On the Cusp of History: Archaobotanical Remains from CA-YOL-182

The site is on the border of Yolo and Soalno Counties. CA-Yol-182 was eventually merged into

CA-SOL-397.

Reference: Shapiro, Lisa A. and Kim J. Tremaine. 1999. Archaeological Investigations at CA-SOL-

397 on the University of California, Davis Campus. Prepared by BioSystems Analysis, Sacramento,

California for University of California, Davis, Office of Planning and Budget. January.

Appendix K

On The Cusp of History:

Archaeobotanical Remains from CA-YOL-182

Charles H. Miksicek (9/25/1995)

BioSystems Analysis, Inc., Santa Cruz

K.1 INTRODUCTION

In 1877 ethnographer Stephen Powers (1976: 220) described Patwin subsistence and the area

around Putah Creek in north-central California as follows:

Señor Piña, who was in the country ten years before the gold discovery, states that on Putah Creek the

Indians lived in multitudes. They had an almost boundless extent of plains whereon to hunt game and

gather grass-seed; before the streams were muddied they swarmed with untold myriads of salmon; and

the broad tule swamps in winter were noisy with the quacking and screaming flocks.

On the plains they gathered the seed of a plant called yellow blossom (Rannunculus californicus

[buttercup]), crushed it into flour with stones, then put it into baskets with coals of fire and agitated it

until it was cooked and burned pot-black, when they made it into pinole . . . When wild clover came

into blossom they frequently ate it so greedily as to become distressfully inflated with gas. . . The

Spaniards affirm that the Solano plains were well covered with wild oats as early as 1838, but the

Patwin did not make very extensive use of it then. Wild sunflower [tarweed?] and different kinds of

grass were pulled or cut on the plains, thrashed out on smooth ground, winnowed in the wind, the seed

beaten up and made into a kind of panada. Along the Sacramento they gathered many blackberries

[elderberries?] in the season.

As we shall see, with a few possible substitutions for common names [indicated in brackets] this a

remarkably accurate prediction of the charred plant remains recovered from CA-YOL-182, an

archaeological site located along Putah Creek, on what is now the campus of the University of

California at Davis. Powers' firsthand narrative seems somewhat more pertinent to the CA-YOL-

182 assemblage than Patti Johnson's (1978: 355) more extensive list from the Handbook of North

American Indians which was generalized from several central California groups:

Sunflower [tarweed?], alfilaria [filaree?], clover, bunchgrass, wild oat, and a yellow flower

[buttercup?], all growing on the open plains, provided seeds that were parched or dried, then pounded

into a meal. . . As among many California cultures a primary staple was the acorn. . . Buckeye, pine

nuts, juniper berries, manzanita berries, blackberries, wild grapes, Brodiaea bulbs, and, in the valley,

tule roots, were some of the plant foods collected at various times of the year.

K.2 METHODOLOGY

All of the CA-YOL-182 flotation samples were processed using a continuous-flow flotation device

designed by this author which was modeled after the SMAP machine (Watson 1976). Each soil

sample was first measured in a large graduated cylinder to determine the volume. The matrix was

then poured into the float machine and gently stirred. Overflow from the machine containing

carbonized seeds and wood charcoal was collected in nylon mesh with 0.25 mm openings. Sample

processing continued until all charcoal was collected in the nylon netting which was then hung from

a clothesline and dried. The remaining coarse sediments were then scanned for bone, shell, lithics,

and other artifactual material.

After drying, each sample was first passed through a nested series of geological sieves with mesh

sizes of 4.0, 2.0, and 0.5 mm. This pre-sorting removes many modern rootlets and produces

subsamples with similar-sized particles which are more effectively scanned by the analyst. Each

fraction was then sorted at 7X under a binocular dissecting microscope into its component parts.

Uncharred seeds were counted and identified to evaluate the modern seed rain and to provide a

measure for the degree of bioturbation and mixing within the soil column. To provide an additional

monitor on the amount of faunalturbation in each sample, rodent fecal pellets and insect parts were

quantified on a relative scale ranging from 0 (none) to 5 (abundant).

At least 25 pieces of charcoal were identified from each sample. Each fragment was first fractured

to give fresh transverse and radial sections and then identified at 30x under a binocular dissecting

microscope.

All seed and wood identifications were based on modern comparative material collected from

central California and standard seed and wood keys such as Musil (1963), Martin and Barkley

(1973), and Miles (1978). Taxonomic nomenclature follows Hickman (1993). All botanical

materials identified in the CA-YOL-182 samples are listed in Table K.1 along with ethnographic

uses from Mead (1972) and seasonality data from Hickman (1993).

Raw data are reported beginning with Table K.2. This table includes sample volume before

flotation, richness (the average number of charred seed taxa per liter), density (the average number

of charred seeds per liter), the total weight of all charcoal fragments larger than 0.5 mm, the bug

part index, the rat pellet index, uncharred seeds, carbonized plant remains, and wood charcoal. It is

most likely that all of the uncarbonized remains are recent intrusives and are not associated with the

prehistoric use of the site. Raw data are presented in a "structured table" format (Van der Maarel,

Janssen, and Louppen 1978). This is a semi-graphical method of data presentation commonly used

in European phytosociology (plant ecology). Plant taxa are grouped by their order of appearance

and the depth to which they persist in the soil column. This method gives a quick visual impression

of which categories of plant remains co-occur which may not be as evident from other data

presentation formats.

K.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The archaeobotanical results from CA-YOL-182 will be discussed in the context of research

questions pertinent to understanding subsistence, settlement, paleoenvironment, and chronology at

the site.

How intact are the cultural deposits at CA-YOL-182?

There is relatively little evidence for disturbance in the YOL-182 flotation samples in the form of

uncarbonized seeds, insect parts, or rodent fecal pellets. The only sample with numerous uncharred

seeds comes from Feature A in Trench 23 (Table K.2) which was not collected by BioSystems staff

and comes from an unreported depth. This concentration of pigweed seeds could represent a fairly

recent rodent or insect cache. The uncarbonized seeds are most likely recent intrusives and are not

associated with the past use of the site. Most of the historic trash from the excavation units is

confined to the upper 40 cm of the site (see artifact catalog).

What charred plant remains are present in the CA-YOL-182 flotation samples?

Over 70 percent of the charred, non-woody remains come from plants with small edible seeds such

as farewell-to spring, chenopods (goosefoot or lambsquarters, at least two distinct species), red

maids, tarweed, knotweed, allscale, bentgrass, native barley, maygrass, ryegrass, hairgrass,

bromegrass, and reedgrass (Tables K.2, K.3, and K.4). Several plants that yield edible, spinach-like

greens (quelites) are also represented (lupine, clover, Spanish clover, miner's lettuce). Various types

of potentially edible roots or bulbs are present. Charred acorn nutshell or kernels make up

approximately ten percent of the non-woody assemblage. Numerous charred elderberry seeds occur

in all but one float sample (11.2% of the charred seed total, a higher proportion than acorns). Wild

grape and redberry seeds are also present in several samples.

Willow and valley oak are the dominant charcoal types. Also present are live oak, cottonwood,

manzanita, wild grape, walnut, sunflower family, buckthorn family, and pine charcoal. Obsidian

flakes, large mammal bone, small mammal/bird remains, fish remains, and shell are found in the

heavy fractions of most flotation samples. Clam shell disk beads are present in Burial 4 along with

cremated human bone fragments. Sea urchin spines occur in two samples demonstrating some trade

in coastal resources.

Two seed types, manzanita and gray pine, are represented only by macrobotanical remains collected

by screening during excavation (Table K.5). Both taxa have very dense seeds that easily survive

carbonization, burial, and recovery. If we had only large charred macrofossils to rely upon to

understand past lifeways at CA-YOL-182, we would have a very different impression of plant use.

We would have evidence for acorns, wild grape, manzanita, and gray pine; but we would be

completely missing the small seed component of the diet, by far the largest portion of the total

assemblage recovered by flotation.

Fragments of bast fiber cordage (milkweed or Indian hemp) are present in the sample collected

from Burial 4 (Table K.2). Since carbonized cordage is only rarely recovered from archaeological

sites, this demonstrates the excellent state of preservation at CA-YOL-182. Pieces of split willow

twigs, probably the remains of basketry, are also present in Burial 4 and three of the other samples

listed in Table K.2. The very high charred seed densities (19-375 seeds/liter) and very rich

assemblages (4-19 taxa/liter) confirm the remarkable archaeobotanical potential of the site.

At what times of the year was the site occupied?

Most of the small, charred, non-woody taxa from CA-YOL-182 (grasses and edible seeds) could

have been collected from late spring through early summer. The late summer through early fall

period is also well documented by abundant elderberry seeds, wild grape, and acorns. The only

good plant indicator for winter residence in central California is Christmas berry or toyon

(Heteromeles arbutifolia), which was not identified from the site. Late winter/early spring

indicators such as greens (clover, lupine, Spanish clover) or roots are present in the

archaeobotanical assemblage, but they seem under-represented in comparison to small seeds and

nuts. It is therefore most likely that the site was occupied from late spring until early fall (from

small seed gathering time through the beginnings of the acorn harvest). The area adjacent to Putah

Creek may have been just too wet to occupy continuously through the winter rainy season.

Do the charred plant remains from CA-YOL-182 provide any clues to dating the cultural deposits

at the site?

Several plant taxa (European barley, wild oats, corn cockle, spiderwort), introduced to California

from Eurasia during the Mission Period (Hendry 1931) occur in several of the flotation samples

from CA-YOL-182. Other plants with both Old World and New World species, such as filaree and

curly dock, tend to be found along with these non-natives. Since there is very little other evidence

for disturbance (uncarbonized seeds, bug parts, rodent pellets), it is most likely that these alien

charred seeds are in situ. In the CA-YOL-182 float samples, these Old World taxa tend to be

associated with high charred seeds densities and average obsidian hydration values less that 1.2

microns (Tables K.2, K.3, and K.4). Other temporal clues do not seem to conflict with these

findings. Burial 4, with four late prehistoric radiocarbon dates, does not have any of these Old

World taxa but does have a relatively low average charred seed density (27.25 charred seeds/liter,

Table K.2). The sample from the 70 to 80 cm level of Unit 4 does not have any of these introduced

seeds, but it does have a relatively high charred seed density (243.00 seeds/liter), and a glass trade

bead is reported from this level (see artifact catalog). It is therefore possible to assign probable ages

to the flotation samples from CA-YOL-182 based on a combination of average hydration

measurements, charred seed density, and the presence (or absence) of Old World seed taxa (Tables

K.2, K.3, and K.4). These samples are grouped by probable age in Table K.6. Seed taxa in Table

K.6 are summarized as ubiquities, the percentage of all samples from a time period that contain a

given taxon. Wood charcoal types are listed as relative percentages and other artifact types are

represented by average weights.

In Table K.6 bast cordage, split-willow twigs, monocot bulbs, monocot fibers (probably soaproot),

three-awn grass, bluegrass, buttercup, and reedgrass all occur exclusively in or are more abundant

in the probable late prehistoric samples. Conversely Spanish clover (a native despite its name),

thick acorn, bromegrass, and nettle are more abundant in the presumed early historic samples. The

presence of introduced taxa is used as an age-sorting criterion, so it is a given that non-native seeds

(like wild oats, dock, etc.) occur only in the historic samples. Wild grape, redberry, bulrush,

assorted roots, cattail, and bedstraw are found in such low frequencies in the probable historic

samples that their presence may be more a function of the larger number of samples than a real

temporal pattern (ten historic versus five late prehistoric samples). Bentgrass, fescue, hairgrass,

chenopods, tarweed, red maids, farewell-to-spring, miner's lettuce, knotweed, clover, wild

cucumber, elderberry, and acorns have similar recovery rates in both sets of samples. Willow,

valley oak, live oak, manzanita, buckthorn, and sunflower family charcoal all occur in similar

proportions in the presumed early and late set of samples. Pine charcoal is present in the lowest

levels of both Units 1 and 4 and seems to be associated with the probable early samples. Whether

the pine charcoal represents local relict trees or the long distance importation of wood for some

specialized purpose is unknown at this time. This pine charcoal could also represent driftwood

transported down Putah Creek during flood events from the mountains around modern Lake

Berryessa. Cottonwood, walnut, and wild grape only occur in the samples that may date to the

historic period. The average weights of obsidian, large mammal bone, small mammal/bird, and fish

remains tend to be higher in the post-contact samples. The only chert flakes recovered from the

heavy fractions of the floats are from prehistoric samples.

These apparent chronological patterns need to be tested against other data sets, but they may

provide some clues to dating the cultural deposits at CA-YOL-182.

Six grains of European barley (the Old World domesticated cereal) are present in the 20-40 cm

level of Control Unit 1 (Table K.3). The only additional evidence for European contact (other than

the non-native weeds) is the glass trade bead from the 70-80 cm level of Unit 4 (see artifact

catalog). Late in the occupation of the site, contact with Europeans may have been fairly indirect.

The occupants of CA-YOL-182 may have been trading with other groups who were in more direct

contact with missionized Indians. Other than this indirect trade the only obvious European

influences may have been the invasion of their landscape by foreign weeds (wild oats, dock,

filaree).

What was the local vegetation like during the occupation of the site?

The abundance of willow charcoal (44.6% of the total sample) suggests that the banks of Putah

Creek were lined with willows and other riparian vegetation like cottonwood, wild grapes, wild

cucumber vines, cattails, and assorted sedges (tules). The upland areas away from the creek were

probably covered with a savanna-like grassland with scattered valley and live oaks. In the

prehistoric period native meadow plants like grasses, lupines, clover, and weedy annuals dominated

the grassland. Open areas immediately around the site probably had a very high proportion of

disturbance plants like chenopods, tarweed, and redmaids. This reconstruction would be consistent

with the description of the Putah Creek area by Powers (1976) cited earlier in the text. By very early

in the historic period weedy, Old World invaders like wild oats, filaree, and curly dock had already

begun to replace some of the native species.

How do the plant remains from CA-YOL-182 compare to other archaeobotanical assemblages

from central California?

Table K.7 presents comparative data from eight other sites in central California. The sites include

CA-SON-2098 (Early Period, Wohlgemuth 1993a), CA-SOL-69 (Middle Period, Wohlgemuth

1992a), CA-SOL-355 (Middle, Wohlgemuth 1993b), CA-SOL-363 (Middle, Wohlgemuth 1993c),

CA-SOL-315 (Middle to Late, Wohlgemuth 1992a), CA-SAC-133 (Middle to Late, Wohlgemuth

1992b), CA-CCO-156 (Late, Wohlgemuth 1992c), and CA-SMA-204 (Late, unpublished data from

B. R. Bocek cited in Wohlgemuth 1992c). The values reported in Table K.7 are ubiquities (the

percent of all samples that contain a given taxon, Twenty-four out of 41 taxa (58%) reported in

Table K.7 are present at CA-YOL-182. An additional three taxa (sunflower, legume, and grass

families) are represented by more specific identifications at CA-YOL-182 (dandelion tribe, Spanish

clover, lupine, reedgrass, ryegrass, bentgrass, wild oats). Several taxa not listed in Table K.7 are

reported from CA-YOL-182 (allscale, monocot fibers, nettle, filaree, dock, redberry, and several

types of roots).

The only common taxa in Table K.7 that seem under-represented at CA-YOL-182 are baynut,

hazelnut, and buckeye. Baynut and wild cucumber are often difficult to distinguish when only small

fragments of the hard seed coats are recovered. The major distinguishing feature is the presence of

two layers of columnar-celled tissue (the palisades layer of the seed coat) in wild cucumber versus a

single layer in baynut. Unfortunately the double layers of wild cucumber can become separated

during carbonization, burial, and recovery. All columnar-celled seed coat fragments are reported as

wild cucumber (the ecologically most likely candidate) in the present study. It is possible that some

baynut shell could be included in this material. Some of the unknown vesicular material

(amorphous plant matter) from CA-YOL-182 could actually be fragments of buckeye seeds that

lack diagnostic vascular bundles (the water conducting, food transporting, and structural fibers in

plant tissues). Most of the unknown vesicular material at CA-YOL-182 is probably residue from

some processed plant food (seed cakes or gruel) with no diagnostic seed coats or vascular bundles.

CA-YOL-182 may just be outside the normal ecological range of hazelnut.

In general, the range of taxa present in the CA-YOL-182 flotation samples are very similar to most

of the sites in Table K.7. The CA-YOL-182 samples do have significantly higher charred seed

densities (up to 375 charred seeds/liter) and richness values (4 to 19 taxa/liter) than all of the sites in

Table K.7. In fairness, I should stress that the richness values in Table K.7 are probably artificially

depressed by the very large average sample volumes at most sites (up to 42 liters). Also most of the

sites in Table K.7 are much older than CA-YOL-182, and both richness and density tend to

decrease in older samples.

CA-YOL-182 has similar recovery rates for gray pine, buttercup, sedges, fescue, borage, acorns,

wild cucumber, maygrass, tarweed, bromegrass, wild grape, and bluegrass as most of the sites in

Table K.7 (as compared with Table K.6). CA-YOL-182 has higher than expected ubiquities for

native barley, miner's lettuce, hairgrass, elderberry, clover, and knotweed. Monocot bulbs,

manzanita, baynut, bedstraw, hazelnut, and buckeye seem under-represented (or missing) at CA-

YOL-182.

What do the CA-YOL-182 archaeobotanical results tell us about late prehistoric and early historic

subsistence in north-central California?

One prevailing subsistence model in California archaeology is the "Acorn Intensification

Hypothesis". This model is summarized most eloquently in a 1987 article by Mark Basgall.

According to this model, native Californians capitalized on their existing knowledge of acorn

leaching and processing technologies and intensified their use of acorns, a highly productive and

storable resource, in response to increasing population levels in the Late Prehistoric period. This

model is based almost entirely on ethnographic analogy and changes in groundstone technologies

apparent in the archaeological record. It equates handstone-millingslab use with small seed

processing and pestle-mortar technology with acorn grinding. The assumption is that small seed use

declined in the Late Period and acorn use was intensified. This model was developed with almost

no reference to corroborating archaeobotanical data. Basgall (1987:29-30) cites only two

occurrences of radiocarbon dated early acorn caches (CA-SJO-91, 2895 BP and CA-BUT-233,

4240 BP) and he refers to several reports of Late Period acorn finds in the archaeological literature.

Concurrent with the publication of this article and more recently, Eric Wohlgemuth has published

the results of the analysis of hundreds flotation samples from northern and central California, some

of which are summarized in Table K.7. Wohlgemuth's data generally supports the "Acorn

Intensification Hypothesis". Perhaps the best supporting evidence comes from Shasta County,

where over 53% (by weight) of the charred plant macrofossils from several sites are acorn remains

(Wohlgemuth 1989). One cautionary note should be added to this observation. Since late

summer/early fall remains (acorn, manzanita, gray pine) are so abundant and roots and small seeds

are under-represented, these sites could just reflect seasonal occupations (late summer through early

spring). The Redding area data may therefore not give a complete picture of year-round subsistence

patterns.

It is difficult to comment on the relative importance of acorns and small seeds in prehistoric north-

central California diets using the CA-YOL-182 archaeobotanical data for two reasons. First of all

the occupation seems seasonal (late spring through early fall) and peak acorn usage may have

occurred at a different, more upland locality. Secondly, it is impossible to reconstruct dietary

proportions from charred seed data (Miksicek 1987). Various classes of plant materials are subject

to different preservation mechanisms. For example acorns which are prepared by shelling, grinding,

leaching, and boiling tend to be represented in the archaeobotanical record only if the discarded

shells are tossed into a fire as a supplemental fuel. In contrast small seeds are commonly parched

before consumption or storage and accidents that promote preservation are common during this

process. Plant foods that are usually consumed fresh or boiled (roots, greens, berries) are often

grossly under-represented in the archaeological record.

One aspect of the "Acorn Intensification Hypothesis" that we can address using the CA-YOL-182

data, is that contrary to the predictions of this model, small seed usage was still very important in

the Putah Creek area up to and even after European Contact times. Small seeds (grasses, edible

weeds, and greens) make up the bulk of the CA-YOL-182 assemblage. These small seeds are often

erroneously called "hard seeds" in the literature on California archaeology. I prefer to include them

in the "Grass, Legume, Small Seed Complex" which is found in archaeological sites throughout

California (Miksicek 1990). This terminology emphasizes parallels with archaeobotanical data sets

from the Near East recovered from Epipaleolithic/Late Mesolithic/Early Neolithic sites that

demonstrate the beginnings of plant domestication. The California "Grass, Legume, Small Seed

Complex" also has strong parallels with the "Eastern Agricultural Complex" found throughout

eastern North America before maize agriculture became firmly established.

In reality "hard seeds" are no more difficult to grind than acorns and they can be processed just as

effectively using mortars and pestles especially after parching. In fact the early ethnographies often

report a range of materials being processed in mortars including pigments, medicinal plants, small

game, insects, and a range of plant foods from seeds to nuts. In sub-Saharan Africa wooden mortars

and pestles are used to grind sorghums, millets, teff, and upland rice (all grass seeds) along with a

whole host of foods including fish, bananas, and root crops like yams. In southern Arizona the

native O'odahm peoples (Pimas and Papagos) used bedrock mortars identical to the ones found

throughout California to grind mesquite pods. We need to get away from this "mortars equals

acorns" mindset and start collecting more direct subsistence evidence in the form of plant and

animal remains.

If these members of the "Grass, Legume, Small Seed Complex" are so similar to plants found in

early agricultural sites in the Near East and eastern North America, is there any morphological

evidence to suggest some degree of people-plant interactions beyond the simple collection of wild

plants?

One of the most striking features of the CA-YOL-182 assemblage is the size of the native barley

seeds (Hordeum pusillum, also called little barley). Table K.8 presents comparative measurements

for native barley, maygrass, and several other taxa from sites in California, Arizona, and Illinois.

All seeds were measured with a calibrated optical micrometer in a binocular dissecting scope at

10x. Prior to the CA-YOL-182 dataset, the largest reported native barley seeds came from Smiling

Dan, a Middle Woodland site in Illinois (Asch and Asch 1985). The CA-YOL-182 seeds are just a

little larger and slightly more variable (a standard deviation of 0.46 mm, versus 0.24 for Smiling

Dan, Table K.8). The CA-YOL-182 barley seeds are 15% longer, 8% wider, and 6% thicker than

the oldest seeds in Table K.8, those from CA-SDI-6010 which may represent a more pristine, wild

type native barley. The apparent size increase for barley in Table K.8 does not seem to be due to

differences in past processing techniques. When grass seeds are cleaned by sieving or winnowing

you tend to get skewed collections of either very large or small seeds. The smallest seeds from all of

the sites in Table K.8 are around 1.7 mm so we haven't differentially lost the small seeds. In the

collections of barley in Table K.8 the mean has been shifted and the range of the largest seeds has

been expanded. For example, the largest seeds from CA-YOL-182 are 3.6 mm, 3.2 mm at CA-

ORA-106, 3.5 mm at Smiling Dan, and only 2.6 mm at CA-LAN-60.

The differences in Table K.8 do not seem to be due to better growing conditions. Better growing

alone seem to have little effect on seed size. Table K.8 reports the results of an experiment I did in

1985 (Miksicek 1986). I collected two lots of pigweed (Amaranthus palmeri) and measured seed

sizes. One sample came from Papago floodwater fields near Sells, Arizona and the second came

from alleys and vacant lots near my home in Tucson. The better growing conditions in the

floodwater fields (abundant moisture, loose loamy soils, high nitrogen content, abundant organic

matter) had produced plants that were over two meters tall. Although there was a dramatic increase

in gross seed productivity per plant, the floodwater seeds were only about 1% larger (and slightly

more variable, standard deviation = 0.13) than those from the half meter tall plants that barely

produced any seeds at all from the Tucson lots and alleys. Therefore some improvement in growing

conditions (like regular grassland burning) does not seem to be responsible for the apparent size

increase in the CA-YOL-182 barley seeds.

The increase in seed size could be due to some type of unconscious or intentional selection by the

occupants of CA-YOL-182 and their predecessors in the area. They may focused their grass seed

collection on the most productive stands of wild grasses and possibly those with the largest seeds.

Focused gathering may have actually dispersed the seeds of these choice individuals (a few seeds

may have been lost while being carried back to sites). A few seeds may have even been

intentionally scattered to maintain or expand the ranges of the most productive individuals.

Unfortunately the California ethnographic record is rather mute on the subject of scattering or

intentionally planting wild seeds. Wild tobacco seeds are often reported as being deliberately

planted or scattered near houses (Shipek) but that is only one species. Shipek (date, page) does cite

several examples of "California natives gathering large seeded grasses that no longer exist in the

wild" in various Spanish chronicles.

Periodic grassland burning may even require intentional re-seeding of some annual grasses. The

types of grasses that best survive wildfires are perennials (bunchgrasses) like ryegrass, dropseed

(Sporobolus), and needlegrass (Stipa). Perennial grasses reproduce by two methods: seeds on stalks

and vegetative buds on rhizomes buried just below the soil surface. These buried buds easily

survive hot but quickly moving grass fires that could sterilize seeds lying on the soil surface. Some

annuals like filaree that do thrive after fires have self-burial mechanisms. Filaree seeds have long

awns that twist (dry) and unwind (moist) in response to changes in humidity. This corkscrew action

actually twists the seeds into the soil. Needlegrass seeds have a similar mechanism. It is unclear

whether the long, barbed awns and pointed beaks of wild barley serve as a self-burial mechanism

possibly in conjunction with wind. Other seeds that survive and thrive after short, intense wildfires

have very thick seed coats like the legumes clover, lupine, and vetches (Lotus). The effect of

periodic burning on members of the "Grass-Legume-Small Seed Complex" should be investigated

more thoroughly in an experimental context.

An additional feature of the CA-YOL-182 barley seeds should be mentioned in terms of

morphological variability. One rather large seed from the 60-90 cm level of Unit 4 has an immature,

twisted seed adhering to its side at the embryo end. This could be highly significant since wild

barley has one fertile floret (flower) and two sterile florets at each spike node (rachis or seed stalk

segment). One mutation that was fixed early in the domestication of cereals in the Near East was

the restoration of fertility to the sterile florets producing a six-rowed domesticated barley from a

two- rowed wild progenitor. The same mutation occurred in the conversion of teosinte to maize.

Small twisted grains are a hallmark of these lateral grains from formerly sterile florets (Hillman and

Davies 1992). This trait exists in one out of 251 native barley grains from CA-YOL-182 (0.4%).

This may indicate that the naturally occurring mutation for restored fertility may have already been

fixed in the stands of grass the people from this site were harvesting.

A third trait in the CA-YOL-182 barley collection that could indicate some level of selection or

modification from a completely wild grass is naked-seededness. Wild barleys have tightly adhering

glumes (miniature husks) but their cultivated relatives don't. This naked-seededness is very difficult

to duplicate in laboratory processing experiments (Adams 1987). Unfortunately this apparent

naked-seededness may be a little misleading. In over fifteen years of examining thousands of

archaeological barley seeds from sites in Arizona and California, I have only seen one example of a

native barley caryopsis (grain) with adhering glumes. In fact most archaeological grass seeds,

except perhaps the panic grass relatives, appear to be naked-seeded. Perhaps aboriginal grass

collectors were just very efficient at removing the chaff.

In the eastern North American archaeobotanical literature, little barley is now being investigated as

a semi-cultivated plant or an incipient domesticate (Asch and Asch 1985). The two southern

Arizona barley caches listed in Table K.8 are being treated like cultivated plants: they are stored in

jars mixed with only full domesticates (corn and grain amaranth, Miksicek 1994). These two

Arizona samples are from a site located northeast of Phoenix in the Tonto Basin where little barley

was first identified in an archaeological context by Vorsila Bohrer in 1962 (Miksicek 1994). During

the earliest phases of occupation in the Tonto Basin (ca. 300 AD to 1150 AD) the sites seem most

closely related to the Hohokam, the prehistoric peoples of the southern Arizona deserts. After 1150

AD there appears to be an influx of people or ideas from the Mogollon highlands of east-central

Arizona (the so-called "Salado Invasion"). Little barley tends to be most strongly associated with

Hohokam sites. It is interesting to note that the earlier seeds at AZ V:5:4 are actually larger (Table

K.8). Could the smaller seeds from the later period represent relaxed selection by peoples less

familiar with an incipient local crop?

At least two traits in the CA-YOL-182 barley collection (large size and possibly restored fertility)

indicate some degree of selection or modification from a pristine wild plant. These seeds are still a

long way from a full domesticate. We may never find one trait associated with cereal domestication

in the Old World; the transition from a brittle rachis (self dispersing) wild type to a tough rachised

domesticate. Native Californians seem to have favored the beater and basket method of harvesting

small seeds. This technique never exerts the same selective pressures for a tough rachis that sickle-

harvesting or uprooting do (Hillman and Davies 1992).

The maygrass seeds from CA-YOL-182 are also moderately large (13% longer than the seeds from

CA-LAN-60, Table K.8). At CA-LAN-60 the largest maygrass seeds come from the middle levels

of the site, associated with the densest concentrations of artifacts (Miksicek 1994a). The smallest

seeds are present in both the top and bottom of the soil column. This pattern could reflect some

degree of selection or management of local maygrass stands during the peak periods of occupation.

Since any of four native species of maygrass could be involved, this pattern could also indicate a

shift in the relative abundance of different local species.

The CA-YOL-182 ryegrass seeds are only reported in Table K.8 for future comparisons.

The last macrofossils to be discussed are the large chenopods. The CA-YOL-182 seeds compare

most favorably to Chenopodium berlandieri. Chenopodium berlandieri has a subspecies, nuttalliae

which is a domesticated plant in Mexico with three cultivars ("quelite" a black-seeded spinach-like

vegetables, "chia" a red-seeded grain crop, and "huauzontle" a white-seeded broccoli-like vegetable,

Miksicek 1986). C. berlandieri is in the same section of the genus Chenopodium as C. quinoa the

white-seeded grain from South America which is now found in many health food stores. The lighter

colored seeds have thinner seed coats, a feature that is associated with the loss of wild-type

germination delay mechanisms (Smith 1984). In other words, wild seeds have thick seed coats and

longer, more variable germination times. For wild plant populations, especially weedy ones, there is

a competitive advantage to having seeds that will sprout under a variety of climatic conditions (wet

years or dry ones, cold years versus hot ones). Farmers on the other hand, select for seeds that will

all germinate at the same time and eventually ripen together.

Table K.8 presents diameters and seed coat thickness (actually the combined thickness of the seed

coat [testa] and underlying proteinaceous layer [perisperm]) for uncarbonized Chenopodium

berlandieri ssp. zschackei (the most common variety in western North America) and the charred,

large chenopods from CA-YOL-182. Chenopods tend to shrink 6 - 8% in diameter upon charring

and seed coats decrease by about 11% (Miksicek 1986). The CA-YOL-182 measurements would

suggest only 3% shrinkage and a 20% decrease in testa and perisperm thickness. In other words the

CA-YOL-182 seeds are a little larger and have thinner seed coats than they should have if they were

from completely wild plants. Once again there is evidence for slight degrees of modification or

selection by people.

This pattern is present for at least three taxa at CA-YOL-182 (native barley, maygrass, large

chenopods). Who knows what we would find if we looked more closely at the other taxa from this

site. Admittedly the differences are slight, but they do parallel changes seen in the early stages of

crop domestication worldwide.

We should keep in mind that the late 19th and early 20th century ethnographies were collected after

almost a century of the missionization and marginalization of native Californians. Very few of the

informants were still practicing their traditional lifeways. Their populations had been decimated by

European diseases and they had been pushed off their traditional gathering territories. As European

style farming and cattle ranching expanded into the Central Valley grasslands, and logging and

mining spread into the foothills, the native practice of periodic burning was suppressed. Aggressive

alien weeds, pre-adapted by thousands of years of exposure to large grazing animals (cattle, horses,

sheep, goats) rapidly invaded the California grasslands and replaced native species. Perhaps acorns

figure so highly in the turn-of-the-century ethnographies because they were one of the few

important plant foods that native Californians could still gather. Acorns were a traditional food that

tied these late 19th survivors to their pre-contact roots. Acorns may have been the "manna and

matzoh" that allowed native Californians to survive their "exile in the wilderness" on the margins of

Euroamerican society.

The CA-YOL-182 archaeobotanical assemblage is important because it is a snapshot of the times

just before and at the beginnings of these dramatic changes in 19th century California.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Fifteen flotation samples analyzed from recent excavations at CA-YOL-182 provide new insights

into Native Californian subsistence in the Putah Creek area just before and after the arrival of

Europeans. The major findings of the CA-YOL-182 archaeobotanical analysis may be summarized

as follows:

1. All flotation samples contain abundant identifiable carbonized seeds and wood charcoal

fragments.

2. The paucity of uncharred seeds, bug parts, and rodent fecal pellets suggests that the cultural

deposits at CA-YOL-182 are relatively undisturbed.

3. Small edible seeds, elderberries, and acorn nutshell comprise the bulk of the

archaeobotanical assemblage.

4. Several taxa, manzanita and gray pine, are only present as macrobotanical remains. These

highly visible taxa, recovered by screening and not flotation, probably only contributed a

very small proportion of the diet.

5. The site was probably utilized most often from late spring through early fall. The area

adjacent to Putah Creek may have been too wet to occupy continuously throughout the

winter rainy season.

6. It is possible to divide the occupation at CA-YOL-182 into two temporal components (late

prehistoric and early historic) based on the presence or absence of charred, introduced plants

such as European barley, wild oats, spiderwort, corn cockle, curly dock, and filaree. These

chronological assessments seem to be consistent with other dating information such as

obsidian hydration, radiocarbon, and historic artifacts. The presumed historic samples (post

1800) also tend to have much higher charred seed densities.

7. At the time CA-YOL-182 was occupied, Putah Creek was probably lined with willows,

tules, cattails, and other riparian vegetation. The areas away from the Creek were probably

on open grassland with scattered oaks. Possible historic period samples from the site

contain evidence for weedy Eurasian plant species.

8. The archaeobotanical assemblage from CA-YOL-182 seems very comparable to reported

data from other central California sites. Several taxa such as native barley, miner's lettuce,

hairgrass, chenopods, red maids, clover, and elderberry seem unusually abundant at this site.

9. The abundance of small seeds, grasses, and legumes in the CA-YOL-182 samples

demonstrates that small seed usage was still very important in north-central California in

late prehistoric and early times contrary to the predictions of the "Acorn Intensification

Model".

10. It is impossible to comment on the relative contributions of acorns and small seeds to the

prehistoric diet using the charred seed data from CA-YOL-182 for two reasons. The site is

seasonal and primary acorn usage may have occurred elsewhere. Secondly various types of

plant remains (nuts, seeds, greens, berries, roots) have different preservation mechanisms.

We don't yet know enough about these transformations from the cultural context, to the

archaeological record, and finally to the laboratory sample setting to be able to develop

mathematical correction factors to that would allow us to estimate dietary proportions from

the numbers of charred seeds in a data table (Miksicek 1987).

11. Two traits in the CA-YOL-182 native barley collection suggest some modification from a

completely wild plant: larger seed size and one grain with a restored-fertility Siamese twin.

The maygrass seeds from this site are a little larger than usual for wild plants. The large

chenopod seeds may be closely related to species that are domesticated in Mexico

(huauzontle) and South America (quinoa). These plants are still a long way from being fully

domesticated crops, but the terms "proto-agriculture", "modified", "selected", "managed"

may be applicable.

In summary, the plant remains from CA-YOL-182, especially some members of the "Grass-

Legume-Small Seed Complex" may suggest that the U. C. Davis area may have been a center for

agricultural experimentation for almost 500 years.

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Table K.1. Plant Remains Identified by Flotation from CA-YOL-182.

Common Name Scientific Name Part Use Season Indicated

Mustard Family Brassicaceae u S,G?

Pigweed Amaranthus sp. u S,G

Bluegrass cf. Poa sp. s S? spring

Borage Amsinkia,Cryptantha,Plagiobothrys s spring

Cattail Root Typha domingensis m R,P,G,U spring

Clover Trifolium sp. s G spring

Dandelion Tribe Liguliflorae, Asteraceae s spring

Dicot Root Dicotyledoneae m R spring

Lupine Lupinus sp. u,s G spring

Monocot Bulb Dichelostemma,Calochortus,Chlorogalum m R spring

Monocot Fiber cf. Chlorogalum (Soaproot) m U spring

Monocot Rhizome Monocotyledoneae m R spring

Spongy Monocot Root Nuphar or Sagittaria-Type m R spring

Miner's Lettuce Claytonia perfoliata s G spring

Red Maids Calandrina sp. s S spring

Spanish Clover Lotus cf. purshianus s G spring

Bast Fiber Cordage Apocynum or Asclepias m U spring-fall

Nettle Urtica sp. s G,M,U spring-fall

Corn Cockle ** Agrostemma sp. s late spring

European Barley ** Hordeum vulgare s S late spring

Filaree * Erodium spp. s late spring

Maygrass Phalaris sp. s S late spring

Native Barley Hordeum pusillum s S late spring

Wild Oats ** Avena fatua u,s S late spring

Allscale Atriplex sp. s S,G late spring-summer

Bedstraw Gallium sp. s M? late spring-summer

Bentgrass-Type Agrostis or Muhlenbergia sp. s S?,U late spring-summer

Bromegrass Bromus sp. s S late spring-summer

Buttercup Ranunculus sp. s G?,M? late spring-summer

Curly Dock * Rumex sp. s G late spring-summer

Farewell-to-Spring Clarkia sp. s S late spring-summer

Fescue-Type Grass Vulpia or Festuca s S? late spring-summer

Hairgrass Deschampsia sp. s S late spring-summer

Knotweed Polygonum sp. s S? late spring-summer

Large Chenopod-Type Chenopodium cf. berlandieri s S,G late spring-summer

Reedgrass-Type cf. Calamagrostis sp. s S late spring-summer

Ryegrass Elymus sp. s S late spring-summer

Small Chenopod-Type Chenopodium sp. s S,G late spring-summer

Three-awn Grass Aristida sp. s U? late spring-summer

Spiderwort ** Commelinaceae s M? summer

Tarweed Madia or Hemizonia s S summer

Bulrush Scirpus sp. s U summer-fall

Manzanita Arctostaphylos sp. s,w F,M,W summer-fall

Spikerush Eleocharis sp. s U summer-fall

Wild Cucumber Marah sp. s S?,M? summer-fall

Elderberry Sambucus sp. u,s F,M late summer-fall

Redberry Rhamnus sp. s F?,M late summer-fall

Wild Grape Vitus californica s,w F,U,W late summer-fall

Table K.1. Plant Remains Identified by Flotation from CA-YOL-182 (continued).

Common Name Scientific Name Part Use Season Indicated

Live Oak Quercus wislizenii or agrifolia s,w N,U,W fall

Thick-shelled Acorn Lithocarpus or Quercus s N?,U,W fall

Valley Oak Quercus lobata s,w N,U,W fall

Gray Pine Pinus sabiniana s,w N,U,M,W fall

Grass Stems Poaceae m U

Buckthorn Family Ceanothus or Rhamnus w W

Cottonwood Populus spp. w W

Pine Pinus sp. w W

Sunflower Family Asteraceae w M?,W

Walnut-Type cf. Juglans hindsii w N,W

Willow Salix sp. m,w M,U,W

Key: ** - introduced species, cf. "compares favorably to", * - some species native

u - uncarbonized seed (etc.), s - carbonized seed, m - miscellaneous parts, w - wood charcoal

S - edible seeds, G - edible greens, F - edible fruit, N - edible nut, M - medicinal

U - utilitarian (fiber, basketry, etc.), W - wood, ? - possible use, R - edible root, P - edible pollen

Table K.2 Biological Remains from CA-YOL-182 (Miscellaneous Contexts).

Trench/Unit Tr 3 Tr 14 Tr 23 Unit 1 Unit 1

Feature Hearth Burial 4 A Hearth 2 Hearth 2

Depth (cm) 90-100 90-100

Charred Seeds (etc.):

Filaree * 1

Redberry 1

Thick Acorn Shell 4

Allscale 1 1

Clover 3 1 2

Farewell-to-Spring 32 1 1

Miner's Lettuce 8 1 1 1

Elderberry 364 1 5 1 1

Acorn Shell 69 5 1 3 2

Small Chenopod 50 11 3 144 64

Bentgrass-Type 31 2 16 32 49

Large Chenopod 81 17 129 66

Native Barley 12 5 17 9

Wild Cucumber 3 7 1 3

Maygrass 5 1 24 18

Ryegrass 2 7 22 9

Fescue 4 1 1 8

Tarweed 2 1 8

Red Maids 50 9 8 16

Split Willow Twigs 23 1 1 2

Hairgrass 1 8 8 33

Seed Fragments 6 3 2 5

Knotweed 2 1 3

Bast Fiber Cord 24

Vesicular Material 8

Monocot Bulb 2

Dandelion Tribe 1

Reedgrass 1

Borage 1

Bluegrass 1

Lupine 2 2

Monocot Fiber 4 1

Spanish Clover 3

Bulrush 1

Wild Oats ** 1

Curly Dock * 1

Bedstraw 1

Nettle 1

Bromegrass 1

Acorn Kernel 1

Key: ** - Introduced Taxon, * - Some Species Introduced

Table K.2 Biological Remains (miscellaneous contexts, continued).

Trench/Unit Tr 3 Tr 14 Tr 23 Unit 1 Unit 1

Feature Hearth Burial 4 A Hearth 2 Hearth 2

Volume (Liters) 4.0 4.0 2.5 4.0 4.0

Rat Pellet Index 0 0 1 0 0

Bug Part Index 0 0 0 0 0

Possible Age P L L? P P

Charred Seeds/Liter 180.75 28.25 30.40 98.50 76.50

Charred Taxa/Liter 4.75 5.25 5.20 5.25 6.25

Uncarbonized (Intrusive) Seeds:

Pigweed 128

Wood Charcoal (gms): 4.8 60.4 1.0 1.4 1.6

Willow 11 28 4 6 4

Valley Oak 11 19 21 16

Live Oak 4 4 3

Cottonwood ? 1 1

Grape Vine 1

Manzanita 4

Buckthorn Family 1

Indeterminate 1 2 5

Miscellaneous Remains (gms):

Obsidian Flakes 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.2

Chert Flakes 0.3 0.4

Cremated Bone 7.3

Large Mammal Bone 5.4 3.1 0.8 0.4

Small Mammal/Bird 0.8 0.1 5.5 4.7

Fish Bone 1.1 0.1 0.2 6.1 3.2

Shell 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.2

Sea Urchin Spines 0.1

Disk Beads 12

Charred Rat Pellet 1

Charred Grass Stems 1

Key: L - Late Prehistoric, P - Post Contact

Table K.3 Biological Remains from CA-YOL-182 (Control Unit 1).

Context Stratum 3

Depth (cm) 20-40 30-40 45-75 80-90

Volume (Liters) 4.0 1.0 4.0 1.0

Rat Pellet Index 2 0 0 0

Bug Part Index 0 1 0 0


Spanish Clover 1

Thick-shelled Acorn 1

Spiderwort ** 1

Curly Dock * 1

Agrostemma * 1

Monocot Root 2

European Barley ** 6

Dicot Root 10

Ryegrass 4 11

Hairgrass 8 16

Red Maids 4 9 24

Large Chenopod 13 16 50 12

Bentgrass-Type 12 4 24 3

Acorn Shell 7 7 30 4

Tarweed 1 1 9 1

Maygrass 1 26 2

Vesicular Material 3 4 1

Small Chenopod 12 16 4

Elderberry 2 16 2

Native Barley 2 12 1

Spongy Monocot Root 3

Wild Grape 1

Wild Oats ** 1

Redberry 1

Monocot Fiber 1

Fescue Grass 8 1

Bluegrass 8 1

Reedgrass 4 4

Wild Cucumber 1 1

Seed Fragments 1 1

Clover 34

Knotweed 3

Lupine 3

Buttercup 3

Borage 2

Spikerush 1

Farewell-to-Spring 1

Immature Berry 1

Table K.3 Biological Remains from Control Unit 1 (continued).

Context Stratum 3

Depth (cm) 20-40 30-40 45-75 80-90

Hydration Mean/Number 1.18/7 1.16/5 1.18/8 1.37/3

Mean with Outliers 1.49/9 Possible Age P P L L

Charred Seeds/Liter 19.00 64.00 76.00 38.00

Charred Taxa/Liter 4.25 14.00 6.00 14.00


Elderberry 4

Mustard Family 1

Wood Charcoal: 1.7 0.2 1.8 0.3

Willow 7 10 12 10

Valley Oak 18 11 15 8

Live Oak 1 1 1

Manzanita 1 7

Sunflower Family 1 1

Pine 2

Indeterminate 6 6 1 2


Obsidian Flakes 0.1 0.1 0.2

Basalt Flakes 0.7 2.2

Large Mammal Bone 2.6 0.3 1.2 0.1

Small Mammal/Bird 1.4 0.8 1.4 0.3

Fish Bone 0.5 0.3 0.8 0.2

Shell 0.1 0.1 0.4

Charred Grass Stems 1

Table K.4 Biological Remains from CA-YOL-182 (Control Unit 4).

Context Feat 1 Strat 3 Strat 3 Strat 3 Strat 4

Depth (cm) 40-50 56-60 60-90 60-90 70-80 120-130

Hydration Mean/Number 1.10/2 1.10/1 1.12/4 1.12/4 1.15/2 1.10/1

Mean with Outliers 1.32/5 1.32/5

Volume (Liters) 2.0 1.5 4.0 4.0 2.0 1.0

Bug Part Index 1 0 0 0 0 0

Rat Pellet Index 0 1 0 0 0 0


Allscale 1

Immature Berry 1 2

Acorn Kernel 2 1 2

Spanish Clover 1 2 8 3

Bromegrass 1 2 4 2

Knotweed 2 1 2 4

Wild Cucumber 10 7 2 6 5

Ryegrass 16 9 47 32 9

Maygrass 17 33 52 34 2

Native Barley 23 18 92 48 12

Fescue Grass 17 8 16 33 16 2

Hairgrass 32 16 16 18 7 1

Bentgrass-Type 61 33 169 224 48 2

Tarweed 17 19 34 34 49 1

Small Chenopod 48 65 80 114 33 6

Large Chenopod 115 101 209 121 15 2

Red Maids 33 69 94 35 51 3

Elderberry 50 20 35 66 49 1

Acorn Shell 43 129 53 76 118 1

Clover 5 16 7 17 16 1

Miner's Lettuce 2 1 2 3 8 1

Farewell-to-Spring 1 1 1 1

Monocot Fiber 1 1 1 1

Wild Grape 1

Monocot Rhizome 1

Seed Fragments 2 2 2 1 1

Vesicular Material 1 1 3

Lupine 1 1 2 1

Nettle 1 2

Thick Shelled Acorn 1 3 2

Filaree * 2 1 3

Curly Dock * 1 2 5

Wild Oats ** 2 2

Bulrush 3

Cattail Root 1

Dandelion Tribe 1

Buttercup 2 1 1

Unknown Seed A 1

Unknown Rind 1

Spongy Root 1

Reedgrass 32 1

Three-awn Grass 1

Table K.4 Biological Remains from Control Unit 4 (continued).

Context Feat 1 Strat 3 Strat 3 Strat 3 Strat 4

Depth (cm) 40-50 56-60 60-90 60-90 70-80 120-130

Possible Age P P P P P? L?

Charred Seeds/Liter 250.00 374.67 233.75 222.50 243.00 30.00

Charred Taxa/Liter 11.00 19.33 7.25 6.25 12.5 18.00


Lupine 1

Elderberry 3

Wood Charcoal: 3.0 4.7 10.7 11.9 2.0 0.2

Live Oak 2 5 1 1 7 1

Willow 15 14 21 19 11 6

Cottonwood 3 1

Valley Oak 9 4 6 7 7 1

Manzanita 1 1 2

Wild Grape 2

cf. Walnut 4

Sunflower Family 1

Buckthorn Family 1

Pine 1

Indeterminate 2 6


Obsidian Flakes 0.1 0.1 2.1 3.0 1.2 0.1


Basalt Flakes 4.5 1.1

Quartzite Flakes 0.1

Large Mammal Bone 0.2 0.4 1.1 3.0 0.6

Small Mammal/Bird 2.9 2.1 6.0 2.3 1.2 0.1

Fish Bone 1.0 0.5 0.7 1.7 1.1 0.1

Shell 0.1 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.3

Sea Urchin Spines 0.1

Charred Grass Stem 1 1 9 3

Charred Rat Pellet 1 1 1

Table K.5. Macrobotanical Remains from CA-YOL-182.

Specimen Unit Depth(cm) Identification

3047 1 40 - 50 Charred Manzanita Seed

10 Uncarbonized Redberry Seeds

3080 1 70 - 80 Charred Gray Pine Nutshell

3089 1 80 - 90 Charred Wild Grape Seed


3305 4 60 - 70 Charred Acorn Cap Scar


3315 4 70 - 90 Wild Cucumber Shell

3339 4 90 - 100 Charred Acorn Kernel

3362 4 110 - 120 Cemented Mineral Concretion

3379 4 130 - 140 Uncarbonized Tree Bud (intrusive)

Table K.6. CA-YOL-182 Plant Remains by Probable Time Period.

Late Early Site

Phase Prehistoric Historic Total

Number of Samples 5 10 15

Charred Taxa/Liter 9.69 9.08 9.28

Charred Seeds/Liter 40.53 176.27 131.02

Charred Seeds (etc., Ubiquity)

Bast Fiber Cordage 20 6.7

Monocot Bulb 20 6.7

Three-awn Grass 20 6.7

Spikerush 20 6.7

Bluegrass 40 10 20.0

Buttercup 40 20 26.7

Split-Willow Twigs 40 20 26.7

Reedgrass 80 10 33.3

Bentgrass-Type 100 100 100.0

Acorn 100 100 100.0

Elderberry 100 90 93.3

Small Chenopod 100 90 93.3

Large Chenopod 80 100 93.3

Tarweed 80 90 86.7

Redmaids 80 90 86.7

Fescue Grass 80 80 80.0

Hairgrass 80 80 80.0

Wild Cucumber 60 80 73.3

Clover 60 70 66.7

Miner's Lettuce 60 70 66.7

Farewell-to-Spring 60 50 53.3

Knotweed 40 60 53.3

Vesicular Material 60 40 46.7

Allscale 20 20 20.0

Dandelion Tribe * 20 10 13.3

Borage 20 10 13.3

Native Barley 60 90 80.0

Maygrass 60 90 80.0

Ryegrass 40 90 73.3

Monocot Fiber 20 60 46.7

Lupine 20 50 40.0

Spanish Clover 60 40.0

Thick Acorn Shell 50 33.3

Bromegrass 50 33.3

Curly Dock * 50 33.3

Wild Oats ** 40 26.7

Filaree * 40 26.7

Nettle 30 20.0

Wild Grape Seeds 20 13.3

Redberry 20 13.3

Bulrush 20 13.3

Monocot Root 20 13.3

Spongy Monocot Root 20 13.3

Dicot Root 10 6.7

Cattail Rhizome 10 6.7

Bedstraw 10 6.7

European Barley ** 10 6.7

Spiderwort ** 10 6.7

Corn Cockle ** 10 6.7

Table K.6. Plant Remains by Probable Time Period (continued).

Late Early Site

Phase Prehistoric Historic Total

Wood Charcoal (%):

Willow 48.8 42.8 44.6

Cottonwood 2.2 1.5

Walnut 1.4 1.0

Wild Grape 0.7 0.5

Valley Oak 35.0 39.8 38.3

Live Oak 6.5 8.7 8.0

Manzanita 5.7 3.3 4.0

Buckthorn Family 0.8 0.4 0.5

Sunflower Family 0.8 0.7 0.8

Pine 2.4 0.8


Obsidian Flakes 0.1 0.8 0.6

Basalt Flakes 0.4 0.6 0.6


Large Mammal Bone 0.9 1.5 1.3

Small Mammal/Bird 0.4 2.8 2.0

Fish Bone 0.3 1.6 1.2

Shell 0.2 0.4 0.3

Key: ** - Introduced Taxon, * - Some Species Introduced

Table K.7. Comparative Plant Data from Central California (Ubiquity).

SON SOL SOL SOL SOL SAC CCO SMA

Site 2098 69 355 363 315 133 156 204

Number Samples 10 12 10 8 16 9 9 12

Period E M M M M-L M-L L L

Elevation(feet 175 30 25 50 30 100 240 NA

Volume Liters 12-42 12-21 3-13 10-22 12-28 6-13 8 NA

Seeds/Liter 12.64 1.54 2.33 3.66 4.75 28.64 22.61 NA

Taxa/Liter 0.81 0.36 1.10 0.56 0.33 1.38 1.68 NA

Carrot Family 30

Gray Pine 10 67

Mallow Family 10 22

Native Barley 30 10 33

Miners Lettuce 10 50 11

Phacelia 30 22 11

Buttercup 80 17 12 56 22

Sedge 10 40 25 22 11

Farewell-to-Spring 70 25 80 75 56 11

Monocot Bulbs 40 33 20 38 56 44

Hairgrass 60 8 50 25 25 56 33

Fescue Grass 50 33 20 38 62 89 89

Manzanita 70 75 90 38 88 100 11

Sunflower Family * 80 8 30 62 6 78 89

Legume Family * 80 25 30 62 38 89 100

Grass Family * 90 92 80 88 100 100 100

Borage 30 8 40 12 12 89 78

Acorns 90 67 100 100 94 100 100 100

Wild Cucumber 90 83 100 75 69 100 56 50

Maygrass 70 25 60 62 44 100 78 42

Chenopod 30 8 70 100 6 78 89 58

Red Maids 50 8 40 75 12 78 56 17

Tarweed 80 17 20 12 89 67 75

Baynut 40 58 100 25 22 100 75

Bedstraw 50 50 70 69 33 56 67

Elderberry 10 44 56 8

Hazelnut 60 100 100

Buckeye 33 50 44 11 100 42

Clover 17 40 19 11 22

Rose Family 8 11

Knotweed 8

cf. Sunflower 10

Needlegrass 10

Bromegrass 6 44 22

Pigweed 6 11 11

Blackberry 6 22

Wild Grape 22

Peppergrass 44

Bluegrass 22

Toyon 11

Panic Grass 11

Key: Bold Taxa - Present at CA-YOL-182, * - More specific ID's at CA-YOL-182

Table K.8. Comparative Data for Charred Seed Measurements.

Site No. Length Width Thickness

Maygrass (Phalaris sp.)

CA-LAN-60 (100 BC) 20 2.01 1.20 0.83

(Miksicek 1994a) (0.22) (0.11) (0.11)

CA-LAN-229 (Late Prehistoric) 17 2.14 1.28 0.98

(Hammett 1990) (0.18) (0.20) (0.08)

CA-YOL-182 46 2.27 1.31 1.01

(Late Prehistoric/Early Historic) (0.26) (0.13) (0.11)

CA-ORA-106, 1310-2200 BP 3 2.33 1.33 0.88

(Popper and Klug 1994) (0.42) (0.23) (0.15)

Little Barley (Hordeum pusillum)

CA-LAN-60 (100BC) 8 2.14 1.12 0.83

(Miksicek 1994a) (0.24) (0.20) (0.06)

CA-ORA-225 (50 AD) 3 2.36 1.28 0.93

(Miksicek 1990) (0.31) (0.14) (0.14)

CA-SDI-6010 (5000 BC) 10 2.37 1.18 0.93

(Miksicek 1992) (0.28) (0.25) (0.12)

AZ V:5:4 (1250 AD) 30 2.51 1.28 0.88

(Miksicek 1994b) (0.23) (0.16) (0.09)

AZ V:5:4 (700 AD) 31 2.64 1.38 0.86

(Miksicek 1994b (0.24) (0.14) (0.15)

CA-ORA-106, 1310-2200 BP 14 2.69 1.30 0.96

(Popper and Klug 1994) (0.38) (0.19) (0.18)

Smiling Dan, IL. (700 AD) 312 2.71 1.28 1.04

(Asch and Asch 1985) (0.24) (0.13) (0.14)

CA-YOL-182 81 2.73 1.28 0.99


Table K.8. Comparative Data for Charred Seed Measurements (continued).

Site No. Length Width Thickness

Other Seeds

CA-YOL-182, Ryegrass 37 4.10 1.09 0.92


CA-YOL-182, Large Chenopods 32 1.21 (diameter) 38.99 µ (seed coat)

(Late Prehistoric/Early Historic) (0.11) (4.64 µ)

CA-YOL-182, Small Chenopods 30 1.05 (diameter)

(Late Prehistoric/Early Historic) (0.09)

Chenopodium berlandieri ssp. zschackei 40 1.25 (diameter) 49.50 µ (seed coat)

(modern, uncarbonized) (0.09) (8.54 µ)

Amaranthus palmeri (fields) 100 0.90 (diameter)

(modern plants 2 meters tall) (0.13)

Amaranthus palmeri (lots) 100 0.89 (diameter)

(modern plants 0.5 meters tall) (0.09)

Measurements are reported as Mean, (Standard Deviation) in millimeters.

On the Cusp of History: Archaobotanical Remains from CA-YOL-182

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