical Studies at Athens. We also acknowledge the helpfulcomments of two anonymous reviewers. We also thank Jamie Woodward for copyediting our text and fordetailed editorial comments.

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Received 14 May 2010Accepted for publication 16 July 2010Scientific editing by Jamie Woodward

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