© 2005 Lavoisier SAS. All rights reserved.

Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282

Oligo-Miocene extension in the Lycian orogen: evidence from the Lycian molasse basin, SW Turkey

Hasan Sözbilir *Dokuz Eylül University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Geological Engineering, Bornova, TR-35100 |zmir, Turkey

Abstract

The Lycian molasse basin of SW Turkey is a NE-SW-oriented basin that developed on an imbricated basement, comprising the allo-chthonous Mesozoic rocks of the Lycian nappes and Palaeocene-Eo cene supra-allochthonous sediments. The imbricated basement hasresulted from a complex history related to the emplacement of different tectonic units from Late Cretaceous to Late Eocene. Followingimbrication, extensional collapse of the Lycian orogen resulted in extensive emergent areas, some of which coincide with prese nt-daymountains. These were surrounded by interconnected depressions, namely, the Kale-Tavas, Çardak-Dazk¬r¬ and Denizli subbasins.

The Lycian molasse sequence contains a relatively complete record of the tectonic history of the Lycian orogenic collapse from whichit was derived. The sequence is characterised by interdependence between tectonism and sedimentation, the latter of which includes fin-ing- and coarsening-upward sedimentary cycles with syn-depositional intrabasinal unconformities.

The Denizli subbasin consists of thick, coarse-grained wedges of alluvial fans and fine-grained fan-delta deposits formed in a shallow-marine environment. Some areas of the fan deltas were colonised by corals, red algae and foraminifera, forming patch reefs.

The first phase of extensional collapse in the region is marked by the Lycian orogenic collapse, which may have been initiated by thebeginning of the Oligocene (Rupelian), following the main Menderes metamorphism. Starting in the latest Early Miocene or in the Mid-dle Miocene, the area of the molasse basin was subject to deformation with the Lycian nappes, and to erosion as well. At that time, theLycian nappes, with some ophiolitic assemblages, were thrust over the molasse deposits and thus, NE-SW-trending folds were formed.The molasse deposits and thrust-related deformational structure s were then unconformably covered by Upper Miocene continentaldeposits which belong to the neotectonic period of SW Turkey. The second phase of extensional collapse is marked by granitic intrusionsand the formation of Miocene detachment-related extensional basins. This phase may have been related to the exhumation of the gneissiccore of the Menderes Massif, from which fragments were derived and incorporated into the upper parts of the Denizli subbasin d uringthe Aquitanian.© 2005 Lavoisier SAS. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Lycian molasse basin; Menderes Massif; Lycian orogenic collapse; Oligo-Miocene; SW Turkey

1. Introduction

Western Turkey is one of the most seismically activeregions of the world, where orogenic contraction has beenfollowed by continental extension [1-11]. The region mainlycomprises three major tectonostratigraphic units (i.e., Men-deres Massif, Bornova Flysch Zone and Lycian nappes;[12]) that were highly dissected in Miocene time and

resulted in crustal thinning and regional-scale faulting alonglow-angle detachment faults [13-27] (Fig. 1). Detachment-fault systems in this province are associated with domaluplift of the Menderes metamorphic core complex of thelower plate and the formation of asymmetric supradetach-ment basins in the upper plate (e.g. [13, 14] and referencestherein). Recently, N-S-trending extension across thesedetachment faults has been interpreted as the earliest phase

* Corresponding author.E-mail address: hasan.sozbilir@deu.edu.tr (H. Sözbilir)

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256 H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282

of extension in the region [26, 27]. Based on this assump-tion, it has also suggested that N-S extension in southwesternTurkey commenced by the latest Oligocene-Early Miocenetime. However, Oligo-Miocene sedimentation in the Lycianmolasse basin, which has been largely overlooked in recent

studies of the region, contains evidence for an earlier episodeof NW-SE extension that is not preserved in the sedimentaryfills of the well-known detachment-related extensionalbasins (e.g., the Gediz and Büyük Menderes grabens). Thereaders are refereed to recent literature about the origin, age

Fig. 1 Outline geological map of western Turkey showing major te ctonostratigraphic units upon which Oligo-Miocene molasse sedim ents andNeogene to Quaternary basin sediments unconformably rest (compi led from [8, 20, 13, 22, 25-27, 46, 100, 101]. Abbreviations NM M, CMM, SMM,IAZ refer to the northern Menderes Massif, central Menderes Massif, southern Menderes Massif and |zmir-Ankara suture, respectively.

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H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282 257

and evolution of extensional tectonics in southwest Turkey(e.g., [8, 10, 16, 19, 23, 25, 28-31] and references therein).

Molasse deposits have long been recognized as an impor-tant tool in the analysis of late orogenic histories [32]. Theterm molasse was originally applied to the molasse of theAlps by Swiss geologists as a distinctive sedimentary facies,consisting of alluvial and shallow-marine deposits thatformed within or adjacent to fold belts in foreland or inter-montane basins [33].

The characteristic features of molasses include the fol-lowing: (1) they lie within or adjacent to emergent fold beltsduring and following orogenic activity; (2) there is a demon-strable association of sedimentation and tectonism; (3)intrabasinal unconformities are present, resulting from dis-continuous uplift within the source area and subsidence inthe basin; (4) metamorphic core complexes, exhumed at thesame time as deposition of the basal molasses, are present[33].

The Oligo-Miocene molasse of southwestern Turkey,here named the Lycian molasse basin, consists of a sequenceof late to early-post orogenic deposits that contain both con-tinental and shallow-marine sediments, similar to othermolasse basins of the world [33, 34]. The sediments lie onthe Mesozoic Lycian nappes and ophiolites, and Palaeocene-Eocene supra-allochthonous sediments. Therefore, they pro-vide important tectonostratigraphic data for the Tertiaryhistory of the region.

The molasse sediments have an areal extent of about150 km SW-NE x 40 km NW-SE (Fig. 2). In the NW, thebasin is in fault contact with the Lycian nappes, while in theSE the molasse sediments are covered discordantly by UpperMiocene clastic sediments. Due to post-depositional tectonicmovements, the Lycian molasse basin is dissected into threeseparate areas of outcrop by NE-SW- and NW-SE-trendingfaults. The southwestern outcrop have been termed the Kale-Tavas molasse (here named Kale-Tavas subbasin). Hakye-

Fig. 2 Simplified geological map of the molasse basin in SW Tur key showing three separate exposures of the molasse deposits, n amely the Kale-Tavas,Çardak-Dazk¬r¬ and Denizli molasse (compiled from [27, 35-39]). Heavy lines with filled triangles show major reactivated thrust as detachment faults.

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258 H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282

mez [35] mapped the area and defined five formations thatare Chattian-Aquitanian in age. Recently, explanations ofthe tectonic setting and palynostratigraphy of the Kale-Tavas subbasin were presented by Y ¬lmaz et al. [36] andAkgün and Sözbilir [37], respectively. The northern out-crops of the molasse deposits are located to the northeast ofDenizli, where a thick accumulation of terrestrial to marinesediments is observed [38]. Further east, between Çardakand Dazk ¬r¬, an extensive exposure of Lower Oligocene-Aquitanian molasse deposits is also found [39]. The Denizliand the Çardak-Dazk¬r¬ subbasins are poorly known in so faras previous knowledge of the molasse deposits of SW Tur-key was based mainly on outcrops of the Kale-Tavassubbasin.

Y¬lmaz et al. [36] and Gürer and Y ¬lmaz [40] disputedthat the term molasse was appropriate for the Kale-Tavasbasin, which they regarded as a piggy-back basin on thebasis of following arguments: (1) the lack of metamorphicclasts derived from the Menderes Massif; and (2) the lackof a stratigraphic contact between the Kale-Tavas basinsediments and the rocks of the Menderes Massif. How-ever, they reached their conclusions by using field dataderived only from the Kale-Tavas molasse. In this contri-bution, I present evidence that the Denizli molassecontains a record of the unroofing history of the MenderesMassif [41] and, therefore, was deposited during exhuma-tion and represents a molasse succession (in the sense ofMiall [33]).

The aims of this paper are: (1) to describe the primarysedimentary structures and textures, facies and facies associ-ations preserved in the Denizli molasse basin in order toinfer their environments and processes of deposition; (2) toshow the stratigraphic and structural relationships of themolasse sediments with the underlying and overlying units;(3) to outline the stratigraphy of all the molasse exposures inSW Turkey; and (4) to set forth further sedimentological evi-dence related to the exhumation of the Menderes Massif andthe timing of continental extension in western Turkey. Tothese ends, detailed geological maps, several geologicalcross-sections, and four measured logs are presented, andthen synthesized with published data.

2. The Lycian molasses basin

The Lycian molasse basin is subdivided into three subba-sins (the Kale-Tavas subbasin, the Denizli subbasin and theÇardak-Dazk¬r¬ subbasin) by NW-SE- and NE-SW-trendingfaults, and is exposed from Mu…la to Burdur (Fig. 2).

2.1. Kale-Tavas subbasin

In the Kale-Tavas subbasin, Upper Oligocene-LowerMiocene (Chattian to Burdigalian) rocks are represented bythe Akçay group, consisting of a thick (4,100 m) successiondominated by terrestrial to marine deposits (Fig. 3).

The lowermost unit, the Karadere formation (also namedthe Alanyurt formation by Y ¬lmaz et al. [36]) consists ofalluvial-fan deposits with coal lenses. This unit rests uncon-formably on the Lycian nappes and is conformably overlainby the Mortuma formation, comprising braided and mean-dering river deposits with coal-bearing lagoonal sedimentsof Late Oligocene age [35, 37]. The unconformably overly-ing Yenidere formation is characterised by an extremelyvaried succession of terrestrial, limnic and marginal-marinedeposits of Aquitanian age [35]. The angular unconformitybetween the Chattian and Aquitanian rocks is restricted tothe Kale-Tavas subbasin. The Burdigalian is represented byboth the Kale and Künar formations that show both lateraland vertical transitional contact relationships. The Kale for-mation is composed dominantly of marine limestone thatrests unconformably on the Mortuma formation. Towardsthe northwest, the Künar formation (temporal equivalent ofthe Kale formation) has a transitional contact with the under-lying Yenidere formation. The Akçay group isunconformably overlain by continental deposits of theMu…la group, dated as late Astaracian (Middle Miocene) toTurolian (Late Miocene) by Atalay [42].

2.2. Çardak-Dazk¬r¬ subbasin

The Oligo-Miocene fill of this subbasin is called theAc¬göl group, and attains its maximum thickness (up to6,100 m) between Çardak and Dazk¬r¬ [39]. The base of thissubbasin is marked by ophiolite-derived conglomerates andmudstones of the Early Oligocene Armutalan ¬ formation,which was deposited in a fan-delta environment, and gradesupward into the Çardak formation—with the pebbly sand-stone at its base, followed by rippled sandstone-mudstone,and with thick-bedded conglomerate at its top (Fig. 4). Theconformably overlying Hayrettin formation consists of sand-stone-dominated lithologies with lenses of coal and reefalcarbonates. The Hayrettin formation is about 1500-m-thickand has lateral and vertical transitional contacts with theoverlying Tokça formation—a mudstone-dominated succes-sion, including several lenses of coal and reefal carbonates.The Tokça formation is at least 2000-m-thick and of LateOligocene (Chattian) age [39]. The Upper Oligocene-LowerAquitanian are represented by the Bozda … formation, com-prising an conglomerate, sandstone and mudstonealternation with oncoidal limestone at its base. The Ac ¬gölgroup is unconformably overlain by Pliocene continentaldeposits.

2.3. Denizli subbasin (the study area)

The Denizli subbasin is located on tectonically imbricatedunits belonging to the Lycian nappes (or Lycian allochthonof Collins and Robertson [43-46] (Fig. 5). The first regionalevidence of thrusting in the area occurred at the end of theEocene, when the Lycian mélange [43] was thrust onto Pal-aeocene-Eocene supra-allochthonous units (Dereköygroup). This resulted in the formation of a new molasse basin

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H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282 259

to be filled during the Oligocene-Aquitanian time interval[41].

2.4. Pre-Oligocene basement

In the study area, the basement is represented by variousrock units of the Lycian nappes [38, 47]. They are hereindivided into three formations, namely, in ascending order:(1) the Triassic Karaova formation, (2) the Jurassic-Creta-ceous Çökelez limestone and (3) the Upper CretaceousKaratepe mélange [38]. The Lycian nappes are structurallyunderlain by low-grade schists and intercalated marble

lenses and local metabasic rocks [48]. The details of thestratigraphy and significance of various lithological associa-tions of the pre-Oligocene basement lie outside the scope ofthis paper; thus, the reader is referred to the most recent lit -erature [41, 47, 48] for further reading.

3. Sedimentary fill of the Denizli Subbasin

The Oligo-Miocene fill of the Denizli subbasin (Ac ¬deregroup) is represented by a thick succession (2,000 m) of ter-restrial (Çaykavu ‚tu formation) to marine clastics and

Fig. 3 Generalised lithostratigraphic columnar section of the Ka le-Tavas subbasin illustrating facies changes, fossil contents and the inferreddepositional environments of the formations. Modified from Haky emez [35] and Akgün and Sözbilir [37]. Note the intrabasinal un conformitiesbetween Chattian and Aquitanian, and Chattian and Burdigalian sediments.

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260 H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282

carbonate deposits (Sa …dere formation) (Figs. 5, 6). Thirtyfacies are described (Tables 1, 2) to illustrate the lateral andvertical lithostratigraphic characteristics of these units. Theresults of this work are described below.

The lower contact of the molasse deposits is observed atseveral localities. As shown by the map and cross-sections(Figs. 5, 7), the molasse deposits unconformably lie on dif-ferent tectonostratigraphic units of the Lycian nappes. To thesouth of Çökelez Mountain, the Çaykavu ‚tu formationunconformably overlies ultrabasic rocks of the Karatepe

mélange (Fig. 7a). The formation begins with clast-sup-ported conglomerates alternating with coarse-grainedsandstones and mudstones. The Çaykavu ‚tu formationgrades conformably into grey sandstone of the Sa …dere for-mation. In the section west of Mal ¬ Da …¬ (Fig. 7b), theÇaykavu‚tu formation unconformably overlies the turbiditicmatrix of the Karatepe mélange, and, in turn, is overlainunconformably by Upper Miocene clastic rocks of theBelevi group. To the west of Kelkaya Tepe (Fig. 7c), thebasal part of the Çaykavu‚tu formation unconformably over-

Fig. 4 Generalised lithostratigraphic columnar section of the Ça rdak-Dazk¬r¬ subbasin illustrating facies changes, fossil contents and the inferreddepositional environments of the formations. Modified from ¥enel [39].

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H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282 261

lies the turbiditic part of the Palaeocene-Eocene Dereköygroup. The Sa…dere formation is unconformably overlain bythe Upper Miocene continental sediments of Belevi group

(Fig. 7d). This unconformable contact occurs over severalkilometres, from south of Karatepe to north of Bay¬ralan (seeFig. 5).

Fig. 5 Geological map of the study area. See Figure 2 for location. Location of measured sections and geological cross-sections are indicated. Note thepresence of NE-trending folds in both the Çaykavu‚tu and Sa…dere formations.

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262 H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282

3.1. The Çaykavu‚tu formation

The name Çaykavu ‚tu formation is here given to asequence of reddish-brown conglomerates intercalated withlithic sandstones. The formation is partially equivalent to the“Karadere formation” of the Kale-Tavas subbasin [35].

The Çaykavu‚tu formation shows different types of litho-facies at different localities. In the type section, along theÇaykavu‚tu Dere, the formation begins with grey-brownconglomerates, consisting of clasts of grey recrystallisedlimestones (facies 1). The formation grades upward into red-dish-brown, carbonate-cemented conglomerates with

ophiolite-derived clasts and minor carbonate clasts (facies 2)(Fig. 8a).

Several sections exposed to the southeast of Kakl ¬k(Fig. 5) display conglomerate-dominated lithofacies(facies 3). At the base, the formation consists of massive,matrix- to clast-supported conglomerate with reddish-brownmatrix of sand and gravel. Imbricated clasts, with a maxi-mum size of 35 cm, are well-rounded but poorly sorted(Fig. 8b).

The measured section to the east of Kakl¬k (Fig. 9) clearlyshows an alternation of fining-upward conglomerate-sand-stone couplets. Massive to normally graded, poorly sorted,

Fig. 6 Generalised lithostratigraphic columnar section of the De nizli subbasin illustrating facies changes, fossil contents and the inferred depositionalenvironments of the formations. Asterix shows location of the first appearance of metamorphic clasts in the section.

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H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282 263Ta

ble

1Fa

cies

des

crip

tions

and

inte

rpre

tatio

ns o

f dep

ositi

onal

env

ironm

ents

for t

he Ç

ayka

vu‚t

u fo

rmat

ion.

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iptio

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viro

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tal I

nter

pret

atio

n

Faci

es 1

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rix-s

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ick

beds

with

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. Peb

ble/

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atrix

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n sa

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mud

. Mat

rix-s

uppo

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ound

ed to

roun

ded

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ts w

ith c

last

size

rang

ing

from

4 to

40

cm. A

cru

de a

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ent o

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e gr

avel

cla

sts a

nd a

fain

t lam

inat

ion

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r in

mud

dy

mat

rix. N

orm

al a

nd in

vers

e gr

adin

g.

Faci

es G

ms o

f Mia

ll [4

9]. S

ubar

eal d

ebris

flow

[50,

51

].

Faci

es 2

Wel

l-rou

nded

, poo

rly so

rted

cong

lom

erat

eTh

ick-

bedd

ed, c

last

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mat

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rted,

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al p

ebbl

e to

cob

ble

cong

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erat

e, w

hose

un

grad

ed o

r gra

ded

beds

show

fine

r-gr

aine

d ca

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gs o

f san

dsto

ne w

ith m

assi

ve- (

Ta) t

o pl

ane-

para

llel (

Tb) s

tratif

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ion.

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nded

cla

sts o

f Lyc

ian

carbo

nate

s and

oph

iolit

ic- r

ock

frag

men

ts.

Non

-ero

sion

al to

ero

sion

al b

asal

bou

ndar

ies.

Suba

real

ero

sion

with

tran

spor

t thr

ough

a h

igh-

ener

gy sh

allo

w m

arin

e or

fluv

ial e

nviro

nmen

t prio

r to

dep

ositi

on [5

2−54

]. Ta

and

Tb

Bou

ma

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sons

ar

e pe

culia

r to

turb

idite

s.

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es 3

Mas

sive

, mat

rix- t

o cl

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rted

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ick,

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rix- t

o cl

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uppo

rted

cong

lom

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e w

ith a

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ish-

brow

n m

atrix

of s

and

and

fine

grav

el. W

ell-r

ound

ed a

nd p

oorly

sorte

d, im

bric

ated

cla

sts w

ith a

max

imum

size

of 3

5 cm

. Er

osio

nal t

o no

n-er

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nal b

asal

con

tact

.

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nnel

and

long

itudi

nal b

ar d

epos

its o

f sha

llow

br

aide

d st

ream

s in

the

med

ial a

nd p

roxi

mal

par

t of a

n al

luvi

al fa

n [4

9, 5

5].

Faci

es 4

Mas

sive

to n

orm

ally

gra

ded

cong

lom

erat

eM

assi

ve to

nor

mal

ly g

rade

d, p

oorly

sorte

d, c

last

- to

mat

rix-s

uppo

rted

pebb

le to

bou

lder

co

nglo

mer

ate

with

sand

y m

atrix

up

to p

ebbl

e gr

ade.

Sub

roun

ded

to ro

unde

d cl

asts

(5−2

0 cm

) of

ultra

basi

c ro

cks,

limes

tone

, qua

rtzite

and

low

-gra

de m

etam

orph

ic fr

agm

ents

. Len

ses o

f hor

izon

tally

st

ratif

ied

sand

ston

e.

Hig

h-de

nsity

floo

d flo

ws (

hype

rcon

cent

rate

d flo

od

flow

) tha

t are

tran

sitio

nal b

etw

een

norm

al st

ream

an

d de

bris

flow

[56]

.

Faci

es 5

Cro

ss-b

edde

d pe

bbly

sand

ston

e70

-cm

thic

k, le

ntic

ular

, fin

ing-

upw

ard

units

of t

roug

h an

d pl

anar

cro

ss-s

tratif

ied

and

horiz

onta

lly

stra

tifie

d pe

bbly

sand

ston

e w

ith le

ntic

ular

bas

al c

ongl

omer

atic

bed

s. C

last

imbr

icat

ion

show

ing

wes

terly

flow

ing

pala

eocu

rren

ts.

Shal

low

bed

load

cha

nnel

as p

art o

f mig

ratin

g lo

ngitu

dina

l and

tran

sver

se g

rave

lly b

ar. C

hann

el-

floor

lags

(con

glom

erat

e). P

roxi

mal

bra

ided

rive

r de

posi

ts fo

rmed

on

an a

lluvi

al fa

n [5

7].

Faci

es 6

Nor

mal

ly g

rade

d co

nglo

mer

ate

5−6-

m th

ick,

pol

ymic

tic, n

orm

ally

gra

ded

and

clas

t-sup

porte

d co

nglo

mer

ate

with

10−

15-c

m-th

ick

horiz

onta

lly st

ratif

ied

inte

rbed

ded

sand

ston

e. W

ell-r

ound

ed c

last

s of u

ltrab

asic

rock

s, lim

esto

nes,

cher

ts, q

uartz

ite a

nd lo

w-g

rade

met

amor

phic

rock

s.

Long

itudi

nal b

ar (c

ongl

omer

ate)

and

bar

-top

(san

dsto

ne) d

epos

its [5

8].

Faci

es 7

Nor

mal

ly g

rade

d sa

ndst

one

0.5−

15-c

m th

ick,

nor

mal

ly g

rade

d, p

oorly

to w

ell-s

orte

d, fi

ne- t

o ve

ry c

oars

e-gr

aine

d sa

ndst

one

with

bas

al p

ebbl

e cl

asts

. Lat

eral

ly c

ontin

uous

bed

s with

subp

lana

r, no

n-er

osio

nal o

r slig

htly

er

osio

nal b

ound

arie

s.

Hyp

erco

ncen

trate

d flo

w [5

6] o

r sub

aque

ous h

igh-

or

low

-den

sity

turb

idity

cur

rent

s [59

−61]

.

Faci

es 8

Mas

sive

to p

oorly

lam

inat

ed m

udst

one

Ung

rade

d, m

assi

ve to

poo

rly la

min

ated

mud

ston

e ch

arac

teris

ed b

y a

grad

atio

nal c

onta

ct w

ith th

e un

derly

ing

norm

ally

gra

ded

sand

ston

e an

d tru

ncat

ed to

p by

the

mat

rix-s

uppo

rted

cong

lom

erat

e.Su

bare

al w

anin

g flo

od fl

ow [4

9].

G18_03 Page 263 Vendredi, 30. septembre 2005 12:20 12 > Apogee FrameMaker Noir

264 H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282Ta

ble

2Fa

cies

des

crip

tions

and

inte

rpre

tatio

ns o

f dep

ositi

onal

env

ironm

ents

for t

he S

a…de

re fo

rmat

ion.

Faci

esD

escr

iptio

nEn

viro

nmen

tal I

nter

pret

atio

n

Faci

es 9

Coa

l-bea

ring

mud

ston

eLa

min

ated

dar

k gr

ey-b

lack

mud

shal

e w

ith p

lant

root

s and

thin

lens

es o

f coa

l. Si

lty a

nd sa

ndy

inte

rval

s with

flat

and

ripp

le c

ross

-lam

inat

ion.

Ver

y sh

allo

w w

ater

such

as s

wam

p, la

goon

or d

elta

-pl

ain

inte

rdis

tribu

tary

swam

p en

viro

nmen

t [62

].

Faci

es 1

0Pl

anar

-bed

ded,

foss

ilife

rous

sand

ston

eG

rey,

fine

- to

med

ium

-gra

ined

, pla

nar-

bedd

ed sa

ndst

one

incl

udin

g fr

agm

ente

d ga

stro

pod

foss

ils.

Dis

tribu

tary

cha

nnel

flow

ing

abov

e de

lta p

lain

[62]

.

Faci

es 1

1Fo

ssili

fero

us m

udst

one

4-m

-thic

k, d

ark-

grey

mud

ston

e, p

lant

deb

ris a

nd g

astro

pod

foss

ils a

s lyi

ng p

aral

lel t

o be

ddin

g.

Bur

row

s on

bedd

ing

plan

es o

f the

silty

and

sand

y un

its.

Pred

omin

ant d

epos

ition

from

susp

ensi

on.

Inte

rdis

tribu

tary

bay

mud

ston

e in

a p

artia

lly

encl

osed

bra

ckis

h w

ater

lago

onal

env

ironm

ent [

63].

Faci

es 1

2C

oars

enin

g-up

war

d m

udst

one-

sand

ston

e30

-m-th

ick,

upw

ard-

coar

seni

ng a

nd -t

hick

enin

g sa

ndst

one

beds

inte

rbed

ded

with

mar

ine

foss

ilife

rous

bro

wni

sh-g

rey

mud

ston

e to

peb

bly

mud

ston

e. B

iotu

rbat

ion,

trac

e fo

ssils

and

skel

etal

fr

agm

ents

of m

arin

e fa

una

in sa

ndst

one.

Sha

rp to

p of

eac

h se

quen

ce. T

he c

oars

est p

art o

f the

m

egas

eque

nce

incl

udes

ferr

igen

ous n

odul

es e

mbe

dded

in c

oars

e-gr

aine

d pe

bbly

sand

ston

e.

Prod

elta

-lago

onal

env

ironm

ent,

whe

re a

ccum

ulat

ion

of m

ud-s

ized

cla

stic

s was

inte

rrup

ted

by in

curs

ions

of

foss

ilife

rous

sand

ston

es a

nd d

elta

-slo

pe-d

eriv

ed

pebb

ly m

udst

one

[62,

64]

.

Faci

es 1

3Fi

ning

-upw

ard

cong

lom

erat

e-sa

ndst

one

Fini

ng-u

pwar

d se

quen

ces o

f cro

ss-b

edde

d co

nglo

mer

ate

and

sand

ston

e ca

pped

by

rippl

e-cr

oss

lam

inat

ed sa

ndst

one

and

horiz

onta

lly la

min

ated

sand

ston

e.Ea

ch fi

ning

-upw

ards

uni

t of c

ross

-stra

tifie

d sa

ndst

one

and

cong

lom

erat

e m

ay re

pres

ent i

nfill

of a

di

strib

utar

y ch

anne

l. Th

e ov

erly

ing

horiz

onta

lly

stra

tifie

d sa

ndst

one

may

refle

ct o

verb

ank

flood

ing

or

dist

ribut

ary

mou

th b

ar e

nviro

nmen

t [65

].

Faci

es 1

4C

ross

-stra

tifie

d co

nglo

mer

ate

0.5-

4-m

-thic

k, c

last

-sup

porte

d, p

oorly

to m

oder

atel

y so

rted,

cob

ble-

boul

der c

ongl

omer

ate

with

fin

ing-

upw

ard

trend

s. H

oriz

onta

lly, t

roug

h an

d pl

anar

cro

ss-s

tratif

ied

lent

icul

ar b

eds w

ith e

rosi

onal

ba

ses.

Long

itudi

nal g

rave

l bar

and

inte

rven

ing

chan

nel

[49]

.

Faci

es 1

5Pl

anar

, thi

n-be

dded

sand

ston

e1.

5-m

-thic

k, g

rey-

brow

n, p

lana

r, th

in-b

edde

d sa

ndst

one.

Flas

h flo

od d

epos

iting

und

er u

pper

-flo

w re

gim

e pl

anar

bed

con

ditio

ns [4

9, 6

3, 6

6, 6

7].

Faci

es 1

6Fi

ne-g

rain

ed sa

ndst

one

0.1-

0.5-

m-th

ick,

mas

sive

, fin

e-gr

aine

d sa

ndst

one.

Con

tain

s fos

sil l

eave

s, w

ood

frag

men

ts, v

ertic

al

burr

ows a

nd sm

all f

erru

gino

us n

odul

es. I

nter

bedd

ed w

ith b

row

nish

-gre

y m

udsh

ale.

Cre

vass

e-sp

lay

depo

sits

[49]

.

Faci

es 1

7R

ippl

e-cr

oss l

amin

ated

sand

ston

e0.

5-30

-cm

-thic

k, ri

pple

cro

ss-la

min

ated

, ver

y fin

e- to

coa

rse-

grai

ned

sand

ston

e w

ith sl

ight

ly

eros

iona

l bas

e. O

bser

ved

fore

sets

dip

15-

30 in

a si

ngle

dire

ctio

n, o

r opp

osin

g di

rect

ions

. Clim

bing

rip

ples

, asy

mm

etric

al a

nd sy

mm

etric

al st

raig

ht-c

rest

ed ri

pple

mar

ks. A

vera

ge ri

pple

wav

elen

gth

of

5 cm

and

am

plitu

de o

f 0.5

cm

.

Rip

ple

mig

ratio

n an

d de

posi

tion.

Asy

mm

etric

al a

nd

sym

met

rical

ripp

le m

arks

atte

st to

bot

h un

idire

ctio

nal a

nd b

idire

ctio

nal c

urre

nts f

orm

ing

in

shal

low

wat

er [4

9, 6

2].

Faci

es 1

8La

min

ated

mud

ston

e in

terb

edde

d w

ith sa

ndst

one

Dirt

y ye

llow

ish-

brow

n, th

in to

wav

e-la

min

ated

mud

ston

e w

ith b

eige

-gre

y cu

rren

t-rip

pled

sa

ndst

one.

Sha

rp c

onta

ct b

etw

een

mud

dy a

nd sa

ndy

laye

rs.

Floo

d-pl

ain

envi

ronm

ent i

nclu

ding

cre

vass

e-sp

lay

depo

sits

[57]

.

Faci

es 1

9Sa

ndst

one-

mud

ston

e w

ith fe

rrug

inou

s nod

ules

8-m

-thic

k, b

row

nish

-gre

y, th

inly

inte

rbed

ded

and

lam

inat

ed m

udst

one

and

rippl

ed sa

ndst

one

with

sm

all f

erru

gino

us n

odul

es a

nd b

ands

.A

lluvi

al p

lain

incl

udin

g cr

evas

se-s

play

dep

osits

[57]

.

Faci

es 2

0Pl

anar

/ripp

le c

ross

-lam

inat

ed a

nd b

iotu

rbat

ed

sand

ston

e

A se

ries o

f rip

pled

sand

ston

es in

terb

edde

d w

ith p

aral

lel-l

amin

ated

fine-

grai

ned

sand

ston

es a

nd si

lty

mud

ston

es w

ith p

lant

frag

men

ts. B

iotu

rbat

ion

in in

terb

edde

d fin

e-gr

aine

d sa

ndst

one.

Inte

rdis

tribu

tary

bay

with

inte

rbed

s of h

oriz

onta

lly

lam

inat

ed sa

nd re

flect

ing

over

bank

floo

ding

[63,

68

]. Th

e as

soci

atio

n of

lam

inat

ed sa

ndst

one

and

biot

urba

ted

sand

ston

e be

ds is

sugg

estiv

e of

al

tern

atin

g st

orm

and

fair-

wea

ther

sedi

men

tatio

n [3

9].

G18_03 Page 264 Vendredi, 30. septembre 2005 12:20 12 > Apogee FrameMaker Noir

H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282 265

Faci

es 2

1Pa

ralle

l-lam

inat

ed, f

ossi

lifer

ous s

ands

tone

Wel

l-sor

ted,

med

ium

- to

coar

se-g

rain

ed, p

aral

lel-l

amin

ated

sand

ston

e w

ith a

bund

ant p

lant

foss

ils

and

orga

nic

detri

tus.

Tabu

lar w

ith fl

at b

ase

and

top.

Dis

tal d

elta

-fro

nt d

epos

its [7

0].

Faci

es 2

2C

ross

-stra

tifie

d sa

ndst

one

and

cong

lom

erat

eC

ross

-stra

tifie

d sa

ndst

one

and

cong

lom

erat

e w

ith b

asal

scou

rs fl

oore

d w

ith g

rave

l. Le

ss o

ften,

tro

ugh

cros

s-st

ratif

ied

cong

lom

erat

e an

d pe

bbly

sand

ston

e.D

istri

buta

ry c

hann

el fi

ll in

del

ta-p

lain

env

ironm

ent

[55]

.

Faci

es 2

3Pl

anar

/ripp

le c

ross

-lam

inat

ed sa

ndst

one

with

fe

rrug

inou

s nod

ule

Mod

erat

ely

sorte

d, p

lana

r- to

ripp

le-la

min

ated

, fin

e- to

ver

y fin

e-gr

aine

d sa

ndst

one

with

shel

l fr

agm

ents

and

ferr

ugin

ous n

odul

es. S

ynse

dim

enta

ry fa

ults

and

fold

s in

the

mid

dle

part

of th

e fa

cies

.D

istri

buta

ry-m

outh

bar

[63]

. Int

erac

tion

of fl

uvia

l an

d m

arin

e pr

oces

ses [

70].

Syns

edim

enta

ry fa

ultin

g an

d fo

ldin

g in

the

delta

-slo

pe e

nviro

nmen

t.

Faci

es 2

4H

oriz

onta

lly st

ratif

ied

cong

lom

erat

e2-

m-th

ick,

mod

erat

ely

to w

ell-s

orte

d, c

last

-sup

porte

d gr

anul

e-pe

bble

con

glom

erat

e w

ith sa

ndy

mat

rix. L

ocal

ly, c

last

imbr

icat

ion

and

norm

al g

radi

ng. H

oriz

onta

lly st

ratif

ied

beds

with

subp

lana

r, sl

ight

ly e

rosi

onal

to n

on-e

rosi

onal

bou

ndar

ies.

Suba

real

shee

tfloo

d or

wav

e-dr

iven

bed

load

trac

tion

form

ed b

y up

per-

flow

regi

me

plan

ar b

ed c

ondi

tions

[5

5, 7

1]. A

tran

sitio

nal f

acie

s bet

wee

n de

lta-p

lain

an

d de

lta-f

ront

sedi

men

ts [7

2].

Faci

es 2

5Fo

ssili

fero

us sa

ndst

one

Wea

kly

cem

ente

d sa

ndst

one

cont

aini

ng la

rge

amou

nts o

f fra

gmen

ted

and

abra

ded

skel

etal

gra

ins o

f M

adio

lus s

p., M

ytyl

us sp

. and

Cor

bula

sp.

Stor

m-r

ewor

ked

skel

etal

acc

umul

atio

n [6

9, 7

3].

Faci

es 2

6C

erei

phyl

lia

limes

tone

Lent

icul

ar li

mes

tone

with

sess

ile c

oral

Cer

eiph

ylli

a sp

. em

bedd

ed in

mic

ritic

and

ver

y fin

e si

licic

last

ic m

atrix

. Max

imum

thic

knes

s is 3

0 cm

. Und

erla

in b

y co

al-b

earin

g m

udsh

ale

and,

in tu

rn,

over

lain

by

the

coqu

ina

bed

of fa

cies

25.

Tran

sitio

nal f

acie

s fro

m la

goon

to st

orm

-der

ived

se

dim

ents

[73]

.

Faci

es 2

7C

oral

-ree

f lim

esto

neC

oral

bre

ccia

with

scat

tere

d co

loni

es o

f the

sam

e co

ral g

ener

a, b

ound

by

red-

alga

l coa

tings

, alg

al

limes

tone

s with

ben

thic

fora

min

ifera

, gas

tropo

ds, a

nd m

inor

inte

rlaye

rs o

f sili

cicl

astic

sand

ston

e.

Silic

icla

stic

sedi

men

t fill

ing

the

spac

es a

mon

g th

e sk

elet

al fr

agm

ents

.

Patc

h re

ef g

row

ing

in th

e sh

allo

w-m

arin

e ar

ea o

f the

fr

ont o

f pro

grad

ing

fan

delta

[74]

.

Faci

es 2

8Fo

ram

inife

ral p

acks

tone

Mod

erat

ely

to w

ell-s

orte

d lim

esto

ne c

onta

inin

g be

nthi

c fo

ram

inife

ra (m

ainl

y L

epid

ocyc

lina

spec

ies)

up

to 2

cm

in le

ngth

. Som

e al

gae

with

littl

e m

atrix

.Sh

allo

w-m

arin

e en

viro

nmen

t [75

].

Faci

es 2

9Ir

regu

larly

bed

ded

sand

ston

eM

oder

atel

y so

rted,

med

ium

- to

coar

se-g

rain

ed le

ntic

ular

to ta

bula

r san

dsto

ne w

ith ir

regu

lar b

ase

and

top.

Incl

udes

con

torte

d be

ddin

g, fl

uid-

esca

pe st

ruct

ures

and

hum

moc

ky b

eddi

ng.

Prox

imal

fan

delta

-fro

nt d

epos

its. H

umm

ocky

be

ddin

g m

ay b

e pr

oduc

ed b

y co

mbi

ned

flow

in

stor

m-s

helf

envi

ronm

ent b

elow

nor

mal

wav

e ba

se

and

abov

e st

orm

wav

e ba

se [6

9, 7

5].

Faci

es 3

0R

eefa

l rud

ston

e an

f flo

atst

one

Fine

- to

coar

se-g

rain

ed, c

last

-sup

porte

d (r

udst

one)

and

mat

rix-s

uppo

rted

(flo

atst

one)

cor

al a

nd

fora

min

ifera

l fra

gmen

ts e

mbe

dded

in m

ud m

atrix

. Ove

rlies

the

cora

l-ree

f lim

esto

ne fa

cies

and

in

turn

, is o

verla

in b

y al

tern

atio

n of

turb

iditi

c sa

ndst

one

and

shal

e.

Red

epos

ition

of r

eef s

edim

ents

ero

ded

from

the

faci

es 2

7. D

epos

iton

on re

ef fl

at (r

udst

one)

and

fo

rere

ef sl

ope

(flo

atst

one)

[74]

.

Tabl

e2

Faci

es d

escr

iptio

ns a

nd in

terp

reta

tions

of d

epos

ition

al e

nviro

nmen

ts fo

r the

Sa…

dere

form

atio

n. (c

onti

nued

)

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266 H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282

Fig. 7 Geological cross-sections showing (a) an unconformable lower contact of the Çaykavu ‚tu formation with the underlying ophiolitic part of theKaratepe mélange; (b) an unconformable lower contact of the Çaykavu‚tu formation with the underlying turbiditic part of the Karatepe mélange; (c) anunconformable lower contact of the Çaykavu‚tu formation with the underlying turbiditic part of the Palaeocene-Eocene supra-allochthonous sediments;(d) an unconformable upper contact of the Sa…dere formation with the overlying lacustrine sediments of the Upper Miocene-Pliocene Belevi group. SeeFigures 5 and 15 for location.

G18_03 Page 266 Vendredi, 30. septembre 2005 12:20 12 > Apogee FrameMaker Noir

H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282 267

Fig. 8 Field photographs representative of some facies of the Çaykavu‚tu formation. (a) well- rounded, poorly sorted conglomerate (facies 2) includingophiolitic rocks of the Lycian nappes in the western side of Çaykavu‚tu Dere; (b) thick-bedded, clast- to matrix-supported, poly-modal pebble to cobbleconglomerate, whose ungraded or graded beds show finer-grained cappings of sandstone with massive (Ta) to plane-parallel (Tb) stratification. eb-erosional boundary, ss- sandstone; (c) well-rounded clasts of Lycian carbonates and ophiolitic rock f ragments in facies 2. Pencil is ~ 15 cm long; (d)massive, matrix- to clast-supported conglomerate (facies 3) with a reddish-brown matrix of sand and fine gravel in the east of the Kakl¬k area. Note thewell- rounded and poorly sorted, imbricated clasts with a maximum size of 35 cm; (e) cross-bedded pebbly sandstone (facies 5). Note lenticular, fining-upward units of trough and planar cross-stratified and horizont ally stratified pebbly sandstone with lenticular basal conglome ratic beds. White arrowsindicate the scale of the photo. Hammer is ~34 cm long.

G18_03 Page 267 Vendredi, 30. septembre 2005 12:20 12 > Apogee FrameMaker Noir

268 H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282

Fig. 9 Measured section of the Çaykavu‚tu formation in the east of the Kakl¬k area. See Figure 5 for location and Figure 13 for explanation.

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H. Sözbilir / Geodinamica Acta 18/3-4 (2005) 255–282 269

generally clast- to matrix-supported conglomerates of peb-ble to boulder size (facies 4) form the lowest part of themeasured stratigraphic section. Upsection and northward, across-bedded pebbly sandstone facies (Fig. 8e) is exposed(facies 5). This facies is overlain by polymict, normallygraded and clast-supported conglomerates with thin, inter-bedded sandstones (facies 6). Individual conglomerate-sandstone couplets end with normally graded, fine- to verycoarse-grained sandstone with pebble conglomerates(facies 7).

An overall fining-upwards trend in the Kakl ¬k section(Fig. 9) is represented by a reddish-brown mudstone(facies 8) that caps the several conglomerate-sandstone cou-plets. The facies has a gradational contact with theunderlying normally graded sandstone and is truncated bythe matrix-supported conglomerates.

3.2. The Sa… dere formation

The name Sa…dere formation is here used for a thick del-taic- to shallow-marine sequence with lenses of reefcarbonates and coal. The formation can partly be correlatedwith the Mortuma formation of the Kale-Tavas subbasin[35].

The Sa…dere formation crops out over a large area, fromAc¬dere in the south to Bay¬ralan in the north (see Fig. 5). Inthe type section (Fig. 10a) along the Sa …dere river, the for-mation is characterised by subaqueous to subaerial facies.The lower part of the section is characterised by a mudstone-dominated sequence with abundant lagoonal fauna. Individ-ual fossils include Barbatia (Barbatia) aff. albanica,Ampullina (Megatylotus) crassatina, Tympanotonus (Tym-panotonus) aff. margaritaceus, Turritella (Haustator) cf.conofasciata, Corbula sp., Mytilus sp. and Modiolus sp.indicative of Oligocene age. The section comprises an alter-nation of coal-bearing mudstone (facies 9, Fig. 11a), planar-bedded fossiliferous sandstone (facies 10) and fossiliferousmudstone (facies 11).

After 100 m of no exposure, the formation continues with30-m-thick coarsening-upward megasequences. Eachmegasequence consists of brownish-grey fossiliferous (coraland turritellid gastropods) mudstone to pebbly mudstone andfine- to coarse-grained, fossiliferous and bioturbated sand-stone (facies 12). Upsection, facies 12 thins and interfingerswith fining-upwards sequences that become dominanttowards the upper part of the section. These fining-upwardssequences (facies 13) are made up of cross-bedded conglom-erate and sandstone capped by rippled-cross-laminatedsandstone and horizontally laminated sandstone. In the mid-dle part of the section (Fig. 10b), the alternations ofcoarsening- and fining-upward sequences are replaced byfining-upward megasequences consisting of alternations ofreddish-brown, cross-stratified conglomerate (facies 14),planar thin-bedded sandstone (facies 15), fine-grained sand-stone (facies 16), ripple-cross-laminated sandstone(facies 17), laminated mudstone interbedded with sandstone

(facies 18), and sandstone-mudstone with ferruginous nod-ules (facies 19).

A well-exposed section of the Sa …dere formation islocated farther south along the Ac¬ Dere (Figs. 4, 12). In con-trast to the type section, the dominant lithology is planar- toripple-cross-laminated sandstone with thin-bedded mud-stone (facies 20). This facies is overlain by parallel-laminated, medium- to fine-grained, well-sorted sandstones(facies 21) with abundant plant fossils and organic detritus.Cross-stratified sandstone and conglomerate overlie thesefacies and have basal scours floored with gravel (facies 22).The middle part of the Ac ¬dere section is characterised byplanar to ripple-cross-laminated, fine- to very fine-grainedsandstones (Fig. 11c) that are moderately sorted with someshell fragments and ferruginous nodules (facies 23). Thereare some syn-sedimentary faults and folds in middle part ofthe facies. This facies is overlain by horizontally stratifiedconglomerates slightly with local erosionally to non-ero-sional contacts (facies 24). Upsection, after 50-m of non-exposure (Fig. 12), weakly cemented sandstones containinglarge amounts of fossil fragments, such as Modiolus sp.,Mytilus sp., and Corbula sp., are exposed (facies 25). Thissection differs from the type section in its limestone faciesthat contains hosts the sessile coral Cereiphyllia sp. in a mic-ritic and very fine siliciclastic matrix (facies 26) (Fig. 11d) .The Cereiphyllia limestone facies rests directly atop thecoal-bearing mudstone (facies 9) and, in turn, is overlain bya coquina bed (Fig. 11d).

The Sa …dere formation contains intercalations of reefallimestones (see Fig. 4 for location of the reefal limestone)that are well observed at two different localities. In theAlao…lu section (Fig. 13), a coral reef limestone facies(facies 27) rests on a FeO-cemented, thick bed of coarse-grained sandstone. Typical reef sequences comprise: (i)coral breccia with scattered colonies of the same coral gen-era, bound by red-algal coatings; (ii) algal limestones withbenthic foraminifera; and (iii) minor interlayers—a few cen-timetres thick—of siliciclastic sandstones. This faciesincludes lenses of foraminiferal packstone (facies 28). Theuppermost part of the section is occupied by a irregularly-bedded sandstone facies (facies 29) which consists ofmedium- to coarse-grained, moderately sorted sandstones,and has a lenticular to tabular geometry with irregular baseand top.

In the locality of Emirard ¬ç, south of Çökelez Da …¬(Fig. 4), another good section of reefal limestone isobserved (Fig. 14). The section begins at its base with pla-nar-bedded sandstone and grades into sandy limestone withcoral and benthic foraminifera, which yield an EarlyMiocene age. These fossil-rich beds are characterised byreefal rudstone/floatstones (facies 30) that are conformablyoverlain by intercalations of sandstone and conglomerate.The conglomerate consists of clasts of marble, schists,metaquartzite, gneiss and ophiolitic rocks. Upsection andwestward, alternations of turbiditic sandstone and shale areexposed.

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Fig. 10a Measured section of the Sa …dere formation along Sa … Dere south of Bay ¬ralan Village. See Figure 5 for location and Figure 13 forexplanation.

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Fig. 10b Measured section of the Sa …dere formation along Sa … Dere south of Bay ¬ralan Village. See Figure 5 for location and Figure 13 forexplanation.

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Fig. 11 Field photographs representative of some facies of the S a…dere formation. (a) coal-bearing mudstone (facies 9) south of Yan¬k Tepe. Note thelaminated dark grey-black mudstone with plant roots and thin le nses of coals. Hammer is ~34 cm long; (b) fossiliferous mudstone (facies 11). Cap is4 cm in diameter. Note plant debris and gastropod fossils lying parallel to bedding (arrowed); (c) planar/ripple cross-laminated sandstone withferruginous nodule (arrowed) in the western side of Ac ¬ Dere (facies 23). The woman is 1.65 m tall; (d) weakly cemented sandstone (facies 25)containing large amounts of fragmented and abraded skeletal gra ins of Madiolus sp., Mytylus sp. and Corbula sp. Hammer is ~34 cm long. This faciesis underlain by lenticular limestone containing sessile organism, Cereiphyllia sp., embedded in micritic and very fine siliciclastic matrix (facies 26); (e)inset is a close-up view of the Cereiphyllia limestone facies. Note the coal-bearing mudstone beneath facies 26.

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Fig. 12 Measured section of the Sa …dere formation along Sa …dere Dere southwest of Kara Tepe. See Figure 4 for location and Figure 13 forexplanation.

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Fig. 13 Measured section of the Sa…dere formation near the Alao…lu Çe‚me west of Kara Tepe. See Figure 5 for location.

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4. Environmental interpretation

The thirty individual facies described in Tables 1 and 2,have been grouped into five broad facies associations, basedon the following environmental categories:

4.1. Alluvial-fan facies association

The alluvial-fan facies association is predominantly madeup of matrix-supported conglomerate (facies 1), massive,matrix- to clast-supported conglomerate (facies 3), massiveto normally graded conglomerate (facies 4), cross-beddedpebbly sandstone (facies 5), normally graded conglomerate(facies 6), normally graded sandstone (facies 7), and massiveto poorly laminated mudstone (facies 8).

This facies association is the result of deposition by sedi-ment gravity flows and stream flows in a subaerial fanenvironment. Deposition was characterised by debris flows(facies 1 and 2), stream flows (facies 3, 5 and 6), hypercon-centrated flows (facies 4 and 7) and mudflows (facies 8). Thesubaerial fan deposits lack features indicative of stream-dominated alluvial fans, such as well-developed sorting,stratification, imbrication and scours (e.g. [76, 77]. The sub-aerial fan facies association is similar to deposits of mass-flow-dominated alluvial fans (e.g. [78, 79].

The alluvial fan facies association constitutes the maindeposits of the Oligocene Çaykavu‚tu formation.

4.2. Alluvial-/delta-plain facies association

These deposits have been divided into nine facies, whichare closely comparable to those described by Miall [49] andRust [67] from alluvial-/delta-plain deposits. The facies arecross-stratified, coal-bearing mudstone (facies 9), planar-bedded fossiliferous sandstone (facies 10), cross-stratifiedconglomerate (facies 14), planar thin-bedded sandstone(facies 15), fine-grained sandstone (facies 16), ripple-crosslaminated sandstone (facies 17), laminated mudstone inter-bedded with sandstone (facies 18), sandstone-mudstone withferruginous nodules (facies 19) and planar/ripple cross-lam-inated and bioturbated sandstone (facies 20).

The alluvial-plain facies association contains braidedstream deposits, distributary channels and interdistributaryswamps [63, 57]. The uppermost part of each deltaicsequence is mostly made up of swamp deposits, representedby carbonaceous mudstone and coal deposits. These depositsare characteristic of the lower part of the Sa…dere formation.

4.3. Delta-front/slope facies association

The delta-front facies association can be differentiatedinto the following subenvironments: distributary channel(facies 24), distributary-mouth bar (facies 22), and distalmouth bar (facies 23). The delta front is composed of distal-bar deposits in its lower part and distributary-mouth bar

Fig. 14 Geological cross-section near the Emirard¬ç locality illustrating lithostratigraphy and fossil content in the upper part of the Sa…dere formation(modified from Sözbilir [38]. Note the first appearance of meta morphic clasts just above the coral reef limestone, the fossil content of which indicatesan Early Miocene age. See Figure 4 for location.

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deposits in its upper part. Collectively, the sediments fromthe distal mouth bar to the distributary channel constitute atypical coarsening-upward sequence.

As the aggradation advanced, superficial oxidation tookplace in some instances, producing incipient ferruginousnodules and bands [65]. Their deposition reflects interactionbetween fluvial processes and wave action [55, 57]. Thepresence of ferruginous nodules and bands indicate that thedepositional surface was shallow and temporarily emergent.

4.4. Prodelta/Lagoonal (back barrier) facies association

The lagoonal sequence generally consists of interbeddedand interfingering sandstone, shale, siltstone and coal, char-acteristic of a number of overlapping sub-environments(e.g., facies 11, 12, 25 and 26). The sand facies includeswashover-sheet deposits and channel-fill deposits of flood-tidal delta origin [63, 64]. Organic deposits of coal recordmarsh and swamp environments, and typically are quite thin,lagoonal margin, and on emergent washover flats. Subaque-ous mudstone facies are often characterised by brackish-water macro-invertebrate remains [69, 73].

4.5. Reef facies association

The studied fan-delta complex contains several strati-graphic horizons of reefal limestones, which occur at the topof individual fan-delta sequences. Based upon their charac-teristics, the limestones are interpreted here as patch reefs[74]. They are associated with delta-front/slope deposits,and occur as isolated carbonate mounds, 10 m in diameter,and largely massive or poorly bedded limestone units.

These carbonate deposits within the fan-delta complexare good indicators of marine transgressive phases, whichapparently terminated each episode of fan-delta prograda-

tion. The reefal limestones are interpreted as representativeof deposition during stages of fan-delta drowning due torapid but considerable relative rises in sea level [80].

Repetitive colonisation of the fan-delta slopes by reefalorganisms produced units of skeletal limestone (up to 20 cmthick) separated by siliciclastic deposits (up to 10 m thick). Itmay be inferred that the reefs grew mainly during periods ofreduced siliciclastic sedimentation, caused either by pro-longed inactivity of the fan deltas between major stages offlooding and progradation, or by lateral shifting of active deltalobes with development of more local ‘starved’ zones, asobserved in the Almanzora Basin, southeastern Spain [74].

5. Structure

Structures observed in the Lycian molasse basin fill aregrouped into three categories: (1) intrabasinal unconformitiesreflecting deformation and transgression in the Kale-Tavasmolasse; (2) a series of NE-trending anticlines and synclineswith axes subparallel to basin-elongation (see Fig. 5); (3) reversefaults marked by the structural juxtaposition of underlying sedi-mentary rocks of the molasse basin and overlying ophiolitic andcarbonate rocks of the Lycian nappes (see Fig. 15).

Two intrabasinal unconformities occur in the Kale-Tavassubbasin between Chattian and Aquitanian units, and Chattianand Burdigalian units, respectively. They are laterally exten-sive along strike for up to a few kilometres before dying out.Perpendicular to strike, they disappear rather abruptly towardsthe inner zones of the basin where sedimentation was notinterrupted by erosion. This type of unconformity is similar tothe “syntectonic unconformities” of Riba [81], and I interpretthese as having formed with tectonic pulses during the south-eastward translation of the Lycian nappes.

Fig. 15 Detailed geological map south of Çökelez Mountain. See F igure 4 for location. Note a thrust fault along which the Lycia n nappes andsediments of the Sa…dere formation are brought into contact.

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Folds of mappable scale occur as a series of anticlines andsynclines with axes parallel to the direction of basin elonga-tion (Fig. 5). The main trends of these folds indicate NW-SE- directed compression consistent with southeastwardtranslation of the Lycian nappes, which continued until LateMiocene time [44, 53]. Similar NE-trending folds have beendocumented by Bozkurt [19] in the NE-trending, Early-Mid-dle Miocene lacustrine basins that developed on the northernMenderes Massif.

The tectonic contact between the sedimentary fill of theDenizli subbasin and the Lycian nappes is evident atKuzunkaya (Fig. 15), where sheared serpentinites—sur-rounded by a deformed matrix of alternating sandstone andshale—are thrust over clastic rocks of the Sa …dere forma-tion. In this area, the Sa …dere formation comprises analternation of yellowish-grey laminated mudstone, darkgreen to dark grey sandstone and ophiolite-fragment-rich,poorly sorted conglomerate. A similar contact relationship isobserved in the Çardak-Dazk ¬r¬ subbasin, southwest ofTokça Village, where Lycian carbonates are thrust overmolasse sediments (see Fig. 2).

6. Evidence for unroofing history of the Menderes Massif

Over the last decade, numerous geochronological studieshave greatly advanced our understanding of the unroofinghistory of the Menderes Massif (Fig. 16). Most are concen-trate on the age of so-called augen gneisses in the massif—acontroversial issue of whether the protolith granites are Pre-cambrian or Tertiary (e.g. [20, 82-87] and referencestherein). On the other hand, Tertiary metamorphism hasbeen constrained by Rb/Sr mica ages of 35 ± 5 Ma [88, 89].This age was roughly contemporaneous with 43-37 Ma mus-covite 40Ar-39Ar ages of Hetzel and Reischmann [82], whosuggested that this dated the time of shear-zone developmentin the Menderes Massif. Gessner et al. [85] recently ques-tioned the significance of Tertiary metamorphism anddeformation, and suggested that it was confined to green-schist-facies conditions. Earlier pervasive deformation hasbeen constrained by these authors to the Neoproterozoic.The Lycian nappes were thrust southeastward from LateCretaceous to Late Miocene times [43, 44, 46]. Evidencefrom the upper levels of the Çine submassif of the MenderesMassif and the Tavas/Bozda…¬ unit (see Fig. 2) suggest thatrocks found to the south and east of the Menderes Massifwere thrust over by mid-Palaeocene to Eocene times [46-48]. Lips et al. [90] suggested a multistage exhumation; afirst stage of exhumation around 40-35 Ma was induced bynorthward-directed imbrication of the composite basementin the central Menderes Massif. Younger, Late Oligocene-Early Miocene extension was suggested by Bozkurt andPark [23, 91-93] and Bozkurt [8, 18], and interpreted to be aresult of collapse of the Lycian Orogen. Dating of syn-detachment granites has demonstrated that extension was

underway by 20 Ma [94-96]. A later Pliocene-Recent phaseof extension is responsible for unroofing the gneissic core ofthe Menderes Massif [84, 97].

The occurrence of different clast types in the sedimen-tary succession of the Oligo-Miocene molasse can becorrelated with the progressive unroofing history of theMenderes Massif. Sözbilir [41] showed that the southeast-ern fill of the molasse basin is ophiolite-fragment-rich,originating from the Lycian nappes, whilst the uppermostpart of the northwestern deposits were derived from thenewly exhumed Menderes metamorphic core complex.This suggests that the initial subaerial exposure of theMenderes Massif in the study area took place during theEarly Miocene. This situation indicates the weatheringand eroding Lycian nappes, including ophiolitic assem-blages, constituted the primary source area in thesoutheastern part of the basin. As deformation continued,the Menderes Massif was brought to the surface near theBuldan Horst (Fig. 17). The late phase of molasse sedi-mentation in the Oligo-Miocene time interval was alsocontemporaneous with formation of the Simav detachmentfault and the synextensional E…rigöz granite in the Mend-eres Massif [26, 27, 95-97].

7. Discussion and Conclusion

NW-SE-trending extensional collapse of the Lycian Allo-chthon resulted in the development of an Early Oligocene-Early Miocene Lycian molasse basin in the hinterland of theorogen [36, 43-46] (Fig. 17). The basin-fill sediments restunconformably on the structural units of the Lycian Alloch-thon. These structural units not only constituted thebasement to the basin, but also source regions which sup-plied the basin with sediments. The southern margin of theLycian molasse basin (Kale-Tavas subbasin) is characterisedby internal angular unconformities that are laterally exten-sive along strike for up to a few km before dying out. Thebasin-fill sediments become younger from east to west in thebasin. In the east, between Çardak and Dazk ¬r¬, the oldestage of the molasse sediments is Early Oligocene (Rupelian),while toward the west, in the Kale-Tavas subbasin, the old-est sediments are of Chattian age. These data suggests that,at the eastern margin of the basin, deposition commencedduring the Early Oligocene and shifted to the west over timeuntil the Early Miocene.

The Denizli subbasin is filled with molassic sedimentaryrocks which are characterised by thirty sedimentary facies.These facies can be organized into five facies associations:alluvial- fan, alluvial-/delta-plain, delta-front/slope, prodelta/lagoonal (back barrier) and reef facies associations. Alongthe southeastern margin of the basin, alluvial-fan deposits areof great thickness, but of lesser thickness at the northwesternmargin of the basin. From the SE towards the NW, the allu-vial-fan deposits interfinger with fluvial to marine sedimentsthat formed in an asymmetric basin.

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Roughly contemporaneously with deposition of themolasse sediments (Early Miocene), a NE-SW-trendingextensional basin began to form on the newly exposed Men-deres Massif (Fig. 17). The unconformable, late-orogenicsedimentation of these hinterland areas was coeval with syn-orogenic deposition in front of the Lycian nappes in theKasaba/Ka‚ basin [53].

NE-SW folding in the molasse basin fill and thrusting ofthe basement over the molasse indicate that a phase of NW-SE compression post-dated sedimentation in the molassebasin; this is consistent with renewed movement of the

Lycian Allochthon [44]. Thus, the molasse basin underwentNW-SE compression while, in the hinterland, NE-trendingextensional basins developed on metamorphic basement.

In contrast to previous studies [36, 40], I report metamor-phic clasts derived from the Menderes Massif in the upperlevels of the basin fill near the structural boundary betweenthe Menderes Massif and the Lycian nappes. These clasts(schist, gneiss) document surface exposure and erosion ofthe Menderes Massif during the latest stages of the infillingof the molasse basin in the Aquitanian (Fig. 15). Therefore,unroofing of metamorphic units, magmatic activity (e.g. the

Fig. 16 Correlation chart of radiometric and palaeontologic dati ng of the Tertiary events in the Menderes Massif and the Lycian nappes.Chronostratigraphic zonation after Rögl [102]. Asterix shows lo cation of the first appearance of metamorphic clasts in the mol asse basin. Salihligranodiorite [14], Büyük Menderes detachment [90], Gediz detach ment [84, 90], E …rigöz granite [43, 96], main Menderes metamorphism [88, 89].Kasaba-Ka‚ basin [53].

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E…rigöz granite), and formation of the Simav detachmentwere occurring simultaneously, and together are suggestiveof extensional tectonics.

Recent works (e.g. [26, 27]) claim that an early phase ofextensional deformation resulted in the formation of detach-ment faults (the Simav and Ala ‚ehir detachments) in theMenderes Massif at about 20 Ma, and that Early-MiddleMiocene lacustrine rocks that unconformably rest on theMenderes Massif are the oldest extension-related rocks inwestern Turkey (e.g. [7, 98, 99]. However, the Lycianmolasse basin pre-dates these basins. The first phase ofextensional basin formation in the region began in Early Oli-gocene (Rupelian) time subsequent to the main Menderesmetamorphism and the imbrication of the Menderes Massif.The formation of the Simav detachment and related graniteintrusion (E…rigöz granite) are younger events and relate todeeper exhumation of the gneissic sequence of the MenderesMassif, from which fragments were derived and incorpo-rated into the upper part of the Denizli subbasin during theAquitanian.

Acknowledgements

Several figures in this paper resulted from my doctoralfieldwork. Financial support from Dokuz Eylül University(Research Fund Project) is gratefully acknowledged. Myspecial thanks go to my supervisor, Sacit Özer, who has beenof considerable help. I am indebted to the Turkish PetroleumCorporation (TPAO) that funded various phases of my post-doc, field-based research in the study area. Thanks are due toEngin Meriç, Sefer Örçen, Mehmet Sak ¬nç, Sevim Tuzcuand Güler Taner who have identified fossil species docu-mented in the present manuscript. I would also like to thankOlivier Monod and Alan S. Collins for their thoughtfulreviews; their comments and useful criticisms greatlyimproved an earlier version of this manuscript.

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