Ocean Plate Stratigraphy in East and Southeast Asia

Ocean Plate Stratigraphy in East and Southeast Asia

Koji Wakitaa,*, Ian Metcalfeb

aInstitute of Geology and Geoinformation, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba 305-8567, JapanbAsia Centre, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia

Received 15 March 2003; accepted 11 April 2004

Abstract

Ancient accretionary wedges have been recognised by the presence of glaucophane schist, radiolarian chert and melange. Recent

techniques for the reconstruction of disrupted fragments of such wedges by means of radiolarian biostratigraphy, provide a more

comprehensive history of ocean plate subduction and successive accretion of ocean floor materials from the oceanic plate through offscraping

and underplating.

Reconstructed ocean floor sequences found in ancient accretionary complexes in Japan comprise, from oldest to youngest, pillow basalt,

limestone, radiolarian chert, siliceous shale, and shale and sandstone. Similar lithologies also occur in the melange complexes of the

Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand and other regions. This succession is called ‘Ocean Plate Stratigraphy’ (OPS), and it represents the following

sequence of processes: birth of the oceanic plate at the oceanic ridge; formation of volcanic islands near the ridge, covered by calcareous reefs;

sedimentation of calcilutite on the flanks of the volcanic islands where radiolarian chert is also deposited; deposition of radiolarian skeletons

on the oceanic plate in a pelagic setting, and sedimentary mixing of radiolarian remains and detrital grains to form siliceous shale in a

hemipelagic setting; and sedimentation of coarse-grained sandstone and shale at or near the trench of the convergent margin.

Radiolarian biostratigraphy of detrital sedimentary rocks provides information on the time and duration of ocean plate subduction.

The ages of detrital sediments becomes younger oceanward as younger packages of OPS are scraped off the downgoing plate.

OPS reconstructed from ancient accretionary complexes give us the age of subduction and accretion, direction of subduction, and ancient

tectonic environments and is an important key to understanding the paleoenvironment and history of the paleo-oceans now represented only

in suture zones and orogenic belts.

q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Accretionary complex; Melanges; Tethys

1. Introduction

Ancient accretionary complexes have been recognized in

the orogenic belts of the Asian region (Hutchison, 1989;

Metcalfe, 1988, 1990, 1996, 2000; Sengor and Natal’in,

1996). These were recognised by the presence of glauco-

phane schist, radiolarian chert and melange composed of

polymict clasts within a scaly matrix.

Recent developments in the study of Paleozoic and

Mesozoic radiolarian biostratigraphy gives us a new

technique for the reconstruction of disrupted fragments in

1367-9120/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2004.04.004

* Corresponding author. Tel.: C81-29-861-2469; fax: C81-29-861-

3742.

E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Wakita).

the orogenic belts. We can reconstruct the original

stratigraphy of the protolith of melanges by means of

radiolarian biostratigraphy. The sequence of lithologies in

reconstructed sequences from melanges and from ancient

accretionary complexes is similar. The stratigraphical

succession reconstructed from the melanges and accre-

tionary complexes is here called ‘Ocean Plate Stratigraphy’

(OPS). These successions provide evidence for the history

of the ocean plate from its initiation at a mid-ocean ridge to

subduction at an oceanic trench, with the successive

accretion of oceanic materials from the oceanic plate

through offscaping and underplating to form an accretionary

complex (Matsuda and Isozaki, 1991; Isozaki and Blake,

1994; Wakita, 1988a,b, 2000a).

This paper firstly reviews research on Jurassic accre-

tionary complexes in Japan, and defines ‘Ocean Plate

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 24 (2005) 679–702

www.elsevier.com/locate/jaes

http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jaes

Fig. 1. Distribution of continental terranes, accretionary complexes and sutures in East and Southeast Asia. Names of major accretionary complexes and sutures

are: 1. Samarka; 2. Khabarovsk; 3. Nadanhata; 4. Akiyoshi; 5. Mino-Tamba; 6. North Shimanto; 7. Palawan; 8.Luk-Ulo; 9.Bentong-Raub; 10. Yarlung-

Zangbo. The reconstructed OPS of the accretionary complexes and sutures are shown in Fig. 8 with same numbers.

K. Wakita, I. Metcalfe / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 24 (2005) 679–702680

Stratigraphy’. Secondly, recent work on Ocean Plate

Stratigraphy in East and Southeast Asia (Russian Far East,

China, Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand)

(Fig. 1) is summarised, including specific contributions by

the authors in central Japan, central Java, and Northern

Thailand. The importance and implications of Ocean Plate

Stratigraphy for tectonics and amalgamation of continental

terranes in Asia are also discussed.

2. Definition of Ocean Plate Stratigraphy (OPS)

Ocean Plate Stratigraphy was first defined by Isozaki et

al. (1990) as ‘Oceanic Plate Stratigraphy’. We here re-name

this as ‘Ocean Plate Stratigraphy’ to include the stratigraphy

of any tectonic ocean basin with an ocean plate basement,

including marginal basins. Ocean Plate Stratigraphy is an

idealised stratigraphic succession of the ocean floor,

reconstructed from the protoliths of melanges or ancient

accretionary complexes. It is usually reconstructed by

means of radiolarian, conodont and fusulinid microfossil

biostratigraphy. Radiolarians are the most useful because

they occur throughout the Phanerozoic and in various

lithologies, argillaceous, siliceous or calcareous.

Fig. 2 shows an idealised stratigraphic column of Ocean

Plate Stratigraphy reconstructed from protoliths of Paleo-

zoic to Mesozoic accretionary complexes in Japan. These

successions have similar lithologies, even though they are of

different ages. The lower part of the OPS comprises basalt,

limestone and chert, whereas the upper part is of chert,

siliceous shale and turbidite in ascending order. The ideal

succession of the OPS is pillow basalt, limestone,

radiolarian chert, siliceous shale, and shale and sandstone

in ascending order. The age range represented by chert is

Fig. 2. Standard OPS reconstructed for a Jurassic accretionary complex in Japan.

K. Wakita, I. Metcalfe / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 24 (2005) 679–702 681

much longer than that for the detrital clastic rocks. On the

other hand, the detrital clastic part of the OPS is thickest

because of a higher rate of sedimentation in detrital

sediments compared to pelagic chert.

3. History of Oceanic Plate recorded in the OPS

Ocean Plate Stratigraphy is commonly composed of

pillow basalt, limestone, chert, siliceous shale, and detrital

turbidite in ascending order. The basal pillow basalts have

an alkaline–basalt chemical composition indicating an

origin as seamounts. The basalt is often overlain by reefal

limestone and passes into reef detritus, which often occurs

on the flanks of seamounts or on the surrounding oceanic

floor (Okamura, 1991; Sano, 1988a,b; Sano and Kojima,

2000). Radiolarian siliceous skeletons are deposited slowly

on the ocean floor as ‘marine snow’ after the death of the

organism and are diagenetically altered to chert. Layers of

calcareous detrital fragments occur interbedded with

siliceous radiolarian oozes on or near the flanks of

seamounts, forming limestones interbedded with chert.

Radiolarian chert overlies the limestone and chert,

interbedded with very thin shale films, and the deposit is

called ‘bedded’, or ‘ribbon-bedded’ chert. A very slow rate of

sedimentation is estimated from the age ranges and

thicknesses of ribbon-bedded radiolarian chert. These cherts

include no detrital grains derived from a continental proven-

ance. The slow sedimentation rate and lack of continent-

derived grains indicate that ribbon-bedded radiolarian cherts

are pelagic sediments deposited on the oceanic floor.

The age range of chert in an OPS sequence documents

the age of the ocean floor and its duration, from birth at a

mid-ocean ridge to death at the trench.

Fig. 3. Formation and disruption processes of Ocean Plate Stratigraphy.


Oceanic radiolarian chert grades upwards into siliceous

shale, which consists mainly of fine-grained detritus and

radiolarian remains. The greater proportion of radiolarians,

and a slower sedimentation rate than normal detrital

sediments, indicate a hemipelagic environment on the

offshore side of the trench near the continental margin.

The siliceous shale is successively covered by shale,

interbedded with thin sandstone layers, which is followed by

a sandstone-dominated turbidite sequence. The younger

turbidite sequence includes proximal massive coarse-

grained sandstones. Both the shale-dominated and sand-

stone-dominated sequences are flysch-type sedimentary

rocks deposited by turbidity currents near or at the trench.

These Ocean Plate Stratigraphy successions record the

geologic history of the ocean floor from its formation at the

mid-ocean ridge to subduction at the convergent plate

margin (Fig. 3). Volcanic islands, created near shallow

oceanic ridges just after the oceanic plate was born, were

covered by reef limestone following subsidence below sea

level as the plate spread away from the ridge. This produced

the basalt overlain by reef limestone seen in the lower part

of the succession. Alternatively, within-plate volcanism,

related to a hot-spot, may have produced volcanic islands

(such as the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain) which results in a

basalt–reef limestone couplet. These two possibilities can be

distinguished by the geochemical signature of the basalts.

Limestone interbedded with chert is a rock facies formed in

the ocean, near or on the flanks of volcanic islands/

seamounts, probably close to the carbonate compensation

depth (CCD). Ribbon-bedded radiolarian chert is formed

from radiolarian ooze deposited on the oceanic floor

below the CCD, and records the travel history of any

particular segment of oceanic plate following subsidence of

the volcanic islands/seamounts, until their arrival at the

subduction trench at the continental margin. Siliceous muds,

overlying radiolarian cherts were deposited in the hemi-

pelagic region just before the oceanic plate arrived at the

trench. The oceanic plate segment, covered by radiolarian

chert and siliceous mud, is then covered by flysch-type

trench-fill sediments on its arrival in the trench.

The upper parts of the Ocean Plate Stratigraphy are

scraped off at the toe of the accretionary wedge and stacked

tectonically in the accretionary prism. On the other hand,

the lower parts of the OPS are accreted into the accretionary

prism by an underplating process. In particular, the upper

parts of accreted volcanic islands (seamounts) were scraped

off along deep-seated decollements. These accreted sedi-

ments were deformed and disrupted by multiple processes.

4. Reconstruction of Ocean Plate Stratigraphy:

an example from the Jurassic accretionary complex

of Japan

Jurassic accretionary complexes are major components

of the Japanese Islands. Equivalents extend north to

Sikhote-Alin and northeast China (Kojima, 1989), and

Western Philippines (Isozaki et al., 1988; Faure and Ishida,

1990; Zamoras and Matsuoka, 2001). They are composed of

basalt, limestone, chert, siliceous shale, mudstone, sand-

stone and conglomerate.

The Jurassic accretionary complexes can be divided into

coherent and melange units. The coherent units are

composed of imbricated thrust sheets, each several hundred

meters thick (e.g. Yoshida and Wakita, 1999). Each sheet,

100–500 m thick, consists of a coherent stratigraphic


sequence of Early Triassic siliceous claystone, Middle

Triassic to Early Jurassic radiolarian ribbon-chert, Middle

Jurassic siliceous mudstone and Middle to Late Jurassic

turbidite, in ascending order. The ages of each lithology were

determined by extensive radiolarian biostratigraphic work

(e.g. Yao et al., 1980; Kimura and Hori, 1993). The

reconstructed succession corresponds to the upper part of

the OPS.

The melange unit, characterised by blocks of various

lithologies in a sheared mudstone matrix, may be sub-

divided into two types, i.e. sandstone–chert melange and

basalt–limestone melange. The sandstone–chert melange

includes clasts of siliceous claystone, radiolarian chert,

siliceous mudstone and turbidite within a dark gray

terrigenous mudstone. The basalt–limestone melange

includes various sized clasts mainly of basalt, limestone

and chert of Permian age, within a carbonaceous muddy

matrix (Sano, 1988a,b; Wakita, 1991). The matrix, deep

black in color, yields very few detrital grains but has a high

(O10%) carbonaceous content (Wakita, 1988b).

The sandstone–chert melange is a chaotic mixture

derived mainly from the dismembered upper OPS. On the

other hand, the basalt–limestone melange is produced from

the dismembered lower OPS (Fig. 4). The two types of the

melanges are the end members of various melange types in

the Jurassic accretionary complex of the Mino terrane. Most

of the melanges of the Mino terrane are mixtures of the two

types of melange, i.e. sandstone–chert melange and basalt–

limestone melange.

Fig. 4. Geologic Map of the stacked upper OPS in Inuyama area, central Japan. Ins

area outlined on the main map.

4.1. Tectonically stacked OPS

The Jurassic accretionary complexes of Japan contain

well-preserved upper OPS which were tectonically stacked

during the process of off-scraping at the Jurassic convergent

margin. The sequence observed in the Inuyama area, central

Japan is composed of Early Triassic siliceous claystone,

Middle Triassic to Early Jurassic chert, Middle Jurassic

siliceous shale and Middle to Late Jurassic turbidites in

ascending order.

Extensive studies of the stratigraphy, paleontology,

sedimentology, structural geology, and paleomagnetism

have been carried out on the rocks of the Mino Terrane

exposed along the Kiso River in the Inuyama area (e.g.

Kondo and Adachi, 1975; Yao et al., 1980; Mizutani and

Koike, 1982; Shibuya and Sasajima, 1986; Matsuda and

Isozaki, 1991; Kimura and Hori, 1993; Ando et al., 2001).

The rocks consist of Early Triassic carbonaceous–

siliceous claystone, Middle Triassic to Early Jurassic

radiolarian bedded chert, Middle Jurassic siliceous

mudstone, Middle Jurassic black mudstone and Middle

Jurassic (?) turbidite. This chert–clastic rock sequence,

about 200–300 m in thickness, represents the upper part of

the ocean plate stratigraphy (OPS). The rock formations

are cut by many thrusts parallel to the bedding planes, and

the rock succession, or part of the succession, occurs

repeatedly in the Inuyama area. The stack of thrust sheets

is folded into an EW-trending and westward-plunging

synform (Fig. 4).

et is a detailed map of the geology and structure along the Kiso River in the


The lowermost unit of the OPS in this area is

carbonaceous–siliceous claystone. The claystone is com-

posed of alternating beds of carbonaceous black shale and

greenish gray siliceous claystone. Dolomite layers and lenses

are occasionally interbedded with the claystone. Lower

Triassic conodonts were reported from this claystone at many

localities in Japan (Igo, 1979). The claystone is known to

occur above the black shale accumulated across the Permian–

Triassic boundary (Isozaki, 1997c), although the boundary

formation is missing in this area due to thrusting.

The claystone is covered by reddish brown radiolarian

chert. The chert formation consists of 2–5 cm thick chert

beds with thin siliceous shale partings. The rhythmical

bedding is interpreted as formed by the cyclic deposition

of a slow, but continuous accumulation of siliceous

shale, and the fast, episodic blooming of radiolarians

(Hori et al., 1993). Yao (1982) carried out a radiolarian

biostratigraphic study on the chert at this locality, and

established four radiolarian assemblage zones, ranging in

age from Middle Triassic to Early Jurassic. This zonation

has become the standard for the Japanese radiolarian

zones for this time interval. Subsequently, Sugiyama

(1997) subdivided the Lower Triassic to Early Jurassic

into 20 radiolarian zones by analyzing the claystone–

chert formations in this area. Correlation of the

radiolarian zones with international zonation schemes,

and the examination of the co-occurring conodonts have

permitted the correlation of the radiolarian zones in this

area with the international radiolarian zonation.

The radiolarian chert gradually passes into siliceous

mudstone, indicating the approach of the oceanic plate to

the subduction zone. In the Inuyama area, the boundary

between the chert and siliceous mudstone is correlated

approximately with the boundary between the Lower and

Middle Jurassic. The siliceous mudstone is dark brown,

brownish gray, and greenish gray in color, and is massive to

weakly bedded. Abundant radiolarian fossils have been

reported from the mudstone, and exceptionally well-

preserved radiolarians occur in manganese–carbonate

nodules and in bands of siliceous mudstone (Ichikawa and

Yao, 1976; Yao, 1972, 1979; Mizutani and Koike, 1982).

The siliceous mudstone is covered by black mudstone

indicating that fine-grained terrigenous clastic materials

were reaching the oceanic plate. The black mudstone also

includes radiolarian fossils dated as of upper Middle

Jurassic age (Kimura and Hori, 1993). The mudstone is

intruded by sandstone dikes and sills, the composition of the

sandstone being identical to that of the turbidite sandstone

described below, indicating that the sandstone dikes and

sills were derived from subducted water-rich turbidite under

high pore water pressure.

All the rocks are capped by proximal turbidites

composed of coarse-grained sandstone and mudstone. By

the time of deposition of the turbidite, the oceanic plate had

arrived at the trench. The Middle Jurassic ammonite,

Choffatia sp., was found in the clastic rocks in this area

(Sato, 1974). Generally speaking, sandstones in the Mino

Terrane are graywackes rich in quartz and feldspar with

accessory biotite, garnet, zircon, tourmaline and opaques

(Mizutani, 1957, 1959).

4.2. Upper OPS reconstructed from melange

Sandstone–chert melanges commonly occur in the

Jurassic accretionary complex of Japan. The melanges are

chaotic mixtures of clasts of various rock types within a

shale matrix. The major rock types of clasts are sandstone,

chert, and siliceous shale. Wakita (1984) reconstructed the

protolith of the melange of the Mino Terrane, by means of

radiolarian biostratigraphy. He investigated the ages and

lithologies of the various types of rock included as clasts in

the melanges, and reconstructed the stratigraphic column of

the protolith from which the melange clasts were derived

(Wakita, 1984) (Fig. 5).

The reconstructed succession consists of radiolarian

chert (Middle Triassic to Middle Jurassic), siliceous shale

(Late Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous) and shale and

sandstone (earliest Cretaceous) in ascending order

(Fig. 5). This succession is similar to the tectonically

stacked OPS, typically observed in the Inuyama area,

central Japan. It also corresponds to the upper part of the

Ocean Plate Stratigraphy. Late Triassic or younger basalt

including kaersutite and biotite are intercalated in chert beds

(Wakita, 1984, 1988b). This might have been a local event

related to hot spot activity on the oceanic floor.

The sandstone–chert melange is composed of various

types of mixtures derived from upper and middle parts of the

OPS such as sandstone, mudstone, siliceous mudstone, chert,

and P–T boundary claystone. The mixture is subdivided into

two parts, i.e. a mixture of the upper part of the OPS, and a

mixture of the middle part of the OPS. The former is

characterized by clasts of sandstone, siliceous mudstone and

chert within a dark gray terrigenous mudstone matrix. The

matrix contains terrigenous fragments, quartz, feldspars,

micas, and various rock fragments. The latter contains the

P–T boundary siliceous claystone and chert blocks within

black claystone, which is a mixture of the P–T boundary

carbonaceous claystone and Jurassic terrigenous mudstone.

The OPS was detached from the subducting oceanic plate

along a decollement surface (Fig. 3). The decollement was

located at the position of the P–T boundary claystone, so

that the upper and middle parts of the OPS were scraped off

above this level. Disruption and mixing of neighboring

materials occurred in and along the decollement zone. The

uppermost turbidites are overlain tectonically by the P–T

boundary claystone which occupies the lowermost level of

the overthrust sheet, and became disrupted into broken

formations. On the other hand, the P–T boundary siliceous

claystone and Early Triassic chert were detached from the

underlying OPS and mixed with highly sheared carbon-

aceous claystone matrix.

Fig. 5. Reconstruction of OPS from the earliest Cretaceous melange of the Mino Terrane in the Kanayama area, central Japan by means of radiolarian

biostratigraphic technique (Wakita, 1988a).


4.3. Lower OPS reconstructed from melange

Lower parts of the OPS are preserved in the basalt–

limestone melange of the Mino Terrane. Basalt and lime-

stone was detached from subducting seamounts and accreted

mainly in the lower part of the accretionary prism during the

underplating process (Fig. 3). Permian chert was detached

from the lower part of the OPS, and mixed with basalt and

limestone in the basalt–limestone melanges.

The basalt–limestone melange unit is composed of

various types of mixtures derived from the lower parts of

the OPS such as chert, P–T boundary claystone, limestone

and basalt. The matrix does not contain terrigenous

fragments such as quartz and feldspars, but has a high

carbon content (O15%). The carbonaceous claystone was

derived from the P–T boundary siliceous and carbonaceous

claystone part of the OPS.

Basalt of the Jurassic accretionary prism was metamor-

phosed to prehnite–pumpellyite–pumpellyite–actinolite

facies (Hashimoto and Saito, 1970). This indicates that

the seamount body was subducted deeply enough to be

metamorphosed to these grades, and incorporated into the

accretionary prism. Therefore the basalt–limestone mel-

anges are considered to be products of the underplating


processes. The upper part of the subducting seamounts were

cut off and accreted into the deeper part of the accretionary

wedge and mixed with adjacent mudstone and chert.

The matrix of the basalt–limestone melanges is more

sheared and deformed than that of the sandstone–chert

melanges because the former was detached in the deeper

part of the accretionary wedge during the underplating

process.

5. Ocean Plate Stratigraphy (OPS) of the Western

Pacific Margin

5.1. Japan

Accretionary complexes are the main components of

the pre-Tertiary tectonic units in Southwest Japan

(Wakita, 1989, 1997; Isozaki et al., 1990; Ichikawa

Fig. 6. Arrangement and reconstructed OPS of three major accretionary complex

Terrane, Jurassic AC: Jurassic accretionary complexes of the Tamba, Mino, Ashio

the Shimanto Terrane.

et al., 1990). Three main complexes are recognized, i.e.

the Permian accretionary complex of the Chugoku

Terrane, the Jurassic (to earliest Cretaceous) accretionary

complex of the Chichibu-Tamba-Mino Terrane, and

Cretaceous (to Paleogene) accretionary complex of the

Shimanto Terrane.

The Permian accretionary complex, the main com-

ponent of the Chugoku Terrane, contains sandstone,

shale, chert, basalt and limestone. They are chaotic

mixtures of Middle to Late Permian trench-fill sediments,

Middle Permian pelagic sediments (chert) and accreted

remnants of Carboniferous to Permian seamounts

(Fig. 6). Chert, basalt and limestone occur as allochtho-

nous blocks incorporated into flysch and melanges during

subduction.

Jurassic accretionary complexes are the dominant

tectonic units in Japan. They occur in the Mino-Tamba,

Chichibu, Sambagawa and North Kitakami terranes.

es in Japan. Permian AC: Permian accretionary complex of the Akiyoshi

and Chichibu Terranes, Cretaceous AC: Cretaceous accretionary complex of


The accretionary complexes are composed mainly of

Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous accretionary flysch and

melanges associated with allochthonous blocks of Permian

to Triassic chert, limestone and basalt (Fig. 6).

One of the most famous accretionary complexes in

Japan is that of the Shimanto Terrane, which was the first

to be reported as an ancient analogue to an accretionary

prism. The complex is subdivided into Cretaceous and

Paleogene parts. The subduction complex of the Shimanto

Terrane extends to Central Hokkaido through offshore

Northeast Japan. This complex is composed mainly of

thick coarse-grained turbidites, tectonically intercalated

with relatively thin melange zones. The turbidites are

tectonically imbricated by north-dipping thrust faults. The

melanges are highly sheared due to tectonic mixing, and

occur in a thin tectonic zone between two flysch units.

Ocean Plate Stratigraphy is recognized in the recon-

structed succession from the melanges (Taira et al., 1988).

The reconstructed OPS from the melange of the Northern

Shimanto Belt is as follows (Taira et al., 1988). Oceanic

basalt is older than Valanginian, chert ranges from

Hauterivian to Cenomanian, hemipelagic siliceous shale

ranges from Turonian to Santonian, and flysch is younger

than Santonian. The reconstructed OPS in Fig. 6 is based

on recent biostratigraphic data as well as Taira et al.’s

(1988) original data.

5.2. Philippines

Jurassic accretionary complexes are reported from North

Palawan, the Calamian Islands and South Mindoro Island in

the Philippines (Isozaki et al., 1988; Faure and Ishida, 1990;

Zamoras and Matsuoka, 2001). They are components of the

North Palawan Block (Isozaki et al., 1988) and are

composed of chert, limestone, siliceous mudstone and

turbidite (Zamoras and Matsuoka, 2001).

The protolith stratigraphy of the accretionary complex

has been reconstructed by several researchers (Cheng, 1989,

1992; Tumanada, 1991, 1994; Yeh, 1992; Yeh and Cheng,

1996, 1998; Tumanda-Mateer et al., 1996; Zamoras and

Matsuoka, 2000, 2001) by means of radiolarian

biostratigraphy.

The complex of Busuanga Island is the most recently

and best investigated among the accretionary complexes

of the North Palawan Block. This complex is divided into

three belts, the Northern, Middle and Southern Busuanga

Belts. Zamoras and Matsuoka (2001) described the

stratigraphic succession of the three belts as follows.

The Northern Busuanga Belt is composed of Middle

Permian to Middle Jurassic chert followed by Bathonian–

Callovian siliceous mudstone and Callovian turbidite.

The Middle Busuanga Belt has Bajocian–lower

Bathonian cherts, a siliceous mudstone interval from

upper Bathonian to lower Oxfordian, and turbidites of

Oxfordian age. The Southern Busuanga Belt covers a

transition from lower-middle Tithonian chert to upper

Tithonian–Berriasian siliceous mudstone and turbidite of

Lower Cretaceous age (Fig. 7).

The accretionary complex of the North Palawan Block is

considered to be the southwestern extension of the Jurassic–

Early Cretaceous accretionary complexes of Japan (Isozaki

et al., 1988; Kojima and Kametaka, 2000; Zamoras and

Matsuoka, 2001).

5.3. Russian Far East and Northeast China

Jurassic to Early Cretaceous accretionary complexes are

distributed in the Sikote-Alin area, Russian Far East and in

the Nadanhata area, Northeast China (Kojima, 1989;

Mizutani and Kojima, 1992; Kojima and Kametaka,

2000). They are composed of limestone, basalt, gabbro,

chert, siliceous shale, melanges and turbidites.

Extensive biostratigraphic research has revealed an

OPS protolith for the complexes as shown in Fig. 8. The

accretionary complexes of the Samarka and Khabarovsk

terranes in the Sikhote-Alin area, and the complex of the

Nadanhata area are well investigated by means of

micropaleontology. Chert contains Late Devonian to

Triassic conodonts and radiolarians, Carboniferous to

Permian fusulinids are included in limestone, and middle

to late Jurassic radiolarians from the siliceous shale in the

Samarka Terrane (Kemkin and Khanchuk, 1994; Kojima

and Kametaka, 2000). Late Carboniferous foraminifera,

Permian coral, fusulinids and conodonts and late Triassic

conodonts, pelecypods, ammonoids, etc. occur in lime-

stone, late Early to Late Triassic conodonts and

radiolarians are contained in chert and middle to Late

Jurassic radiolarians were extracted from siliceous shale

and turbidites in the Khabarovsk Terrane (Natal’in and

Zyabrev, 1989; Kojima et al., 1991; Wakita et al., 1992;

Matsuoka, 1995; Zyabrev and Matsuoka, 1999). Middle

Carboniferous to Early Permian fusulinids are

reported from limestone, Middle to Late Triassic radi-

olarians and Late Triassic to Early Jurassic radiolarians

were extracted from chert and siliceous shale of the

Nadanhata Terrane, respectively (Mizutani et al., 1986;

Kojima and Mizutani, 1987).

6. Ocean Plate Stratigraphy (OPS) of the Paleo-Tethyansuture zones

The Palaeo-Tethys ocean is represented in East and

Southeast Asia by a number of suture zones corresponding

to both the main ocean and Palaeo-Tethyan marginal basins

(Fig. 9). The main Palaeo-Tethys ocean is represented by

the Lancangjian, Changning–Menglian, Chiang Mai, and

Bentong-Raub suture zones (Metcalfe, 1988, 1996, 2000).

The Jinshajiang, Ailaoshan and Nan-Uttaradit sutures have

recently been re-interpreted as probably representing a

marginal Palaeo-Tethyan back-arc basin (Ueno and Hisada,

1999; Wang et al., 2000; Metcalfe, 2002). Sutures that

Fig. 7. Reconstructed OPS in Busuanga Island, North Palawan Block, Philippines (Zamoras and Matsuoka, 2001).


represent the main Palaeo-Tethys preserve accretionary

prisms and melanges from the off-scrapings of Palaeo-

Tethyan ocean floor. Depending on the stratigraphic

location of the detachment surface of off-scraped ocean

floor, thrust slices in the accretionary complexes preserve

partial or complete ocean plate stratigraphies. Partial OPS

also tends to be highly disrupted by subsequent tectonic

activity and reactivation along the suture zones, especially

strike-slip faulting. Melanges preserve fragments of the

OPS as clasts and microfossil (especially radiolarian)

biostratigraphic studies have allowed some reconstruction

of OPS in Palaeo-Tethyan suture zones of the region.

Fig. 8. Reconstructed OPS in East and Southeast Asia. See the localities in Fig. 1 with the same numbers.


In Thailand, the Nan-Uttaradit and Sra Kaeo Suture

Zones have traditionally been interpreted as representing the

main Palaeo-Tethys ocean between the Sibumasu and

Indochina Gondwanaland-derived terranes (Hada et al.,

1999; Singharajwarapan and Berry, 2000). Recent discov-

eries of oceanic and seamount rock associations in the

Chiang Mai–Chiang Dao area of western Thailand, inter-

preted as remnants of the main Palaeo-Tethys (Metcalfe,

2002), and re-interpretation of the Nan-Uttaradit suture as

representing a back-arc basin which opened in the

Carboniferous (Ueno and Hisada, 1999; Wang et al.,

2000; Metcalfe, 2002), require a re-interpretation of the

tectonic framework of Thailand and adjacent regions.

Assessments of the OPS of suture zones in this region,

together with new isotope geochronological and geochem-

ical investigations will provide vital information on the

genesis and tectonic setting of the ocean basins that these

suture zones represent.

6.1. Main Palaeo-Tethys Ocean in South West China,

Thailand and Malaysia

6.1.1. Changning–Menglian Suture Zone

In SW China, the main Palaeo-Tethys ocean is

represented by the Changning–Menglian Suture Zone

which forms the boundary between the Sibumasu and

Simao terranes and which marks the remarkable Gond-

wana–Cathaysia Late Palaeozoic biogeographic divide.

The suture is a narrow north–south oriented zone of

dismembered basic–ultrabasic volcanic and intrusive

igneous rocks and associated deep-marine sedimentary

rocks that are interpreted as representing a segment of the

main Palaeo-Tethys in East Asia (Huang et al., 1984; Zhang

et al., 1984; Wu and Zhang, 1987; Liu et al., 1991, 1996;

Wu, 1993; Fang et al., 1994; Wu et al., 1995; Fang and

Feng, 1996; Zhong Dalai et al., 2000; Feng, 2002). The

suture can be traced from Menglian northwards through

Laochong, Tongchangia to Changning and ophiolitic

melange includes blocks of harzburgite, cumulate webster-

ite, gabbro, basalt, limestone and chert in a mud–silt grade

matrix. Associated basalts are of mid-ocean ridge and

ocean-island types (Wu et al., 1995) and remnants of

limestone capped seamounts have been identified in the

zone (Liu et al., 1991). Oceanic ribbon-bedded chert–shale

sequences have yielded graptolites, conodonts and radi-

olarians, indicating ages ranging from Lower Devonian to

Middle Triassic (Duan et al., 1982; Qin et al., 1980; Wu and

Zhang, 1987; Wu and Li, 1989; Liu et al., 1991; Feng and

Ye, 1996; Kuwahara, et al., 1997) (Fig. 10). Limestone

blocks and lenses dominantly found within the basalt

sequence of the suture and interpreted as seamount caps,

have yielded fusulinids indicative of Lower Carboniferous

Fig. 9. Distribution of continental blocks, fragments and terranes, and principal sutures of Southeast Asia (modified after Metcalfe, 1990) and East Asia (inset).

Terrane abbreviations in inset map: WB, West Burma; KL, Kunlun; QD, Qaidam; AL, Ala Shan; QS, Qamdao-Simao; QI, Qiangtang; L, Lhasa; SI, Simao

Terrane; SWB, S.W. Borneo; SG, Songpan Ganzi accretionary complex. Numbered microcontinental blocks: 1. Hainan Island terranes; 2. Sikuleh;

3. Paternoster; 4. Mangkalihat; 5. West Sulawesi; 6. Semitau; 7. Luconia; 8. Kelabit-Longbowan; 9. Spratley Islands-Dangerous Ground; 10. Reed Bank;

11. North Palawan; 12. Paracel Islands; 13. Macclesfield Bank; 14. East Sulawesi; 15. Bangai-Sula; 16. Buton; 17. Obi-Bacan; 18. Buru-Seram; 19. West Irian

Jaya. C–M: Changning–Menglian Suture.


to Upper Permian ages (Duan et al., 1982; Wu et al.,1995;

Ueno et al., 2003). The suture is truncated to the north of

Changning by the Chongshan metamorphic belt and almost

certainly continues northwards as the Lancangjiang suture

to the west of Deqin.

This suture zone preserves basic and ultrabasic MORB

volcanics (including pillow basalts) and intrusives, within-

plate ocean island basalts, shallow-water limestones inter-

preted as seamount caps, interbedded radiolarian cherts and

pelagic limestones, oceanic ribbon-bedded radiolarian

cherts, siliceous shales and mudstones, and shale–sandstone

turbiditic rhythmites (‘flysch’).

Basic-ultrabasic volcanic and intrusive igneous rocks

of the Changning–Menglian suture zone include basalt,

diabase, gabbro, meta-peridotite, and ultrabasic cumulates

with an age range from (?Devonian) Lower Carbonifer-

ous to Upper Permian (Zhong Dalai et al., 2000; Feng,

2002). The volcanics mainly represent seamount/ocean

island settings. Oceanic ribbon-bedded radiolarian cherts,

as disrupted fault-bounded packages, as parts of

more complete partial OPS in accretionary complexes,

and as clasts in both tectonic and sedimentary melanges

range in age from Upper Devonian to Lower Triassic

(Fig. 10).

Fig. 10. Reconstructed OPS for the main Palaeo-Tethys ocean and for the Palaeo-Tethyan back-arc basin developed between the Simao Block and South

China/Indochina.


6.1.2. Chiang Mai Suture Zone

The belt of oceanic and seamount rock associations in

western Thailand (Figs. 10 and 11) includes packages of

basalts (in places pillow basalts), ribbon-bedded cherts dated

by radiolarians as Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian and

Triassic (Caridroit et al., 1990, 1992; Caridroit, 1991, 1993;

Sashida et al., 1993; Sashida and Igo, 1999; Metcalfe, 2002),

interbedded pelagic limestones and bedded chert, pelagic

mudstones, rhythmic mudstones and greywacke turbidites

and massive turbiditic sandstones, and shallow-marine

Lower Carboniferous (Visean) to Upper Permian (Dorasha-

mian) limestones with fusulinids, interpreted as carbonate

caps to sea mounts (Ueno and Igo, 1997). Examples of

coherent partial ocean-plate stratigraphy (OPS) have also

been discovered in this area by the authors, representing

thrust slices of the Palaeo-Tethyan ocean floor preserved in

the accretionary complex. One such example of lower OPS

exposed in a road cutting south of Chiang Mai at 18830.7 0N/

99805.60 0E comprises pillow basalts overlain by chert,

interbedded chert and pelagic limestone, siliceous shale/

argillites. These Palaeo-Tethyan rock associations distrib-

uted in the Chiang Dao–Chiang Mai region are interpreted as

representing a segment of the main Palaeo-Tethys ocean

suture, here termed the Chiang Mai Suture, following Cooper

et al. (1989), Charusiri et al. (1997) and Metcalfe (2002)

(Fig. 9). The Chiang Mai Suture corresponds to the Chiang

Mai Volcanic Belt of Macdonald and Barr (1978) and Barr et

al. (1990) and the Inthanon Zone of Barr and Macdonald

(1991) and other authors. It is interpreted to equate and be

contiguous with the Bentong-Raub Suture of Peninsular

Malaysia (Metcalfe, 2000). The rock associations of the

Chiang Mai Suture in the Chiang Mai and Chiang Dao area

equate well with similar rock suites of the same ages in the

Changning–Menglian Suture in western Yunnan to the north

(Liu et al., 1991; Fang et al., 1994; Fang and Feng, 1996; Wu

et al., 1995) with which it is here considered to be contiguous

(Figs. 9 and 10) following Wu et al. (1995). The eastern

boundary of the Sibumasu Terrane in northern Thailand

therefore lies further to the west than previously interpreted,

and central north Thailand, between the Chiang Mai and

Nan-Uttaradit sutures, forms the southern tip of the Simao

Terrane, no longer regarded as part of Indochina, but as a

separate South China/Indochina-derived terrane produced by

back-arc spreading in the Carboniferous.

6.1.3. Bentong-Raub Suture Zone

The Bentong-Raub Suture Zone (Fig. 9) is located

between the Sibumasu Terrane and the East Malaya

Block (?Indochina Terrane) in Peninsular Malaysia. The

suture zone represents the main Palaeo-Tethys ocean basin

which opened in the Devonian and closed in the Triassic

(Metcalfe, 2000). The Ocean Plate Stratigraphy of

Fig. 11. Sketch map showing the Chiang Mai, Nan-Uttaradit and Sra Kaeo suture zones of Thailand, the southern part of the Simao Terrane, and the distribution

of volcanic arc rocks, basalts, ultramafic and mafic rocks and seamount carbonates in northern Thailand (from Metcalfe, 2002).


the Palaeo-Tethys preserved in this suture zone includes

some, but not voluminous serpentinites, volcaniclastic

rocks, ribbon-bedded radiolarian cherts, limestones, silic-

eous mudstones, and sandstone–shale turbidite sequences

and melange.

Serpentinites occur as sporadic small bodies and are

interpreted as representing oceanic peridotites, and other

mafic/ultra-mafic igneous rocks, including pillow basalts

(Metcalfe, 2000). The age of these serpentinites is not

known, except that they are associated with, and occur as

bodies within a Permian–Triassic melange.

Ribbon-bedded oceanic radiolarian cherts occur as fault-

bounded packages in accretionary complex thrust slices and

also as clasts in melange (Metcalfe, 2000). They range in

age from Devonian to Permian, and up to Middle Triassic

(Fig. 10) if Semanggol foredeep cherts are included

(Metcalfe, 1992; Spiller and Metcalfe, 1993, 1995a,b;

Sashida et al., 1993, 1995; Metcalfe and Spiller, 1994;

Basir Jasin 1994, 1995; Spiller, 1996; Basir Jasin and Che

Aziz Ali, 1997; Metcalfe et al., 1999).

Limestones occur as clasts, large blocks and knockers in

melange. Large limestone bodies are relatively pure white


limestone, but are recrystallized and have not yielded age-

diagnostic fossils. Smaller limestone clasts in melange have

yielded conodonts and fusulinids dating them as Permian

(Metcalfe, 2000). These limestones may represent disrupted

parts of seamount cap limestones that are more completely

preserved in the contiguous Chiang Mai and Changning–

Menglian sutures to the north (Fig. 10).

6.2. Palaeo-Tethyan back-arc basin in China and Thailand

The Jinshajiang, Alaioshan, Nan-Uttaradit and Sra Kaeo

suture zones of SW China and Thailand preserve significant

ophiolites and have a different OPS to suture zones

interpreted to represent the main Palaeo-Tethys (see above

and Fig. 10). The age range of oceanic cherts is more

restricted, from Upper Carboniferous to Middle Triassic,

basic igneous rocks have supra-subduction zone geochem-

ical signatures, and remnants of oceanic seamounts appear

to be absent.

6.2.1. Jinshajiang–Alaioshan Suture Zone

Wang et al. (2000) reviewed the tectonostratigraphy,

age and evolution of the Jinshajiang–Alaioshan Suture

Zone and interpreted this as a back-arc basin which

opened in the Lower Carboniferous, separating the Simao

Block from South China. Remnants of OPS in this

suture zone include radiolarian cherts of Upper Carbon-

iferous, and Lower and Upper Permian ages associated

with basic volcanics, voluminous Carboniferous–Permian

ophiolites, and clastic turbidite sequences of Upper

Permian to Middle Triassic age (Fig. 10). Ages for

plagiogranites in the ophiolites are Lower Carboniferous

(Wang et al., 2000).

6.2.2. Nan-Uttaradit Suture Zone

The Nan-Uttaradit Suture Zone (Fig. 11), traditionally

regarded as representing the main Palaeo-Tethys, has

recently been re-interpreted as representing a segment of

the back-arc basin which opened in the Carboniferous

between the Simao Block and South China/Indochina

(Ueno and Hisada, 1999; Wang et al., 2000; Metcalfe,

2002). A Permo-Triassic accretionary complex contains

Carboniferous to upper Permian blocks. Provenance

evidence from widespread Permo-Triassic volcaniclastics,

combined with structural and other indicators indicate

westwards subduction of the marginal basin in Permo-

Triassic times (Singharajwarapan and Berry, 2000). Upper

Permian radiolarian cherts are known, but to date there are

no known Carboniferous or Devonian ribbon-bedded cherts

known from the Nan-Uttaradit suture. Middle Triassic

chert clasts are known from basal conglomerates in the

Jurassic overlap sequence. Turbidite sequences, interpreted

as forearc deposits by Singharajwarapan and Berry (2000),

range in age from Late Permian to early Late Triassic.

6.2.3. Sra Kaeo Suture Zone

The Sra Kaeo Suture Zone in SE Thailand (Fig. 11)

comprises a western chert–clastic sequence and an eastern

Thung Kabin melange (Hada et al., 1999). The chert–clastic

sequence comprises alternating thrust slices of Middle to

Upper Triassic red bedded chert and clastic turbidites. At one

locality, the red bedded cherts of Middle Triassic age directly

overlie pillow basalts. This sequence is interpreted as an

accretionary complex. The Thung Kabin melange is a

serpentinite matrix melange, including clasts of greenstone

(including pillow lavas), chert, and limestone. The chert

clasts are of Lower, Middle and Upper Permian ages. Ages of

limestone clasts, based on fusulinids, are Lower and Middle

Permian in age (Hada et al., 1999; Fig. 11). Unfortunately,

there is little direct age control on the basic igneous rocks of

the suture. Reconstructed OPS suggests that this basin

probably opened in the Carboniferous and closed in the

Triassic. Further work (especially geochemical and geo-

chronological) is required to confirm whether this suture

represents a back-arc basin, and is therefore contiguous with

the Nan-Uttaradit and Jinshajiang–Alaioshan sutures, or if it

represents the main Palaeo-Tethys. On currently available

information, we favour the former interpretation.

6.2.4. Songpan Ganzi accretionary complex

The Songpan Ganzi accretionary complex (Fig. 1) is not

a suture zone but a remnant of the Paleo-Tethys (Metcalfe,

1996, 1999). As thick piles of Triassic flysch sediments

caused by collision between South and North China Blocks

cover the hemiplagic and pelagic sediments of Paleo-Tethys

ocean, we have little information on OPS in the Songpan

Ganzi accretionary complex.

7. Ocean Plate Stratigraphy (OPS) of Ceno-Tethyansuture zones

The Yarlung-Zangbo suture zone is located between the

Lhasa Block and the Indian Block which collided with each

other in Paleogene time.

Yang et al. (2000, 2002) reviewed recent results of

radiolarian biostratigraphy in Southern Tibet. Radiolarians

occurred mainly in ophiolite and sedimentary melange belts.

The chert of the ophiolite belt yields Jurassic and Cretaceous

radiolarians, whereas the chert and siliceous shale of the

sedimentary melange belt contains radiolarians ranging in

age from Middle Triassic to Late Cretaceous (Yang et al.,

2000, 2002). Matsuoka et al. (2002) obtained more detailed

OPS succession from the Xialu Chert of the Yarlung-Zangbo

ophiolite. The OPS is composed of pelagic chert ranging in

age from Middle Jurassic (Aalenian) to Lower Cretaceous

(Barremian), and siliceous shale of Aptian age (Fig. 8).

Although there is no information concerning the lower and

upper portions of the OPS, we can recognize the typical

Ceno-Tethyan OPS in their results, consistent with a Triassic


rather than a Permian rifting and separation of the Lhasa

Block from Indian Gondwana.

Fig. 12. Reconstructed OPS in Cretaceous accretionary complex, central

Java, Indonesia (modified from Wakita et al., 1994).

8. Ocean Plate Stratigraphy (OPS) of the Indian Ocean

margin

Cretaceous accretionary complexes are distributed in

Central Java, South Sulawesi, Southeast Kalimantan and

Sumatra, Indonesia. They are the Luk Ulo Complex (Askin,

1974; Wakita et al., 1994b), the Bantimala Complex (Wakita et

al., 1994a, 1996), the Meratus Complex (Wakita et al., 1998)

and the Woyla Group (Wajzer et al., 1991; Barber, 2000),

respectively.Theyarecomposedmainlyofmelanges, including

clasts of radiolarian chert, limestone and pillow lava, high P/T

metamorphic rocks, and ultramafic rocks. An Ocean Plate

Stratigraphy has been reconstructed in several Cretaceous

accretionary complexes of Indonesia (Wakita, 2000b).

8.1. Luk-Ulo Complex, Central Java

Ocean Plate Stratigraphy is typically recognized in the

Luk-Ulo Complex of central Java. The complex is composed

of crystalline schist, phyllite, marble, rhyolite, dacite, basic to

ultramafic rocks, limestone, chert, siliceous shale, shale,

sandstone and conglomerate. They are represented as tectonic

slices and blocks bounded by faults. Metamorphic and

igneous rocks, except for pillow basalt, are tectonically

mixed with sedimentary components in post-accretionary

processes. In the sedimentary rocks, sandstone and shale are

dominant, whereas chert, limestone and conglomerate are

locally recognized. Sandstone, pale brown, gray and reddish

brown in color, is usually interbedded with shale of gray or

reddish brown color. The dominant rock type among the

sandstones is volcaniclastic arenite, which consists mostly of

fragments of plagioclase and intermediate to basic volcanic

rocks. Pebbly shale, locally recognized, grades into shale

interbedded with sandstone. Basalt is pillow basalt or pillow

breccia. The lava is aphyric, or includes small phenocrysts of

augite and sometimes pseudomorphs of olivine. Limestone,

light gray in color, is interbedded with chert of reddish brown

color. Alternating beds of limestone and chert conformably

overlie pillow basalt, and include Early Cretaceous radiolar-

ians in thechert.Thechert ismostly reddish brown, but locally

gray, light greenish gray and black in color and grades into

siliceous shale toward the stratigraphic top in some localities.

The chert and siliceous shale sometimes yield radiolarians of

Early to Late Cretaceous age (Wakita et al., 1994). The

original succession of this sedimentary-volcanic suite

survives along the Cacaban River. It consists of pillow basalt,

alternations of limestone and chert, radiolarian chert,

siliceous shale, sandstone and shale in ascending order.

Similar successions are reconstructed by means of radiolarian

biostratigraphy (Fig. 12). The succession represents a typical

Ocean Plate Stratigraphy which is similar to that of the Pre-

Tertiary accretionary complexes in Japan. The ages of each

rock type are different in different localities. The oldest OPS is

recognized in the Mucar River, followed by younger OPS

reconstructed in the Cacaban, Sigoban and Medana Rivers

(Fig. 12).

8.2. Bantimala Complex, Southwest Sulawesi

The Bantimala Complex of Southwest Sulawesi is a

tectonic assemblage of ultramafic rocks, high P/T schist and

melanges. The melange includes radiolarian chert of Albian

to Cenomanian age. Although the oceanic assemblage of the

complex is lithologically similar to the OPS, the radiolarian

chert is overlying not pillow basalt but high P/T schist.

Therefore, it is difficult to regard the chert assemblage of the

Bantimala Complex as a part of the OPS.

8.3. Meratus Complex of South Kalimantan

The Meratus Complex of South Kalimantan consists of

melange, chert, siliceous shale, limestone, basalt, ultramafic


rocks and schist. The complex is unconformably covered by

Late Cretaceous sedimentary-volcanic formations. The chert

yields radiolarians ranging from early Middle Jurassic to late

Early Cretaceous (Wakita et al., 1998).

8.4. Woyla Group of Sumatra

The Oceanic assemblage of the Woyla Group has been

recognized in the Natal and Aceh areas, Sumatra Island,

Indonesia (Wajzer et al., 1991; Barber, 2000). In the Natal

area this includes massive spilitic lava, turbidite, and

melange containing fragments of chert, limestone and

volcanics in a cherty siltstone matrix (Wajzer et al.,

1991). The Woyla Group of the Aceh area yields an oceanic

assemblage of serpentinized harzburgite, metagabbro, mafic

to intermediate volcanics, volcaniclastic sandstone, manga-

niferous slate, and radiolarian chert from which no age-

diagnostic radiolaria have yet been obtained (Barber, 2000).

Fig. 13. Younging polarity of the arrangement of the tectonic units in

Jurassic accretionary complex of central Japan (modified from Matsuoka,

1984) Radiolarian assemblage zones are the same as in Fig. 5. Ya:

Yamanokami belt; Ko: Kobiura belt; NI: Nishiyama belt; I, NII: Nishiyama

belt; II, NIII: Nishiyama belt III.

Radiolaria of Aalenian age have been obtained from cherts

correlated with the Woyla Group from the Indarung area

near Padang, West Sumatra (McCarthy et al., 2001).

9. Arrangement of Ocean Plate Stratigraphy (OPS)

in accretionary prisms

Accretionary complexes usually grow from the con-

tinental side to the ocean side because of the oceanward

migration of subduction sites. In Japan, Permian to

present accretionary complexes are temporally arranged

oceanward (Fig. 6). Even in a single accretionary

complex, individual tectonic units of the complex

become younger oceanward.

Ancient accretionary complexes are divided into several

tectonic units characterized by specific age and lithology.

These tectonic units are divided by out-of-sequence thrusts

developed in the accretionary process. As older tectonic

units moved upward along the out-of-sequence thrusts and

were overthrust onto a younger tectonic unit, younger

tectonic units prograded toward the ocean side.

In ancient accretionary complexes, Matsuoka (1984,

1992) clearly showed the arrangement of the offscraped

Fig. 14. Paleooceanography of western Pacific region in Jurassic time.


OPS in the Shikoku area, Southwest Japan. The upper OPS

is tectonically stacked in a duplex unit. The age of clastic

rocks of the OPS sequence becomes gradually younger

toward the Pacific (Fig. 13). On the other hand, the age of

the lowest part of the accreted OPS is Lower Triassic. This

is because the decollement which cut the OPS at the toe of

the ancient accretionary prism was developed at the P–T

boundary claystone level which is fragile and slippery.

Fig. 15. Palaeogeographic reconstructions of the Tethyan region for (a) Early C

showing relative positions of the East and South-east Asian terranes and distribu

cold-water tolerant conodont Vjalovognathus, and the Late Permian Dicynodon

I: Indochina; Em: East Malaya; WS: West Sumatra; NC: North China; SI: S

Western Cimmerian Continent.

10. Reconstruction of Paleo-ocean environment

10.1. Panthalassa Ocean

The Paleo-Pacific Ocean ‘Panthalassa’ was extended to

the east of the Asian Continent in the Paleozoic and

Mesozoic Eras. We can recognize accretionary complexes

of various ages in Japan, such as Permian, Jurassic,

arboniferous, (b) Early Permian, (c) Late Permian and (d) Late Triassic

tion of land and sea. Also shown is the distribution of the Early Permian

locality on Indochina in the Late Permian. SC: South China; T: Tarim;

imao; S: Sibumasu; WB: West Burma; QI: Qiangtang; L: Lhasa; WC:

Fig. 16. Palaeogeographic reconstructions for Eastern Tethys in (a) Late Jurassic, (b) Early Cretaceous, (c) Late Cretaceous and (d) Middle Eocene

showing distribution of continental blocks and fragments of South-east Asia-Australasia and land and sea. SG: Songpan Ganzi accretionary complex, SC:

South China, QS: Qando-Simao, SI: Simao, QI: Qiangtang, S: Sibumasu, I: Indochina, EM: East Malaya, WSu: West Sumatra; L: Lhasa, WB: West

Burma; SWB: South West Borneo, SE: Semitau, NP: North Palawan and other small continental fragments now forming part of the Philippines basement

Si: Sikuleh, M: Mangkalihat, WS: West Sulawesi, PB: Philippine Basement, PA: Incipient East Philippine arc; PS: Proto-South China Sea; Z: Zambales

Ophiolite; Rb: reed Bank; MB: Macclesfield Bank. PI: Paracel Islands; Da: Dangerous Ground, Lu: Luconia, Sm: Sumba. M numbers represent Indian

Ocean magnetic anomalies.



Cretaceous, Paleogene, and Neogene to present complexes.

The presence of these accretionary complexes suggests that

subduction of oceanic plates has occurred along the eastern

margin of the Asian continent since late Paleozoic times.

The formation of accretionary complexes of Permian,

Jurassic and Cretaceous ages are related to the subduction

of different oceanic plates, i.e. Farallon, Izanagi and Kula

oceanic plates, respectively (Isozaki, 1996b, 1997a,b;

Maruyama et al., 1997). The fragments of OPS of Farallon,

Izanagi and Kula plates are recognized in the Permian,

Jurassic and Cretaceous accretionary complexes of Japan

which are shown in Fig. 6.

The age range of pelagic chert in the reconstructed OPS

indicates the length of time for which each oceanic plate

existed. The Farallon, Izanagi and Kula plates survived for

at least 60, 200, and 50 Ma, respectively.

The Farallon Plate was born sometime before the

Carboniferous and subducted to form an accretionary

wedge along the Eastern Asian margin in late Permian

time. The subduction of the ocean plate ceased just after the

accretion of huge seamounts capped by fusulinacean

limestone.

The Izanagi Plate was born in late Devonian time and

subducted from Early Jurassic to Early Cretaceous time. In

Late Carboniferous to Early Permian time, seamounts were

formed near the oceanic ridge, and were covered by

calcareous reefs. The Izanagi Plate experienced a super-

anoxia event at the Permian/Triassic boundary transition

(Isozaki, 1993, 1994, 1996a, 1997c). In late Triassic or early

Jurassic time, volcanic activity occurred at a hot spot with

alkaline basalt extruded onto pelagic siliceous oozes. The

pelagic sediments and volcanic seamounts on the Izanagi

Plate were accreted to the continental margin, together with

detrital sediments derived from the continental margin in

Jurassic and early Cretaceous time (Fig. 14).

Records of the remnants of the Kula Plate are limited.

Most of the Kula Plate was subducted into the deeper parts

of the accretionary wedge or has disappeared into the

mantle. The OPS are recorded in a thin tectonic zone of

melanges. The OPS indicates that the Kula Plate had a short

history of only about 50 Ma. The plate was formed in Late

Jurassic or Early Cretaceous time and subducted in the late

Cretaceous. The plate is considered to have been hot enough

at the time of subduction to heat up the surrounding

sediments.

In the Cenozoic, the Pacific and Philippine Plates were

subducted along the East Asian continental margin where

marginal seas have been developed since Miocene times.

10.2. Tethyan Oceans

Metcalfe (1990, 1996, 1998) has demonstrated that the

Tethys Ocean is in fact represented by multiple Tethyan

ocean basins, including three main oceanic Tethyan ocean

basins, the Palaeo-Tethys, Meso-Tethys and Ceno-Tethys,

which opened when three continental slivers or collages

of terranes successively separated from Gondwanaland

(Fig. 15). In addition, there were other Tethyan marginal

basins which opened and closed at various times.

The reconstructed OPS for the main Palaeo-Tethys ocean

shows that ocean floor spreading occurred from Upper

Devonian to Middle Triassic times, and that subduction of

the ocean basin along its northern margin probably occurred

from the Carboniferous to the Early Triassic. Limestone

capped oceanic seamounts of Upper Carboniferous to Upper

Permian age were incorporated into the accretionary

complex and melanges at the subduction zone.

The reconstructed OPS for the back-arc basin rep-

resented by the Jinshajiang–Alaioshan, Nan-Uttaradit and

Sra Kaeo sutures indicates that this Palaeo-Tethyan

marginal basin opened in the Carboniferous, when the

Simao Terrane separated from South China/Indochina, and

closed in the late Triassic.

Information on OPS of Meso-Tethyan suture zones is

meagre at best and requires further studies to elucidate the

detailed history of this ocean basin. Indications are that it

opened in the Middle Permian, when the Cimmerian

Continental strip separated from Gondwanaland, and that

it closed in the Jurassic–Cretaceous (Fig. 16).

Indications from preserved OPS in the Ceno-Tethyan

Yarlung-Zangbo suture indicate that the Ceno-Tethys

opened in the Triassic, contrary to the earlier Permian

separation which has been proposed by some workers. This

ocean closed following the main breakup of Gondwanaland

and the arrival of India and Australia in the Cenozoic

(Fig. 16).

Acknowledgements

We express our thanks to Dr Anthony J. Barber of the

University of London for his critical review of the

manuscript. We also wish to acknowledge Dr Atsushi

Matsuoka of the Niigata University for his recent publi-

cations on radiolarian biostratigraphic research from Tibet

and the Philippines. Thanks also go to Dr Satoru Kojima of

the Gifu University for his suggestions concerning the

geology of the Jurassic accretionary complex in the Mino

Terrane and in the Russian Far East. I. Metcalfe acknowl-

edges support from the Australian Research Council for

work on East and Southeast Asia.

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