Of Electrum and the Armour of Achilles

copy Koninklijke Brill NV Leiden 2006 Aries Vol 6 no 2

The following article was written with the generous assistance of the Alexander vonHumboldt Foundation

1 Nibelungen-Handschrift C Karlsruhe Badische Landesbibliothek Cod Donaueschingen63 f 34 verso (chapter 15 strophes 906 909) lsquoSi sprach min man ist chvene dar zv starchgenvoch do er den lintrachen an dem berge slvoch do batte sich in dem blvote der reche vilgemeit da von in sit in stvremen nie dehein wafen versneit Do von des trachen wnden vlozdaz heize blvot vntilde sich dar inne badete der chuene reche gvot do gehafte im zwischen hertenein lindenblat vil breit da mac man in verhowen des ist mir sorgen vil bereitrsquo

2 Statius Achilleis I133-34 I268-70 I480-81 Hyginus Fabulae 107 As Statius appar-ently assumed his readers knew the Styx tradition the references are vague and were only elu-cidated by later mythographers see Burgess lsquoAchillesrsquo Heelrsquo 222 In the Argonautica IV865-884 Apollonius of Rhodes relates the alternative legend that Thetis scorched the babyAchilles over fire by night and anointed him with ambrosia by day For other Indo-Europeanvariations on the motif of ldquoimperfect invulnerabilityrdquo see Burgess ibid 218-219 n 5

OF ELECTRUM AND THE ARMOUR OF ACHILLESMYTH AND MAGIC IN A MANUSCRIPTOF HEINRICH KHUNRATH (1560-1605)

HEREWARD TILTON

The ancient dream of achieving magical invulnerability in battle is reflectedin the content of a number of Indo-European myths In Northern Europe themythological incarnation of the warrior made invulnerable by magical meansis Siegfried (Norse Sigurd) who in the Nibelungenlied bathes in the bloodof the lindworm he has slain thus immersed the hero becomes imperviousto attack save for a point between his shoulder-blades where a leaf of thelime tree happens to land There the dragonrsquos blood does not impart its pow-ers and it is this point of weakness which is exploited by Siegfriedrsquos assas-sin Hagen1 The better-known forebear of Siegfried in this respect is ofcourse Achilles According to the non-Homeric account of Statius in orderto procure his invulnerability the sea nymph Thetis dipped her son in theriver Styx whilst crucially neglecting to immerse his heel or anklemdashwhencethe tale related by Hyginus of Achillesrsquo death by way of Parisrsquo well-aimedarrow2

Another element (or ldquomythemerdquo in the Levi-Straussian sense) demon-strating the affinity of these two myths is the fact that the waters of the riverStyx like dragon blood were commonly held to be poisonous It is not clearwhether this affinity is historically or merely psychologically grounded but

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM 17

118 HEREWARD TILTON

3 For instance Alice Lakwenarsquos Holy Spirit Movement in Northern Uganda the members ofwhich smeared shear oil imbued with the ldquoHoly Spiritrdquo on their bodies as a magical protectionagainst bullets and attacked government forces in waves whilst chanting hymns Similar beliefsare endemic in the Congo where the Mai-Mai (ldquopowerful waterrdquo) militia are anointed withmagical water by their witch-doctors

4 Virgil Aeneid VIII620-625 (624) cf VIII4025 This definition has remained constant since Pliny the Elder Natural History XXXIIIxxiii6 Paulys Real-Encyclopaumldie 2315 Zettler and Horne Treasures from the Royal Tombs of

Ur 162 170 Der Neue Pauly Enzyklopaumldie 978

it is quite possible that the topos of invulnerability gained through immer-sion in a powerful fluid ultimately reflects a genuine magical practice of theprimeval warrior given that in remoter regions of Africa we still find the useof potent lotions believed to grant immunity to the ravages of modernweaponry (together with the dire consequences such practices entail)3Nevertheless the tale of the waters of the river Styx is a later accretion tothe lore surrounding Achilles in the Iliad we are told only that Thetis acquiredfor her son a wondrous suit of armour from Hephaestus (Roman Vulcan)god of fire and the smithy which Achilles wore as he slew his arch-rivalHector And in what amounts to a later gloss on the passage by Virgil4 thisarmour of Hephaestus is said to have been fashioned in part from the metalelectrum

To the contemporary chemist electrum is an artificial or naturally-occurringalloy of gold and silver containing at least twenty percent of the latter metal5Although a little harder and cheaper than gold it is inferior to bronze or iron as a raw material for armour or weaponrymdashhence it was rarely used forthis purpose in the ancient world and objects such as the electrum spear-heads and adzes found at the royal tombs of Ur are today considered to bestrictly ceremonial in character6 However if such items were rare in theancient world they were entirely unknown to the West by the medievalperiod when gold and silver were applied decoratively only to the mostexpensive steel armours Thus it is surprising not only to find a belief in themagical efficacy of electrum armour in late sixteenth century Europe butalso to discover that a usurping monarch appears to have entertained the pos-sibility of gaining advantage over his rivals through such a technology Thisis the testimony of an intriguing manuscript tract composed by the theoso-pher and alchemist Heinrich Khunrath (c 1560-1605) Entitled Consilium deVulcani magica fabrefactione armorum Achillis (ldquoCounsel concerningVulcanrsquos Magical Fashioning of the Armour of Achillesrdquo) the manuscriptcurrently resides in the Swedish Royal Library in Stockholm and deals with

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 118

OF ELECTRUM AND THE ARMOUR OF ACHILLES 119

7 Khunrath lsquoConsilium de Vulcani magica fabrefactione armorum Achillis Graeligcorum omniumfortissimi et cedere nesciirsquo Stockholm Kungliga Biblioteket MS Raringl 4 1597 (43) The use ofldquoelectrumrdquo bells for summoning spirits is mentioned in both the Consilium 17-19 and its sourceDe compositione metallorum of pseudo-Paracelsus (of which more below) and has a long his-tory in the esoteric literature (cf Heydon Hampaaneah Hammegulleh 36 the early eighteenthcentury lsquoThe Rosie Crucian Secretsrsquo London British Library MS Harleian 6485 298-299Crowley Magick in Theory and Practice 49) The use of magical electrum mirrors for observ-ing distant events is mentioned in another source for the Consilium De speculi constellationeof pseudo-Paracelsus (cf the eighteenth century manuscript lsquoTestamentum der Fraternitet Rosaeliget Auraelig Crucis Anno 580rsquo Vienna Oumlsterreichische Nationalbibliothek MS Cod Sn 2897258 ff)

8 Khunrath Consilium title-page lsquoAuff sonderliches begehren und fleissigs Anhalten einesManhafften hohenn Potentaten Bestellet Durch drey Furtreffliche Menner Unter denen derErste ein Hochgelerter Cabalist und Astronomus Der ander ein Tiefsinniger Philosophus undwolgeuumlbter Alchimist Der Letzte aber ein Subtiler und geschwinder Naturgemessener Magusgewesenn Und ist dis Loumlbliche furtreffliche Kleinod und wergk bisanhero in houmlchster geheimbgehaltenn wordenn unnd noch billig also zuhaltenn Conradus Khunradtrsquo Whilst Carlos Gillysurmises that these words constitute a claim of authorship by Conrad Khunrath the significanceof durch in this instance points to the ldquothreerdquo unnamed men as authors Carlos Gilly lsquoTheAmphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae of Heinrich Khunrathrsquo 349 The fact that Conrad belongedto the small circle of people who were granted a copy of Heinrichrsquos Consilium supports the oldbut hitherto unsubstantiated assumption that the two were brothers see Khunrath VomHylealischen CHAOS f)(2 rectomdashverso Oliver Humberg has recently unearthed a letterfrom Conrad Khunrath to Moritz of Hessen-Kassel (Hessisches Staatsarchiv Marburg 4a Nr50) in which the alchemist offers the landgrave a copy of the same manuscript this time accom-panied by a very polite request for remuneration The text of the letter will be published byHumberg later in 2006 in the second volume of the series Quellen und Forschungen zurAlchemie accompanied by other biographical and genealogical research on Conrad Khunrathand his relation to Heinrich

the production of an electrum magicum which not only lends its strange pow-ers to armour but which can also be used to manufacture magic mirrors andbells for use in nigromantia7

The manuscript in question is handsomely bound in leather with a deco-rative gold inlay On the title page the clear hand of the scribe tells us thatthe copy is issued at the special request of a ldquohigh potentaterdquo and that it isthe work of lsquothree excellent men of whom the first is a highly learnedKabbalist and astronomer the second a profound philosopher and experiencedalchemist and the third a subtle and gifted magus working in accordancewith Naturersquo Hitherto this lsquomost excellent jewelrsquo has been kept in the utmostsecrecy lsquoand justly remains so concealedrsquo8 In a different hand at the bottomof the page lies the signature lsquoConradus Khunradtrsquomdashie Conrad Khunrathbrother of Heinrich and a well-known chemist in his own right That theConsilium indubitably stems from Heinrich is clear not only from the factthat he claims it as his own in his De igne magorum (ldquoOn the Fire of the

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 119

120 HEREWARD TILTON

Fig 1 An eighteenth century rendition of the authorrsquos portrait from KhunrathrsquosAmphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae (1609 edition) ULB Darmstadt Ms 3263 (with

permission of the Universitaumlts- und Landesbibliothek Darmstadt)

9 Khunrath De igne magorum 37 69-70 Khunrath Consilium 35

Magiciansrdquo 1608) but also that the author of the Consilium claims De ignemagorum as his own9 Hence we might understand the ldquothree menrdquo men-tioned as authors of the tract on the title-page as Conrad Khunrathrsquos praisefor the three aspects of his brotherrsquos learning which are listed as preciselyKabbalah alchemy and magia on the title-page of Heinrichrsquos Amphitheatrumsapientiae aeternae (ldquoAmphitheatre of Eternal Wisdomrdquo 1595)

The dedication from Conrad Khunrath on the second page of our manu-script is to lsquothe most enlightened and high-born prince and lord Lord Karlhereditary prince of the empire of Swedes Goths and Slavs Duke of

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 120


10 Khunrath Consilium 2 lsquoDem Duumlrchleuumlchtigstenn Hochgebornen Fuumlrsten und HerrenHerren Carolo Reiche Schweden Gotten unnd Wenden Erbfuumlrsten Hertzog zu SudermanlandtNericoslashe unnd Wormelandt etc Seinem gnedigsten fuumlrsten und Herrenn Wuumlntzschet ConradusKhunradt Leipsensis Von Gott dem Almechtigen langes leben bestendige gute gesundtheittGluumlckliche friedsame Regierung unnd aller Fuumlrstlichen prosperitet neben gentzlicher dedica-tionn und offerirung dieses Buechs gantz trewlichst unnd unthenigst Anno 1597rsquo Accordingto the dedication to the staunchly Lutheran Elector of Saxony Sophie von Brandenburg (1568-1622) given in his Vier Schoumlne Medicische Tractat published in 1597 Conrad Khunrath wasliving in Danish Schleswig-Holstein in 1597 Heinrich Khunrath was resident in Magdeburg inJune of 1597 see his Vom Hylealischen CHAOS f)()(8 verso

11 Roberts The Early Vasas 19512 Ibid 367

Soumldermanland Naumlrke and Vaumlrmlandrsquo and carries the date 159710 Duke Karl(1550-1611 later King Karl IX) was one of the four sons of the Lutheranking Gustav I Vasa of Sweden and was bequeathed his duchies in his fatherrsquostestament of 156011 He is noted for having promoted mining and metallurgywithin his lands which comprise the modern counties (laumln) of SoumldermanlandOumlrebro and Vaumlrmland in central Sweden However in 1597 he would havebeen too busy to indulge a purely theoretical interest in the properties of amagical electrum for in the summer of that year Karl entered into a civilwar with his nephew the devout Catholic King Sigismund III for the con-trol of Sweden Described by Michael Roberts as a Machiavellian tyrantwhose weapons were lsquothe terrorization of opponents the use of mob hyste-ria the exploitation of class divisions and a totalitarian rejection of the rightto differrsquo Karl played upon popular fears of a papal conspiracy againstProtestant Sweden to promote his own conflict with Sigismund and the pow-erful nobles of the Raringd (Council of State)12

In this light the allusions on our manuscript title page to a lsquospecial requestrsquodelivered by this lsquohigh potentatersquo appear less a rhetorical ornament of ConradKhunrathrsquos and more a reflection of Karlrsquos desire to keep abreast of devel-opments which might lend him a technological edge in his struggle To thecontemporary reader this might seem an odd assumption However the tes-timony of the literature we are about to explore suggests not only that a beliefin the efficacy of magical armour and weaponry was present amongst theEuropean nobility and royalty in early modern times but also that certainemperors of the Deutsches Reich held faith in such articles Above andbeyond this fact the specific value of Khunrathrsquos manuscript lies in thedetailed insight it affords us into the reception and application of Ficinianand Paracelsian magical notions in early modern Germany

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 121

122 HEREWARD TILTON

13 Telle lsquoMythologie und Alchemiersquo 139 lsquoFuumlr das deutsche Kulturgebiet muszlig vorerst gel-ten daszlig hier die Auffassung ldquodie herrlichen schoumlnen Gedichte der Poeten so sie von den himm-lischen Goumlttern vorbringenrdquo seien nichts anderes als verhuumlllte Beschreibungen der ldquogeheimstenKuumlnste der Alchymeyrdquo erst seit dem 16 Jahrhundert Macht uumlber viele Alchemisten gewannFortan reiszligt ihr Bemuumlhen ldquoin allen Poetischen Gedichtenrdquo der Alten ldquoChymicae operationesrdquozu enthuumlllen nicht mehr ab und ergieszligt sich bis in das 18 Jahrhundert ein breiter Strom anSchriften deren Urheber bereits in der Titelwahl Arcana Palladis Balneum Dianae FilumAriadnes Aureum vellus Pandora Proteus mercurialis Hercules piochymicus Oedipus chymi-cus Achilles redivivus mehr oder minder enge Bindungen zwischen Alchemie und Mythologiezu erkennen gebenrsquo

14 Ibid 149 15415 Cf Pliny the Younger Epistulae I514

Khunrathrsquos reception of the Iliad and the Aeneid

In his seminal article on the subject Joachim Telle brings Johannes BurggravrsquosAchilles PANOPLIS redivivus (1613)mdasha text which was largely plagiarisedfrom Khunrathrsquos Consiliummdashinto close proximity with ldquomythoalchemyrdquo aliterary genre in which the myths of the ancient world are treated as a repos-itory of alchemical and natural philosophical knowledge13 An important com-ponent of humanist discourse in early modern Germany mythoalchemy wasnourished above all by the reception of antique mythology amongst theFlorentine Neoplatonists and was also the logical extension of the ancientalchemical practice of concealing the secrets of the Art in allegories visionaccounts and enigmas14 The most famous example of the genre is CountMichael Maierrsquos beautiful book of emblems the Atalanta fugiens (1618) Inan earlier work the Arcana arcanissima (1614) Maier sets forth the firstmethodical formulation of the mythoalchemical approach which was bornin part of the humanist desire to accommodate the pagan authors to animmutable Christian referent The close relation of emblematics to Maierrsquosalchemical hermeneutic is also evident in his words

it is unlikely that the ancient poets attributed so much adultery homicideincest and crimes to their gods out of some innate wickedness or gratuitousmockery or so that they might make sport with gods or men or indeed thatthey might themselves use the example of the gods to propagate enormous crimesof that kind (for in that case they would have been the greatest rogues to walkon two legs)15 Rather it was in order that they might show these gods to befictitious and imaginary and symbols and emblemsmdashthe one intended for theeye the other for the mindmdashof an occult Art hidden to the common people butknown to themselves Lest moreover they might appear publicly to produceempty names for worthless riddles each fictitious god was given a quasi-divine

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 122


16 Maier Arcana arcanissima 59 lsquo non est verisimile antiquos illos Poetas ex innatamalitia aut irrisionis gratia tot adulteria homicidia incaestus et scelera suis Diis attribuisse utvel Deos vel homines luderent aut vitia ejusmodi enormia Deorum exemplis propagarent (tumenim omnium bipedum nequissimi fuissent) sed potius ut demonstrarent Deos illos non essenisi ficticios imaginarios et artis occultae vulgo sed sibi notae symbola et Emblemata aliudad oculum aliud ad mentem referentia Ne autem inania nomina rebus cassa in medium pro-ducere viderentur singulis illis Diis fictitiis singula officia quasi divinia et vires Naturae geni-tricis diversas asscripserunt ac nihilominus Unum Deum in omnibus istis professi suntrsquo

17 Faivre The Golden Fleece and Alchemy 1618 Leibenguth Hermetische Poesie des Fruumlhbarock 93 n 88 95-96 Telle lsquoMythologie und

Alchemiersquo 138 Also mentioned by Telle is the thirteenth century encyclopaedist Vincent ofBeauvais who counted Virgil amongst the lsquomasters of alchemyrsquo

19 Leibenguth Hermetische Poesie des Fruumlhbarock 9220 Homer Iliad XVIII457-460 Murray (ed) Iliad 321

function and power of Nature They ascribed diverse parents to these gods butnevertheless professed one God in all of them16

Although mythoalchemy flowered in the German late Renaissance contem-porary scholars have divergent opinions concerning its age and true natureAntoine Faivre mentions the fifth century alchemist Olympiodorus as a pro-ponent of the alchemical allegorization of myth17 Erik Leibenguth on theother hand follows Telle in identifying the Margarita pretiosa novella (1330)as the formative early work of the tradition18 There Petrus of Ferrara arguesthat Ovid Virgil and Homer wove the secrets of the alchemical art into theirstories and myths by way of an lsquoornate languagersquo As a result only the wisecan see their true intention whilst the world is kept safe from those unwor-thy souls who would sow chaos with such knowledge19

As the primary antique authors alluding to Vulcanrsquos activity as an armourerHomer and Virgil occupy a central position in Khunrathrsquos Consiliummdashwhichlike many alchemical works begins with a theoretical discourse on the sub-ject in question before moving to a practical description of the laboratoryprocesses involved Thus Khunrath opens his tract with a passage from theIliad The Greek Patroclus has entered battle with the Trojans wearing thearmour of his companion Achilles and has been slain by Hector even ashis soul departs for Hades Patroclus warns Hector that he will die at Achillesrsquoavenging hand Because her sonrsquos old armour is now in the possession of Hector Thetis makes her plea to Hephaestus to create some fine newequipment

Therefore I have now come to your knees in the hope that you will be mindedto give my son who is doomed to a speedy death shield and helmet and noblegreaves fitted with ankle pieces and a corselet20

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 123

124 HEREWARD TILTON

21 Ibid 321 (XVIII463-467)22 The meaning of xalkOgravew is given as ldquocopperrdquo in other editions of the Iliad although the

word variously denotes ldquoorerdquo ldquobronzerdquo and ldquocopperrdquo the fact that bronze already contains tinpoints to ldquocopperrdquo as the better translation

23 Homer Iliad XVIII470-482 Murray (ed) Iliad 32224 Ibid XVIII609-617 Murray (ed) Iliad 333

That Achillesrsquo own fate has already been sealed by the schemes of theOlympian gods is well known to Hephaestus who nonetheless replies

Take heart and do not let these things concern your mind I wish that I mightso surely be able to hide him far from dolorous death when dread fate comeson him as surely fair armour will be his such that in future many a one amongthe multitude of men shall marvel whoever looks on it21

With this Hephaestus sets to work and it is evident that Khunrath whenreading the following words for the first time saw in them not only the activ-ity of the primordial armourer and smith but also an image of the alchemistin his guise as arcane metallurgist

the bellows twenty in all blew on the melting vats sending out a readyblast of every force now to further him as he laboured hard and again in what-ever way Hephaestus wished and his work went on And on the fire he put stub-born bronze22 and tin and precious gold and silver and then he set on the anvilblock a great anvil and took in one hand a massive hammer and in the otherhe took the tongs First he made a shield great and sturdy adorning it cunninglyin every part and round about it set a bright rim threefold and glittering andfrom it he fastened a silver baldric Five were the layers of the shield itself andon it he made many adornments with cunning skill23

In the Iliad there follows here an extensive description of the various sceneswith which Hephaestus ornaments the shield of Achilles this is omitted byKhunrath who proceeds to the last lines of book eighteen

when he had fashioned the shield great and sturdy then he fashioned forhim a corselet brighter than the blaze of fire and he fashioned for him a heavyhelmet fitted to his temples a fair helmet elaborately worked and set on it acrest of gold and he fashioned him greaves of pliant tin But when the glori-ous god of the two lame legs had fashioned all the armour he took and laid itbefore the mother of Achilles And like a falcon she sprang down from snowyOlympus carrying the flashing armour from Hephaestus24

From the outset Khunrathrsquos approach to this passage in the Latin edition heused raises important questions concerning the exact scope of the genre whichhas come to be known as ldquomythoalchemyrdquo Firstly from Khunrathrsquos per-spective the text describes a replicable procedure of arcane metallurgy and

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 124


25 Genesis 419-22 lsquoAnd Lamech took two wives the name of the one was Adah and thename of the other Zillah Adah bore Jabal he was the father of those who dwell in tents andhave cattle His brotherrsquos name was Jubal he was the father of all those who play the lyre andpipe Zillah bore Tubal-cain he was the forger of all instruments of bronze and iron The sis-ter of Tubal-cain was Narsquoamahrsquo In his commentary on Genesis 422 the Baptist John Gill (1697-1771) suggested that this etymology derives from Eusebius but Eusebiusrsquo account (Praeparatioevangelica 135 B) contains fragments of the lost Phoenician mythology of Sanchuniathonwho only mentions two sons of Hypsuranus skilled in the working of iron one of whom(Chrysor) is equated with Vulcan Isidore of Seville makes no mention of Tubalcain in his com-mentary on Vulcan in the Etymologies Indeed Khunrath is the earliest purveyor of the tradi-tion I am aware of although it surely antedates him the same etymology is given by Sir WalterRaleigh in his History of the World (1614) and is commonly to be found amongst bible com-mentaries from the seventeenth century onwards It also holds a place in Freemasonic lore

26 Khunrath Consilium 5 the isle of Vulcano between Sicily and the Aeolian isles is indi-cated as the home of Vulcan by Virgil (Aeneid XVIII419) who merely likens Vulcano to Etna

27 Maier Arcana arcanissima 1128 Leibenguth Hermetische Poesie des Fruumlhbarock 93 n 88 9429 Faivre The Golden Fleece and Alchemy 20 35 65 et passim30 Leibenguth Hermetische Poesie des Fruumlhbarock 93

not of alchemy proper Secondly and more significantly Khunrathrsquos inter-pretation of the myth is not allegorical in orientation but euhemerist Thename Vulcan for instance is construed by Khunrath to be a corruption ofTubalcain the name of the Jewish patriarch whom the book of Genesisdescribes as lsquothe forger of all instruments of bronze and ironrsquo25 There is nodoubt so Khunrath declares that the pagans came to hear of Tubalcainthrough Japhet the third son of Noah and ancestor of the Ionian Greeksmdashand because Tubalcain was the most ancient smith and armourer they madeof him an idol and imagined his home as fiery Etna26

This historicizing mode of interpretation stands in direct contrast to theallegorizing approach of mythoalchemists such as Maier who specificallyrefutes euhemerism when dealing with the myth of Isis and Osiris in hisArcana arcanissima27 Nevertheless such euhemerism has important prece-dents in the history of alchemical exegesis as Faivre demonstrates in hisToison drsquoOr et Alchimie Some commentators have excluded euhemeriststrands from the scope of mythoalchemy which they define strictly as anallegorization of myth (conceived as an intentionally employed veil for arcaneprocesses of transformation)28 Faivre on the other hand traces the ofteninterwoven history of both allegorizing and euhemerist tendencies in the lit-erature (cf Picorsquos De Auro) and suggests we avoid too rigid a demarcationbetween the two29 In any case whilst mythoalchemy may well be more thana mere subset of an allegorizing hermeneutic30 it seems we are obliged either

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 125

126 HEREWARD TILTON

31 Homer Odyssey XV459 lsquoThere came a man well versed in guile to my fatherrsquos housewith a necklace of gold and with amber beads was it strung betweenrsquo XVIII295 lsquoAnd a chaindid another straightway bring to Eurymachus one cunningly wrought of gold strung withamber beads bright as the sunrsquo The fact that both references use the plural gelektroion bearsout the meaning of ldquoamber beadsrdquo and the fact that in the former a Phoenician bears the orna-ment also lends support to this interpretation as this seafaring folk is known to have tradedextensively in amber See the Dictionnaire des Antiquiteacutes Grecques et Romaines 532 nn 1314 which has the best exposition of the controversy to be found in the lexicons

32 Homer Odyssey IV73 lsquoSon of Nestor dear to this heart of mine mark the flashing ofbronze throughout the echoing halls and the flashing of gold of electrum of silver and ofivoryrsquo The radiance of the substance described demonstrates the close association of gelektronwith the word geldegktvr ldquothe beaming sunrdquo See Liddell and Scott A Greek-English Lexikon768

33 Pliny Natural History XXXIIIxxiii8134 Khunrath Consilium 10-11 lsquoM Joh Mathesius in Sarepta concione de Electro schreibt

also Es haben die alten Poeten das guldige Silber das ist Gold mit Silber vermenget auch

to radically extend the parameters of the mythoalchemical genre as deter-mined by Telle or to exclude Burggravrsquos (and hence Khunrathrsquos) work fromthe list of texts falling within its ambit

Although Khunrath does cast Homerrsquos account as a veiled description ofarcane metallurgical procedure in his view it is veiled by an intentional omis-sion of detail concerning the true material of the armour and not by themythrsquos symbolism itself In Homerrsquos description of Vulcanrsquos work there isin fact no allusion to electrum be it magical or otherwisemdashonly to copperand tin (the constituents of the alloy bronze) and lsquoprecious silver and goldrsquoIt is beside the point that the alloy of the latter metals is known today aselectrum where Homer does use the word gelektron (elektron the Greek cog-nate of Latin electrum) it is not always clear which substance he is refer-ring to Of the three places in the Odyssey where gelektron is mentioned twoseem to refer to the golden-brown fossilised tree resin we call amber31 Themeaning of the remaining reference has long been the source of scholarlydebate there Telemachus likens the halls of the Spartan palace of Menelauswhich are decorated with lsquoflashing gold and gelektron silver and ivoryrsquo tothe court of Olympian Zeus32 Is Homer describing inlaid amber the colourof which stands to gold as ivoryrsquos colour does to silver Or is this indeed areference to an alloy of gold and silver as Pliny33 surmised some eight cen-turies after Homer

Whatever the case may be Khunrath cites the less likely interpretation ofPliny when he himself describes the halls of Menelaus in his Consiliumthese shone in the torch-lit night with the superior radiance of pale elec-trum34 According to Khunrath Homer deliberately avoids mentioning the

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 126


Electrum genennet welches bei der nacht wan man grosse fackelnn anzundett heller dan dichteoder fein Goldt leuchtenn soll wie Plinius meldet Damit Koningk Menelaj Sahl oder Mueshaussoll beleget sein gewesen drinnen es geschimmert wie die Sonne scheint und der Mond glentzetwie man im Homero sehetrsquo Johannes Mathesius of Joachimstal was a contributor to the earlymining literature Khunrathrsquos reference here is to his Sarepta oder Bergpostill published inNuremberg in 1564

35 Khunrath Consilium 9 lsquoAus diesen worten wirt nun klar und offenbar was gewesenn seiidas rechte und warhaftige subjectum dieser wunderbarlicher und koniglicher armorum nemblichElectrum von f y Paracelso Electrum magicum genennet das SIEBEN EAN oder EAN SIEBENMETAL Homerus hatt den nahmen verschwiegen Virgilius hatt ihn erfurbrachtrsquo

36 Virgil Aeneid VIII400-405 West (ed) Aeneid 17637 Khunrath Consilium 938 Pliny Natural History XXXIIIxxiii and XXXVIIxi

alloy when describing Vulcanrsquos work in the Iliadmdashthe implication being thatthe ancient poet like any true initiate into the occult mysteries had soughtto protect the secrets of the arcane art he described35 Nevertheless what washidden by Homer may be revealed to any diligent student of the wisdom ofthe ancients for Virgil in the eighth book of his Aeneid once again describesthe work of Vulcan this time betraying the crucial prima materia of thearmourerrsquos craftmdashelectrum An epic poem that cleverly transforms the struc-ture and themes of the Iliad into a work of Roman imperialist apologeticsthe Aeneid tells the story of Aeneas cousin of Trojan Hector son of Venuslegendary founder of Roman power and supposed ancestor of Virgilrsquos patronAugustus Caesar Having escaped the smouldering ruins of Troy the wan-dering warrior Aeneas arrives in the Campagna di Roma To aid him in hisbattle with the Latin Rutuli tribe Venus seduces Vulcan and gains therebythe following promise

And now if you are preparing for war and this is what you wish whatever careI can offer you in the exercise of my skill whatever can be done by meltingiron or electrum anything that fire and bellows can achieve you do not haveto pray to me You need not doubt your power36

From these words Khunrath maintains triumphantly the true material of thiswondrous and regal armour is made clear to all37 Although the Latin wordelectrum like the ambiguous Greek elektron could refer to either amber oran alloy of four parts gold to one silver38 the fact that this material is moltenleaves no doubt as to Virgilrsquos meaning Indeed the bronze and electrum usedby Virgilrsquos Vulcan can be correlated with the metals employed by HomerrsquosHephaestus copper and tin gold and silver Khunrath takes note howeverthat a fifth metal appears in the account of the Aeneid chalybs vulnificus orlsquodeath-dealing steelrsquo The mass production of weaponry made of wrought

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 127

128 HEREWARD TILTON

39 Khunrath Consilium 840 Most translations render the original chalybs as steel rather than iron ( ferrum)41 Virgil Aeneid VIII445-453 West (ed) Aeneid 177-17842 Khunrath Consilium 9 lsquoAus diesen worten wirt nun klar und offenbar was gewesenn seii

das rechte und warhaftige subjectum dieser wunderbarlicher und koniglicher armorum nemblichElectrum von f [Philippus] y [Theophrastus] Paracelso Electrum magicum genennetrsquo

iron and steel an alloy of iron with small amounts of carbon was a main-stay of Roman power although iron is mentioned by Homer its absencefrom his description of Vulcanrsquos craft may reflect the late Bronze Age rootsof the Iliad For Khunrath however Virgilrsquos inclusion of the metal contra-dicts neither Homer nor the lsquoinviolable precepts of the magical artsrsquomdashforwhy should the metal of warlike Mars be absent from such a martial work39Virgilrsquos beautiful description of Vulcan and his Cyclopean minions at workin the caverns of Vulcano refers to the process of quenching bronze in coldwater a process which is also required to harden good steel

The gold ore and iron40 the dealer of death were molten in a great furnaceThey were shaping one great shield to be a match for all the weapons of theLatins fastening the seven thicknesses of it circle to circle Bellows were tak-ing in air and breathing it out again Bronze was being plunged into troughs ofwater and hissing The cave boomed with the anvils standing on its floor whilethe Cyclopes raised their arms with all their strength in time with one anotherand turned the ore in tongs that did not slip41

As in the Iliad Virgil proceeds to give a lengthy description of the scenesengraved upon the mighty shieldmdashalthough here they prophetically depictthe glorious history of the Romans under the conquering descendants ofAeneas rather than the sketches of daily Greek life and rustic idylls givenby Homer It is noteworthy that only the greaves or shin armour arespecifically mentioned by Virgil as being fashioned from electrummdasha factwhich in no way deters Khunrath from his main thesis which is the iden-tification of the armourrsquos material with that substance lsquocalled by Paracelsuselectrum magicumrsquo42

The production of electrum magicum

Leaving the smoking realms of Vulcan the Consilium proceeds here withextensive citations from a work Khunrath speaks of as Paracelsusrsquo De elec-tro There is a tract under this name in the Zwen Tractatus des hocherfar-nen und bewaumlrtisten Teutschen Philosophi edited by Michael Toxites in

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 128


43 Paracelsus Zwen Tractatus44 Schneider Paracelsus Autor des Archidoxis Magica 6-745 The oldest manuscript copy of the Archidoxis magica resides at Nuumlrnberg and dates to

1570 ibid 946 Ibid 2247 Paracelsus Werke V 415 lsquo das erste Wesen der Metalle das seine letzte Vollkommenheit

noch nicht erreicht und doch voll samenlicher Kraft ist und stecktrsquo hence also the usage of theterm by the Paracelsian Johann Baptist van Helmont in his Praeligcipiolum 48

48 Gebelein Alchemie 122-123 Schuumltt Auf der Suche nach dem Stein der Weisen 37-38

157243 it is better known as book six of the Archidoxis magica which isentitled De compositione metallorum The Archidoxis magica was first pub-lished in 1569 and originally consisted of four previously secret tracts writ-ten under the name of Paracelsus and thought to be the key to his art44 Decompositione metallorum and a tract by the name of De speculi constella-tione first appeared in print in the 1572 version of the Archidoxis magicatheir addition was justified by the editor Johannes Huser on the groundsthat they were consonant with Paracelsusrsquo thought and that they were gen-erally recognised as works of Paracelsus Although Toxites raised no doubtsin his edition concerning their authenticity Huser certainly did and similardoubts had also been jotted down on the manuscript copy which he used forhis edition45 Khunrath derives his instructions on the manufacture of elec-trum magicum from both De speculi constellatione and De compositione metallorum which form a pair and appear to have been written by the sameauthor The fact that in the Consilium he also refers to the tracts De temporeand De imaginibus suggests he used the 1572 edition of the Archidoxis magica published by Petrus Perna in Basel as these tracts were included inthat version as further accretions to the whole dubious work Whilst Schneiderbelieves the original four books of the Archidoxis magica may in fact beheavily edited notes of Paracelsus there is no evidence suggesting that theworks concerning electrum are authentic nor have we any clues as to whotheir true author might be46

In the true works of Paracelsus electrum refers most commonly to a lsquomin-eralrsquo which is the lsquoprimary essence of metalsrsquo and which although still imper-fect is lsquofull of seminal powerrsquo47 This significance is possibly related to thedescriptions of electrum (Egyptian asemu) amongst the ancient alchemistsFor example a recipe under the name of Chrysopoeia (ldquogold-makingrdquo) inthe Leiden papyri describes an alloy of gold silver and copper which can be used like a lsquoyeastrsquo to produce further gold-like alloys a process which gave rise in later alchemy to the idea of the Philosophersrsquo Stone as a lsquoleaveningrsquo agent for metals48 In any case the electrum magicum of

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 129

130 HEREWARD TILTON

This ancient significance of ldquoelectrumrdquo is specifically refuted by Dorn Dictionarium TheophrastiParacelsi 40 and by Ruland Lexikon alchemiaelig 194 both of whom nevertheless refer only tothe definition of electrum given by pseudo-Paracelsus in the Archidoxis magica

49 Khunrath Consilium 24 pseudo-Paracelsus Archidoxis magica 48050 An acidic salt so named because it is manufactured from the residues of wine fermenta-

tion see Agricola Zwoumllf Buumlcher 200 n 2151 Ibid 381 n 452 Khunrath Consilium 24-27 the tin in question probably came from the famous mines of

Cornwall53 The purification of gold with antimony is described in Glaser Traiteacute de la chymie 84-87

Agricola Zwoumllf Buumlcher 208-209 describes the purification of gold with lead and the removalof impurities by immersion in an lsquoacidic fluidrsquo and vinegar for 24 hours in the Natural HistoryXXXIIIxxxii Pliny mentions the cleaning of mercury with leather in the context of refininggold whilst potassium hydrogen tartrate (lsquocream of tartarrsquo) is still used to clean metals

54 Khunrath Consilium 27 the lsquohourrsquo of the planet is determined by assigning each planeta number and utilising the numerical sequence 1642753 For example if one were to work ona Sunday (something the pious Khunrath would no doubt have avoided) the possible times forcommencing the purification of gold would be within the first eighth fifteenth and twenty-second hours of the day for silver the fourth eleventh and eighteenth hours for iron the

pseudo-Paracelsus is not a mineral essence nor is it electrum in the ancientor contemporary sense of the term It is instead an alloy of all the alchemistrsquosseven metals which possesses supernatural qualities stemming from the astro-logical influences brought to bear in the course of the work

The exact proportions of the alloy are given by both Khunrath and pseudo-Paracelsus as ten parts gold ten parts silver five parts mercury five partscopper two parts tin two parts lead and one part iron49 Before the alloyingprocess can begin the metals should be purified in the following mannerthe gold must be lsquopoured three times through antimonyrsquo and once againthrough lead then beaten thin and laid in saltwater for twenty-four hoursthe silver should be thinly beaten and laid for a quarter of an hour in a solu-tion of salt and pulverised Weinstein (potassium hydrogen tartrate)50 the cop-per needs six to eight hoursrsquo immersion in vinegar and lsquovitriol waterrsquo(probably a dilute sulfuric acid distilled from ferrous sulfate heptahydrate)51the iron should simply be filed and the lsquodustrsquo washed away the lead andlsquofine English tinrsquo must both be melted in an iron ladle a lsquobean-sizedrsquo pieceof wax placed atop until it burns away then poured into pure water and themercury should be pressed through leather into a wooden bowl52 These pro-cedures for removing impurities are standard for their time and are men-tioned by other authors53 however Khunrath cites De speculi constellationedirectly when he states that the purification of each metal should commencein the hour of the planet to which it corresponds and that the good or badaspect of the planets should also be taken into account54 Likewise the alloy-

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 130


seventh fourteenth and twenty-first hours for mercury the third tenth seventeenth and twenty-fourth hours for tin the sixth thirteenth and twentieth hours for copper the second ninth six-teenth and twenty-third hours and for lead the fifth twelfth and nineteenth hours

55 Khunrath Consilium 30 lsquoAuszlig dieser Massa Metallica mussen die de Electro Vulcanicaet Regia arma geschmiedet werdenn und gehoumlrenn unter quartam spetiem artis Magicaelig spe-cialiter sumptaeligGamodreos genandt welche durch hulffe der kunnst alles das ihenige unsicht-bar und spiritualiter thuett was sonst die natur ohne dergleichenn adhibirte kunnst sichtbarund Corporaliter zuthuen vermagkrsquo

56 Paracelsus Astronomia magna 78 lsquobereitung der gamaheu inen ire kreft zu gebenrsquo Theother categories of magic listed by Paracelsus (ibid 78 83-85) are (1) Magica insignis or lsquotheinterpretation of supernatural starsrsquomdashthe example given is the star from the East that accom-panied Christrsquos birth which appeared to be a ldquonaturalrdquo body just as Christ appeared to othersas an ordinary human both were in fact supernatural entities and the magi interpret such heav-enly signs just as the apostles were able to recognise Christ (2) Magica transfigurativa or thetransformation of one living body into another lsquojust as Christ was transfigured and illuminatedlike the sunrsquo (3) Magia characteralis or lsquothe preparation of characters and similar blessingsrsquomdashthis is the art of constructing words which impart the same heavenly power when spoken asherbs do when administered by the physician (4) Altera in alteram or the preparation of imageswith the power to lame blind or bring impotence just as Nature does these things naturally sothe magus can bring them about by artifice (5) Ars cabalistica which is idiosyncratically inter-preted as an art allowing the magus to hear a voice from across the oceans or allowing some-one in the West to hold a conversation with someone in the East (the ostensible theme of the3rd book of Trithemiusrsquo Steganographia is called to mind here) it is also the art of accelerat-ing the speed of living beings such as horses and messengers

57 Ibid 84 lsquoAlso weiter merkent das die viert species lernet gamaheu machen welche allesdas tun das die natuumlrlichen instrumenta vermoumlgen Als ein schluumlssel tut ein schloszlig auf ein

ing of mercury and lead should be carried out during a conjunction ofMercury with Saturn The resulting amalgam should then be united with thetin during a conjunction of Jupiter with either Mercury or Saturn and soforth until all seven metals have been alloyed into a single substance incor-porating the powers of all their corresponding planets

Khunrathrsquos magical praxis

The fashioning of armour from the electrum of pseudo-Paracelsus is describedin the Consilium as an act of gamodreos which according to Khunrath is thelsquofourth speciesrsquo of the magical arts55 We are probably dealing here with anerror of the scribe as Paracelsus himself speaks of the fourth species ofmagic (which he distinguishes from nigromantia and necromantia) as gama-heos or lsquothe preparation of the gamaheu in order to give them their powerrsquo56Just as a key opens a lock a sword inflicts wounds and armour deflects stab-bing and shooting so such activities may be carried out artificially ratherthan naturally invisibly rather than visibly through the use of gamaheu57 In

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 131

132 HEREWARD TILTON

schwert hauet wunden ein harnisch beschirmt vor stechen und schieszligen Also vermag die viertespecies magicae artis solchs zu tun durch kunst unsichtbar das die natur sichtbar vermag Unddise species heiszligt mit irem rechten namen gamaheosrsquo

58 Dorn Dictionarium Theophrasti Paracelsi 45-46 lsquoGamohœaelig sunt imagines ex influen-tia supercœlesti conceptaelig et impressaeligrsquo ldquoSupercelestialrdquo refers to the realm of Ideas beyondthe circles of the celestial stars and planets ie the empyrean heaven

59 Paracelsus Werke III 11160 Cf John 1034 lsquoJesus answered them ldquoIs it not written in your law lsquoI said you are

godsrsquordquorsquo and Psalms 826-7 lsquoI say ldquoYou are gods sons of the Most High all of you never-theless you shall die like men and fall like any princerdquorsquo That humans have power over thestars Paracelsus explains in another place with reference to Psalms 86-8 lsquoyou have put allthings under his feet the birds of the heavens the fish of the watersrsquo Paracelsus Astronomiamagna 135 compare also p 120 lsquo darumb wir bilich goumltter geheiszligen werden und soumlne desallerhoumlchsten Dan in uns ist das liecht der natur und das liecht ist gotrsquo

61 Paracelsus Astronomia magna 128-129 lsquo was die natur vermag in einem frembdencorpus zu volbringen das vermag auch der mensch das er die selbigen operationes dahin magbringen da die conception hingebracht mag werden Also das ein bilt das weder fleisch nochblut hat einem kometen gleich ist und wird das auch die woumlrter und characteres kraft habenso wol als arznei das die kreuter und gamaheu dahin gebracht moumlgen werden das solche subiectagleich seind den planeten und iren inwonern auch dem ganzen gestirn des firmaments Und dassolt ir euch nicht verwundern das ein mensch solches mag zu wegen bringen dan wie diegeschrift sagt ir seit goumltter vil mer seint wir das gestirn seind wir soumlne des houmlchsten alle vilmer seind wir dester gewaltiger uber das gestirn Dan also beweret es sich das das gestirn indes menschen kunst stehet und mag sie herab bringen in ein ander corpus und dasselbig ist wiedas gestirnrsquo

his Dictionarium Theophrasti Paracelsi (1584) Gerhard Dorn speaks ofgamohœaelig as lsquoimages which have been received from supercelestial influencesand which have been imprintedrsquo58 Peuckert understands gamaheu as Germangemmen or engraved stones59 The word seems in any case to be related toLatin gemma in the senses of either ldquogemrdquo or ldquosignetrdquo and the cognate Greekgemv lsquoto be filled withrsquo We are concerned here with a form of talismanicmagic which is described by Paracelsus in the following way

That which Nature is able to accomplish in a discrete body can also be accom-plished by man namely that he can bring to pass the same operations asConception tends to do by itself Hence an image which has neither flesh norblood is and becomes akin to a comet hence also words and characters are aseffective as medicine hence herbs and gamaheu can be employed and hencesuch subjects are akin to the planets and their occupants and also to all the starsof the firmament And you should not be astonished that a man is able to achievesuch a thing because [if ] Scripture states lsquoyou are Godsrsquo [then] so much moreare we stars [if ] lsquowe are the sons of the most Highrsquo [then] so much greater isour power over the stars60 For it is borne out that the stars are subject to humanartifice and man can bring the stars down into another body [so that] it is thenakin to the stars61

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 132


62 Paracelsus Astronomia magna 17 ff 12263 Ficino De amore V4 Marcel (ed) Commentaire 185 lsquo Quamobrem hec mundi pic-

tura quam cernimus universa in angelis et animis lucet expressior In illis enim sphere cuiusquefigura solis luna et siderum reliquorum elementorum quoque lapidum arborum animaliumsingulorum Picture huiusmodi in angelis exemplaria et idee in animis rationes et notiones inorbis materia forme atque imagines a Platonicis nominantur Clare quidem in orbe clariores inanimo in angeli mente clarissimersquo

64 Khunrath Consilium 36 lsquoSonderlich aber soltu keinesweges vergessenn Cooperation odermitwirckung Microcosmischen innerlichen gestirnes astrorum coeli Microcosmi darnebenanzuwenden ohne welche in arte Magicorum man zu keinem vollenkommen ende gereichennoch kommen kannrsquo cf Khunrath Amphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae 22 lsquoHOC CELUMSECUNDUM sublime Regio puregrave aeligtherea HOC Solem Lunam et Stellas habet revera etiamPRIMUM et Inferius (suo modo) astra sua id quod sciunt atque testantur Sapientesrsquo

65 Agrippa De occulta philosophia II22 lsquoTraduntur insuper a magis quaedam numerorummensulae planetis septem distributae quas planetarum sacras tabulas vocant multis admodummagnisque coelestium virtutibus insignitas quatenus repraesentant divinam illam coelestiumnumerorum rationem divinae mentis ideis per rationem animae mundi coelestibus impres-sam rsquo (Lyon edition 215-216)

66 Agrippa De occulta philosophia II22 lsquoHaec fortunato Marte in lamina ferrea aut ensesculpta potentem facit in bello et iudiciis et petitionibus et terribilem adversariis suis et vic-toriam praestat adversus hostesrsquo ibid 217

Paracelsus alludes here to the manner in which the virtues of the planets andfixed starsmdashor the virtues of their ruling angels or intelligencesmdashare imbuedat astrologically propitious times in images words and objects whence anaction of sympathy or antipathy proceeds from them His words concerninghumans as stars appear to be a reference to the sidereal body by which celes-tial influence is received and magic effected in the Paracelsian system62 theymight also be compared with Ficinorsquos belief that images of the macrocosmincluding the heavenly bodies reside in the human soul and sympatheticallyprovide our ability to grasp the structure of things in the world63 In hisConsilium Khunrath has recourse to a similar conception when he speaks ofthe influence of lsquoinner microcosmic starsrsquo or lsquomental impressionsrsquo withoutwhich lsquono result can be achieved in the art of the magiciansrsquo64

Strictly speaking the use of gamaheos in the Consilium is limited to theimprinting of certain characters on the electrum armour once it has beenforged In his De occulta philosophia Agrippa von Nettesheim sets out themagic squares and characters which express lsquothe divine order of celestialnumbers impressed upon the heavenly entities by the ideas of the divine mindthrough the orderstructure of the world soulrsquo65 concerning the charactergiven for Mars we are told that if it is engraved upon an iron plate or asword when Mars is in a favourable aspect it will make a man seem lsquoterri-ble to his enemiesrsquo and grant him victory over them66 In his Consilium

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 133

134 HEREWARD TILTON

Fig 2 The characters of Mars given in Agripparsquos De occulta philosophia II22(with permission of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Muumlnchen)

67 That is the divinely instituted ruler of the planet The Aristotelian term ldquointelligencerdquo isequivalent to the planetary angel of Christian Neoplatonism

68 For Agrippa as for Ficino before him daemons formed a bridge between the human beingand the stars or the intelligences (in the Aristotelian sense) ruling the stars see Agrippa Deocculta philosophia II21 Ficino De vita III1 Agrippa also follows Ficino in distinguishingbetween daemons of nativity and daemons of profession De occulta philosophia II22 De vitaIII23 In both authorsrsquo works as in the work of Khunrath the Neoplatonic individual daemonor genius is equivalent to the ldquoguardian angelrdquo of orthodox Christianity

69 Khunrath Consilium 41-42 lsquoWehr lust darzu hette wan Mars in Ascendente in SecundaArietis facie ist Tabulam (characteristicam unnd dan auch wan Mars wiederumb in Ascendentein I Scorpionis facie ist Characteres Martis So lib 2 occultaelig Philosoph H C Agrippaelig Cap22 gemahlet stehenn cum pistillo chalyumlbeo den armis Vorne herab imprimirersquo

Khunrath accordingly instructs those who are so inclined to imprint on thefront of the armour with a steel stamp the characters of Mars of its intelli-gence (Graphiel)67 and of its daemon (Barzabel)68 given by Agrippa Thisshould be done when Mars is ascendant in the second house of Aries andagain when Mars is ascendant in the first house of Scorpio69

With regard to the actual forging of the electrum armour we are not deal-ing with gamaheos in the narrower sense of talismanic magic but rather withthe power of words to convey celestial virtuemdashwhich might still be under-stood in terms of the lsquoimprinting of supercelestial imagesrsquo in the sense ofDornrsquos definition Khunrath supplies his readers with a Latin incantation orenchantment which is to be recited during the process of fashioning armourfrom the electrum magicum and here it is the thought of Agrippamdashand hence

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 134


70 Agrippa De occulta philosophia I71 lsquoIn componendis itaque carminibus et orationibuspro attrahenda stellae aut numinis alicuius virtute oportet diligenter considerare quas in se quae-libet stella continet virtutes effectus et operationes atque haec carminibus inserere laudandoextollendo ampliando exornando quae solet stella huiusmodi afferre et influerersquo (Lyon edi-tion 142)

71 Agrippa De occulta philosophia I71 lsquoEiusmodi itaque carmina aptegrave atque ritegrave ad stel-larum normam composita intellectu sensuque pleniszligima vehementi affectu oportunegrave pronun-ciata tum secundum eorum articulorum numerum et proportionem atque secundum formam exarticulis resultantem unagrave atque per imaginationis impetum vim maximam conspirant in incan-tante atque subinde traiiciunt in rem incantatam ad illam ligandam aut dirigendam quorsumaffectus sermonesque incantantis intenduntur Instrumentum vero ipsum incantantium est spir-itus quidam puriszligimus harmonicus calens spirans vivens motum affectum significatum secumferens suis articulis compositus praeligditus sensu ratione denique conceptus rsquo (Lyon edition143)

72 Agrippa De occulta philosophia I71 lsquoAtque ideo solent Magi incantantes res simul afflareet verba carminis inhalare ceu virtutem ipso spiritu inspirare ut sic tota animae virtus dirigaturin rem incantatam ad suscipiendam dictam virtutem dispositamrsquo (Lyon edition 143)

73 Khunrath Consilium 38

the thought of his main source Ficinomdashwhich comes to the fore In his dis-course on incantations Agrippa describes the manner in which the magiciandraws down the virtues of the stars and their intelligences by reciting versesexpressing the starrsquos specific qualities He writes

Therefore in composing verses and orations for attracting the virtue of any par-ticular star or its deity you must diligently consider what virtues effects andoperations the star contains in itself and instil them in the verses by praisingextolling amplifying and supplying those things which a star of this kind nor-mally conveys and infuses70

The work of an incantation is achieved through lsquothe greatest impetuous forceof the imaginationrsquo and through the magicianrsquos use of lsquoa most pure har-monious warm breathing living spiritrsquo which bears lsquomotion influence andsignificancersquo71 Agrippa goes on to say that magicians are wont to impart thesaid celestial virtues into those objects which they wish to enchant by breath-ing (afflare inspirare inhalare) the words of the verses into or onto them72Thus Khunrath instructs the worker to repeatedly breathe (inspirareanhauchen) his incantation into or onto the armour during its productionThat the use of the magical imagination involves the production of an alteredstate of consciousness is well illustrated by Khunrathrsquos direction to utter theverses repetitively lsquowith an angry cruel warlike voicersquo and a lsquosavage fiercefurious expressionrsquo73 Just how the armour is infused with the qualities ofwarlike Mars is evident in the words of the incantation

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 135

136 HEREWARD TILTON

74 The ablative gerund inspirando from inspiro has the meaning not only of breathing ontosomething but also of infusing it with force

75 Like inspirando irradiando again has the connotation of infusing or imbuing76 In other words the smith imbues the armour with the power of the basilisk In the six-

teenth century the term basilisk also referred to a powerful type of cannon77 The reference here seems to be to Charon the ferryman at the river crossing to Hades

who has grown rich with the many oboli (coins) he has received from the dead thanks to theelectrum armour On the other hand Chaerus might be another error of the scribemdashfor it wasCroesus who was proverbially rich and who also offered up a golden shield to Athena (PausaniasDescription of Greece X87) Khunrath alludes to the famed king and his wealth in anothermanuscript (lsquoSignatura Magnesiae Henr Kunrrsquo Kassel Murhardsche Bibliothek und Landes-bibliothek MS 8deg chem 25 f 136 verso) Whilst an identification with Croesus within thisincantation is a little odd perhaps Khunrath felt an affinity for a man with treasuries heapedwith gold On this matter see the amusing story in Herodotus The Histories VI125 1-5

78 A type of cannon79 A breed of hunting dog originally from the Greek province of Molossus80 Artus here appears to have the general meaning of ldquoweaponsrdquo but perhaps also of ldquolimbsrdquo

in the magical sense of hindering the opponentrsquos movement The original text (KhunrathConsilium 38-40) runs as follows lsquoElectrum saeligpius inspirando oculisque BasilisceisMartialiter irradiando Chaeligrus ego divis generoso fabrico Marti Arma quibus possit vis nullanocere nec ignis (Bombardaelig) Nec ferrum nec aquaelig sed sint terror timorque Si quando haeligcvideant homines mihi damnum paraeligntes Uti haeligc horribili mihi fiant arma vigore Volgentsinspirire oder anhauche das wergk zimblich starck dreimahl dicendo Ut Lupus imbelles

By breathing74 often into the Electrumand by a martial irradiation75 [of the Electrum] with basilisk eyes76I rich Chaerus77 fashion the armour for noble Mars which no force can harmneither fire ([as] of the bombard)78nor blade nor waters but let there be dread and fearif ever men who wish to do me injury behold this armour so it will lend me aterrible power

Breathe the following [words] quite powerfully into or onto the work three times

As the fierce wolf frightens the placid lambAs the timid deer is terrified by the savage Molossian hound79So too let this armour strike fear in men

Breathe onto the work again three times as before

Whichever bold mortal seeks to confront this armourHe will not be able to stand against me when my mind is resoluteWhosoever threatens us you will give them useless missiles

Now breathe into the work once again during the forming [of the armour] asbefore

Even as this Electrum is softened by the fierce fireEven as this Electrum is beaten with repeated blowsSo when this armour is seen the heart is melted by it[And] so this completed work shall frustrate all arms80

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 136


violentus territat agnos Ut timidus saeligvos exhorret dama molossos Sic haeligc incutiant mortal-ibus arma timorem Anhauche das werck wiederumb dreimahl Wie Vor dicendo Non mihipraeligsenti poterit consistere mente Quicunque his armis audax vult obvius ire Irrita tela dabisquicunque minabere nobis Jtzt inspirire das wergk noch einmahl unter dem schneiden wiezuvor dicendo Hoc veluti rapido Electrum mollescit ab igne Hoc veluti crebro Electrumcontundit ictu Sic his conspectis liquantur pectora ab armis Sic opus hoc Cunctos foelix frus-trabitur artusrsquo

81 Agricola Zwoumllf Buumlcher 536 Ficino De vita III16 mentions this power of the basilisk inrelation to fascinatio Plotinus Enneads IV440 also speaks of serpents fascinating humans asan analogy for magical influence

82 See for example the Milanese armour made for Emperor Charles V held at the Kunst-historisches Museum in Vienna

83 Khunrath Consilium 20-21 Homer Iliad XIX1584 Khunrath Consilium 30-31 lsquoEntis huius spiritus seu anima magnefice [sic] egreditur et

ingreditur homines hostiliter adversantes et fascinat ipsos naturaliter impeditque illorum oper-ationes mirabiliterrsquo

85 Cf Aristotle De insomniis II45986 Ficino De amore VII4 Marcel (ed) Commentaire 246ff Agrippa De occulta philosophia

I50 lsquoFascinatio est ligatio quae ex spiritu fascinantis per oculos fascinati ad cor ipsius ingressapervenit Fascinationis autem instrumentum spiritus est scilicet vapor quidam purus lucidus

The fact that this armour is imbued with lsquobasilisk eyesrsquo gives us a clue as tothe manner of its operation for the mythical basilisk a serpent born lsquocon-trary to naturersquo from the egg of a cockerel has the power to immobilise orkill its prey with its very gaze81 Thus through the sighting of the armouralone the enemy is divested of his powermdasha notion reminiscent of the gor-gonrsquos head which commonly adorned the shields and breastplates of Greekand Roman warriors and which was still to be seen upon ceremonial armourin Khunrathrsquos time82 Khunrath describes this magical property with the wordfascinatio or bewitchment and cites as evidence Homerrsquos description ofAchillesrsquo warriors the Myrmidons who lsquoshook with fearrsquo at the sight of theirleaderrsquos armour and lsquocould not endure to look at itrsquo83 That such sightingconstitutes a form of contact with the magical object is evident fromKhunrathrsquos mention of a certain lsquospiritrsquo or lsquosoulrsquo which lsquoproceeds forth insplendourrsquo from the armour and lsquoaggressively enters the adversaries hin-dering their operationrsquo84

The exact nature of this ldquospiritrdquo is clarified by Agrippa in his account ofthe art of bewitchment ( fascinatio) He follows Ficinorsquos De amore (and ulti-mately Aristotle) when he describes a pure clear subtle lsquospiritual vapourrsquogenerated by the warmth of the heart from the blood which proceeds in raysfrom the eyes of the bewitcher through the eyes of their victim and thenceto their heart85 This vapour is stirred up by a lsquostrong imaginationrsquo and pos-sesses the power of contagion whereby a victim may be infected with thelsquocorrupted bloodrsquo of the bewitcher86 That such a power of enchantment may

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 137

138 HEREWARD TILTON

Fig 3 A basilisk from Ulysses Aldovrandirsquos Serpentum et draconum historiae libriduo Bologna 1640 p 363 With permission of the Universitaumltsbibliothek Muumlnchen

subtilis a cordis calore ex puriori sanguine generatus hic similes sibi radios per oculos semperemittit radii isti emissi vaporem spiritualem secum ferunt vapor ille sanguinem sicut apparetin lippis ac rubentibus oculis cuius radius usque ad obvios spectantis oculos emissus vaporemuna secum corrupti sanguinis trahit cuius contagione cogit spectantis oculos morbo simili lab-orare Sic patefactus et in aliquem intentus oculus cum forti imaginatione pro suorum radio-rum aculeis qui spiritus vehicula sunt ipsos in adversos oculos iaculatur qui quidem lentusspiritus fascinati diverberans oculos cum a percutientis corde incitatur percussi praecordia tan-quam regionem propriam sortitus cor vulnerat et spiritum inficit peregrinus hic spiritusrsquo (Lyonedition 90-91)

87 Ibid I5088 Khunrath Consilium 41-42 lsquoDie Riemen domit man die Rustung oder Harnisch

zusamennheftet sollenn sein de pelle Hiaelignaelig die dan per Mercatores ex illis Regionibusuberkommen werdenn konnenn Im mangell aber dieser sufficit tibi corium Lupi q animal estMartiale Dann es habenn Jaumlgers unnd wandersleute offtmals erfahrenn das etzliche Wolffe mitden radiis spirituum Visivorum [sic] (gleich dem thiere Hiaeligna) dieselbigenn dermassenn fascinirthabenn das sie auch gahr heischen wordenn unnd nicht laut schreijenn noch umb hulffe habennrueffenn konnenn sonderlich wann die Wolfe dem Menschenn ehr seint ansichtigk wordennals die Menschen die Wolfe Maro Ecloga 9 erwehnet hievon auch etwas Vox quoque MoerimIam fugit Lupi Maeligrim videre priores Daszlig aber solche crafft operation oder Werck ungenn

be instilled in objects is made clear by Agrippa who goes on to speak of theuse by witches of an eye ointment which strikes fear in the victim and whichis made from the eyes of the wolf 87 Khunrath also mentions the power ofthe wolfrsquos gaze to bewitch by means of lsquospiritual rays of visionrsquo leaving itsprey unable to cry out for help This power has been observed by many ahunter and wanderer Khunrath declares and is akin to the action of his elec-trum armour Accordingly the straps of the armour should be made of wolfrsquosskin or the skin of the hyena which possesses a similar magical propertyAnyone who doubts that the parts of a dead animal might still be active inthis regard is directed to Agripparsquos testimony on the matter88

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 138


bleibenn konnenn in den partibus der thieren nach ihrem Todt unnd absterbenn findet manbeweiszlig genuegsamb Cap 18 Lib I occultaelig Philo H C Agrippaeligrsquo The citation is from VirgilrsquosEclogues 953-54

89 Khunrath Consilium 32 lsquoAlcaeliga Sieg- oder Pantzerwurtz benimbt Magice den waffennihre scharffe das sie das menschliche fleisch nicht durchschneidenn noch beschedigen konnenrsquoThe plant referred to is probably Gladiolus Palustris one might imagine that the Sword Lilyor Gladiolus would be useful in this regard due to its sword-shaped leaves Nevertheless itstubercule possesses a net-like involucre which seems to have been compared by the commonfolk to a coat of mail Handwoumlrterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens sv lsquoSiegwurzrsquo

90 Khunrath Consilium 31-32 lsquoMan betrachte nur Chamaeliglem nigrum oder Eberwurtz nachihrer exaltation und Balsamischer zeit gesamblet Dieselbige nimbt einem anderen Menschenunnd Vihe Magnetice seine gesundtheitstercke unnd guete Natur und gibts Nymphidischerweiszligedeme den ihr glantz begreifft wie den ihenigen so mit Roszlig lauffenn und Rennen sich ubernicht unwissent Entzeucht auch solcher gestaldt den fruchtbaren Leuten ihre krafft kinder zuzeugen unnd pflantzet darkegen einem anderen unfruchtbarenn frembden einrsquo

91 Khunrath Consilium 31 lsquoSo liegen auch die Scorpionen mit der wurtzell des warnn AconitiPardalianchis so gestaldt ist wie ein Scorpion beruhert krafftlos und fur todt darniederrsquo Theplantrsquos name is from the Greek pardaliagxdegw a poisonous plant so called for its power toasphyxiate the panther This is the species Doronicum Pardalianches known commonly asLeopardrsquos Bane as the relation of the plantrsquos leaves to its flowers could imaginatively be con-strued as taking the form of a scorpion It is only mildly poisonous though the fact that it isknown to the Indians as a useful aid in the event of scorpion stings confirms its identity as wellas pointing to the prevalence of the lore relating to it See the Glossary of Indian MedicinalPlants 101

92 Dioscorides De materia medica IV77

Long passages of the Consilium are devoted to enumerating various objectswhich operate in a similar manner to the electrum armour of Achilles Inthese passages we can discern the many ways in which magical virtue canbe transmittedmdashnot only by vision but also through sound through simili-tude or likeness of form and through consumption Amongst the herbs men-tioned in this regard are the Siegwurtz or Sword Lily which by virtue of itsform magically deprives weapons of their sharpness89 the Eberwurtz orCarline Thistle which lsquomagneticallyrsquo divests animals and humans alike oftheir vital power90 and the Pardalianches or Leopardrsquos Bane which beingformed in the shape of a scorpion drains that very creature of its power91The latter belief is ultimately drawn from the first-century Greek botanistDioscorides who describes the Leopard Banersquos antipathy with the scorpionin his De materia medica a work which remained one of the most importantsources of herbal lore throughout the medieval and early modern periods92

A good idea of the sources of both Khunrathrsquos botanical knowledge andhis doctrine of signatures can be garnered from his doctoral theses De sig-natura rerum naturalium theses (1588) in which he mentions standardancient authorities such as Galen Pliny and Dioscorides as well as popular

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 139

140 HEREWARD TILTON

93 The Dutch physician Levinus Lemnius (1505-1568) was the author of a popular cornu-copia of extraordinary natural phenomena De miraculis occultis naturae libri IIII the Germanphysician and botanist Leonhart Fuchs (1501-1566) attempted to accurately identify the plantsmentioned by Dioscorides and Galen in his well-illustrated De historia stirpium commentarii(1542) and the Italian Pierandrea Mattioli (1500-1577) wrote a commentary on DioscoridesCommentarii in sex libros Pedacii Dioscorides Anazarbei De medica materia (1544) whichwas a standard botanical text of its time

94 Khunrath De signatura rerum 795 Galen De simplicibus VIII lsquoScorpioides excalfacit ordine tertio desiccat secundorsquo (Paris

1543 edition 164)96 Khunrath Amphitheatrum 1797 Khunrath De signatura rerum 7 lsquoScorpioides herbula est foliis paucis semine caudae

scorpionis effigie illita scorpionum ictibus teste Gal lib 8 simpl med praesentaneo est aux-iliorsquo della Porta Phytognomonica 314 lsquoScorpioides herbula est caudae scorpionis effigie pro-fert siquidem quaedam siliquosa cornicula scorpionis caudae instar inflexa et sic apud omnesscorpioides nomen obtinuit illita scorpionum ictibus praesentaneo est auxilio ex DioscoridaersquoSee Dioscorides De materia medica IV192

sixteenth-century authors on natural history such as Lemnius Mattioli andFuchs93 Moreover from Khunrathrsquos mention in his 18th thesis of a certainherb named Scorpioides with a seedpod resembling a scorpionrsquos tailmdashrec-ommended as a remedy against a scorpionrsquos stingmdashwe can deduce anotherunnamed contemporary influence on the author94 Although Khunrath citesGalen as his source for this passage in his De simplicium medicamentorumfacultatibus Galen only mentions the drying and warming humoral effectsof Scorpioides95 The true source of Khunrathrsquos words on the plant is givenbelated recognition in the Amphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae There Khun-rath declares that he publicly defended the doctrine of signatures for the doc-toral degree he received on the 24th of August 1588 in Basel and boasts thathe was the first to do so after Paracelsus as Giambattista della PortarsquosPhytognomonica (1588) was not known in Germany at that time96 The firstGerman edition of della Portarsquos work on the sympathetic and antipatheticvirtues of plants was published in Frankfurt in 1591 judging by the mani-fest similarity of his words on Scorpioides with those of della Porta97 itseems likely that Khunrath read the Latin version of the Phytognomonica inthe year he defended his doctorate and that it was an important influence onhis thought at this early stage of his development

As in the case of the Carline Thistle magnetism is mentioned by Khunrathas an explanatory principle for sympathetic and antipathetic action in rela-tion to a ring made of electrum magicum The said ring has the ability toalleviate epileptic fits and reveals hidden sicknesses by lsquosweatingrsquo andbecoming disfigured when wornmdashthis according to Khunrath occurs through

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 140


Fig 4 Three types of Scorpioides from della Portarsquos Phytognomonica Rouen 1650p 315 On the right Heliotropium Europaeum or the European Turnsole is portrayedon the left is Coronilla Scorpioides or the Annual Scorpion Vetch With permission

of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Muumlnchen

the operation of a lsquomagnetic virtuersquo or lsquoincomprehensible soulrsquo which is alsoto be found in hippo tusks fossilised sea urchins and elderberries grown inputrefied sparrow carcasses98 The quality of magnets was often held up as

98 Khunrath Consilium 14-15 lsquoDaher so man einen solchen ringk einen Epileptischen anden groszligen finger gesteckt in dem allerheftigsten Paroxismo ist der Paroxismus als baldt ausgewesen und der fallende aufgetaucht So haben wir auch gesehen und selbst erfahren dassein solcher ringe so ehr am Hertzfinger getragenn wirtt und sich im menschen eine verborgenekrannckheit eroffenen will hat der ringk auch angefangen zu schwitzenn Unnd wirt von seinemgrossen mitleiden maculirt unnd ungestaltet So ist auch weiter zuwissen das unser Electrumallen boumlsen Geistern wiederwertigk ist Den in unserm Electro ligt verborgen himlische wirck-ung und die Influentzen aller Planetenn Solches geschieht auch am Kroumltennstein qui gestatetiam Principibus Der im Maio ausgegrabene Acorus aquaticus oder rothe schwertelwurtzund dens Equimarini so von Liszligbona aus Portugal in Germanien gebracht wirdt ist in dysen-teria et spasmo in Epilepsia vielmahl sehr krefftigk befunden Die in ihrer Balsamischen zeitcolligirte paeonien wuumlrtzell Item die Hollunder so ex passeris Epileptici cadavere putrefactoauf der weiden gewachssen und solches alles Virtute magnetis vegetabilis aut Anima incom-prehensibili sind eben derselbigenn Krafftrsquo Cf pseudo-Paracelsus Archidoxis magica 487

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 141

142 HEREWARD TILTON

99 Ficino De amore VII4 Marcel (ed) Commentaire 249 see also Agripparsquos explanatoryuse of magnetism in De occulta philosophia 116 (Lyon edition 32) The extraordinary exper-imental scientist William Gilbert stated that Agrippa only repeated lsquothe figments of ravings ofothersrsquo with regard to the lodestone (magnetite) Ficino was likewise lsquoled astray by certain erro-neous physical systems and having made no magnetical experiments old-womanishly dreamtthe things that were notrsquo One of these ldquodreamsrdquo of Ficino was his ascription of the lodestonersquosmagnetic power to the constellation Ursa the potency of which is transferred by the lodestoneto iron likewise Lucas Gauricus held that the attraction of the compass could be explained bythe existence of a lodestone beneath the tail of Ursa Major Agripparsquos opinion that the lodestonedoes not attract iron when in the presence of a diamond which originally stems from PlinyNatural History XXXVII15 is also debunked by Gilbert See Gilbert De magnete 2-6 13

100 Khunrath Consilium 32-33 lsquoSollenn doch alle Meusen und Ratten so das gethoumlne oderschall des Pfeifleins vom beinlein aus des Ratten Konigs rucken gemacht und auch des drum-bleins Oder Peuckleins mit des Ratten Koumlnings fehl uberspannet houmlren dermassen gehorsamendas sie demselbigen klang oder schall nachlauffenn unnd darbei sich versammelen mussennrsquo

101 The legend is mentioned by Montaigne Essais 13-14 Zizca was the first commander toemploy firearms decisively on the battlefield on this matter see Williams The Knight and theBlast Furnace 857-859

102 Khunrath Consilium 20 lsquoDiszlig ist geschehenn aus geheimber Natural auch MagischenKrafft unnd fascination gleich wie auch das Hussittenn Hauptmans undt Krieges Obersten desSISCHREN haudt in Behmen uber die Trummell gespannet denn feinden eine furcht einjagteunnd also sie fluchtigk unnd Siegloszlig machte Das auch ebendergleichen effectus gefolget seiauch daszlig gethoumlne oder schall Rolandi horn olivant genandt liset man in glaubwirdigenHistorienrsquo

an edifying example of occult virtue by the Renaissance magi Fascinatiofor example is likened by Ficino to the operation of a magnet whereby aquality is lent from one object to another and attraction or repulsion followssympathetically99 Amongst the more amusing examples given by Khunrathin this regard is his description of rat-catching by playing a pipe made ofthe vertebrae of the lsquorat kingrsquo or by beating on a little drum spanned withhis skin a man is able to draw mice and rats helplessly towards him (hencethe folktale of the pied piper of Hamlin or Hameln)100 An antipathetic actionof the same order is given by Khunrath in his words concerning Count Zizcaleader of the fifteenth-century Hussite rebellion in Bohemia who allegedlyordered that a drum be made of his skin upon his death101 When marchinginto battle against the imperial armies arrayed against them the rebels beaton this drum and sent their foes fleeingmdashand Khunrathrsquos glowing depictionof this legendary feat leaves us in no doubt as to his strongly Protestant lean-ings That sound can transmit the subtle magical virtue in question is alsomade evident by Khunrathrsquos mention of olifant the famed horn of the heroRoland from the medieval Chanson de Roland102

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 142


103 See below n 106104 Khunrath Amphitheatrum 22 lsquoHOC CELUM Empyreum lucidissimum imoacute LUX

quam (tanquam rem Divinitati consentaneam) DEUS inhabitat inaccessibilis 1 Timoth 616QUEM idcirco in ignea esse Essentia Divinus Plato ab Indorum Brachmanibus didicit Quin-tamque Essentiam Divinitatis statuit mansionemrsquo

105 Khunrath Amphitheatrum 21 lsquoSecundograve SUPERIUS non mixtum Elementis eorundemquesuperfluitatibus sed per et in se (animatum tamen NATURA) congelavit solidavit corpus durumac solidum constituit atque effecit hoc est firmavit Unde Latini FIRMAMENTUM Germanieine Veste rectegrave dixerunt nam quovis aeligre et adamante est durior et durabilior Celi solidissimiquasi aeligre fusi sunt Iob 3718 quare nec Lucis aut Ignis sui calore nec motus pernicitateimminutionem patitur nedum antegrave diem novissimum DOMINI consumatur Et fecit DEUSFirmamentum (ut sit tanquam firmissima fornix quam DEUS subjecit aquis et per quamretineret eas in sublimi) divisitque aquas quaelig erant sub Firmamento ab his quaelig erant superFirmamentumrsquo

Natural magic Ficino and Khunrathrsquos cosmology

The Consilium is unique amongst Heinrich Khunrathrsquos various printed worksand manuscripts for the insight it grants us into his magical practice Thebulk of his corpus is concerned with various problems of alchemy althoughthe famous Amphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae (1595 reprinted in anexpanded edition in 1609) counts amongst the most powerful of early theo-sophical works An extended commentary on the Book of Proverbs and theapocryphal Wisdom of Solomon the Amphitheatrum presents us with a syn-thesis of the Neoplatonic and ancient Hebrew cosmologies which is stronglycoloured by alchemical conceptions and integrates a number of Kabbalisticnotions In order to complete this sketch of Khunrathrsquos magical practice abrief consideration of its relation to the cosmic hierarchy portrayed in theAmphitheatrum is in order here

A central element of Khunrathrsquos cosmology is his concept of an all-per-vading lsquoheavenrsquo (Hebrew syImIcircccedilO shacircmayim) which is threefold in its struc-ture and which can be manifested to the human senses through the work ofa talented alchemist103 Elohim resides with his angels in the uppermost thirdor empyrean heaven104 an eternal lsquofiery waterrsquo composed from the upperwaters variously described as an lsquoimpenetrable lightrsquo the quintessence anlsquoaethereal fertilityrsquo and a divine water known to the alchemists Beneath theempyrean heaven lies the firmament (syImIcircccedilO [yqr racircqicircya shacircmayim) or sec-ond heaven composed of the same lsquofiery waterrsquo which has been congealedinto a lsquosolid archrsquo more durable than diamond in order that it supports theupper waters and is not annihilated by the heat of its own light and fire (ie that of the sun moon and stars God has placed there)105 Beneath the

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 143

144 HEREWARD TILTON

106 Khunrath Amphitheatrum (Hamburg 1595 edition) Emblem 3 Question 5 in the extended1609 edition the text surrounding the third emblem has been removed and placed as an appen-dix to the main body of the work Khunrath Amphitheatrum (Hanau 1609 edition) Section 2196 lsquoQuid est Caeliglum CAEligLUM est SPIRITUS AEligTHEREUS corporalis vel corpus aeligthereumspirituale corruptioni non obnoxium totius Mundi machinam permeans superius VERBODOMINI firmatum hinc FIRMAMENTUM inferius massaelig sublunari toti incorporatum Uniuseiusdemque et essentiaelig et substantiaelig Caeliglum unum id quod inferius et id quod superius Illudtamen labore Physicochemiaelig sagaci in usum hominum ad sensum potest manifestari atquetractarirsquo

107 Khunrath Amphitheatrum (Hamburg 1595 edition) 22 lsquoHOC CELUM SECUNDUMsublime Regio puregrave aeligtherea HOC Solem Lunam et Stellas habet revera etiam PRIMUM etInferius (suo modo) astra sua id quod sciunt atque testantur Sapientes Motu harmoniaco sivegravesympathico (erga se invicem) movetur utrumque id quod inferius sicut id quod est superiuset contrarsquo Khunrath Amphitheatrum (Hamburg 1595 edition) Emblem 3 Question 4 KhunrathAmphitheatrum (Hanau 1609 edition) Section 2 195 lsquoUNUS (essentia et numero) hic DEISpiritus est una Universitatis perspicuaelig et corporeaelig huius unius Anima catholica polupocurrenkilowtamen he multiformis (Sap 722 Ephes 310) et variaelig eius radii atque SCINTILLAElig pertotius ingentem materiei primaelig massaelig molem hinc inde dispersaelig ac dissipataelig rsquo

108 Khunrath Amphitheatrum (Hamburg 1595 edition) Emblem 3 Question 4 KhunrathAmphitheatrum (Hanau 1609 edition) Section 2 195 lsquoRUACH ELOHIM est SPIRITUS spira-culum anhelitus hwhyldquo sancti sanctus Vapor virtutis DEI omnipotentis atque omni tenentis etEMANATIO quaeligdam emmisiovegrave fœcunditatis vitalis primi summique motoris vivifica atquevirtuosa egrave profundissimo Divinitatis suaelig recessu IDEARUM videlicet sivegrave ExemplariumSpecierum Rationum seminariarum primordialium et radicalium voluntatum opificum etcausarum effectricum in ARCHETYPI opificis summi mente (hmk]t Hhochmah in SAPIEN-TIA Bonitate eius causante eas) conceptarum atque praeligexistentium rerum omnium in Mundopostea futuro producendarum et fiendarumrsquo

109 Khunrath Amphitheatrum (Hamburg 1595 edition) Emblem 3 Question 6 KhunrathAmphitheatrum (Hanau 1609 edition) Section 2 197 lsquoRUACH ELOHIM (descendendo demit-

firmament lies a lsquogreat empty spacersquo filled with lsquowatery humoursrsquo and thevapours which daily rise from the lower regionsmdashthe site of a condensationand rarefaction akin to that which takes place in the alchemical vessel Thefirst or inferior heaven is also composed of the same lsquofiery waterrsquo as thoseabove it but it interpenetrates and is mixed with the material sublunary worldwhich God has created from the prima materia (Chaos Abyss)106 Here toothere are stars Khunrath tells us which sympathetically follow the motionof the upper starsmdasha reference to the scintilla which were scattered through-out lsquothe great mass of the prima materiarsquo by the breath of God (syhlialsquo jIcirc Wrrucircwach elocirchicircm)107 All earthly things have been lent their forms or signaturaby God through rucircwach elocirchicircm a lsquospiritrsquo or lsquovapourrsquo which is lsquoan emana-tion of primeval archetypes or patternsrsquo conceived in the mind of God108This rucircwach elocirchicircm is also described as lsquoNature itselfrsquo and the anima mundias pure form it can only be united with its opposite (matter) through themedium of heaven shacircmayim which union is described in sexual terms asthe pouring forth of semen and warmth by God into virginal matter109

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 144


Figure 5 The relation of things earthly to heavenly from Khunrathrsquos Amphitheatrumsapientiae aeternae (copied from the 1609 edition) ULB Darmstadt Ms 3263 (with


tendoque se per circumferentias partesque abditissimas omnes et dispergendo in imum vel med-itullium Scintillas radiosve fœcunditatis suaelig) ad CENTRUM usque penetrabat in ENS illudCREATUM totum massamque illam sive molem ingentem rudem (XAOS) confusam atqueinformem Mundi futuri seminarium lhn sive materiam lutosam VIRGINEAM (nondum enimneque conceperat neque produxerat antea) FORMA (semetipso) sic informavit et ANIMA ani-mabat impraeliggnabatque purissima rsquo cf the following footnote

110 Khunrath Amphitheatrum (Hamburg 1595 edition) 22 lsquoSCHAMAIM hoc est CELUMDoctrina hac nostra genuinegrave expositum saluberrimecirc te docebit unde et quid sit LUX (HebraicegraveAOR) ob cuius LUCIS absentiam vel carentiam ignotum et obscurum nobis futurum eratUniversum DEI opus hoc immensum Quomodo quotidie naturaliter fiat et arte manifestetur UR sive IGNIS Qui cum absque calore esse nequeat Effectum suum semper exhibet atque de-monstrat CALOREM hic certegrave in Omnibus (extat enim in Omnibus Schamaim animatumNATURA) totius Formaelig ac Speciei est custos Naturaliumque in Rebus actionum et Rerum

Khunrath compares the influence of the celestial bodies on objects in theinferior world with the cosmogonic operation of rucircwach elocirchicircm and itsmedium shacircmayim We are told that this comparison is not to be understoodin the vulgar sense ie that the relation should be understood as one of cor-respondence rather than identity The animating light and heat of the celes-tial bodies is therefore lsquoheaven animated by Naturersquo or archetypal form andits medium which is the drive of all earthly things lending them movementand impelling their various effects in the macro- and microcosm110 The cor-respondence can be illustrated in the following way

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 145

146 HEREWARD TILTON

gignendarum ac producendarum stimulus) [sic] OgraverganikOgraveque (tam externegrave quagravem internegrave) Naturaleet Artificiale Principium et impulsivum seu kinhtikOgraven aut degndegghtikOgraven agrave DEO consitutum acANIMAE quaelig sic (mediante Schamaim) dotes suas (ut insint) multiformiter largitur Rebusinstar obstetricis cuiusdam fidelissimaelig Micro et MacroCosmicegrave attributum Cur vel quo respectuCALOR sit atque dicatur Divinus Celestis Elementaris Naturalis insitus sive innatus pro-portione quadam Soli siderumque calori respondens Unde actiones horum (IPSIUS) tam diversaeligQuo sensu (minimegrave vulgari attribuendo unicuique suum) interpraeligtandaelig phrases Philosophorumhaelig CELUM est animatum Influentiacirc Lumine et Motu agit in Inferiora Celum est potissimacaussa cur Elementa quamvis suapte Natura contraria permisceantur atque invicem conjun-gantur Ad primam Materiam eandem quam vir ad sibi delectam conjugem obtinet rationemRes adamat inferiores In Terram non secus ac Mas in faeligminam semen transfundit suum rsquo

111 Ficino De vita III3112 Ficino De vita III18 Kaske and Clarke (eds) Three Books on Life 343 lsquoProbabile

enim est si quam vim imagines habent hanc non tam per figuram nuper acquirere quam permateriam possidere naturaliter sic affectam Ac si quid denuo acquiritur dum insculpitur nontam per figuram comparari quam per calefactionem contusione quadam provenientem Quaequidem contusio calefactioque facta sub harmonia coelesti simili harmoniae quae quondammateriae virtutem infuderat excitat virtutem ipsam atque corroborat sicut flatus flammam etmanifestam efficit ante latentem rsquo

113 Khunrath Amphitheatrum (Hamburg 1595 edition) 16 lsquoHYPERPHYSICOMAGEIA(respectu Naturalis et Doctrinaelig causa sic dicta) est cum Angelis bonis flammeis DEI min-istris sub modo delegataelig agrave JEHOVAH administrationis tam vigilando quam dormiendo medi-ategrave et immediategrave pia et utilis conversatiorsquo

God rarr Archetypes rarr rucircwach elocirchicircm rarr shacircmayim rarr Chaos

Celestial bodies rarr Light rarr Earthly objects

Hence Khunrathrsquos basic cosmological conceptions are more or less identicalwith those of Ficino notwithstanding his employment of the nomenclatureof the Genesis creation account Shacircmayim is the Ficinian spiritus mundiwhich is described in De vita as precisely lsquoheavenrsquo and the quintessence andwhich acts as the all-pervasive medium allowing the generative power of theanima mundi (Khunrathrsquos rucircwach elocirchicircm) to act upon the lower grosserworld111 In contrast to Agrippa Khunrath does not emphasise the role ofplanetary intelligences Thus in the Consilium the use of Agripparsquos planetarycharacters is only recommended for lsquothose who are so inclinedrsquo no doubtKhunrath felt the same reticence about condoning intercourse with spirits asFicino who (as a priest) was in fact exceedingly cautious concerning the useof talismanic images preferring to ascribe their power to the lsquohammeringand heatingrsquo of their production which under a sympathetic constellationmerely fortifies the virtues already inhering in the material employed112 Withregard to Khunrathrsquos dealings with spirits a Hyperphysicomageia or lsquopiousand useful contactrsquo with the good angels or lsquofiery servants of Godrsquo is men-tioned in the taxonomy of sciences given in the Amphitheatrum113 According

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 146


114 Khunrath De igne magorum 67-70 In his letter to Moritz of Hessen-Kassel (HessischesStaatsarchiv Marburg 4a Nr 50) Conrad Khunrath describes the Consilium as a work of lsquoastron-omyrsquo (see n 8 above)

115 Khunrath Amphitheatrum (Hamburg 1595 edition) 14-15 22 cf Ficino De vita III23116 Cicero De natura deorum II66117 Schwaumlrmerei is the derogatory German term for ldquoenthusiasmrdquo such as that found amongst

certain inspirationist Anabaptist groups in the Reformation period118 Exodus 311-6 lsquoThe LORD said to Moses ldquoSee I have called by name Bezrsquoalel the son

of Uri son of Hur of the tribe of Judah and I have filled him with the Spirit of God with abil-ity and intelligence with knowledge and all craftsmanship to devise artistic designs to workin gold silver and bronze in cutting stones for setting and in carving wood for work in everycraft And behold I have appointed with him Ohorsquoliab the son of Ahisrsquoamach of the tribe ofDan and I have given to all able men ability that they may make all that I have commandedyoursquordquo

119 Khunrath Vom Hylealischen CHAOS ff)()(5 versomdash)()(6 recto lsquoHoumlre du Laumlstermaulsprichstu spoumlttlich ich sey ein Enthusiast dieweil ich in gegenwaumlrtigen meinem Buch vonVisionibus oder Gesichten und sonderlichen (jedoch Gut-Geistlichen) Offenbahrungen sage sospreche Ich nur Wahrheit du seyest ein Naumlrrischer Phantast der noch nicht wisse oder ausUnbesonnenheit je nicht bedencke was das Woumlrtlein Enthusiast eygentlich heisse willgeschweigen was Enthusiast recht sey Ist Enthusiasmus he Afflatio Numinis das GoumlttlicheAnhauchen (sine quo afflatu teste eiiam Cicerone nemo unquam vir magnus ohne welchesniehmahls eine fuumlrtreffliche hochbegabte geschickte Person sey worden) Schwermerey somuumlssen auch Bezaleel Achaliab und allerley Weisen denen GOtt [sic] die Weiszligheit ins Herzgegeben auch Schwermer gewesen seynrsquo

to this taxonomy however the procedure described in the Consilium is onlya work of natural magicmdashlike the much-debated lsquoweapon-salversquo it involvesan lsquoinvisible and spiritual natural-magical or magnetic contactrsquo betweenobjects rather than a visible physical contact114 When it comes to communionwith spiritual entities Khunrath merely follows Ficino in speaking of hisown inspiring genius spiritus familiaris or guardian angel which impartsthe wisdom of God and grants knowledge of Nature115 Thus in his VomChaos Khunrath inveighs against certain knaves who are wont to brand himan lsquoenthusiastrsquo

Listen you blasphemer you say mockingly that I am an enthusiast because Ispeak here of visions and apparitions and certain revelations which neverthe-less issue from a benevolent spirit the truth to be told you are a knavish fan-tast who still doesnrsquot know what the little word ldquoenthusiastrdquo actually means orout of sheer foolishness has never thought it over and doesnrsquot wish to mentionwhat it actually is If enthusiasm ie afflatio numinis or divine inspiration (with-out which as Cicero testifies no-one can ever be a great man)116 is the sameas Schwaumlrmerei117 then Bezalel and Oholiab118 and other wise men who receivedwisdom in their heart from God must also have been Schwaumlrmer119

It is noteworthy that the instilling of virtue via the breath of the magicianmirrors Godrsquos work of creation and inspiration through His divine breath

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 147

148 HEREWARD TILTON

120 Khunrath De igne magorum 36-37121 Roberts The Early Vasas 382122 Given that Khunrath also spent some time in Prague it is possible that Alstein obtained

his manuscript copy of the Consilium there whilst working for Emperor Rudolf II123 Staricius Heldenschatz ff A5 versomdashA6 verso lsquoEs ist ohnlaumlngsthin ein beruumlhmbter

erfahrner unnd vortrefflicher Medicus bey mir zu Losament ein Zeitlang gelegen der zu seinemAbraisen durch ubersehen under vielen hohen gehaimen Secretis (damit er sehr zehe fest stillgewesen unnd gewaltig an sich gehalten) jetztgedachten Tractat zwar Titulotenus angefangenaber sonsten noch gantz ohnauszliggefuumlhrt in rudi saltem et indigesta forma hinder sich beligen

The benevolence of Khunrathrsquos magic might seem a little doubtful to thepious reader contemplating the purpose of his ldquoelectrumrdquo armour Never-theless benevolent spirits also have their wrathful aspect as Khunrath makesclear in his De igne magorum where he compares the operation of his armour somewhat cryptically to the lsquowrathful fire of Godrsquo which has beenknown to lay waste to whole villages and towns120

Magical warfare in early modern Europe

Was Duke Karl aided by this awe-inspiring ldquofirerdquo in his ignoble war againstKing Sigismund As it happens the course of events probably did not requirethe employment of Khunrathrsquos magical armourmdashfor in a piece of trickerymore reminiscent of sly Odysseus than brave Achilles Karl and his band ofpoorly armed peasants sued for peace when faced with Sigismundrsquos well-trained knights at Staringngebro in 1598 then advanced under the cover of thickfog took a strategic bridgehead and forced the enemyrsquos capitulation121 Thiswas the beginning of the end for Sigismund who was compelled to abdicatethe following year Karl went on to claim the throne of Sweden for himselfin 1604

Though we may never know if Karl made use of the Consilium he hadordered Khunrathrsquos thoughts on the production of ldquoelectrumrdquo armour cameto be quite influential in the early modern literature on magical warfare inpart by happenstance In 1614 or thereabouts Dr Jacob Alstein CountPalatine and one time physician to Henry IV of France and Emperor RudolfII accidentally left his manuscript copy of the Consilium at the house of acolleague by the name of Johannes Staricius122 Having noticed that Alsteinhad kept these lsquohighly secretrsquo papers strictly to himself Staricius took theopportunity to read them throughmdashand having been duly impressed hedecided to publish them for the greater glory of his beloved German father-land123 The result was the Heldenschatz (1615) the first chapter of which

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 148


lassen Als hab ich bey mir erwogen (ohnerachtet vom Autore selbsten wie mir sein Gemuumlthunnd Natural bekandt solches dem gemeinen Truck nimmermehr zu Liecht geben worden were)quod omne bonum sit in se divisum ideoque communicativum sui Derowegen mich nit langbesonne sondern dahin getrachtet wie dem gemeinen Wesen unserm geliebten Vatterlandtteutscher Nation zum besten einer Edlen werthen und thewren Ritterschafft aber zu beson-derlichen Ehren Lieb und Wolgefallen ich es in seine ordenliche Form richten und zuoffentlichem Truck fertigen moumlchte gestalt in solchem trewgemeinten Vorsatz ich hiemit das-selbige bester massen im Werck praeligstirt gelaistet und underdienstlichen praeligsentirt haben willrsquoThis citation is from the second edition of the work which is dedicated to Stariciusrsquo ill-fatedProtestant patron Friedrich Ulrich Duke of Braunschweig-Wolfenbuumlttel (1591-1634)

124 The catalogues show editions from the years 1615 1616 1624 1647 1655 1658 16761682 1685 1694 1702 1720 1730 1734 1743 1750 1840 1855 and 1978 (the final threeeditions being reprints of the Cologne edition of 1750) Given the origins of KhunrathrsquosConsilium in a very distant Europe rife with magical beliefs and riven by religious strife it iscurious to find the text standing in almost its entirety on the internet in a French translationascribed to a certain ldquoEusegravebe Barridardquo (see amongst other pages httpwwwmorganeorgelec-trumhtm) Nevertheless Stariciusrsquo partially plagiarised work was translated into French in 1897by the pseudonymous Barrida who seems to have belonged to the circle of the occultist GeacuterardEncausse (ldquoPapusrdquo) ldquoBarridardquo gives the title of the work as LrsquoEacutelectre magique de la fabrica-tion et preacuteparation vulcanique et magique des armes drsquoAchille drsquoapregraves le Grimoire ou MagieNaturelle de Benoit XIVmdashthe latter fantasy perhaps having been suggested to the French trans-lator by the Grimoir des Pabsts Honorius a seventeenth century sorcererrsquos text accompanyingthe 1750 and 1855 editions of Stariciusrsquo Heldenschatz Contemporary French afficionados ofCrowleyite magic are responsible for the web editions of Barridarsquos translation

125 Staricius Heldenschatz 120-123 See the intriguing account of this episode given byMoumlller Staricius und sein Heldenschatz 49 ff

126 Burggrav Achilles PANOPDIS redivivus 3-7

consists largely of a verbatim copy of Khunrathrsquos work interspersed withStariciusrsquo equally eccentric commentary The Heldenschatz was quite a suc-cess for Staricius and underwent many reprints in the seventeenth and eight-eenth centuries124

Understandably Alstein was not happy with his learned colleaguersquos behav-iour and publicly denounced Staricius as a plagiarist In the foreword to thesecond book of the second edition of the Heldenschatz (1618) Stariciusrebuts the charge defiantly declaring that his detractor has no right to com-plain as the original manuscript was not Alsteinrsquos work but that of HeinrichKhunrath125 Whatever we may think of Stariciusrsquo behaviour he at least belat-edly acknowledged the source from which his work was copied The samecannot be said for Johannes Burggrav whose aforementioned AchillesPANOPLIS redivivus also consisted largely of a Latin translation of Khun-rathrsquos Consilium Burggrav recommended the work as a supplement to themilitary studies of his Calvinist patron Count Simon VII of Lippe (1587-1637) without any mention of its origin126

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 149

150 HEREWARD TILTON

127 Staricius Heldenschatz 83-84 the author goes on to tell of a soldier who rode out againstsixty knights with such a charm what is more when he returned victorious in the evening hecould not be beaten whilst gaming with dice and won a silver dagger for his efforts

128 Khunrath Consilium 33 lsquoWas unnd wieviel Menstruum Virginis primum in ein tuchleinaufgefangen in Martialischen Sachen Vermagk wissenn wir mit warheit auch wollrsquo The factthat Staricius supplies the details of this charm leads us to suspect that Alsteinrsquos manuscriptcopy of the Consilium was more extensive than the copy given to Karl IX which may wellhave been abbreviated by Conrad Khunrath

129 Staricius Heldenschatz 82-83130 French The Art of Distillation 93 There is no aqua magnanimitatis to be found in Conrad

Khunrathrsquos Medulla destillatoria et medica published in Leipzig circa 1594 which fact sug-gests French was referring to Heinrich Khunrath here French (The Art of Distillation 188-189)also describes the production of a medicine from the lsquoimmature mineral electrumrsquo

131 Staricius Heldenschatz 92

Despite its dubious origins the Heldenschatz of Staricius lends us an inter-esting insight into beliefs concerning magical warfare in early modern EuropeWhilst some of Stariciusrsquo instructions do not involve magicmdashfor examplehe deals with the manufacture of rockets and the use of various types ofshotmdashthe most striking of his descriptions concern the magical attainmentof power in battle through powerful fluids which as we have seen consti-tutes an important mytho-magical topos Holy water and horse sperm arementioned by Staricius as being useful in this regard although the foremostamongst these fluids is a virginrsquos first menstrual bloodmdashhence the Hel-denschatz recommends a small linen cloth be soaked in such blood and sewnby a virgin under the right arm of the warriorrsquos gambeson or vest prior tobattle127 Whilst he does not go into details Khunrath was also acquaintedwith the power of virginal menstruum as he tells us in his Consilium thathe knows well its use in martial matters128 Contact with bare skin is para-mount in the use of such charms of similar application and efficacy isJohannisblut (Johanniskraut or St Johnrsquos Wort) a renowned medicinal herbrelated in legend to St John the Baptist and so named for the red juice ofits flower129

The imbibing of certain fluids to gain magical power is also detailed atvarious places in the literature In his book on The Art of Distillation (1651)the Englishman John French makes mention of lsquoKhunrathrsquos famous watercalled aqua magnanimitatisrsquomdasha distilled ant liquor which lsquois of excellentuse to stir up the animal spiritrsquo130 Just why ants should be useful in thisregard is hinted at by Staricius who states that an lsquohonourable knight andwarriorrsquo should consider the fact that ants have been imbued with a certainlsquodivine signaturersquomdashthat is to say their proclivity to march about and massupon their enemies is akin to the behaviour of an army131 The antiquity of

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 150


132 Ovid Metamorphoses VII634133 Staricius Heldenschatz 92-93 On Khunrathrsquos mention of the Carline Thistle see above

n 90134 French The Art of Distillation 93135 Staricius Heldenschatz 91136 Ibid 129-130137 Ibid 132

this perception of kinship is well illustrated by Achillesrsquo warriors theMyrmidons (lsquopeople who move to and fro like antsrsquo from mEcircrmhj and dondegv)who were transformed from ants into humans by Zeus132 According toStaricius such aqua magnanimitatis may either be imbibed or mixed withCarline Thistle oil and smeared on the hands and rapier133

How widespread was the actual use of such magical articles and charmsin the late medieval and early modern period A firm answer to this ques-tion awaits further research however with regard to aqua magnanimitatisFrench relates that lsquoJohn Casimire Palsgrave of the Rhene and Seyfrie ofCollen General against the Turks did always drink of it when they went tofight to increase magnanimity and couragersquo134 This is a reference to theCalvinist Johann Kasimir (1543-1592) Pfalzgraf bei Rhein and great uncleof the Winter King and Siegfried von Kollonitsch a general of EmperorMaximilian I Staricius alleges that Maximilian I himself held this lsquoant spiritrsquoto be the lsquohighest arcanumrsquo and a great aid in his forging of the Habsburgempiremdashan allegation which gains plausibility from the fact that the emperorknighted Agrippa von Nettesheim for military services rendered in Italy135Staricius also claims his colleague Alstein once confided to him that EmperorRudolf II possessed a magical rapier which caused an opponentrsquos weapon toshatter on contact The blade had been forged on a Tuesday (the day of Mars)and its hilt was fashioned in the hour of Mars from the wood of a tree struckby lightning136 In order to attain the desired effect a snakeskin and a tannedeel-skin should also be bound to the right arm as the rapier is being usedand on the little finger of the right hand a ring should be worn bearing amartial inscription

Alstein also purportedly disclosed to Staricius that just such a rapier wasknown to Margrave Johann Georg von Brandenburg-Jaumlgerndorf (1577-1624)an ally of the Winter King137

These rapiers belong to another important class of object employed inmagical warfare the magical sword References in legend to magical swordsare legion and Khunrath in his Consilium makes mention of Balmung (NorseGram) the sword of Siegfried which according to the Norse Voumllsunga Saga

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 151

152 HEREWARD TILTON

Fig 6 The magic ring from Stariciusrsquo Heldenschatz (with permission of theBayerische Staatsbibliothek Muumlnchen)

138 Khunrath Consilium 38 although the scribe has given lsquoMenungirsquo this seems to be anothererror and Khunrath was probably referring to Balmungrsquos alternative name of Mimung TheVoumllsunga Saga relates that Odinn thrust Gram to its hilt into the tree Branstock from which itcould only be drawn by Sigmund (the father of SigurdSiegfried)mdasha sign of the swordrsquos mythicrelation to the Arthurian ldquosword in the stonerdquo Excalibur

139 Paracelsus Astronomia magna 97-99140 Khunrath Consilium 37-38 Paradin The Heroicall Devises 68

was fashioned by the smith-god Volundr (cognate with Anglo-Saxon Weylandand Latin Vulcan)138 Balmung is likened by Khunrath to the sword men-tioned by Paracelsus in the Astronomia magna which can cut an anvil intwomdashit is fashioned in accordance with the principles of philosophia adeptawhich harnesses the lsquopower of the firmamentrsquo present in earthly objects139Also mentioned by Khunrath is the emblematic work of Claude ParadinSymbola heroica (1562) which gives the following illustration of a lsquoknifeof Thomas Aquinasrsquo cutting through an anvil (a device which Khunrath seemsto have understood quite literally)140

The testimony of Khunrath Staricius and French is hardly conclusive vis-agrave-vis the use of magical objects on the early modern battlefield Notwith-

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 152


Fig 7 The ldquophilosophical kniferdquo of Thomas Aquinas from the Symbola heroicaof Claude Paradin (with permission of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Muumlnchen)

141 Williams The Knight and the Blast Furnace 362-363 Pfaffenbichler Armourers 9 38 68

standing the pervasiveness of occult thought amongst the embattled Protestantnobility or the penchant Emperor Rudolf had for all things magical Stariciusrsquosecond-hand reports in particular are surely open to question Neverthelessthe fact that an eminent nobleman such as Alstein should jealously guard thesecrecy of a manuscript like the Consilium (some seventeen years after itscomposition at that) is at least an indication of the currency of the ideas itexpressed

Furthermore there is a specific fact which explains why Khunrathrsquos con-ception of magical armour found a ready place in some quarters of the earlymodern imagination It is telling that the increasing deployment of firearmsin the sixteenth-century theatre of war coincided with the rise of highly dec-orative parade armours procured from specialist goldsmiths from 1560onwards there was a concomitant decline in the appearance of plate armouron the battlefield although its use persisted until the middle of the seven-teenth century141 The heightened vulnerability of soldier and commanderalike before the destructive power of guns (a fact specifically emphasised inthe words of Khunrathrsquos incantation) surely gave rise amongst the warrior

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 153

154 HEREWARD TILTON

142 On the subject of ldquoalchemie libertinerdquo in which certain alchemists subjected Biblicalmyths to the same reductive allegorizing as they did those of Greece and Egypt see MattonlsquoLe Pheacutenix dans lrsquoOeuvre de Michel Maierrsquo

143 See my article Of Ether and Colloidal Gold The Making of a Philosophersrsquo Stone forth-coming in the online journal Esoterica (wwwesotericmsuedu)

nobility to the vain hope of a superior defencemdasha hope reflected in DukeKarlrsquos apparent interest for Khunrathrsquos Consilium Above and beyond thisfact a world as uncertain and dangerous as early modern Europe in whichthe wealthier citizenry were inclined to carry and use weaponry would gen-erally provide fertile imaginary ground for the notion of magical power andinvulnerability purveyed by Khunrath and his ilk From this perspective hisproffering of invincibility may simply be catalogued next to those other moretraditional promises of the alchemistsmdashwisdom eternal life unlimitedwealthmdashwhich play upon the primordial desires of humanity

It seems incontestable that psychological factors inspired Khunrathrsquosattempt to manifest a mythic object in the physical world which resemblesin part his efforts to manifest certain alchemically conceived materiae fromthe Genesis creation myth in his laboratory (even if he would never subjectthe Bible to a euhemerist reading or to the allegorizing of alchemie liber-tine)142 As I have attempted to demonstrate elsewhere Khunrathrsquos renditionsof these ldquoprimevalrdquo substances are identifiable and well-known to todayrsquosscience143 Nevertheless just as Khunrathrsquos laboratory practice cannot bereduced to the categories of contemporary chemistry so it would also beamiss to reduce the entirety of Khunrathrsquos treatment of myth (or the essenceof related mythoalchemy) to a matter of psychology Indeed myth appearsto be intimately bound up with the very fabric of our being and discoursea fact which makes it both irreducible and highly prone to attempts at reduc-tion Whether it is seen through allegorizing or euhemerist eyes myth servesas a mirror of the beholderrsquos intention so Vulcan and even Yahweh can beformed in the alchemistrsquos image

Hereward Tilton (1968) teaches seminar courses on alchemy and Western esotericism at theLudwig-Maximilians-Universitaumlt in Munich and is working on a book on Heinrich Khunrathunder the auspices of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 154


Bibliography

Agricola Georg Zwoumllf Buumlcher vom Berg- und Huumlttenwesen ed and transl C Schiffner BerlinVDI Verlag 1928

Agrippa Heinrich Cornelius De occulta philosophia in Opera Vol 1 Lyon per BeringosFratres c1600

Burgess Jonathan lsquoAchillesrsquo Heel The Death of Achilles in Ancient Mythrsquo Classical Antiquity142 (1995) 217-242

Burggrav Johann Ernest Achilles PANOPLIS redivivus seu panoplia physico-Vulcania qua inpraelio fcurrenloasymplow in hostem educitur sacer et inviolabilis Amsterdam Laurentius 1613

Crowley Aleister Magick in Theory and Practice New York Castle Books 1976Der Neue Pauly Enzyklopaumldie der Antike Vol 3 ed H Cancik and H Schneider Stuttgart

Metzler 1997Dictionnaire des Antiquiteacutes Grecques et Romaines Vol 21 ed Charles Daremberg and Edmond

Saglio Paris Hachette 1892Dorn Gerhard Dictionarium Theophrasti Paracelsi Frankfurt am Main Rab 1584Faivre Antoine The Golden Fleece and Alchemy New York State University of New York

Press 1993Ficino Marsilio Commentaire sur le Banquet de Platon ed and transl R Marcel Paris Les

Belles Lettres 1956mdashmdash Three Books on Life ed C V Kaske and J R Clarke Binghamton NY The Renaissance

Society of America 1989French John The Art of Distillation or a Treatise of the Choicest Spagiricall Preparation

Performed by way of Distillation London Williams 1653Galenus Claudius De simplicium medicamentorum facultatibus libri undecim Paris Bogard

1543Gebelein Helmut Alchemie Muumlnchen Diederichs 2000Gilbert William De magnete New York Dover Books 1958Gilly Carlos lsquoThe Amphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae of Heinrich Khunrathrsquo in C Gilly amp

C van Heertum (eds) Magic Alchemy and Science 15th-18th Centuries The Influenceof Hermes Trismegistus Vol 1 Florence Centro Di 2002 325-350

Glaser Christophe Traiteacute de la chymie enseignant par une briegraveve et facile meacutethode toutes sesplus neacutecessaires preacuteparations Paris Jean DrsquoHoury 1668

Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants ed R N Chopra New Delhi Council of Scientific andIndustrial Research 1956

Handwoumlrterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens Vol 7 eds E Hoffmann-Krayer and H Baumlchtold-Staumlubli Berlin de Gruyter 1936

Helmont Johann Baptist van Praeligcipiolum or the Immature-Mineral-Electrum London WilliamCooper 1683

Heydon John Hampaaneah Hammegulleh London Samuel Speed 1664Homer Iliad ed and transl A T Murray Cambridge MA Harvard University Press 1999Khunrath Conrad Medulla destillatoria et medica Leipzig no publisher given c1594mdashmdash Vier Schoumlne Medicische Tractat no place given no publisher given 1597Khunrath Heinrich Amphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae Hamburg no publisher given 1595mdashmdash Amphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae Hanau Erasmus Wolfart 1609mdashmdash Consilium de Vulcani magica fabrefactione armorum Achillis Graeligcorum omnium fortis-

simi et cedere nescii Stockholm Kungliga Biblioteket MS Raringl 4 1597 (43 pages)mdashmdash De igne magorum philosophorumque secreto externo et visibili Das ist Philosophische

Erklaumlhrung von und uber dem geheymen eusserlichen sichtbaren Gludt und Flammenfewer

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 155

156 HEREWARD TILTON

der uhralten Magorum oder Weysen und andern wahren Philosophen Strasbourg Zetzner1608

mdashmdash De signatura rerum naturalium theses Basel no publisher given 1588mdashmdash Signatura Magnesiae Henr Kunr Kassel Murhardsche Bibliothek und Landesbibliothek

MS 8deg chem 25 134 rectomdash138 versomdashmdash Vom Hylealischen Das ist Pri-materialischen Catholischen Oder Allgemeinen Natuumlrlichen

CHAOS Frankfurt am Main Oehrling 1708Leibenguth Erik Hermetische Poesie des Fruumlhbarock Die ldquoCantilenae intellectualesrdquo Michael

Maiers Tuumlbingen Max Niemeyer Verlag 2002Lidell Henry George amp Scott Robert A Greek-English Lexikon Oxford Clarendon Press 1961Maier Michael Arcana arcanissima London Creede c 1614Mathesius Johannes Sarepta oder Bergpostill Nuumlrnberg Neuber und Vomberg 1564Matton Sylvain lsquoLe Pheacutenix dans lrsquoOeuvre de Michel Maier et la Litteacuterature Alchimiquersquo in

J C Bailly (ed) Chansons Intellectuelles sur la Reacutesurreacutection du Pheacutenix par MichelMaier Paris Gutenberg Reprints 1984 5-61

Moumlller Helmut Staricius und sein Heldenschatz Episoden eines Akademikerlebens GoumlttingenHelmut Moumlller 2003

Montaigne Michel de Essais Frankfurt am Main Eichborn-Verlag 1998Nibelungen-Handschrift C Karlsruhe Badische Landesbibliothek Cod Donaueschingen 63Paracelsus lsquoAstronomia magnarsquo in Saumlmtliche Werke Vol 12 ed K Sudhoff Munich

Oldenbourg 1929 1-444mdashmdash lsquoAstronomia magnarsquo in Werke Vol 3 ed W Peuckert Darmstadt Wissenschaftliche

Buchgesellschaft 1967 37-405mdashmdash Werke Vol 5 ed W Peuckert Darmstadt Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft 1968mdashmdash Zwen Tractatus des hocherfarnen und bewaumlrtisten Teutschen Philosophi Strasbourg

Jobin 1572Paradin Claude The Heroicall Devises of Claudius Paradin London Kearny 1591Paulys Real-Encyclopaumldie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft Vol 2 ed G Wissowa

Stuttgart J B Metzler 1905Pfaffenbichler Matthias Armourers Toronto University of Toronto Press 1992Porta Giambattista della Phytognomonica Rouen Berthelin 1650Pseudo-Paracelsus Archidoxis magica in Philippus Theophrastus Paracelsus Saumlmtliche Werke

Vol 14 ed K Sudhoff Munich Oldenbourg 1933 437-498Raleigh Sir Walter History of the World London Burre 1614Roberts Michael The Early Vasas A History of Sweden 1523-1611 Cambridge Cambridge

University Press 1968Ruland Martin Lexikon alchemiaelig Frankfurt am Main Zacharias Palthenius 1612Schneider Wolfgang Paracelsus Autor des Archidoxis Magica (Braunschweiger Veroumlffent-

lichungen zur Geschichte der Pharmazie und der Naturwissenschaften XXIII) Braun-schweig Pharmaziegeschichtliches Seminar 1982

Schuumltt Hans-Werner Auf der Suche nach dem Stein der Weisen Die Geschichte der AlchemieMuumlnchen Beck 2000

Staricius Johannes Heldenschatz das ist Naturkuumlndliches Bedencken uber und beyVulcanischer auch Natuumlrlicher Magischer Fabrefaction und zubereitung der Waffen deszligHelden Achillis in Griechenlandt Darauszlig neben vielen Secretis zu vernehmen was zuMartialischer Auszligruumlstung eines Kriegshelden vornemlich gehoumlrig Frankfurt am MainSteinius 1618

Telle Joachim lsquoMythologie und Alchemie Zum Fortleben der antiken Goumltter in der fruumlh-neuzeitlichen Alchemieliteraturrsquo in Humanismus und Naturwissenschaften ed R Schmitzand F Krafft Boppard am Rhein Bold 1980 135-154

ARIES 62_f3_117-157II 6806 512 PM Page 156


Testamentum der Fraternitet Rosaelig et Auraelig Crucis Anno 580 Vienna OumlsterreichischeNationalbibliothek MS Cod Sn 2897

The Rosie Crucian Secrets London British Library MS Harleian 6485Virgil The Aeneid ed and transl David West London Penguin Books 2003Williams Alan The Knight and the Blast Furnace A History of the Metallurgy of Armour in

the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period Leiden Brill 2003Zettler Richard and Horne Lee Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur Philadelphia University

of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology 1998

ZusammenfassungDas Manuskript des Alchemisten und Theosophen Heinrich Khunrath (1560-1605) gerichtet anden Verteidiger der Interessen schwedischer Protestanten Herzog Karl beschreibt eine Methodezur Herstellung einer magischen Ruumlstung und bietet einen Einblick in die praktische Anwendungmagischer Konzepte in der Tradition Ficinos Agrippas Paracelsusrsquo und Della Portas Die vor-liegende Studie beschreibt detailliert Khunraths Anwendung einer pseudo-paracelsischen magi-schen Legierung ebenso wie seine Rezeption der Beschreibungen der magischen Waffen Achillsbei Homer und Vergil Es wird gezeigt daszlig Khunraths magische Ruumlstung gemaumlszlig der FicinischenPrinzipien der ldquofascinatiordquo (Behexung) und der Einfuumlhrung himmlischer Kraumlfte in Dinge durchdie imaginative Kraft des Magus wirkt Diese Prinzipien werden auf dem Hintergrund der neu-platonischen Kosmologie Khunraths eroumlrtert Die Frage der Beziehung der euhemeristischenInterpretation des antiken Mythos in diesem Manuskript zum vorherrschend allegorischen Genreder Mythoalchemie wird ebenso behandelt wie andere Versuche magische Uumlberlegenheit undUnverletzbarkeit in der Kriegsfuumlhrung des fruumlhneuzeitlichen Europa zu gewinnen angesprochenwerden

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118 HEREWARD TILTON

3 For instance Alice Lakwenarsquos Holy Spirit Movement in Northern Uganda the members ofwhich smeared shear oil imbued with the ldquoHoly Spiritrdquo on their bodies as a magical protectionagainst bullets and attacked government forces in waves whilst chanting hymns Similar beliefsare endemic in the Congo where the Mai-Mai (ldquopowerful waterrdquo) militia are anointed withmagical water by their witch-doctors

4 Virgil Aeneid VIII620-625 (624) cf VIII4025 This definition has remained constant since Pliny the Elder Natural History XXXIIIxxiii6 Paulys Real-Encyclopaumldie 2315 Zettler and Horne Treasures from the Royal Tombs of

Ur 162 170 Der Neue Pauly Enzyklopaumldie 978

it is quite possible that the topos of invulnerability gained through immer-sion in a powerful fluid ultimately reflects a genuine magical practice of theprimeval warrior given that in remoter regions of Africa we still find the useof potent lotions believed to grant immunity to the ravages of modernweaponry (together with the dire consequences such practices entail)3Nevertheless the tale of the waters of the river Styx is a later accretion tothe lore surrounding Achilles in the Iliad we are told only that Thetis acquiredfor her son a wondrous suit of armour from Hephaestus (Roman Vulcan)god of fire and the smithy which Achilles wore as he slew his arch-rivalHector And in what amounts to a later gloss on the passage by Virgil4 thisarmour of Hephaestus is said to have been fashioned in part from the metalelectrum

To the contemporary chemist electrum is an artificial or naturally-occurringalloy of gold and silver containing at least twenty percent of the latter metal5Although a little harder and cheaper than gold it is inferior to bronze or iron as a raw material for armour or weaponrymdashhence it was rarely used forthis purpose in the ancient world and objects such as the electrum spear-heads and adzes found at the royal tombs of Ur are today considered to bestrictly ceremonial in character6 However if such items were rare in theancient world they were entirely unknown to the West by the medievalperiod when gold and silver were applied decoratively only to the mostexpensive steel armours Thus it is surprising not only to find a belief in themagical efficacy of electrum armour in late sixteenth century Europe butalso to discover that a usurping monarch appears to have entertained the pos-sibility of gaining advantage over his rivals through such a technology Thisis the testimony of an intriguing manuscript tract composed by the theoso-pher and alchemist Heinrich Khunrath (c 1560-1605) Entitled Consilium deVulcani magica fabrefactione armorum Achillis (ldquoCounsel concerningVulcanrsquos Magical Fashioning of the Armour of Achillesrdquo) the manuscriptcurrently resides in the Swedish Royal Library in Stockholm and deals with

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Of Electrum and the Armour of Achilles

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Transcript of Of Electrum and the Armour of Achilles