Mauritania and Newly Emerging Economies in Africa Turkey and China

USAK Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies

USAK REPORT NO: 13-02

INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIC RESEARCH ORGANIZATION

July 2013

Fouad Farhaoui

02

MAURITANIAAND NEWLY EMERGING ECONOMIES IN AFRICA

TURKEY & CHINA

MOROCCO

MALI

BURKINA FASO

GUINEA

SENEGAL

GAMBIA

Mauritania&

Newly Emerging Economies in Africa

Turkey and China

AuthorFouad Farhaoui

Team of ReportersGülsüm Boz

Mehmet Hecan

USAK REPORTS NO: 13-02

July 2013

INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIC RESEARCH ORGANIZATION (USAK)Uluslararası Stratejik Araştırmalar Kurumu

Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies

USAK Report No: 13-02Editor of USAK Reports: Mehmet GÜÇER

Copyright © 2013 USAKAll Rights Reserved.First EditionLibrary Cataloguing Information“Mauritania and Newly Emerging Economies in Africa Turkey and China”This publication contains tables and figures.USAK PublicationsISBN: 978-605-4030-82-8

Graphic Design: Karınca Ajans Yayıncılık Matbaacılık Meşrutiyet Caddesi No: 50/9 Kızılay/ANKARA

International Strategic Research Organization (USAK)Uluslararası Stratejik Araştırmalar KurumuAyten Sokak No: 21 Tandoğan/Ankara

www.usak.org.tr - www.turkishweekly.netwww.usakanalist.com - [email protected]

CONTENTS

..............................................................................................................................7

Introduction .........................................................................................................................................9

I. MAURITANIA: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND SINCE FOUNDATION .............................13

II. MAURITANIAN ECONOMIC RESOURCES ..........................................................................15 A. Fisheries .................................................................................................................................15 B. Mining ...................................................................................................................................16 C. Oil .......................................................................................................................................19

III. TURKEY-MAURITANIA: ECONOMIC AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES ..........21 A. Legal and Institutional Framework for Turkey-Mauritania Economic Relations .....................21 B. Turkey-Mauritania Bilateral Trade ..........................................................................................22 C. The Need to Target and Integrate Turkish and Mauritanian Economic Sectors .......................24

IV. TURKEY-MAURITANIA POLITICAL RELATIONS: INITIATIVES VITAL, BUT SLOW .....29 A. The Mauritanian President’s Visit to Ankara: A Fresh Start for Relations with Turkey .............29 B. Caveats about Turkish-Mauritanian Political Relations ...........................................................30

V. TURKEY-MAURITANIA MILITARY AND SECURITY RELATIONS: AFRICAN CALCULATIONS OR TRANSATLANTIC CALCULATIONS? .............................33 A. The NATO Dimension: From Multi-Party Level to the Bilateral Level ...................................33 B. The African Dimension: Staged Involvement in African Crises ...............................................35

VI. THE CHINESE INROADS: QUIETER BUT MORE PERVASIVE ..........................................37 A. History of China-Mauritania Relations ...................................................................................37 B. China and Mauritania: Established Social and Cultural Relations ...........................................38 C. Economic Relations: Major Projects with Strategic Targets .....................................................40

VII. CONCLUSION & REMARKS .................................................................................................45

List of Tables and Figures

........................................................ 17

Table 2. Mauritanian Iron, Copper Concentrate, and Gold Production ................................................................... 19

Table 3. Mauritanian Oil Production ....................................................................................................................... 19

................................................................................................. 23

............................................................................................ 23

Table 6. Turkey-Mauritania Friendship Group ......................................................................................................... 30

Table 7. Distribution of Confucius Institutes in Africa (Classes) ............................................................................... 39

Table 8. Chinese Projects in Mauritania ................................................................................................................... 41

Figure 1. Fish Production in Certain African States (2008-2009) ............................................................................... 15

Figure 2. Mauritanian Fish Trade (1999-2009) .......................................................................................................... 16

Figure 3. Aid Provided by the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency to Mauritania (2008-2011) ............... 22

............................. 23

Figure 5. Turkish Fishery Production (2007-2011) .................................................................................................... 26

Figure 6. Countries Covered by NATO’s Partnership for Peace Centre in Ankara Between 2002 and 2011 ............... 34

Figure 7. Chinese Direct Investment in Mauritania (2003-2011) .............................................................................. 40

Figure 8. Countries Hosting Activities of CNPC, a Chinese Corporation Holding a ........................................................................................................... 42

USAK CENTER FOR MIDDLE EASTERN AND AFRICAN STUDIES

The USAK Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies (ODAM) is a leading Turkish research center for promoting knowledge of the Middle East and Africa. The Center is a source of sound information, recommendations, journals, and books, and a platform for forums and conferences on the Middle East and Africa. USAK-ODAM is regularly consulted by journalists, officials, politicians, diplomats, and other NGOs on Middle Eastern security and politics. Center staff regularly contribute to USAK publications and organize lectures and discussion forums on Middle Eastern topics. ODAM arranges lectures, seminars, conferences and other discussions, and

library on Middle Eastern and African subjects. The library includes Turkish, English, Arabic, and Persian publications and is available to USAK researchers and visitors. The corresponding desks conduct research in English and regional languages.

FOUAD FARHAOUI: One of the researchers for USAK Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies. His work and studies concentrate on matters concerning Turkish-Arab relations, the Middle East and Africa, social movements, history and international relations.

TWO POWERS RISING IN MAURITANIA: TURKEY & CHINA

7

Pre and post-independence policies have yielded volatile problems for African States. North African states, in particu-lar, have seen disintegration between their Arab, Berber, and Black ethnic groups.

The method of drawing state boundaries that groups dissimilar ethnicities together shaped political movements during the colonial period.. Today, one can still easily dis-cern the effects of these policies, which laid the groundwork for the current crisis in Mali.. Mauritania, too, is another country facing an “internal political identity” as a product of its colonial history. The Country is stuck between an Arab-African identity on one hand, and a Black African identity on the other.

Furthermore, Mauritania is known to have certain undesirable social attitudes toward Black people.. These affronts to the honour and dignity of Black people are often cat-egorically rejected and resisted by intellectuals of all ethnic groups. French colonial policy that discriminated between Arab and Black people in their rights to education, economic opportunities, and government was a key cause of disunity between the gov-ernment, Black ethnicities, and others in Mauritania.

Mauritania is a country rarely on the national agenda of other states, including Turkey. Coups, natural disasters, droughts, and famines are the only factors that place Maurita-nia on any other country’s national agenda.

Mauritania, however, is of vast importance to states with growing interests in Africa. Despite the fact that Mauritania doesn’t have an important place in foreign policies of Arabic or non-Arabic eastern countries, Mauritania’s natural resources are a source of

important changes.

Turkey has become an emerging power over the recent years, and more of its interest is being directed at Africa. This fact has revealed itself plainly in the crisis in Somalia.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIC RESEARCH ORGANIZATION (USAK)

8

Ankara has started a number of diplomatic missions and opened many forums on the continent for the sake of developing relations. These strengthening relations have led to Turkey signing economic, cultural, security, and military agreements with a multitude of Arabic and non-Arabic African states.

Relations between Mauritania and Turkey are a part of the bigger trend. We observe that the legal framework for the economic relations between Turkey and Mauritania started to take shape on May 24th, 2005. In consequence, statistics show that bilateral trade has

which Beijing appreciates Mauritania in its geopolitical machinations.

Mauritania is considered as one of the most important centres for aquaculture in Africa,

the most promising industries for Turkish-Mauritanian relations. While the benefits of engagement in this particular sector may not be apparent in the short term, there may be great opportunities for investors in the medium and long term.

In the meantime, it should be noted that political and diplomatic relations between Turkey and Mauritania have begun developing at a higher rate in recent years. Re-cently, the two countries have taken various encouraging steps like mutually appointing ambassadors, conducting high-level official visits, and removing visa requirements for diplomats. Additionally, the presence of a number of bilateral agreements on military and security concerns, especially within the framework of NATO, is notable. However, further studies need to be conducted on this matter, as well as on economic and com-mercial relations. The political and diplomatic relations that Turkey creates with Mau-ritania should not only be implemented through the inter-parliamentary platform or within particular party organisations. In this sense, the higher the diversity of channels in which relations are to be set, the stronger they will become.

Turkey’s presence in Africa, despite the uptick in activity, still remains weak compared to other rising powers of the region, like China. Considering the fact that Turkey is new to the African continent, and considering all the attendant difficulties of approaching a new region, Turkey’s need to develop bilateral relations is evident.

This report intends to evaluate Mauritanian relations with Turkey and China, two in-creasingly dominant actors in this country. After outlining a historical background, the report lays out the various economic resources of the country that trigger the interests of emerging powers. The question of how economic relations with Turkey can be further developed is discussed separately. The following sections chronicle the overall progress of political relations between Turkey and Mauritania, in addition to making a review of relations in the areas of military and national security. Mauritania’s relations with China

-ing a comparative analysis of the two sets of bilateral relations and a vision assessment.


9

It is a readily known fact that Muhammad el-Emin bin el-Qalqami led a lengthy convoy of 600 families of the al-Basadin tribe in a mass emigration to Anatolia in 1908. These families integrated with the native population in southern Turkey.

In 1974, 14 years after Mauritania won its independence, al-Mukhtar Vild Dadah, the former President of Mauritania, paid a visit to Turkey and met with certain Turkish authorities2. In recent years an abundance of treaties have been signed dealing with trade, development, media, and transportation, in addition to some concerning national security and military issues.

Mauritania is not given much focus in scholarly research about relations between Turk-ish and Arabic communities, and between Arab Africans and Black Africans--a signifi-cant oversight. Even as a member of the Arab League, Mauritania does not come up to the forefront in international policy papers or policies of other League states. The name Mauritania has grown to be synonymous with military coups and its troublesome, on-again, off-again diplomatic relations Israel. After the initial attention paid to its crises, Mauritania is again relegated to the archives as an old news item. Coups, severe droughts bringing the country to the verge of starvation, massive locust infestations of local crops, are the only kinds of events that move Mauritania to the agendas of other countries.

Mauritania is a broad country measuring over one million square kilometres and is largely covered by deserts. With a population barely over three million, Mauritania’s hu-

a less-developed country.

as the weakest link among North African countries. However, a disturbance occurring in this country is capable of igniting the entire region. In fact, a crisis in Mauritania may easily lead to ruptures not only in the relations between African and Arab governments,

History books mention that the relations between the lands of Chinquetti (today’s Mauritania) and Turkey are in fact deeply-rooted. According to some sources, a certain group of Mauritanian people is rumoured to have migrated to Anato-lia, seeking asylum from French colonialism.

INTRODUCTION


10

but also between Black African states and their peoples. As a weak state Mauritania car-ries the potential to threaten international peace and security.

Although Mauritania is assigned with low or least priority of importance in interna-tional policy papers and actions of both Arabic and non-Arabic eastern states, the crucial changes occurring in these countries bring forth the need to carefully think the future

geo-strategically important changes. All the past events as witnessed by the Republic of Mali and that covered Mauritania, Algeria, Nigeria, Senegal and others are just but solid proof of such changes, without doubt. Furthermore, consideration of Mali as the “Albania of Africa” by international media organs in time of crisis, has certain aims. At this end, it can be said that the conceptual and terminological preliminary information that have started to be used before the process have a particular role to play in creation of problems and crises.

Mauritania’s internal dynamics, its relations with the established powers in North Af-rica, as well its relations with rising powers warrant its own particular study in the sense of understanding the power relations of traditional powers in the region. Such a study would facilitate to study and analyse prospects for future cooperation and integration

on African states with characters similar to Mauritania may also provide insight into changing interregional dynamics, and the interplay between foreign powers and local resources in the region

bear a special significance given France’s traditional weight in Africa. Soon after coming into office, French President François Hollande visited the Senegalese Parliament where he declared that the period of “French Africa... has terminated,” and went on to say that “now there is France and there is Africa. There is cooperation between Africa and France based on mutual respect, transparency and solidarity.” In a sense, the high level of strategic changes taking place across the continent compelled France to make this statement. It is no coincidence that this statement was made in Senegal, one of the political pillars of West Africa. Considering the developments that took place in the African Continent a few years before the “Arab Spring” events, it is apparent that there is a band of crises

Africa. Mauritania lies on this band.

Turkey on the other hand, has become an emerging power in recent years, with a grow-

crisis in Somalia. Ankara, in an effort to develop relations with Africa, has started several diplomatic missions and opened many fora on continent, including the Turkish-African Forum. Turkey has signed economic, cultural, security, and military agreements with a multitude of Arab and non-Arab African States. Despite this, Turkey’s presence in Africa still remains limited compared to other rising powers like China. Considering that Tur-key is a new presence in Africa, it must develop its bilateral relations with countries in the region to ease its rise. In fact, this need for developing bilateral relations is especially


11

In light of all these arguments, it’s clear how important relations between Turkey and Mauritania are from the aspects of politics and economics and from the aspects of na-tional security and military. This study also attempts to observe the potential difficulties that Ankara may encounter in its relations with Africa, due to China’s strong presence in the continent. Beijing sees Mauritania as one of the countries through which China

Chinese rivals in the future.


13

Mauritania is considered a new modern state, thanks to its centralized administration and nation-state pretensions. Her political boundaries, on the other hand, were laid down in a treaty signed between France and Spain, in 1899.3 When the political map of Mauritania was drawn, no concern had actually been given to the distribution of ethnic groups throughout the region. Consequently, numerous political entities have appearing in the region--both during and after the period of colonialism-- have led to ethnic dissension between Arab, Berber, and other Black tribes.4 This border-drawing policy has given rise to and shaped political movements, as well. It may even impact North and East Africa. The continuing crisis in Mali can interpreted as a result of the same colonial policy. The inconsistent human geography delineated during Mauritania’s colonial period has caused an internal political identity between those who perceive Mauritania as part of the Arab-African realm, and those who perceive it as part of the Black-African realm.

Surrounding countries have also played a part in this identity crisis. Morocco kept

toward Black Africa, as its policies centred on black communities. Aside from these two movements, Mauritania’s first president al-Mukhtar Vild Dadah, invented and intro-duced a new, alternate line of thought–the concept of a multiracial Mauritanian nation, an independent political entity formed of various ethnic groups..

There are two apparent causes of the dissension between the ethnic groups in Maurita-nia. The first of these causes are reprehensible social practices that offend the dignity of Black people’s--something aggressively fought by intellectuals of all groups. The second were the French colonial policies that discriminated between Arabs and Blacks in edu-cation, employment, and administration. For instance, France opened schools in West Africa in the early 20th century. The classes were almost entirely composed of Black students. As a matter of fact, the number of black students per classroom varied between 40 and 45, whereas Arabs averaged two.5

Located in the northwest of the African continent, Maurita-nia neighbours Morocco in the North, Algeria in the northeast, and Mali in the southeast. It shares its southernmost Atlantic border with Senegal.

MAURITANIA: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND SINCE FOUNDATION1

Mauritania has passed through an

“internal political identity” crisis as her natural and

human geography was fragmented by colonialism.

Therefore the country has been put in an

indecision about where it belongs in, namely whether the

Arab-African territory or the Black African

territory.


15

Mauritania, along with Morocco and South Africa has one of the highest fishery po-tentials of African countries. As a matter of fact, the country has 640 kilometres of At-lantic coastline. In addition, Mauritanian territorial waters are connected to ocean cur-rent which contain fertile zones for many crustacean and fish species. According to the United Nations 2012 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Mauritania caught 195,000 tons of fish in 2008 and 179,000 in 2009. (Please refer to Figure 1)

993

Fas

Mau

ritan

ia

Ghan

a

Nam

ibia

Nige

ria

Sene

gal

Sier

ra L

eone

Sout

h Af

rica

1162

195

179

360

322 37

3

369

601

598

449 45

9

204

200

645

2008

200951

1

Source: Statistical data compiled from the Report of Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations for 2012

Figure 1. Fish Production in Certain African States, (2008-2009)

MAURITANIAN ECONOMIC RESOURCES2

Mauritania, along with Morocco and

South Africa has one of the highest shery

potentials of all African countries.


16

wealth Mauritania’s fishing sector is still one of the country’s leading sources of employ-ment. Correspondingly, the fishing sector is among the main sources of government in-

1999

0.6 0.2 0.2 0.4

126.4

148.7159.5

95.6

2007 2008 2009

Imports

Exports

Source: Figures drawn from the 2012 FAO report

Valu

e: in

Milli

on U

S Do

llars

Figure 2. Mauritanian Fish Trade (1999-2009)

Mauritania is also a prominent producers of raw minerals, including iron, copper, chrome, and titanium ores. Additionally, Mauritania produces valuable minerals and gemstones like gold, pearl, platinum and semi-precious stones as well as industrial min-erals like gypsum, salt, and sulphur.6 Over the last few years noticeable progress has been made in production, marketing and investment in this industry.

With the government’s increasing focus on the mining industry, several international companies have redirected their investment interests to Mauritania. These companies include various, eminent, Australian, British, French, and Canadian corporations.7


17

Table 1. List of Corporations Undertaking Mineral Exploration in Mauritania

AFRICA MINING GROUP (AMG) SARLAGRINEQ S.AALECTO HOLDINGS INTERNATIONAL LTDAMSSAGE EXPLORATIONARGV SPECIALTY MINES PRIVATE LIMITEDATLANTIC METAL MAURITANIAAURA ENERGYBOFAL INDO MINING COMPANY SA (BIMC SA)BSABUMI MAURITANIE SACARACAL GOLDCOMPAGNIE INDO FRANÇAISE DU COMMERCECURVE CAPITAL VENTURES LTDDRAKE RESOURCES LIMITEDDURMAN INTERNATIONAL GROUPMAURITANIA RESOURCE EARTHSTONE SARLEARTHASTON RESOURCESELITE MINERALS AND METALS (E.E.M.M)ENERGIE ATLANTIQUE SARLFORTE ENERGYGENENARAL MINIERE MAURITANIENNEGAZAL MINERALS LTDGLOBAL MAURITANIE MINING SARLID - GEOSERVICESKARFAHANE CO. LIMITEDLUSITANIALUSITANIA URANIUM MAURITANIAM.R.E.M SARLMACOBA TPMAGHREB MINING S.AMAGREB OIL & MINING LTDMANAGEMMASSADIRMAURI - MINING SA (M.M.S)MAURITANIA ENERGY MINERALS SAMAURITANIA FOR MINING AND SERVICES MMSMAURITANIA MINING RESOURCES S.A.R.LMAURITANIA MINERALS COMPANY SAMAURITANIA RESOURCES LTDMAURITANIA VENTURES LTDMAURITANIAN MINERALS COMPANY SAMAURITANIE DE L’INDUSTRIE MINIERS SARL (SMIM)MAURITANIE RESSOURCES LIMITED SARL


18

MCMMINERALISMINERALIS SARLALECTO HOLDINGS INTERNATIONAL LTDMINERALS MAURITANIA SARLMINING RESOURCES LTDMINING VENTURE LTDMOULAYE EL HASSEN OULD ABASSMURCHISONNEGOCE INTERNATIONAL MININGNELVO INTERNATIONAL MINERALS ET METALS SARLOFFICE MAURITANIEN DE RECHERCHE GEOLOGIQUEORECORP SARL MAURITANIAPACIFIC ANDES RESSOURCES DEVELOPMENT LIMITEDPEAKS METALS MINING & TECHNOLOGY COPIEDRAS ORNAMENTALES HERGHA SLQUARTZ ING MAURITANIA S.ARIIROXWELL MINING LTDSAHARA MINERALSSHIELD MINI. SABOUSSIRYSHIELD MINING MAURITANIESHIELD SABOUSSIRI MINING MAURITANIA S.ASILFREX LTDSMCRPSNIMSOCIETE MAURITANIENNE D’ASSISTANCE ET DE SERVICE SA (MAS)SOMASOSONKO LOWENTHALSPHERE LEBTHEINIA S.ASPIM RESSOURCES SARLTAFOLI MINERALS SARLTAMAGOT BUMI SATASIAST MAURITANIETAYSSIR RESOURCES SASTAZADIT UNDERGROUND MINESTHL MAURITANIA GOLDTHL MAURITANIA URANIUM LTDTURRILL LIMITEDURANIMETRICSWADI AL RAWDAWAFA MINING S.A.Source: http://fr.alakhbar.info/files/mauritanie_permis_recherche_2009-2012.pdf


19

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Copper Concentrates (in metric tons) 5031 31956 33073 37000 37000Gold (in kilograms) 322 2251 6254 8030 8300Iron Ore (in thousand MT) 10658 11817 10950 10275 11500Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Minerals Yearbook-2010

Table 2. Mauritanian Iron, Copper Concentrate, and Gold Production

government. The number of A total of 17 permits were issued in 2007, a figure which

8

Mauritania’s iron production is second only to Mali in Africa and ranked 15th world-wide.9 Between 2006 and 2010 iron production in Mauritania climbed from 10,648,000 to 11,500,000 metric tons. Copper production quantities rose to 370,000 metric tons in 2010, up from 5,031 in 2006. The same five-year period saw a similar increase in gold production, jumping from 322 kilograms in 2006 to 8,300 in 2010.10

Mauritania became an oil-producing country in 2006. However, due to low daily oil production fell from the 2006 figure of 30,619 barrels 7,740 barrels in 2011. Yet, de-spite this drop in production, the Mauritanian government started initiatives for in-

-ping investment interests in this sector.

-duction is second only to Mali in Africa and ranked 15th worldwide.

Table 3. Oil Production in Mauritania (thousand barrels per day)

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011Oil 30.619 14.992 12.833 11.245 8.232 7.74Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

In iron production, Mauritania comes the

second after Mali in the African continent,

while holding the fteenth position in

world rankings.


21

The legal framework of the economic relations between Turkey and Mauritania started to take shape on May 24th, 2005. On this date, a treaty was signed in the Mauritanian capital, Nouakchott, on economic, commercial, and technical cooperation. According to the 26516 issue of the Official Gazette of the Republic of Turkey, this treaty was en-acted on May 2nd, 2007, though Mauritania did not adopt this treaty until September 20th, 2012.11 12

At the institutional level, a memorandum of agreement was signed in Nouakchott on February 15th, 2012, to set up and implement a Joint Business Council between Turkey and Mauritania. The memorandum was signed by Sami Özdağ, the President of the Joint Business Council of Turkey and Mauritania, and by Shighali Vild Aamarah, the President of the Association of National Employers of Mauritania.13 In 2008, the Turk-ish International Cooperation and Coordination Agency (TICA), in line with its efforts

projects.14 The fact that Mr Musa Kulaklıkaya has been an official of TICA, before his as-signment to the position of Ambassador of Turkey in Mauritania15 may be considered as quite a big opportunity for getting support for Turkish development projects in Mauri-tania, without doubt. Before being appointed Turkey’s ambassador to Mauritania, Musa Kulaklıkaya, was a TICA official; since coming into office, he’s undertaken an immense set of activities to establish contact with the various economic sectors of Mauritania. Turkey targets Mauritania’s health, agriculture, and food safety infrastructure, among other areas, as targets for its developmental support. In 2008 this developmental sup-

reports.. Clearly, TICA has yet to establish a consistent policy in terms of the amount of support it provides to Mauritania. However, both sides have been attempting to develop relations that foster mutual development. The tireless efforts of the Turkish ambassador

TURKEY-MAURITANIA:ECONOMIC AND DEVELOPMENTOPPORTUNITIES3

The institutional framework for

economic relations between Turkey and

Mauritania started to take shape on May

24th, 2005.


22

Source: The Reports of the Turkish International Cooperation and Coordination Agency for 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011

Valu

e: in

Milli

on U

S Do

llars

2008 2009 2010 2011

4.7

0.33 0.46 0.404

Figure 3. Aid Provided by the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency to Mauritania (2008 and 2011)

Turkish-Mauritanian trade has also shown significant growth in recent years. As a matter

The highpoint of Turkish imports from Mauritania was 2011--which recorded a historic


23

other foodstuffs, as well as spare parts, electrical equipment, ferrous products and other similar products. Turkish imports from Mauritania, on the other hand, include animal and vegetable oils and skins as well as fish, molluscs, etc.

Figure 4. Turkish imports from and exports to Mauritania 2003 and 2012 (Mn U.S. Dollars)

Exports

2003

4.293.530 5.528.870 10.065.100 8.910.480 10.989.600 15.173.300 22.812.900 37.443.600 75.554.600 111.000.000

1.895.290 4.135.790 982.834 213.974 7.576.790 7.861.410 661.649 1.440.560 15.062.400 4.000.000

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Imports

Table 4. Itemised Turkish Exports to Mauritania ($)

Table 5. Itemised Turkish Imports from Mauritania ($)

ITEM DESCRIPTION 2009 2010Salt, sulphur, soil and rocks, gypsum, and cement 7.277.885 8.687.347Cereals, flour, starch, and milk products 1.349.976 7.992.961Miscellaneous edible food products 1.848.791 4.333.335Electrical machinery, devices, components, and parts 2.222.175 2.704.703

1.074.993 2.358.026Boilers, machinery, devices, tools, and parts 1.668.432 1.634.023Iron and steel 1.863.785 1.513.433Items of iron or steel 1.458.757 1.486.324Cocoa and cocoa products 1.106.457 1.237.189Other 489.092 1.130.920Total 20.360.343 33.078.261Toplam 22.812.903 37.443.613Source: Turkish Statistical Institute of the Turkish Prime Ministry

ITEM DESCRIPTION 2009 2010Animal and vegetable fats and oils 0 700.480Oil seeds and oleaginous fruits, industrial plants, straw, and animal feed 196.200 353.020Raw hides, skins, and leathers 331.494 294.880Fish, crustaceans, molluscs, and other aquatic invertebrates 132.337 90.525Other 1.618 1.655Total 661.649 1.440.560Source: Turkish Statistical Institute of the Turkish Prime Ministry


24

While it’s true that attempts are being made to develop Turkey-Mauritania economic relations, they’re still dwarfed by Chinese and French efforts. Considering the apparent overlap between the strengths and needs of each country, there seem to be areas of high potential for sector integration.

The fishing industry of Mauritania is one of the sectors which Turkey has been attempt-ing to take advantage of. On November 1st, 2011, Bahuseyno Hammadi, the Mauri-tanian Fishing Minister had an audience with the Turkish Ambassador in Nouakchott

followed by Turkish businessmen visiting Mauritania for talks. During the talks, the businessmen met the Mauritanian Fishing and Maritime Economy Minister on May 2nd, 2012.16 This is how Ankara effectively initiated negotiations over a bilateral fishing agreement with Nouakchott.17

In truth, Ankara’s interest in Mauritanian fishing has started to increase after the latter

largest supplier of fish products to Turkey, after Norway, in 2011. While the quanti-

148,300in 2011, the volume of fish imported from Norway was 26, 865 tons, a total 18

Besides, efforts spent to developing cooperation between the two countries in the field of fishery are subjected to certain hardships attributable both to Turkey and Mauritania. Fish consumption in Turkey hasn’t yet reached a level which makes business attrac-

-ple consumed 468,040 tons of fish in 2011, a rather low amount considering Turkey’s population.19

its aquatic riches on one hand and protecting all involved species from overfishing–es-pecially by European fleets–on the other. In the report of the “Vision 2050: Climate Changes and Fish Breeding and Aquaculture in West Africa” symposium held between the 14th and 16th of September 2010 in Dakar, capital of Senegal, specialists and govern-ment officials focused on four possible scenarios about the future of the aquatic wealth of Mauritania. The 1st Scenario predicts that overfishing will eventually result in seri-ous problems, which may possibly be brought under control through administrative measures.

2nd Scenario predicts that Mauritania will totally be deprived of her aquatic wealth due -

and political problems in the country.

The 3rd Scenario revolves around reviving the industry through preventive measures enforced by administrative mechanisms.

While it’s true that attempts are being made to develop Turkey-Mauritania economic relations, they’re still dwarfed by Chinese and French efforts.


25

The 4th Scenario supposes a number of damaging environmental events--deterioration of ecosystems and the fish species living close to the surface getting harmed, massive public migrations to the coast due to a lack of rainfall, etc.--and predicts how they would further threaten Mauritania’s aquatic assets.

2nd Scenario, and suggested that a mandate be issued for finding a sufficient ground for cooperation at regional level, specifically on technol-ogy transfers that would help alleviate, if not eliminate, the adverse effects of climatic

-ing potential abuses of technology in this area.20

The four case scenarios presented above demonstrate how important Turkish could con-tributions to Mauritanian aquaculture would be. Investment in these projects offers certain advantages as neither local nor foreign direct investment have penetrated this sector yet. There are three basic approaches which would encourage both Turkish and Mauritanian investment in this domain.

1st Approach: Research indicates that the demand for aquaculture products will grow

at the same rate. For instance, worldwide fish farm production rose nearly 50% from 47,300,000 tons in 2006 to 63,600,000 tons in 2011, while the amount of caught fish barely registered an increase from 90,000,000 tons to 90,400,000 tons.21 According to

22 This figure not only shows the importance of investment in the aquaculture industry, but it also, suggests that fierce competition in aquaculture investment will emerge in the coming years.

2nd Approach: The Turkish Government has significant ambitions concerning Turk-

of 2006 includes a number of environmental regulations for the aquaculture industry. These new legal arrangements aim to make Turkish companies more globally competi-tive. Apart from this, a roadmap has been laid to develop of aquaculture as an economic field of engagement. Also the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs has been guiding missions and leading efforts in this area, as well. The first of these activities was a work-shop in Izmir on July 16-17th, 2008, titled Developing a Roadmap for Turkish Marine Aquaculture Site Selection and Zoning Using an Ecosystem Approach to Management. The workshop was attended by Turkish public and private sector representatives and NGOs. During another workshop held in Muğla on August 10-11th, 2008, the achievements of the roadmap for aquaculture were discussed and research on how to enhance it was

and details of the roadmap, and a 5-year implementation timetable was put forth.23

3rd Approach: There are European projects aiming to transform the Mediterranean basin into an aquaculture hotspot under the 2020 vision. With this perspective, the Indicators for Sustainable Development of Aquaculture and Guidelines for the Use in Medi-terranean (InDAM) programme was started on December 9th, 2009. Turkey has also joined this programme and even adopted the Turkish province of Muğla as the pilot region to implement this programme, alongside the al-Munastir province of Tunisia.24

Research indicates that the demand for

aquaculture products will grow intensely

over the next couple of years, but, the

demand for caught sh will decline at the

same rate.


26

4th Approach: Increasing Turkish governmental engagement in aquaculture activities has led to burgeoning Turkish corporate investments in the sector. There has also been increased attention towards aquaculture, not only in Turkey but abroad, as well. The Kılıç Group, which was founded in 1993 and transformed into a multinational corpo-

most important host of this particular industry.25 This is where the significance of the Sister City Agreement signed between the Muğla Province of Turkey and Nouadhibou province of Mauritania comes in, as Nouadhibou is not only the economic capital of Mauritania, but also the central location of pelagic fishery activities. The successes of Turkish Government’s efforts to develop aquaculture have also become apparent. Ac-cording to official statistics, the aquaculture production in Turkey has grown gradually

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

322.

924.

900

850.

646.

080

952.

935.

500

1.066

.778

.100

Value (in US Dollars)

1.270

.028

.140

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

139.

873

152.

186 15

8.72

9

167.

141

Quantity (in tons)

188.

890

Figure 5. Turkish Fishery Production between 2007 and 2011

Source: Turkish Statistical Institute

The benefits of developing fishing industry relations between Turkey and Mauritania may not be apparent in the short term. But, the potential is there for huge opportuni-ties in the medium and long terms. The African, European and Asian markets may potentially become a strategic international business opportunity for Turkey and Mau-ritania, because most West African states depend on Mauritanian ports for access to goods imported from other states into their territories. In addition, Mauritania offers a

-an countries as Spain and France and Asian countries. The avaricious European fishing boats clearly acknowledge this, as they mostly catch Mauritanian fish. The Mauritanian government appears to be pretty decisive about opening up their fishing industry to more foreign direct investment. Mauritanian Council of Ministers has issued a formal

The bene ts of developing shing industry relations between Turkey and Mauritania may not be apparent in the short term. But the potential is there for huge opportunities in the medium and long terms.


27

notice on November 25th, 2012, wherein it mentioned deliberations over establishing a free trade zone in Nouadhibou, which is considered among the most important ports of the fishing industry in addition to being the economic capital of the country.

Based on the approaches presented above and similar concerns, the need is evident for setting up partnerships between Mauritania and Turkey concerning sustainable devel-opment and food safety, especially given Turkey’s objectives in the fishing industry and

TICA is already pursuing in Mauritania may be integrated with those of economic ac-tors. Collaborative projects may be carried out with professional organisations engaged in the fishing industry and research institutions. IMROP, the Mauritanian Institute of Oceanographic Research and Fisheries, is one such institution. Meanwhile, Turkey can redirect her efforts towards promoting aquaculture-related activities in Mauritania through Turkish partnerships with European companions and its membership in the African Development Bank.


29

General Vild Abdel Aziz, the President of Mauritania, paid a visit to Turkey on January 21st 26 In November, 2010, following the Mauritanian President’s visit, the Mauritanian Embassy opened in Ankara. In this way Mauritania has started to relieve itself from the binds of its traditional relationships with Europeans, and especially France. Additionally, the Mau-ritanian President and a distinguished delegation of businessmen paid a visit to China on September 18th, 2011, about 1.5 years after his visit to Ankara.27 Although it’s been said that the intention of these visits has been to strengthen the authority and legitimacy of the President at home, the Turkey visit has nonetheless created a crucial perception of significance for the developing political relations between Turkey and Mauritania. After all, the mutual appointment of ambassadors is evidence of this perception. Furthermore, various Turkish ministers have paid consecutive visits to Mauritania. On June 19th, 2007 the Turkish and Mauritanian governments signed a treaty abolishing visa requirements for Turkish and Mauritanian holders of diplomatic passports.

Both elected politicians and the Mauritanian general public welcome Turkey’s policies in general, and especially its position in the Israel-Palestine Conflict. This sympathy

a parade supporting Ankara’s actions after the Mavi Marmara raid took place in front of the Turkish Embassy. On June 15th, 2010, a Turkey-Mauritania Inter-parliamentary Friendship Group was formed under leadership of Seyyid Muhammad Vild Sidi in the Mauritanian Parliament. To reciprocate this courtesy, a Turkey-Mauritania Inter-parlia-mentary Friendship Group was formed in the Turkish Grand National Assembly under the leadership of Muhammet Bilal Macit, a Justice and Development Party (AKP) MP, with participation of his colleagues from the Republican People’s Party (CHP) and Na-tionalist Movement Party (MHP).

TURKEY-MAURITANIAPOLITICAL RELATIONS:INITIATIVES VITAL,BUT SLOW4


30Despite solidifying political relations between Mauritania and Turkey, relations have not yet reached the desired level. At this point, however, it should be noted that the diplomatic interest of Turkey in Mauritania appears higher than Mauritania’s diplomatic interest in Turkey. This imbalance of interest between the two governments suggest that there would be mutual benefits in further bilateral political relations. Therefore, a serious diplomacy shift and a public survey is needed in order to let both countries become more familiar with each other. The two agreements signed recently in the field of information are a step forward. The first of these agreements was signed on July 10th, 201228 between the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) and the Mauri-tanian Radio and Television Broadcast Company.29 The second was signed between the Mauritanian News Agency and the Anatolian News Agency (AA) on July 11th, 2012.30

In addition to the field of information, the Turkish Airlines (THY) corporation has started operating chartered flights directly between İstanbul and Nouakchott. The role

opportunities in cooperation, commercial entrepreneurship, and tourism.31

In this sense, the higher the diversity of domains in which relations are set, the healthier they will be. For this reason, the lifestyles and influence of tribes and national leaders should not be ignored. Therefore, tribal leaders should also be engaged the further bi-

TURKEY - MAURITANIAINTER-PARLIAMENTARY FRIENDSHIP GROUP

DATE OF FOUNDATION 12-JAN-2012CHAIR OF FOUNDERS COMMITTEE MUHAMMET BİLAL MACİT

PRESIDENT OF THE BOARD MUHAMMET BİLAL MACİTORIGINAL MEMBERS OF BOARD

PRESİDENT MUHAMMET BİLAL MACİT İSTANBUL AKPVICE PRESIDENT FATİH ŞAHİN ANKARA AKP

SECRETARY GENERAL AHMET BERAT ÇONKAR İSTANBUL AKPTELLER MEHMET MUS İSTANBUL AKP

MEMBER OMER SELVI NİĞDE AKPMEMBER OZLEM YEMISCI TEKİRDAĞ AKPMEMBER FAİK TUNAY İSTANBUL CHPMEMBER HALUK AHMET GUMUS BALIKESİR CHPMEMBER DURMUSALI TORLAK İSTANBUL MHP

SUBSTITUTE BOARD MEMBERSMEMBER HAMZA DAG İZMİR AKPMEMBER BULENT TURAN İSTANBUL AKPMEMBER FEHMİ KUPCU BOLU AKPMEMBER HAKAN ÇAVUŞOĞLU BURSA AKPMEMBER MELDA ONUR İSTANBUL CHP

Source: http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/develop/owa/dostluk_gruplari.yonetim_kurullari

Table 6. Turkey-Mauritania Friendship Group

The political and diplomatic relations that Turkey will endeavour with Mauritania, should not be implemented through a certain channel like the inter- Parliamentary platform, and within particular party organisations, only.


31

lateral relations. Moreover the charm of the “Turkish Model” phenomenon among both Arabic and Western spheres in Mauritanian public opinion should not trick Ankara into thinking it can manipulate Mauritania’s internal affairs. The incident between the Presi-

media organs of Mauritania, when the Emir of Qatar, Sheikh Hamad Bin Jasim al-Tani, visited Mauritania, he mentioned a need to open positions for Islamic activists in the Mauritanian government. This suggestion triggered anger in General Vild Abdulaziz, the President of Mauritania, who reacted by not paying a farewell to the Emir of Qatar,

the internal political balances of countries and avoid using them as ammunition in the diplomatic arena. In a similar case, which involved the former Turkish ambassador to Algeria, the ambassador was accused of “interfering with internal affairs of the state”.32

His criticisms of Algerian officials that used talking points from Algeria’s Islamic parties caused an undeclared diplomatic crisis in Algeria. Afterwards, the Turkish Ambassador was forced to quit and leave Algeria, rendering his position vacant for months.

However, this doesn’t mean that either party will stay ignorant of the political develop-ments taking place in the territory of the other. On the contrary, diligence is needed to help states overcome their internal political crises, crises which might adversely affect regional stability. Tactful, considerate approaches to issue would definitely yield positive outcomes. Although Turkey did not assume a direct role in solving the crises of West

this point, attention should be drawn to former Prime Minister of Mauritania, Muham-mad al-Salik bin Muhammad al-Amin. In his book, “Mauritania: Hope Buried Alive / 2006-2008 Democracy Lacking Horizons”, he suggests that a group be formed under the name “Friends of Democracy in Mauritania”. The purpose of this group would be to support democracy in the country, and among its members would be Germany, Spain, USA and France, with the possibility of later including Italy, Norway, and Sweden. The former Prime Minister proposes that three Muslim states, consisting of Malaysia, Qatar, and Turkey be added to the group, as well.33 It is for this reason that Mauritania closely follows political developments in Turkey and their impacts on Turkey’s regional and international roles in the United Nations, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and the NATO Mediterranean Dialogue Initiative. As a matter of fact, President Abdullah Gül asked Nouakchott to support Ankara’s membership in the Security Coun-cil and indicated, with appreciation, the support Mauritania had given to his country in the OIC regarding the Cyprus issue, during the Mauritanian president’s visit to Ankara.

Although Turkey did not assume a direct

role in solution of crises in West Africa,

it expects demands for her support as a

result of her regional and international

proximity to the continent, in solving

matters of internal disputes.


33

Although Mauritania is not geographically close to Turkey nor do they share direct na-tional security interests, the treaty enabling free travel for diplomatic representatives was still signed. According to some, this treaty is low importance because it is limited to

have taken place in Turkish international politics during Post-Cold War period, and the military aspect of these changes, the treaty is no trivial event. Agreements on military training are significant developments in the national security sphere, being as they are inherently linked with strategic and operational planning concerns. Likewise, the im-portance of future threats or partnerships can only be known through the passage of time.

in 2002, before the bilateral treaty was signed. Turkey and Mauritania are considered partners through the NATO Mediterranean Dialogue Initiative, which was founded in 1994. Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, Mauritania and Israel, joined the initiative in late 1995, and were followed by Algeria in 2000. Libya, however, preferred to be the only state in the Maghreb and North Africa not to participate.35 This attractive NATO initiative first drew Turkey and Mauritania to multi-level military cooperation, thus forming the basis for bilateral cooperation In other words, the bilateral relationship can hardly be separated from the multilateral relationship.

When he welcomed the Mauritanian president to Ankara, Turkish President Abdullah Gül stated within the framework of this bilateral arrangement signed in 2002, the Turk-ish Army would train Mauritanian commissioned officers in NATO’s Partnership for

On the 28th of June, 2002 a treaty was signed by the Turkish and Mauritanian governments abolishing visa requirements for holders of diplomatic passports. This treaty in fact filled an important gap on the strategic platform, due to France’s tra-ditional role as the fulcrum of Mauritanian military training matters34.

TURKEY-MAURITANIA MILITARY AND SECURITY RELATIONS: AFRICAN CALCULATIONS, OR TRANSATLANTIC CALCULATIONS?5


34

Peace Centre in Ankara.36 The Centre hosts training programs for the military personnel of various countries. These countries range from countries of Central Asia to Mauritania in North and West Africa, and from the Caucasian Region to Eastern Europe and the Balkans.

Mauritania

Bulgaria

Albania

Kosovo

Romania MoldovaUkrayna

Georgia

Azerbaijan

TurkmenistanAfghanistan

Uzbekistan

MongoliaKazakhstan

Kyrgyzstan

Tajikistan

B. Herzegovina

Macedonia

Figure 6. Countries Covered by NATO’s Partnership for Peace Centre in Ankara Between 2002 and 2011

Source: Course Guide 2012: Training and Education Period, Turkish General Staff, (PfP) Training Center, Ankara, Turkey, P:33. http://www.bioem.tsk.tr/

It should be noted that the “NATO Mediterranean Dialogue Initiative” constitutes a point of coordination for security and strategic concerns in the Mediterranean Basin for future initiatives. One of these initiatives is the “Istanbul Initiative” of 2004. This initia-tive intended to integrate the states of the Persian Gulf into the agenda of North Atlantic Treaty. Moreover, it has affected security cooperation in the West Mediterranean and East Mediterranean Regions.37 NATO operations in the Mediterranean Region are de-signed to intercept threats emanating from similar operations in the Black Sea and Red Sea. Additionally, Jean Dufourcq identifies the “NATO Mediterranean Region” as an unofficial strategic zone. According to him, the “NATO-Mediterranean Region” covers Morocco, Mauritania, Spain, Portugal, UK; and also the Canary Islands, the Azores Islands and Gibraltar, all located in or facing the Atlantic Ocean.38 From an operational perspective, “Operation Active Endeavour” (A maritime operation) is one of the major efforts of the Northern Atlantic Alliance to consolidate the most critical maritime basins

-ranean Sea.39


35

and Nouakchott to strengthen. This strengthening relationship will reflect the general NATO desire to integrate into the new security environment produced by the Arab Spring. As a matter of fact, this shift was discussed in an earlier symposium held in Chicago, between March 28th and 30th, 2012, themed “Smart Defence and the Future of NATO: Can the Alliance Meet the Challenges of the Twenty-First Century?” Turkey’s role in these new challenges seems to concentrate around the Syrian Crisis, Iran’s Nuclear Programme and other similar threats in the Middle East according to Lt. Gen. Sadi Erguvenc, Turkey’s former military representative in NATO’s Military Committee, in his speech titled “Turkey’s NATO Agenda: What Role in the Middle East?” Although he didn’t mention Mauritania directly in his speech, the Erguvenc referenced security

as far as Mauritania. After the collapse of the government in Libya, a huge amount of weapons were smuggled into the territory of Mali. Armed groups with ethnic ties to groups in Mauritania, then came to dominate the border between Mali and Maurita-nia. . The Turkish military representative spoke in favour of further improvement and reinforcement of the “NATO Mediterranean Dialogue Initiative”, of which Mauritania is also a member.40

This military agreement signed between Turkey and Mauritania establishes a spring-board for Turkey’s military industry in Africa, as well, as these types of agreements are known to play an important role in creating interoperability agreements and common

NAMSA - NATO Maintenance and Supply Agency41 on January 25th, 2010. As a result, Mauritania has become the second state member of the NATO Mediterranean Dialogue Initiative. This programme allows Mauritania to benefit from logistic support schemes, purchase defence equipment and meet urgent needs.42 The programme offers a number of opportunities for Turkey to develop and market its own military industry, including unmanned aircraft technologies, in addition to the NSIP-NATO Security Investment Programme.43 During a visit he paid to Egypt in November 2012, President Recep Tayyip Erdogan signed an agreement between Turkey and Egypt for the first lot sales of 10 each unmanned aircraft of ANKA model.44 These unmanned aircraft have gradually started to assume an active role within programmes dedicated to the struggle against terrorism, organised crime, and border monitoring, and Turkey is now a country that

at an opportunity to confront the elevated threat posed by armed groups in the Coastal and Saharan regions.45

The military training deal with Mauritania opens another dimension toward the Turkish -

nian neighbours Senegal and Mali appear to have signed military arrangements similar in scope and nature with Turkey, as well. On December 1st, 1998 the Senegalese Sec-


36

retary of Defence, Sheikh Hamidou Kane, and Hüseyin Kıvrıkoğlu, the then Turkish Head of General Staff came together to sign a treaty on technical and scientific matters and military training.46 A similar agreement was signed with Mali on May 13th, 1999, in addition to a cooperation memorandum on staff training between the Turkish and Malian National gendarme organisations.47

The role Turkey has assumed by signing military and security agreements with African states is also related to the developments taking place in UN peacekeeping operations.

environmental threats, cross-border crimes, and other war-driven crises. Regional and international actors, India, China, Russia, Brazil, Indonesia, and South Africa in par-ticular, have recently had their UN peacekeeping roles defined more broadly.48 Turkey is also considered among the countries witnessing a major transformation due to its involvement in the peacekeeping operations since the end of the Cold War. Turkey is further counted as among the top fifteen countries providing support for civilian police forces as part of UN peace-keeping efforts. Moreover, Turkey has actively participated in the peacekeeping operations of Somalia, Sudan, Burundi, Ivory Coast, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Liberia, as part of its activities in Africa.49

The agreement signed between Turkey and Mauritania on general military matters fur-ther elevated Mauritania’s position in the eyes of the Turkish military and the Atlantic Alliance. Even if this agreement seems to be less significant than arrangements signed

relations between the two countries. This is best shown by Mauritania’ 2012 appoint-ment of Colonel Vild Muhammad Fal Vild Al-Khal, its former military attaché to the Mauritanian Embassy in Libya, to the same position in its newly-opened diplomatic mission in Ankara.50 On another occasion in 2010, during the visit of Besir Atalay, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, to Nouakchott51, the two countries signed an agreement on cooperation against terrorism.52 Two years later, in 2012, on a trip to Ankara by Muhammad bin Ebilil, the Minister of Internal Affairs and Decentralisation, he signed an agreement on cooperation in the fields of security, resettlement, and local administra-tion, with Idris Naim Sahin, his Turkish counterpart. The agreement calls for coopera-tion on a series of matters including acts of terrorism, organised crime, cyber-crimes, historical artefact smuggling, drug abuse, illegal human and arms trafficking, as well as illegal immigration. In addition, during the two minister’s conversation the subject of including Mauritania in Turkish police training programs was broached. As another indication of growing security cooperation between Turkey and Mauritania, Turkish Ambassador Musa Kulaklıkaya was received by Ahmed Vild Eddi Vild Muhammad Al-Radi, the Mauritanian Defence Minister.53


37

Relations between China and Mauritania date back to the period when Mauritania was at-tempting to become a member of the UN and the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was endeavouring to take the Chinese seat on the UN Security Council from the government in Taiwan. Mauritania had submitted its official application to become a member of the UN in November 1960, an idea which was already supported by France, the U.S., the UK and the PRC. Before Mauritania submitted its application, Morocco arranged to have the ‘Mau-ritania problem added to the agenda for the UN’s 15th General Assembly meeting. During the meeting, Morocco asked former colonial powers to cease fragment their lands and pre-tending to grant independence. However, as the People’s Republic of China vetoed the UN membership of the People’s Republic of Mongolia, the Soviet Union took the opportunity to veto Mauritania’s request. The Soviet Union justified their position by saying that they were insulted by the Security Council’s refusal to accept Mongolia’s application.54

When all attempts to recognise Mauritania failed, Nouakchott as well as her powerful allies directed their attention to the PRC. Since the Nationalist Chinese government in Taiwan could convince the Soviet Union to shift its position against Mauritania if it changed its posi-tion against Mongolia’s application. At that time, France and other Western states started to pressure Taiwanese diplomatic representatives in Africa in order to convince the Nationalist government to recognise Mongolia’s independence. A settlement was finally reached in No-vember 1961, when the Chinese government lifted its veto on Mongolia’s membership. In response, the Soviet Union lifted its resistance to Mauritania’s UN membership.55

Shortly after gaining its independence on October 25th, 1961, Mauritania formally recognised the government in Beijing. On July 19th, 1965, Beijing and Nouakchott announced that they had established diplomatic relations with each other.57 From that time on, the Chinese-Mauri-tanian relations grew a great deal. In fact the People’s Republic of China was second only to France in how much support it gave to newly-independent Mauritania. Numerous agreements were signed regarding trade, agriculture, education, health, fishing, mining and infrastructure.

THE CHINESE INROADS: QUIETER BUT MORE PERVASIVE6


38

Mauritania signed the first agreement to be eligible to received Chinese aid in 1967, and 58 The same year saw the first bilateral cooperation

agreement in the field of education. With this agreement, Beijing agreed to provide full scholarships to Mauritanian students. By 2010, 200 Mauritanian students had used this opportunity to finance their advanced studies at Chinese institutions of higher education institutions. In the meantime, hundreds of Mauritanian engineers and technicians took part

one secondary school built by China were officially opened. Also foundations were laid for a medical school with a planned capacity of 1200 students.59 The Chinese Ministry of Educa-tion has been sending two lecturers to teach the Chinese language at Nouakchott University every year since 1986. Recently high school students in Mauritania have been developing interest in the Chinese language. Upon learning about this interest, China has decided to send more teachers to the country. This is done through cooperation between the Chinese Embassy in Nouakchott, the International Council of the Chinese Language (Hanban) and Nouakchott University.60

-cursion to the 2010 “Arabic Arts Festival” in Beijing and the “Arab-Chinese Forum for Artisans”.61 Education and culture relations have thickened in recent years, leading to the opening of a Confucius Institute in Mauritania. The Chinese Language Office and Xia-men University are also opening branches in Africa to support the efforts of Confucius institutes in promoting Chinese educational and cultural activities. Within this frame-work, in 2012 a meeting was organised in South Africa for branch representatives of the Confucian Institute in the African Continent. The meeting was attended by 120 people representing 11 Chinese institutes pursuing activities in foreign countries, in addition to the 30 Confucian Institutes and Academies from 22 African countries. The meeting was a round table of discussions for alternate ways to speed up integration between the institute and African universities and communities.62


39

Table 7. Distribution of Confucius Institutes in Africa (Classes)

Additionally, Beijing sends young volunteers to African states to participate educational sup-port programs. In 2009 187 young Chinese were sent to such programs in Morocco, Mau-ritania, and Namibia.63

of herbs, rice, and other crops between 2007 and 2009..64 Within the same framework, an agreement was signed between China and Mauritania to establish a 50-hectare agricultural technique centre on July 18th, 2011.65

In the health sector, the first agreement between the two countries was signed in 1968. Ac-cording to this agreement, China agreed to cover the travel costs, wages, and subsistence for the Chinese Doctors Team, while Mauritania agreed to arrange appropriate housing and em-ployment conditions. From that date onwards, China has sent 29 teams of 845 doctors, who have treated roughly 1.7 million Mauritanian patients in Nouakchott, Kiffa, and Selibaby. In 2011, an 88-bed capacity friendship hospital was formally opened in the Arafat district of Nouakchott.66 The medical teams sent by China to African states come from certain territo-ries in China. For instance, the young volunteers sent to Mauritania came from Heilongjiang Region, while volunteers from the Sihunan region are being appointed to Cape Verde and Angola.67 Social development agreements signed between 2012 and 2014 portend even more future cooperation between China and Mauritania.

Country NumberBenin 1Botswana 1Cameroon 1Egypt 2Ethiopia 1Kenya 3Liberia 1Madagascar 1Mali 1Morocco 1Nigeria 2Rwanda 1South Africa 4Sudan 1Tanzania 1Togo 1Tunisia 1Zambia 1Zimbabwe 1Source: Hanban (Confucius Institute Headquarters) 2010 Annual Report


40

The first Chinese-Mauritanian economic and business agreement was signed in 1967.68 In 1984, a joint commission on economics and commerce was formed between the two countries, and in 2006, China recognised a preferred charge application for Mauritania regarding bilateral commercial relations.69 Mauritania is now one of China’s top twenty African trade partners. In 2010, it climbed to the 14th position in the ranking of Afri-

China.71 Until 2003 bilateral trade figures were unstable, varying annually between -

-

cent of the total direct investments originating from China to the African continent during the same period. The net worth of Chinese investments on Mauritanian stocks, on the other

73

1.7

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

0.09 0.36

4.786.53 5.77

19.69

Valu

e: in

Milli

on U

S Do

llars

Figure 7. Chinese Direct Investment in Mauritania (2003-2011)

Source:-2011

From the onset of diplomatic relations between China and Mauritania until the end of 2004,

in the future.74

to Mauritania at an interest rate of 3%.75

76

Mauritania is considered one of the most important Sub-Saharan African countries receiving economic aid from China. The aid provided by Beijing to these countries has multiplied from


41

position in the ranking was occupied by Nigeria with 14%, followed by Angora with 13%, and Sudan with 6%.77

Aside from infrastructural projects crucial to the Mauritanian economy, these funds are being spent on the, parliament building, a youth house, an Olympic hall, the Mauritanian Agency of Scientific Research, a cultural house, the presidential residence, the presidential office, the foreign ministry and other similar administrative and social facilities. For in-stance, the Chinese “Transtech Engineering Corporation” undertook construction of a 430 km railroad linking the capital, Nouakchott to Bufal city, which has rich reserves of phos-

international airport construction contract in Nouakchott.

Due to the Chinese government’s intention to diversify energy sources, Mauritania has be-come one of the African countries that falls within China’s interests, along with Mali, Chad and Sao Tome.78

Table 8. Chinese Projects in Mauritania

Project Year Financier Contractor Total Value Share of Operation of Block Number 12 and two zones of Block Number 13 for oil 2004 Being sought

China National Corporation (CNPC)

–––– ––––

at Block Number 20 2005 Being soughtChina National Corporation (CNPC)

–––– ––––

Construction of an international airport in Nouakchott 2005

Chinese Government

Unknown 280 224

Construction of a 430 km long railway connecting Nouakchott to Bufal 2007

ChinaTranstech EngineeringCorporation

620 620

Source:


42

In the meantime, Beijing has tried to take advantage of Mauritania’s mines, especially after it became one of China’s major iron ore suppliers. Bearing in mind Beijing’s need to diversify its iron sources, the core intent of the China Minmetals corporation’s investments in Mauri-tanian mining industry, becomes clearer. The director general of China Minmetals has clearly

and Australia.79 China is not only working to realise investments in the Mauritanian min-ing industry, but is also attempting to establish monopolies across Africa. Toward this end, China abuses both the internal political conditions and regional disputes throughout Africa,

China’s greatest project to date in Mauritania is the “Friendship Port”, which, located in Nouakchott, is still the country’s leading port. Construction started in 1979 and the facility was completed in 198680 After the railroad that links Tanzania to Zimbabwe, this seaport is consid-ered the second largest project China has successfully completed in Africa.81 In 2010, it was

82

In fact, the importance ascribed to the “Friendship Port” emanates from its role connecting the Las Palmas Seaport83 and Senegal’s Dakar Seaport.84 This seaport provides a strategic advantage to China, as it contributes to regional economic integration and, therefore, lures the national economies of the West African region.

Source: Africa and China, Atlas on regional integration in west Africa, The Economic Community of West African States -Sahel and West Africa Club, December 2006, P:12, http://www.oecd.org/swac/publications/38409391.pdf

Tunisia

Algeria

Mauritania Mali Niger

Nigeria

Chad Sudan

KongoGabon

Equatorial Guinea

SinopecCNPC / Petrochina CNDOC

Angola

Figure 8. Countries Hosting Activities of CNPC, a Chinese Corporation Holding a Mauritanian Oil Extraction License


43

On the other hand, China’s interest in Mauritania in this regard is under the threat of US operations that seemingly diminish China’s influence in Africa. The Nouakchott Port and other Chinese economic projects make Mauritania a key country in resisting anti-Chinese

Nouakchott should be liaised with the other initiatives in West Africa. As a matter of fact, the members of the Maritime Organisation of West and Central Africa (MOWCA) have signed a memorandum of understanding toward establishing a regional coastal security network. According to this agreement, four zones were to be set up to facilitate periodic operations

this move to restrain China’s influence in West Africa, under the cover of fighting terrorism and piracy . Although the strategic and military dimensions of most of China’s economic

efforts to spread its influence in West Africa. The incident in Mauritania’s parliament on June 7th, 2010--the eve of the China-Mauritania fishing agreement’s ratification--is telling. Right before the agreement was approved, one of the members of the Mauritanian parliament accused China of attempting to “found a state in Mauritania’s territorial waters”.85 This and other similar dissenting opinions of certain members of the parliament were based 25-year lifespan of the agreement, the agreement’s being signed by a Chinese corporation allegedly tied to the Chinese government, rather than the government itself, Chinese investors being

86 However, most controversial of all was the connection between the signatory corporation, “Poly Hon Done Pelagic Fishery”, with another corporation in the defence industry named “Poly Technologies Inc.” (PTI).87 In the end the Chinese Ambassador had to give an inter-view to the independent Koubeni Radio, wherein he repeatedly stressed that this corporation was an internationally renowned energy and contracting company with a broad range of activities, in an effort to reassure the general public and political actors.88

If the debates on the details of the agreement are disregarded, it becomes crystal clear that China sees Mauritania as part of a broad strategic plan with regional and international di-mensions beyond bilateral relations. For China, Mauritania is one leg of a larger effort to create manoeuvring spaces on the African continent.

was thus quite surprising that on December 6th, 2012 the Mauritanian Minister of Fishery and Maritime Economy hosted a delegation from the U.S. Coast Guard89 for discussions on maritime security on December 6th 2012, right after receiving the Chinese Ambassador in Mauritania earlier that day.90

Beijing has been using all available means, particularly soft power tools and regional disputes, to deal with any American threats to its presence in Africa. The Chinese ambassador in Mau-ritania, Mr Chen Gonglai, held the official launching ceremony of Chinese FM Mauritania radio in Nouakchott, in May 2012, in order to encourage Chinese-Mauritanian relations, while promoting Chinese culture in Mauritania. This station will broadcast in French and Arabic in Mauritania and its neighbouring Arab-African countries. The opening of another radio station in Sudan is anticipated in the near future.91 Furthermore, China has provided

billion in April 2010.92 Although the aid was are limited, receiving arms from a country other


44

than France for the first time is, in itself, a transformative event.. The presence of security threats in coastal and Saharan regions make the aid that much more significant, as China fears that such threats can affect all its interests and investments in West Africa. And this co-incides with the Chinese Ambassador in Mali announcing in September 2012 that Beijing would provide military assistance to the Mali, in its struggle against terrorism in the north.93


45

The first of these approaches involves Mauritania’s remaining under the influence of the conditions in which it was recognised as a sovereign state thanks to China and that China has realised major infrastructure projects of the country. The second reason is

has thus not yet acquired the capacity to set up and maintain relations on the basis of long-term strategies with many countries.

For this reason, decision-makers in Turkey can no longer afford to miss any opportu-

foreign investment, especially in its mining industry. Yet Turkey is handicapped by its

strategic industries. This reveals the importance of the interview given by the Maurita-nian Minister of labour, vocational education, and new technologies with Safa Salibay, the General Director of the Sisrif-Turkey Corporation on November 27th, 2012, and the scholarships granted by the Turkish Embassy in Mauritania to 25 Mauritanian students pursuing post-graduate studies in the fields of civil engineering, mining, engineering, and business administration in Turkey. One of the main factors of Chinese success in its dealings with Mauritania is the involvement of staff who had studied in China and then worked in project planning and implementation in Mauritania. All this training was supplied by Beijing through lecturers and teachers assigned to Mauritania with the ultimate objective of marketing Chinese technologies in such critical sectors as com-munication and agriculture. However, understanding the decision-making mechanisms of Mauritania remains the greatest challenged that Turkey faces in bilateral economic relations. These decision-making mechanisms need to be more transparent in order to ensure the flow of investments and a safe and healthy environment. This is the point where China and many European states outperform Turkey.

In the meanwhile, Turkey has started to develop interests in Mauritania, especially in the area of food production and food security. This sector is enormously significant as it is directly related to social, regional, and even international stability. Mauritania is,

China-Mauritanian relations show that Mauritania is not a country shrugged off in the calculations of great powers. How-ever, decision-makers in Turkey may not be aware of Mauri-tania’s strategic importance.

CONCLUSION ANDREMARKS7


46

Saharan regions) which damages crop production and elevates social and political ten-sions. Considering that a great majority of productive farmland in Mauritania falls in the southern parts of the country where communities of black people live, we may pre-dict how politically dangerous economic disruptions would be. At this point, it should be noted that the Darfur crisis was not a political matter at first.. On the contrary, the crisis occurred as a result of certain migrant communities crossing the Great Sahara

Sahelian draught. The people of Darfur, were then forced to fight to protect their own interests. Upon this development, the former dictator of Libya, Muammar Gaddafi, started to manipulate the situation by arming the tribes against each other so that he could maintain influence over the Sudanese problem and have leverage in negotiations in the Sudan crisis.

Apart from this, the Mauritanian Ministry of Rural Development organised a training course on food security on May 6th, 2012, in cooperation with the Turkish Embassy in Mauritania. This event was conducted under the auspices of the food security scheme Al-Hayat, financed by Turkey with contributions from TICA. These kinds of efforts support social and regional stability even though it is not the intent of the Al-Hayat organisers. However, these kind of efforts usually need a broader vision and some other local and international partners. From a marketing perspective it’s quite important to make connections between agricultural production and food safety schemes that pro-vide inter-communal stability. In other words, replacing speculation in international food markets with a mentality based on mutual partnership on matters of food security is a means to defy what was correctly described by the British sociologist Antony Gid-dens as the “industry of hunger” that threatens the world.

The biannual, International Conference on Agriculture and Food, first held in Antalya between 15th and 19th of February 2012, then takes on a new level of importance. The

and agriculture. Some international organizations coordinating food aid in Mauritania

This is not to say that black communities do not need such aid, yet, such practices may and do cause trouble and undesired consequences.

In conclusion of this study, we can see that there are many opportunities for devel-oping political and strategic relations alongside economic and developmental relations between Turkey and Mauritania-especially after the momentum begun by the Maurita-nian president’s visit to Ankara. However, these relations need to be better coordinated officially and institutionally-including through regional and international organizations. Naturally, bilateral public diplomacy should not be disregarded, as it will be mutually-beneficial regarding economic and cultural relations. The twinning agreements signed between the Akjoujt Municipality of Mauritania and the Meram Municipality of Konya are one such constructive step. Such cooperation, however, should be amplified in all areas.


47

FOOTNOTES

1 . (Hamah Allah Vild al-Salim, Mauritania in Arabian Memory, Centre for Arab Unity

Studies, Beirut, First Edition, June 2005, P. 246).2 See the interview of Mr Musa Kulaklıkaya, the Ambassador of Turkey in Mauritania with Mau-

ritania Health magazine, http://essahaelyoum.net/reportages/trai_element.php?id_info=21.3 - - - . Muhammad Said bin Ahmad, Research (Paper on the Problem of Political Identity in Mauri-

tania during the 1960-1993 period, between Arab Belonging and Africa Orientation, Centre for Arab Unity Studies, Beirut-Lebanon, First Edition, July 2003, P. 112.)

4 Black minorities have been categorised in three groups extending towards Senegal, Mali and Gambia, by social, economic and lingual differences. These are the Toucouleur, Soninke and Wolof. For details also see ibid, PP. 119-120.

5 For lingual and cultural policies implemented by France in Mauritania throughout the coloni-alism phase and its political reflections, please refer to Dr Muhammad Said bin Ahmad, ibid, P.89-110 89-110.

6. Les ressources minérales et le développement de l’Afrique, Rapport du Groupe d’études in-ternational sur les régimes miniers de l’Afrique, Addis-Abeba, Éthiopie, premier tirage, No-vember 2011, P:204. http://www.africaminingvision.org/amv_resources/AMV/ISG%20Re-port_fre.pdf.

7. For more details on legal and institutional framework that regulates the mining industry and on international corporations investing on this sector, please see Minerals Yearbook-2010, U.S Geological Survey, US Department of Interior and U.S Geological Survey, P. 291-294.

8. See the File prepared by al-Akhbar, the internet newspaper of Mauritania, on mine exploration licenses at http://www.alakhbar.info/25813-0-FFAB-266CB00BCFF-C-F.html.

9. Mineral Commodity Summaries, U.S. Geological Survey, January 2012, P:85.http://mine rals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2012/mcs2012.pdf.

10. Minerals Yearbook-2010, op. cit, P.294.11. See Official Gazette 26516th Edition of May 8th 2007.12. Quite interestingly, some agreements are signed between Turkey and many Arabic countries

but these are not approved for implementation unless a long period of time elapses in between. This means that the problem in question must be solved. It is possible for Turkish-Arab inter-parliamentary friendship groups and other similar joint business councils to play a certain role in solution of this problem. This will also serve for elimination of bureaucratic barriers inhibiting development in Turkish-Arab relations.

13. For establishment of a Joint Business Council between Turkey and Mauritania please refer http://neareast.fao.org/Pages/NewsDetails.aspx?lang=AR&Cat=0&I=0&DId=0&CId=0&CMSId=83&id=2403190.

14. The Turkish International Cooperation and Coordination Agency (TICA) was founded in 1992 and gradually became the leading institution of Turkey in provision of support for Turk-ish international cooperation programmes. This institution also establishes and maintains co-ordination with many local and international bodies, within the auspices of anti-poverty and social infrastructure enhancement schemes. The Agency has numerous branch representations in Asia and Europe. The Africa Offices of the Agency are located in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya and Senegal.

15. See Parliamentary Decree No: 1431/2011 as published on the OG of February 2011, with issue no: 27856.

16. Minister of Fishery and Maritime Economy had an interview with Ambassador of Turkey in Mauritania. http://www.ami.mr/index.php?page=Depeche&id_depeche=24668.


48

17. Balıkçılık Kıyı Yapıları Durum ve İhtiyaç Analizi, T.C. Ulaştırma Bakanlığı Demiryolları, Limanlar ve Hava Meydanları İnşaatı Genel Müdürlüğü Sonuç Raporu, Cilt 1, Ankara, 1Nisan 2011, S.43 [ Fishery Shore Structures Status and Needs Analysis , TR Ministry of Trans-portation Department of Sea and Airport Construction Projects, Final Report, Vol. 1, Ankara,April 1st 2011, P.43”] http://www.kugm.gov.tr/BLSM_WIYS/DLH/tr/DOKUMAN_SOL_MENU/ Balikcilik_ Kiyi_Yapilari/20110527_151837_10288_1_46492.pdf.

18 Statistics on Aquaculture, Turkish Statistical Institute, Ankara, Oct. 2012, P. 54.www.turkstat gov.tr/IcerikGetir.do?istab_id=52.

19 See İbid P. 5.20 Rapport d’atelier 2011-10 en “Vision 2050: Changement climatique, pêche et aquaculture en

Afrique de l’Ouest Du 14 au 16 avril 2010, Dakar, Sénégal, P:13-16. http://www.worldfish-center.org/resource_centre/WF_2784.pdf.

21 The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012, Food and Agriculture Or ganization ofthe United Nations, Rome, 2012, S.3. http://www.fao.org/ docrep/016/i2727e/i2727e.pdf.

22 See İbid P. 189.23 Doris Soto, Patrick White and Guzel Yucel, “TCP/TUR/3101: Developing a roadmap for

Turkish marine aquaculture site selection and zoning using an ecosystem approach to manage-ment”. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1356e/i1356e05.pdf. PP: 8-9.

24 InDAM Expert Meeting on Definition of Regional Minimum Set of Indicators for Sustain-able Agriculture Malta”, 25-26 November 2010, general fisheries commission for the Mediter-ranean, p:2.http:// www.faosipam.org/GfcmWebSite/CAQ/WGSA/INDAM_Narrative_Re-port_Malta.pdf.

25 “Mugla - a Hub for Turkey’s Aquaculture Industry” http://www.worldfishing.net/news101/ fish-farming/mula-a-hub-for-turkeys-aquaculture-industry.

26 The President was accompanied by Vice President Musavdah Bin Hammam, and Secretary of Foreign Affairs Alnah Bin Miknas, Minister of Economy and Development Seyyid Vild Altah,Finance Minister Kan Osman and Presidential Court Chairperson Seyyakh Vild Eal, as well as important officials and numerous members of media organisations, in his visit.

27 During his visit to China, the President’s entourage included the Minister of Economy and Development Seyyid Vild Altah, Minister of Industry Traditional Industry and Tourism Bam-ba Vild Derman and Minister of Fishery and Maritime Economy Agzafana Vild Ebih, among others.

28 This agreement was signed under direct supervision of H.E. Vild Mahcup, the MauritanianMinister of Communication and Parliamentary Affairs and H.E. Bulent Arinc, Turkish Dep-uty Prime Minister.

29 This agreement was signed between Haluk Ilicak, Ambassador of Turkey and Mohamed al Salek Veled Lamin, Mauritanian Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation (Please refer toParliamentary Decree of August 13th 2007 with enactment number 12521 as published onthe Official Gazette of the Turkish Republic of May 3rd 2007, Issue 26632.

30 The memorandum of understanding between the Anatolian Agency and Mauritanian News Agency. http://www.aa.com.tr/ar/kurumsal-haberler/64167.

31 Turkish Airlines (THY) schedules direct flights to Nouakchott for the first time in history.http://www.alakhbar.info/26451-0--FCFFC-0BA0FFB-F-F0-0.html.

32 http://www.echoroukonline.com/ara/articles/ 132227.html.33 Muhammad Mahmud Vedadi, “The Lost Hope 2006-2008: A Democracy without Future”

Second Part. http://arayalmostenir.com/pr/7775--2006-2008-.html.34 This agreement was signed by Colonel Muhammad Al Emin, Commander of National Forces

of Mauritania and Air Vice Marshall Sevket Dingiloglu, Head of Deeds and Agreements De-partment of the Turkish General Staff. This Agreement was published on the 24866th issue of the Turkish Official Gazette in full text on September 4th 2002.

35 Ibrahim Saidy, “Le rôle de l’OTAN en Méditerranée et au Moyen-Orient”, La revue Interna-tionale et stratégique, n°73, printemps 2009, p: 46. http://www.dandurand.uqam.ca/uploads/files/publications/rflexions/saidy_otan_mo_050509.pdf.

36 “Vild Abdel Aziz in Turkey: He handles bilateral relations and visits the mausoleum of Atat-urk.” http://www.akhbaralaalam.net/?aType=haber&ArticleID=33843.

37 Highlight is made to the facts that Mauritania and Jordan are the two states members of“NATO Mediterranean Initiative” albeit they have no coasts shoring the Mediterranean Sea, despite which fact however, their integration with the NATO initiative has been arranged.

38 Rachid EL Houdaigui, L’operation Active Endeavour Et Son Impact sur le Dialogue Mediter-raneen de L’otan, College de Defense de L’otan, Rome, June 2007, P :18. http://catalogo.casd.difesa.it/GEIDEFile/op_22.PDF?A rchive=191515791979&File=op_22_PDF.

39 The foundation of “Operation Active Endeavour” is publicly announced on October 26th 2001. Its objective is to ensure coordination of efforts in the struggle against terrorism andrealise joint operations. For more information on this operation and the rationale behind itsfoundation, see İbid, PP. 15-24.


49

40 Sadi Erguvenc, “Turkey’s NATO Agenda: What Role in the Middle East?” in “Smart defence and NATO: Can the alliance meet the challenges of the Twenty-First century?”, “The ChicagoCouncil on Global Affairs“Chicago, U.S.A, March 28-30, 2012, P :63-66, available at: http://www.thechicagocouncil.org/userfiles/file/NATO/Conference_Report.pdf.

41 In the past this programme was known as the “NATO Infrastructure Fund” andits mainpurpose was to act as a reserve for funding of construction and infrastructure projects for the Atlantic Alliance. The programme redirected interest towards related projects in an effort to meet the requirements of NATO’s new policy as of May 1993 and underwent a name changeto NATO Security Investment Program (NSIP), in December 1994. For more details on func-tions of this programme, please refer to Carl Ek, “NATO Common Funds Burden-sharing: Background and Current Issues”, Congressional Research Service, Report for congress, U.S.A,April 22, 2010, P: 3-4. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl30150.pdf.

42 “Mauritania another Mediterranean Dialogue nation to use NAMSA’s services” http://www. nato.int/cps/en/SID-26107680-0321F756/natolive/news_61134.htm.

43 Patrick Fesquet, Opportunities for Turkish Industry”, Ankara, 29 September 2005, availableat: http://www.powershow.com/view1/210a90-YWY2N/ NAMSAs_and_NSIP_Projects_Opportunities_for_Turkish_Industry_powerpoint_ppt_presentation.

44 Ceyda Karaaslan, “The Phoenix makes his first trip to Egypt”. http://www.sabah.com.tr/ Ekonomi/2012/11/20/ankanin-ilk-yolculugu-misira.

45 It should be noted that use of unmanned aircraft in Sahel and Sahara regions caused increasedconcern in some states. The degree and extent of this rise was so high that the Algerian Min-istries of Defence and Foreign Affairs had to implement a number of harsh counter-measuresagainst foreign jets violating Algerian airspace, after issuing a ministerial ordinance. (Please refer to Ordinance as published on the Algerian Official Journal of June 22nd 2012, with Issueno: 42.

46 This Agreement was published in the 23670th edition of the Official Gazette of the Turkish Republic on February 10th, 1999.

47 Concluded in Ankara, this Agreement was signed by General Cetin Haspisiren acting for theTurkish side and Nainy Toure, the High Commander of National Gendarme acting for theMali side. This Agreement was published in the 23752nd edition of the Official Gazette of theTurkish Republic on July 11th, 1999.

48 Sharon Wiharta, Neil Melvin and Xenia Avezov, “The New Geopolitics of Peace Operation”, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, September 2012, P:9-10. http://www.sipri.org/research/conflict/pko/other_publ/NGP%20policy%20report.pdf.

49 See İbid, P:16.50 Appointment of a military attaché to the Embassy of Mauritania in Ankara was brought to

the agenda, in respect of the changes that occurred in the military organisation of Mauritania.For the changes in the military organisation of Mauritania, please refer to. the following link:http://www.alakhbar.info/26582-0-CC-CF55-F5CB0C-C-.html.

51 Please refer to “ ”/ / .

52 Please refer to “ ”/ /

(“Turkey, Mauritania sign pact on security cooperation” available at http://www.worldbulletin.net/?aType =haber&ArticleID=85866).

53 For the October 2012 Monthly Strategic report issued by Al-Sahara Centre of Strategic Stud-ies and Consultations, please refer to: The following link: http://essevir. mr/f/4870-2012-10-18-10-53-49.html.

54 Valerian Zorin, the representative of Soviet Union in the UN said the following, on this mat-ter: “It is hardly acceptable for a country on which numerous disputes and many differentopinions exist to accede the United Nations as a member, especially when Western states keepturning down the requests for participation of another country on which no disputes had everexisted, namely the People’s Republic of Mongolia, in this international organisation.” See also

. (Kasim Al Zuheyri, Diplomacy Notes on Morocco-Mauritania Relations, Al-Hilal Al-Arabi

Printing and Publishing House, P. 92.)55 For Mauritania’s efforts to become a member of the United Nations and Morocco’s dissenting

opinions, see Kasim Al Zuheyri, ibid, PP.89-93.56 See İbid, P. 125.57 Kossi Ayenagbo, Wang”Rongcheng, Chen Xueting, Ajibike Omolola Lawani, Tommie Njob

vu, and Désiré Bessan, Sino-African economic and trade relations: Its impact and implica-tions on the African continent“, African Journal of Business Management Vol. 6(21), 30 May,2012,P: 6422. http://www.academicjournals.org/ajbm/pdf/pdf2012/30May/Ayenagbo%20et%20al.pdf.


50

58 Wu, Chenchen, China’s economic statecraft at the contemporary stage and its role in nationalsecurity, PhD thesis, Durham University, United Kingdom, 2009, P 172. http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/32/1/China’s_economic_statecraft_and_its_role_in_national_security(chenchen_Wu).pdf.

59 Yerban Al Huseyn, “The Reality of Chinese-Mauritanian Relations” http://rimtoday.com/in-dex. php?artid=1762.60 “Interview with Chinese Ambassador to Mauritania H.E. Mr. ZhangXun” in “A Passage to Mauritania, Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania to China,” P17:. http:// ambarim-beijing.com/ckfinder/userfiles/files/passage%20version%20anglais.pdf.

61 See İbid, P. 18.62 The joint meeting of the “Confucian Institute” was held in South Africa.” http://arabic.cntv.

cn/program/news_ar/20120913/103120.shtml63 China-Africa trade and economic relationship, Annual report 2010, Chinese Academy of

International Trade and Economic Cooperation, P:21. http://www.fahamu.org/downloads/China-Africa_Trade_and_Economic_Relationship_Annual_Report_2010.pdf.

64 See İbid, P.16.65 “A cooperation agreement signed between Mauritania and China.” http://ecorim. net/index.

php/news/249-2011-07-18-13-59-22.66 See Yerban al Huseyn, .ibid67 Dborah Brautigam, The Dragon’s gift, Oxford University Press, First published 2009, P:316.68 This agreement was renewed in 2004.69 “Bilateral Economic and Trade Relations” in “A Passage to Mauritania, Embassy of the Islamic

Republic of Mauritania to China,” P: 22. http://ambarim-beijing.com/ckfinder/ userfiles/files/passage%20version%20anglais.pdf.

70 David E. Brown, Hidden dragon, Crouching lion: How China’s advance in Africa, U.S. Army War College, Strategic Studies Institute, September 2012 ,P:16. http://www.strategicstudies-institute.army.mil/pdffiles/PUB1120.pdf.

71 “Interview with Ambassador of Mauritania to China H.E. Mr. Bal Mohamed El Habib” in “ APassage to Mauritania, Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania to China, P11: http://ambarim-beijing.com/ckfinder/userfiles/files/passage%20version%20 anglais.pdf72 See Yer-ban al-Huseyn, ibid.

73 “Flux d’investissement direct chinois en Afrique (2003-2011)” http://www.pairault.fr/sinaf/index.php/statistiques/412-flux-dinvestissement-direct-chinois-en-afrique-2003-2011

74 See Yerban al-Huseyn, ibid.75 Vivien Foster, William Butterfield, Chuan Chen and Nataliya Pushak, Building Bridges:

China’s growing role as infrastructure financier for Africa, The International Bank for Recon-struction and Development /The World Bank, Washington, 2008,.P:53,82,94. http://siter-esources.worldbank.org/INTAFRICA/Resources/Building_Bridges_Master_Version_woEm-bg_with_cover.pdf.

76 Vincent Castel, Paula Ximena Mejica~and Jacob Kolster, “The BRICs in North Africa:Changing the Name of the Game?” North Africa Quarterly Analytical, First Annual Quarter 2011, P:15. http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/the%20BRICs%20 in%20North%20Africa%20First%20annual%20ok_Mise%20en%20page%201.p df.

77 Vivien Foster and others, op. cit, P:46.78 Africa and China, Atlas on regional integration in West Africa, The Economic Community

Of West African States -Sahel and West Africa Club, December 2006, P:10. http://www.oecd.org/swac/publications/38409391.pdf.

79 “China prepares for investing on iron sources”, http://alwatanrim.net/vb/showthread.php.?t=10638.

80 Mauritania requested China to complete this project during the China Visit of the Maurita-nian President al-Mahtar Vild Dada in 1967. The President paid a second visit to China in 1974, when China affirmed realisation of this project. For more information, see Yerban al-Huseyn, ibid.

81 “Interview with Ambassador of Mauritania to China H.E. Mr. Bal Mohamed El Habib” Op. cit,P:38.

82 ibid. P:12.83 Las Palmas consists of islands falling on the side of Atlantic Ocean that opposes Persian coasts.

Currently it is under the rule of Spanish Government and part of Canary Islands which haveautonomous administration. The Persian Foreign Minister Muhammad Busta announced that Morocco had no claims about these islands, under the shades of the dispute on-going betweenMorocco and Algeria on Sahara invaded by Spain as per the Persian Land-sharing agreement they signed with France. The purpose of this announcement is to cause the Algerian effortstowards preventing the Spanish attitude against them under the threat of accommodation ofBasque rebels in Spain.

84 The Logistics Sector on the Southern Shores of the Western Mediterranean, Case of the Magh-rebian Countries Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia, Study funded by Euro-pean Union throught EuropeAid Co-operation Office (for Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia)and CETMO (for Libya and Mauritania), October 2010,P:61. http://www.cetmo.org/pdf/Logistic%20Study%20on%20the%20southern%20shores.pdf.

85 The member of parliament mentioned here is Baba Vild Sidi. Plots have been made thatrefusal of the agreement was due to some members of the parliament from the ruling party who holds majority of votes in addition to dissenting members. http://mushahid.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=a rticle&id=1793&Itemid=27.

86 See http://www.alakhbar.info/17940-0---C-FC-F0A--F0-B.html (For details about the hot discussions on this corporation, please refer tothe electronic file prepared by the Mauritanian al-Akhbar Newspaper from the following link:http://www.alakhbar.info/18068-0-F0-C0F).

87 For details about the hot discussions on this corporation, please refer to the electronic file prepared by the Mauritanian al-Akhbar Newspaper from the following link: http://www.ala-khbar.info/18068-0-F0-C0F).

88 Refer to the Private Interview of the Ambassador of China with Nouakchott based independ-ent radio station Koubeni.

http://koubeni.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2560&Itemid=1 7289 Refer to the article titled “Minister of Fishery and Maritime Economy is to receive a delega-

tion from the US Coast guard ” in Mauritania official news agency website: http://www.ami.mr/index.php?page=Depeche&id_ depeche=2737.

90 Refer to the article titled “Minister of Fishery and Maritime Economy is to receive a delega-tion from the US Coast guard” in Mauritania official news agency website: http://www.ami.mr/index.php?page=Depeche&id_ depeche=2737.

91 Refer to the article titled “Chinese Radios broadcasting in local languages on the FM fre-quency band celebrate the opening of the Chinese Radio that will go live in Arabic and French in Mauritania and a new Chinese radio station to be established in Sudan. http://www.china-today.com.cn/ctarabic/se/2012-08/03/content_473235. htm.

92 China’s growing role in Africa peace and security, saferworld report, UK, London, January 2011,P:39. http://www.saferworld.org.uk/downloads/pubdocs/Chinas%20Growing%20Rol e%20in%20African%20Peace%20and%20Security.pdf.

93 “China offers military aid to mail in fight against Islamises rebels”. http://www.guardian.co.uk/ world/2012/oct/02/mali-seeks-outside-military-aid.

52

INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIC RESEARCH ORGANIZATION

Established in 2004, the International Strategic Research Organization (USAK) has gained wide recognition as Turkey’s foremost source of independent and balanced information and research on a broad range of issues affecting Turkey and its region.

Focusing particularly on issues of security and cooperation, USAK is one of Turkey and the world’s leading organizations for the analysis of global issues, satisfying a need in Turkey, its region and the world for a body of informed opinion on these issues.

USAK works to stimulate debate and research on international relations and security issues through a dynamic program of seminars, conferences, workshops, publications, educational activities and media relations. The organization aims to encourage greater public awareness of national and international developments and to help individuals and organizations to understand an ever-changing and

Turkish public and its leaders and serves as one of the focal points for research in Turkey. The organization welcomes visitor applications from academics at other national or international institutions, advanced doctoral research students, and those with a professional or academic interest in international relations. A non-partisan, non-profit and non-governmental research organization (NGO), USAK is not intended to be a forum for single-issue advocacy or lobbying.

The Director of USAK is Ambassador (R) Özdem Sanberk.

Core Research Areas

* Area Studies (Middle East, Central Asia, Caucasus, Balkans, etc.)* Ethnic Studies* European Studies* Integration Studies* International Law* International Politics* Political Economy* Religion and Politics* Security Studies (Domestic and International)* Sociology* Terrorism* Turkish Studies (Domestic and International)

USAK

w w w . u s a k . o r g . t r

TURKEY-RUSSIA RELATIONSIN THE POST-COLD WAR ERA

Current Dynamics - Future Prospects

TOWARDS THE SYRIAN NIGHTMARE?

THE CRITICAL SITUATION IN SYRIA AND

POSSIBLE SCENARIOS


IN THE MIDDLE EAST

LIMITS OF THE POSSIBLE AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS


DÜNYA AVUCUNUZUN İÇİNDE...

www.usakanalist.com

www.usak.org.tr

International Strategic Research OrganizationMebusevleri Mahallesi, Ayten Sokak, No: 21 06570, Tandoğan, Ankara

Phone: 0090 312 212 28 86 Fax: 0090 312 212 25 84www.usak.org.tr, www.turkishweekly.net, www.usakanalist.com

Mauritania and Newly Emerging Economies in Africa Turkey and China

Documents

Transcript of Mauritania and Newly Emerging Economies in Africa Turkey and China