Lyrics in Jazz Music:

A Comparative Study of Traditional and Contemporary Works

Diplomarbeit

Zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades einer Magistra der Philosophie

An der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz

Vorgelegt von

Florentina FINDER

Am Institut für Amerikanistik

Begutachterin: Univ.-Prof. Dr. phil. Nassim Winnie Balestrini

Graz, 2017

Table Of Contents

1. Introduction................................................................................................................................. 1

2. Intermediality: Lyrics and songs as intermedial products ............................................................. 5 2.1. Definition of Intermediality .................................................................................................. 5

2.2. The semiotics of music vs. the semiotics of text .................................................................... 7 2.2.1. Approach 1: Hetero-referentiality of language vs. self-referentiality of music (Albert

Gier, Enrico Fubini) ................................................................................................................ 8 2.2.2. Approach 2: Music on its own is devoid of meaning ...................................................... 9

2.2.3. Approach 3: Music & language express meta-linguistic entities (Lawrence Kramer) .... 10 2.2.4. Approach 4: Music expresses metaphysical realities (Victor Zuckerkandl) ................... 10

2.2.5. Approach 5: Hermeneutic approach (Lawrence Kramer) .............................................. 10 2.2.6. Approach 6: Self-referentiality and hetero-referentiality in both music and literature

(Werner Wolf) ....................................................................................................................... 11 2.3. Arguments for the comparability of music and text (as premise for their intermedial fusion)

.................................................................................................................................................. 13 2.3.1. The acoustic nature of both art forms ........................................................................... 15

2.3.2. Segmentation and division (in music as well as in poetry) ............................................ 16 2.3.3. Recurrences (repetition, variations etc.) ....................................................................... 16

2.3.4. Possibility of transcription into a visual system ............................................................ 17 2.4. Forms of Intermediality relevant for lyrics .......................................................................... 18

2.4.1. A vocal song as an intermedial work ............................................................................ 19 2.4.2. Lyrics as intermedial works ......................................................................................... 20

3. The importance, role and function of lyrics ............................................................................... 22 3.1. Importance: Why are lyrics applied to songs? ..................................................................... 22

3.2. Functions ............................................................................................................................ 24 3.2.1. Lyrics as media of communication ............................................................................... 24

3.2.2. Lyrics as narrative instrument (‘Musical Narrativity’) .................................................. 24 3.2.3. Lyrics as reflector of social changes and cultural norms (‘reflection theory’) ............... 25

3.2.4. Lyrics as reflector of emotional tendencies and ideological realities prevailing in a given

society (‘Lyrical Realism’) .................................................................................................... 26

3.2.5. Lyrics as reflector of production norms ........................................................................ 27 3.2.6. Lyrics as influence on listeners’ minds, feelings and attitudes ...................................... 28

3.2.7. Lyrics as area of projection of individual identities ...................................................... 29 4. Analysis of selected traditional and contemporary jazz lyrics .................................................... 29

4.1. Overview ............................................................................................................................ 29 4.2. Findings ............................................................................................................................. 30

4.2.1. Differences .................................................................................................................. 30 4.2.1.1. Differences on the level of language and linguistic style........................................ 30

4.2.1.1.1. More metaphors / metaphorical, poetic language in traditional jazz lyrics ....... 30 4.2.1.1.2. More personifications of natural elements in traditional jazz lyrics ................. 32

4.2.1.1.3. More ellipses in contemporary jazz lyrics ....................................................... 32 4.2.1.1.4. tendency towards conversational and colloquial linguistic style (natural and

authentic language) in contemporary jazz lyrics ............................................................. 33 4.2.1.1.5. More nonsensical language in modern jazz lyrics ........................................... 34

4.2.1.1.6. increased number of clichés in contemporary jazz lyrics ................................. 35 4.2.1.2. Differences on the formal level ............................................................................. 36

4.2.1.2.1 More ‘scenas’ (lack of verse repetition / frequent absence of ‘refrain’) in

traditional jazz lyrics...................................................................................................... 36

4.2.1.2.2. More text in contemporary jazz lyrics ............................................................. 37 4.2.1.3. Differences on the level of contents....................................................................... 38

4.2.1.3.1. more intricacy and diversity on the content level in contemporary jazz lyrics . 38

4.2.2. Parallels and similarities .............................................................................................. 41

4.2.2.1. Parallels and similarities on the level of contents ................................................... 41 4.2.2.1.1. ‘the dialogue of courtship’ .............................................................................. 41

4.2.2.1.2.’I’/’You’ Juxtaposition .................................................................................... 43 4.2.2.1.3. notions about femininity / anti-feminist propaganda ....................................... 45

4.2.2.2. Parallels and similarities on the level of language and linguistic style .................... 46 4.2.2.2.1 symbols of nature / naturalistic imagery .......................................................... 46

4.2.2.2.2. equal number of neologisms ........................................................................... 47 4.2.2.2.3. Rhymes .......................................................................................................... 47

4.2.2.2.4. Repetition ....................................................................................................... 48 4.3. Case Studies ....................................................................................................................... 48

4.3.1. Contemporary jazz lyrics ............................................................................................. 48 4.3.1.1. “Stolen Moments” (1975/78) - Words by Mark Murphy (1978), Music by Oliver

Nelson (1975) .................................................................................................................... 48 4.3.1.2. “I Know You Know” (2008) - Words and Music by Esperanza Spalding and Leo

Genovese ........................................................................................................................... 52 4.3.1.3. “Sticky Wicket” (1984) – Words and Music by Al Jarreau, Jay Graydon and Greg

Phillinganges ..................................................................................................................... 56 4.3.1.4. “Easy” (1981) – Words and Music by Al Jarreau, Tom Cannin and Jay Graydon .. 60

4.3.1.5. “Just The Two Of Us” (1980) - Words and Music by Bill Withers, William Salter

and Ralph MacDonald ....................................................................................................... 65

4.3.1.6. “The Island” (1981) - English Lyrics by Alan & Marilyn Bergman, Music by Ivan

Lins & Vitor Martins ......................................................................................................... 68

4.3.1.7. “Let Me Be The One” (1984) - Words and Music by Angela Bofill, Rick Suchow,

Alan Palanker .................................................................................................................... 71

4.3.1.8. “Blizzard Of Lies” (1983) – Words by Samantha Frishberg, Music by Dave

Frishberg ........................................................................................................................... 72

4.3.1.9. “Boogie Down” (1983) - Words and Music by Al Jarreau and Michael Omartian . 76 4.3.1.10.“The Girl In The Other Room” (2004) – Words and Music by Diana Krall and Elvis

Costello ............................................................................................................................. 78 4.3.1.11. “Salt“ (2003) – Words and Music by Lizz Wright ............................................... 81

4.3.2. Traditional jazz lyrics .................................................................................................. 83 4.3.2.1. “Early Autumn” (1949) - Words by Johnny Herndon Mercer, Music by Ralph Burns

& Woody Herman ............................................................................................................. 83 4.3.2.2. “Turn Out The Stars” (1966) – Words by Gene Lees, Music by Bill Evans ........... 86

4.3.2.3. “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most” (1955) – Words by Fran Landesman,

Music by Tommy Wolf ..................................................................................................... 89

4.3.2.4. “Angel Eyes” (1946) - Words by Earl Brent, Music by Matt Dennis ..................... 92 4.3.2.5. “Blame It On My Youth” (1934) – Words by Edward Heyman, Music by Oscar

Levant ............................................................................................................................... 95 4.3.2.6. “Speak Low” (1943) - Words by Ogden Nash, Music by Kurt Weill ..................... 96

4.3.2.7. “Detour Ahead” (1947) - Words and Music by Herb Ellis, John Frigo and Lou

Carter ................................................................................................................................ 99

4.3.2.8. “The Nearness Of You” (1937) – Words by Ned Washington, Music by Hoagy

Carmichael ...................................................................................................................... 102

4.3.2.9. “Satin Doll” (1953) – Lyrics by Johnny Herndon Mercer and Billy Strayhorn, Music

by Duke Ellington ........................................................................................................... 103

4.3.2.10. “Rhythm - A - Ning” (1957) – Words by Jon Hendricks, Music by Thelonious

Monk ............................................................................................................................... 106

4.3.2.11. “Twisted” (1952) - Words by Annie Ross, Music by Wardell Gray ................... 109 5. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 112

6. Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 121

6.1. Primary Literature ............................................................................................................ 121

6.2. Secondary Literature ........................................................................................................ 121 6.3. Electronic Sources ............................................................................................................ 123

6.3.1. Primary Electronic Sources ........................................................................................ 123 6.3.2. Secondary Electronic Sources: ................................................................................... 124

1

1. Introduction

Music can be considered a specific type of language which communicates knowledge about the

world and thus facilitates its comprehension (cf. Merriam 1964: 10). However, the communicative

skill which is attributed to music in the field of ethnomusicology must not be mistaken with the

controversial notion of music being a “universal language”, which has been widely debated and

rejected by many critics (cf. Merriam 1964: 10). Notwithstanding, music can indeed be considered a

universally accepted and acclaimed form of expression, whose substantial impact and fundamental

influence on human emotions and potent cultural relevance is undeniable (cf. Kramer 2002: 11-12;

cf. Frith 1989: 78 and passim). This gives rise to the question as to how music has acquired its

status of high significance and central position in human culture. One of the major reasons for this

high valorization could be precisely the above mentioned communicative function, which enables

music’s entrance into human perception and facilitates its access to human emotions (cf. Merriam

1964: 10 and passim). However, music is not the primary medium associated with communication

and human forms of expression, since this function is primarily attributed to another medium which

represents the very foundation of humanity and cultural creation, namely language. Music and

language are two basically distinct forms of media, which are not unrelated, however, proven by a

vast anthology of culturally relevant artefacts which are based on both forms of media, commonly

referred to as ‘vocal songs’. These prominent products of cultural creation indicate that music and

literature are highly capable of merging and fusing with each other. When we listen to specimens of

this widely familiar form of musical and linguistic symbiosis, it is frequently not only the aural and

acoustic qualities which ‘speak to us’, but it is also the linguistic component which communicates

and enters our mental and emotional perception (cf. Frith 1989: 90). This strong visibility and

affective impact of language in music is also confirmed by the following statement by Meta DuEwa

Jones: “‘the voice’ has functioned as literary and cultural trope, as well as musical, technological

and poetic instrument” (2011: 1). The term ‘voice’ in the quote just presented refers to the

instrument which is responsible for the realization of the linguistic component in a vocal song,

which can otherwise be referred to as ‘lyrics’. Due to the apparent significance and valuable

importance of lyrics in music, which is, amongst others, confirmed by their frequent application in

modern songs, they have been subject of analysis and interest for the major part of the twentieth

century (cf. Frith 1989: 78-79). They have played a fundamental and generative role in the

development of popular music (cf. Frith 1989: 77-78), and are thus omnipresent in the canon of pop

songs from the twentieth century until today. However, lyrics are also a major factor in a related,

but still autonomous and distinct musical genre, namely the genre of jazz. Despite its high

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valorization of a purely instrumental sound, jazz music equally appreciates and thus frequently

purports lyrics and adorns its pieces with vocal parts. Due to vocal music’s high relevance for

popular culture (cf. Frith 1989: 77-78), lyrics, being an indispensable element of vocal music and

largely present in the genre of jazz, will be the subject of the present analysis, which is concerned

precisely with the manifestation and function of lyrics in selected musical works of said genre. The

present study will examine lyrics in jazz music in a comparative approach, contrasting traditional

jazz lyrics with works by contemporary jazz lyricists with regard to their literary aspects and their

reflection of the respective cultural and socio-historical context of the period of their production.

More precisely, the selected specimens of traditional and contemporary jazz lyrics will be submitted

to a thorough literary analysis, which focusses on the manifestation of particular literary aspects in

the respective texts, such as rhetorical figures, tropes and symbolisms on the linguistic level, meter,

rhyme scheme and formal structure on the formal level and themes on the content level. The central

objective will be to elicit significant differences and variatons as well as relevant parallels and

similarities between the lyrics of different epochs of jazz music by determining their literary

features as well as their degree of reflection of cultural developments which characterize the time of

their originaton. The investigation of the literary aspects as to their quality and manifestation, their

degree of presence or absence in traditional as well as contemporary jazz lyrics will constitute an

integral part of the present study. A further major concern in the present study will be to investigate

the selected lyrics in question as to their reflection of the historical and socio-cultural developments

which characterized the era of their origination. To this end, scientific articles and other relevant

literary texts of the fields of musicology and cultural studies which treat topics of cultural and

socio-historical developments of the respective epochs of the lyrics’ production will be used. An

analysis with regard to lyrics’ relation to their historical, social and cultural context cannot be

obliterated in a work of research which attempts a profound and thorough analysis of jazz lyrics,

since it is paramount to consider lyrics in their respective contexts in order to determine their

ultimate meaning. This assumption is supported by the following comments by Peter F. Stacey:

“What makes language function in a poetic way is the context in which it is presented“ (1989: 18)

and that “language changes its function according to its context and frame“ (1989: 18). Deducing

from this, lyrics can be considered poetic texts, since they are indisputably a construct of language

which is presented and rendered in a specific context, of which the most frequent and obvious one is

a musical piece. This particular context is responsible for triggering lyrics’ poetic function and

activating their poetic potential (cf. Stacey 1989: 18). In other words, music, being a specific

‘frame’ in which a particular text can be rendered, inevitably transforms this text into a specified

textual construct of poetic nature which occurs simultaneously with music, otherwise referred to as

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lyrics. Based on Peter F. Stacey’s assumption that a specific context is essential for a text to evolve

its poetic function (cf. 1989: 18), we deduce that any random text can acquire poetic character and

become lyrics if it is rendered, performed, read or listened to in combination and simultaneously

with music. This leads us to believe that lyrics, just as poetry, cannot exist in a vacuum (N.

Balestrini, personal communication, February 8, 2016), but are highly dependent on a particular

‘frame’ in order to acquire poetic character and eventually become specimens of poetry, as which

they are, in fact, treated in the present study. It is this change of linguistic function which takes

place when language combines with music in lyrics: the nature of the respective language changes

from pragmatic to a poetic and aesthetic one (cf. Stacey 1989: 18). However, there is also another

vital context in addition to the musical one which makes given texts transform into poetically and

aesthetically appealing texts or lyrics, for that matter, and this is the context of performance (cf.

Stacey 1989: 18). According to Simon Frith, performing conventions are essential for lyrics to

convey their ultimate meaning (cf. Frith 1989: 90), and thus the performative context must at best

be considered in a correct and thorough sociological analysis of lyrics. Frith argues that music and

words work on different audiences in different performances in different ways (cf. 1989: 91), which

supports the earlier presented assumption by Peter F. Stacey that lyrics, just as poetry, require an

aesthetic context in order to evolve their poetic function (cf. 1989: 18). The importance of the aural

quality and the context of presentation for poetry, including lyrics, is also highlighted in Meta

DuEwa Jones work The Muse Is Music (2011). Jones implies that the perception of a (poetic) text

largely depends upon whether it is performed, acted out, read aloud or silently, or in other words

whether it is perceived aurally or visually, or in both ways (cf. 2011: 18-19). She especially

highlights the significance of the aural quality of poetic texts and considers the performer’s

speaking and reading voice to be “instrumental, in every sense of the word“ (Jones 2011: 18) for the

perception and cultural meaning of poetry (cf. Jones 2011: 1). However, the present study does not

have sufficient space to take into consideration the performative contexts of the various lyrics

investigated, since they have been performed in a great variety of ways and each singer or

performer has influenced them by his or her own individual style and personal character, and thus

allowed for manifold different interpretations (cf. Frith 1989: 90). In other words, the influence of

performative conventions on lyrics could be investigated in a separate sociological study and

exceeds the limits of the present literary one. Bearing in mind, thus, that the performative context

and also the individual style of their performers is vital to lyrics’ eventual meaning (cf. Stacey 1989:

18) we proceed to analyze lyrics here exclusively in a literary way and interpret them with regard to

their cultural background. Closely related to the notion of the necessity of a specific context for

lyrics to render their poetic and aesthetic appeal is the concept of Intermediality, which is inevitably

4

involved in an artistic product which lies at the intersection point of literature and music. The

assumption that a specific ‘frame’, for example a musical piece or performance, is vital for lyrics to

evolve their poetic and aesthetic qualities (cf. Jones 2011: 19; cf. Stacey 1989: 18) implies the

inevitability of a certain form of fusion between lyrics and another medium. The phenomenon of

Intermediality describes precisely the symbiotic processes of fusion between two or more forms of

media, and is thus a highly relevant concept for the determination and comprehension of the nature

of lyrics. The significance of the notion of Intermediality for lyrics is confirmed by Werner Wolf,

who argues that lyrics are a form of literature, which can be defined as a “verbal form of art“ and

thus, signified by the term ‘art’, also has an aesthetic appeal (cf. 2015: 459). He proceeds to argue

that literature does not only represent reality or establish contact to other genres or works of

literature, but also connects and fuses with other forms of media and types of non-literary

discourses (cf. Wolf 2015: 459). These processes of intermedial fusion of literature and other non-

literary forms of media precisely apply to lyrics. Since the ‘intermedial potential’ of literature is

substantial when it comes to the investigation of the relationship between literature and music (cf.

Wolf 2015: 459), it is equally vital to explore the intermediality involved in lyrics in order to

determine their ultimate meaning, which will be effectuated in the course of the following study. In

view of the fact that the concept of Intermediality is crucial for the comprehension of the nature of

lyrics, the theoretical framework of Intermediality as conceived by Werner Wolf (1999, 2015) and

Emily Petermann (2014), who engaged thoroughly and profoundly in the field of musico-literary

studies, will constitute a significant basis for the present study of lyrics. The objects of analysis on

which the present study is based have been selected from the official canon of jazz standards,

whereby the majority has been taken out of The New Real Book of Jazz (1988). The sample of

investigation objects is limited to twenty-two pieces of lyrics, whereby the first half can be assigned

to the category of traditional jazz lyrics, while the remaining half constitutes the group of

contemporary jazz lyrics. In view of the limited number of sample texts which have been submitted

to analysis in the course of this study, it is impossible to make a universal statement about the

differences and parallels between traditional and modern jazz lyrics in general, but the resulting

conclusion will be a true and valid statement about the specific material of jazz lyrics of different

ages analysed for the purpose of the present study. However, the results of the investigation of the

selected jazz lyrics in the present study could suffice to represent a possible tendency which could,

but does not definitely, apply to traditional and modern jazz lyrics in general with regard to their

differences and parallels in terms of literary features and with regard to their reflective function of

cultural and socio-historical processes.

5

2. Intermediality: Lyrics and songs as intermedial products

As has already been outlined in the preceding chapter, the concept of Intermediality is crucial to the

analysis of lyrics, due to their status as intermedial products which inevitably and obviously involve

more than one medium. Lyrics cannot exist in a vacuum, but require a context in the form of

another medium in order to evolve their poetic and aesthetic function (cf. Stacey 1989: 18). In an

age determined by a vast abundance and a great variety and diversity of different media it is not

surprising that the phenomenon of Intermediality has been made subject of numerous studies (cf.

Rippl 2015: 1). Intermediality has gained more and more importance in the past century in response

to the continually rising number of new and different forms of media in an increasingly complex

digital age (cf. Rippl 2015: 1). Two classic and standard forms of media which have in some form

or the other existed since the beginnings of civilization are literature and music. In lyrics, the object

of investigation of this study, both of these forms of media merge and establish an intermedial

union, and in the following chapter the nature of this intermedial fusion will be described, and the

arguments for why lyrics can and must be considered products of Intermediality will be presented.

2.1. Definition of Intermediality

In order to find a suitable definition for Intermediality, this study will base itself on notions and

principles conceived about Intermediality by two renown academics, Werner Wolf and Emily

Petermann, who have dedicated a significant amount of their scientific work to the notion of

Intermediality. Their concepts about Intermediality share common ground in many respects, but

differ in a few essential aspects. By contrasting them with each other, a solid and integral theoretical

basis for the conception of Intermediality as it is used in this study will eventually be established.

According to Emily Petermann, any given work where boundaries between various forms of media

are crossed or different forms of media are combined within it is a work of intermediality or media

product (cf. 2014: 17). She specifies the intermedial product as a work which is located firmly

within one (materially present) medium, and is only rendered intermedial by its relationship to a

foreign medium (cf. Petermann 2014: 17). These intermedial relations can either take on the form of

imitation or thematization of (reference to) another medium, but is is crucial that they take place

within the basic (materially present) medium (cf. Petermann 2014: 17). Thus, according to

Petermann, in an intermedial work only one medium must be materially present, and it is the

relationship to the foreign medium involved which classifies it as intermedial. Petermann decidedly

distinguishes between intermedial products and works of multimediality, which are media products

where two or more forms of media are materially present, which however do not have to relate to

each other, are independent and thus also potentially separable from each other (cf. 2014: 17).

6

Therefore, multimedial products, by consisting of a combination of two or more autonomous media,

do not necessarily involve intermediality, but intermedial relations generally occur in them, in that

one of the media involved relates to (imitates, reflects, mirrors, etc.) the other participating medium

or media (cf. Petermann 2014: 18). An example of a multimedial product would be the vocal song

(consisting of the two juxtaposed forms of media music and literature), while an example for an

intermedial media product would be a poem, which essentially remains located within its medium

of literature but is able to adapt musical structures and techniques (cf. Petermann 2014: 17-18).

According to Werner Wolf, on the other hand, both types of medial conjunction and phenomena just

described (intermedial as well as multimedial products) are assigned to the category of

Intermediality (cf. Wolf 1999: 39-42), as opposed to Petermann, who only classifies the formerly

described phenomenon as intermedial. Wolf systematically classifies the various possible forms of

intermediality involving music and literature (cf. Petermann 2014: 21) and thereby, amongst others,

establishes the categories ‘overt’ and ‘covert’ intermediality (cf. Wolf 1999: 39-41). The latter type

of intermediality (‘covert’) applies if there is "an indirect presence of a second medium which can

be ascertained by references to it or traces left by it ’within’ an artifact that is apparently

characterized by a first, more ’prominent’ medium“ (1999: 37). ‘Overt’ intermediality, on the other

hand, occurs, if "at least two distinct media which are manifestly or directly involved in the

signification of an artefact" can be clearly identified (1999: 37), thus implying a material presence

of two or more forms of media on the superficial level of signifiers of the work. It becomes evident,

thus, that Wolf’s conception of overt intermediality corresponds to Petermann’s notion of

multimediality, and that Wolf’s concept of covert intermediality applies to Petermann’s definition of

intermediality (cf. Petermann 2014: 21-22). Thus, Wolf and Petermann’s definitions of

‘Intermediality’ diverge crucially from each other: while Petermann decidedly separates the

phenomenon of ‘multimediality’ from intermediality (despite its possibilities of intermedial

relations (cf. Petermann 2014: 17)), Wolf includes it in his conception of intermediality by terming

it ‘overt intermediality’. Thus, Wolf’s notion of intermediality is wider, while Petermann only

considers a certain type of media product intermedial (which would correspond to Wolf’s notion of

a ‘covert’ intermedial product), and explicitly distinguishes it from a multimedial product. However,

the common denominator between the two approaches is the basic assumption that Intermediality

refers to the specific relation between two or more distinct forms of media, a relation which is based

on the direct or indirect participation of two or more media in the structure of a semiotic entity (cf.

Wolf 1999: 37; cf. Wolf 2015: 460; cf. Petermann 2014: 17). A further commonality is the shared

assumption that the foreign medium or media become part of the signification of the intermedial

product, either via reference to (thematization) or imitation of this other medium (cf. Petermann

7

2014: 28; cf. Wolf 1999: 44). Petermann and Wolf both distinguish between the distinct intermedial

processes of thematization and imitation, termed otherwise by Werner Wolf as ‘telling’

(thematization) and ‘showing’ (imitation) (cf. Petermann 2014: 24; cf. Wolf 1999: 44-45).

Thematization (telling) is not the type of intermedial relations which is relevant for lyrics, since it

comes into effect, for example, when a certain piece of music is explicitly referenced within a text

(cf. Petermann 2014: 24; cf. Wolf 1999: 44). Thus, in thematization in an intermedial product there

is no iconic similarity between the media involved (cf. Wolf 1999: 44). The form of intermedial

relations which is relevant for lyrics, however, is imitation which means borrowing techniques and

adapting elements from the other medium and making them perceptible in the dominant medium by

implicit reference (cf. Petermann 2014: 24). This process definitely takes place in lyrics, where

musical structures and elements are modeled on the medium of text and thus are only indirectly

present as a concept (cf. Wolf 1999: 42; cf. Wolf 2015: 464). The specification of the forms and

different definitions of intermediality is crucial to the comprehension of the nature of lyrics, since

they are based on the intermedial relationship between literature and music. This intermedial union

is made possible by the parallels and similarities between the two forms of media, which eventually

make them comparable and compatible with each other, and thus legitimize the intermedial relation

between them (cf. Wolf 2015: 463). Wolf has dedicated a significant part of his study of

Intermediality to the topic of comparability and compatibility of literature and music, seeking to

determine the commonalities of the two forms of art (cf. 1999: 11-22). His findings are highly

relevant for the present study, since the object of investigation are lyrics, whose existence depends

precisely upon this compatibility of music and literature. They are specimens of an essential type of

intermedial products which combine music and literature. They are involved in a process of

intermedial fusion between music and literature, and thus, their nature can be defined on the basis of

theories of Intermediality. Therefore, the following section regards lyrics in the light of

intermediality and seeks to point out the reasons and arguments for a classification of lyrics as

intermedial products. In order to reach this conclusion, however, it is primarily important to

comprehend the meaning of the two basic constituents involved in the intermediality of lyrics,

namely music and text. Thus, in the following section we will examine the various approaches to

the semiotics of text and the semiotics of music, which are the two principal forms of media

involved in lyrics. This will be a first step in approaching the justification for the comparability and

compatibility of music and literature, which in turn is the basis of Intermediality.

2.2. The semiotics of music vs. the semiotics of text

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If we want to examine the semiotics of music and text, it soon becomes evident that there have been

various approaches and points of view concerning the meaning of the respective forms of media,

resulting from various and numerous studies. Due to the fact that this research paper focusses on the

examination of lyrics, which essentially consist of an intermedial combination of linguistic and

musical sign systems, it is highly relevant to look at the medium music as a sign system and explain

different notions beheld by academics at different points in history. Musical meaning or the

semiotics of music have apparently been a controversial issue in the history of musicological and

also cultural scientific and linguistic research (cf. Wolf 1999: 22-23). The following chapter will

give an overview of the most widely acknowledged and feasible ones, revealing the controversial

and much debated character of the topic of musical meaning. Moreover, the manifold ideas and

notions about the semiotics of music will be contrasted with the fairly unanimous and academically

established views about the semiotics of language, in order to reveal the apparent differences

between the semiotics of both types of media.

2.2.1. Approach 1: Hetero-referentiality of language vs. self-referentiality of music (Albert

Gier, Enrico Fubini)

One of the most widely acknowledged notions about the meaning of music, which became an

especially popular view in the romantic era but was held and supported in many epochs throughout

history, was that music in itself did not express anything which can be expressed by ordinary means

(cf. Fubini 1991: 262-263, cited in Petermann 2014: 1). According to this approach, music

expresses inexpressible and abstract entities such as the “essence of the world“ (cf. Fubini 1991:

263-265, cited in Petermann 2014: 1), or, in other words, is the expressive medium for notions

which cannot be captured by language, or are simply beyond the realm of expressible things (cf.

Fubini 1991: 263-265, cited in Petermann 2014: 1). Related to this concept of music as the medium

of the inexpressible is the notion beheld by the German literary studies academic Albert Gier, who

sustained the view that music consists of a signifier and a signified, and thus produces meaning, but

lacks denotation of something outside its realm (cf. Gier 1995b: 9, 13). Therefore, its meaning is not

concrete but abstract and objective, which distinguishes it from language, respectively the linguistic

sign, which is bound to have an extralinguistic referent in addition to the signifier and the signified

and thus refers to concrete extra-linguistic realities (cf. Gier 1995b: 13). To Gier, the semiotics of

music and language differ from each other in that the former lacks the capacity to denote anything

outside itself, whereas language and its products (e.g. texts) are complete sign systems which

clearly always refer to an external object, an extralinguistic referent (cf. Gier 1995a: 62-63).

However, music’s lack of an external referent does not imply the absence of meaning (cf.

Petermann 2014: 32), since music, despite its inability to refer to an external object, still refers to

9

itself, and this self-referentiality must be considered an acknowledged form of meaning (cf.

Petermann 2014: 32). Therefore, if we follow Gier’s notions, music is basically self-referential and

lacks an external referent, while language does have an external referent and constitutes a sign

system in the linguistic sense (cf. Petermann 2014: 32). It follows that lyrics, if we base ourselves

on Gier’s conception of the semiotics of music and language, are essentially literary constructs

which consist of extra-referential linguistic signs and are embedded into the self-referential sign

system music. The self-referentiality of music was supported by the formalist approach which

emerged at the end of the nineteenth century and sustained the notion that content in music was

inseparable from the form, i.e. that music was actually devoid of content, which was only projected

into music by its listeners, and that the significance of music lay in the mere formal internal

relations of it (cf. Petermann 2014: 2). In other words, the formalists of musical semiology held the

notion that music did not have any other content but the signification of itself by its form (cf.

Petermann 2014: 2). Thus, the formalist approach supports the belief that music is the medium of

the inexpressible (cf. Fubini 1991: 263-265, cited in Petermann 2014: 1) and lacks capacity to

denote extrinsic concepts and external referents (cf. Gier 1995b: 9, 13) and that it is entirely self-

referential and signifies itself by its form (cf. Petermann 2014: 2).

2.2.2. Approach 2: Music on its own is devoid of meaning

In opposition to Petermann, Fubini and Gier, Lawrence Kramer, a musicologist who investigated

musical meaning and the relationship between music and literature, mentions a different approach

to the semiotics of music, namely the belief that once music is deprived of text and voice, any

meaning is removed from it, since human content and meaning is beheld exclusively in texted vocal

music (cf. Kramer 2002: 12). Thus, Kramer offers another view on musical meaning, namely that

music without text is conventionally considered to be entirely devoid of meaning (cf. Kramer 2002:

11), and that the meaning of music resides in the vocal text only (cf. Kramer 2002: 12). Thus, the

perspective offered by Kramer (by presenting views held by other theorists) differs decisively from

the formalist approach, where meaning is in fact attributed to music, but exclusively self-referential

one (i.e. music’s meaning did not exceed the signification of itself) (cf. Petermann 2014: 2),

whereas in the present approach music’s capacity to mean anything on its own is denied (cf. Kramer

2002: 12). It is implied that music’s emancipation from text leads to a dissociation from meaning,

i.e. that the meaning of music resides in its linguistic and textual components only (cf. Kramer

2002: 12). Kramer emphasizes that there is a conventional belief among musical theorists and

semiologists that music is semantically void but of a high aesthetic value, and that it only acquires

meaning by the fusion with language or symbiosis with poetry (cf. Kramer 2002: 13). In other

words, it was assumed by many musical semiologists that musical autonomy, as in autonomous,

10

instrumental music, implied absence of meaning (cf. Kramer 2002: 13). This approach, in fact,

ascribes to lyrics a crucial role in music, by sustaining that it is exclusively the vocal text, i.e. the

linguistic component, wherein the meaning resides (cf. Kramer 2002: 12).

2.2.3. Approach 3: Music & language express meta-linguistic entities (Lawrence Kramer)

The above presented assumption that music lacks autonomous meaning is countered by Lawrence

Kramer’s personal view that music is not devoid of meaning only because it is detached from

words, text or language, but that actually the nonverbal medium music as well as the verbal medium

language are able to express the nonverbal, and thus are meaningful (cf. Kramer 2002: 14). They

are equal in their capacity to access a meta-linguistic level (cf. Kramer 2002: 14). This implies that

music, just as language, is meaningful on its own by being capable of expressing things which

cannot be expressed by mere words. Kramer concedes this ability also to language. According to

him one of the key functions of language has always been to address the nonverbal, the

inexpressible, the meta-linguistic by means of figurative language (cf. Kramer 2002: 14). This

capacity to express the nonverbal is considered a great asset according to Kramer, and it is

something both language and music can do (cf. Kramer 2002: 14). Thus, according to Kramer,

music is meaningful precisely due to its nonverbality, as also in language the expression of the

nonverbal is considered a meaningful act. Thus, he argues strongly in favor of the meaningfulness

of music and its status as a full and complete independent and meaningful medium.

2.2.4. Approach 4: Music expresses metaphysical realities (Victor Zuckerkandl)

As a fourth approach to the meaning of music a theory of a somewhat more meta-physical and

spiritualist character can be named. The main feature of this approach is the belief that music’s

meaning transcends self-referentiality by reaching beyond the physical realm and entering a meta-

physical world (cf. Zuckerkandl 1956/1973: 371). More precisely, the Austrian musicologist Victor

Zuckerkandl, who is a central representant of this approach, assumes that the musical tone

transcends its own physical nature, overcomes its status of a physical constituent to enter a world

where non-physical forces act, and where perceivers are confronted with a different reality, as

opposed to a physical reality (cf. 1956/1973: 371). According to this approach, music, which is

ascribed a transcendental and spiritual nature, is not entirely self-referential, but can transcend this

self-referentiality by referring and overcoming the boundaries to a different, non-physical reality.

2.2.5. Approach 5: Hermeneutic approach (Lawrence Kramer)

In his work about musical meaning Lawrence Kramer presents another theory about the

construction of musical meaning, according to which meaning is based on the presence of an

11

interpreter who acts as a decoder of meaning, which does not reside in the object of interpretation

itself but in the individual interpretation of the receiver (cf. Kramer 2002: 21). Thus, we speak of a

hermeneutic construction of meaning, where interpretation is the essential basis for the construction

of meaning, as opposed to the semiotic approach, which is based on the notion of signs as vehicles

for the semiotic construction of meaning (cf. Kramer 2002: 21). According to Kramer, a mere

semiotic approach to the construction of meaning is insufficient, and does not render the full

meaning by restricting it to a general semiotic analysis, producing a simplistic and incomplete result

(cf. 2002: 22). A mere semiotic analysis can be efficient when applied to literature, and

consequently also to lyrics, respectively musical literature, but when applied to music, this mere

“symbolic articulation“ would simplify, reduce and not live up to the “lived experience“ which

music represents (cf. Kramer 2002: 22). Thus, Kramer supports a hermeneutic approach towards the

construction of musical meaning, giving weight to the importance of the interpreter and defining

individual interpretation as the ultimate constructor of musical meaning (cf. 2002: 23). Language

consists of a continuous chain of signs whose meaning is filtered out by interpretation, whereas in

music the opposite process takes place: musical meaning is diffused via signs which are not

arranged in a continuos sequential way, but dispersed throughout the whole work in an intermittent

and sporadic manner (cf. Kramer 2002: 23). Another essential feature of the hermeneutic approach

to musical meaning is the special role given to the signified in the construction of musical meaning,

which results form the importance given to the interpreter. According to Kramer, music lacks a

definite signified and thus deprives the musical sign of its destination and ultimate completion, but

this does not confuse the interpreters, as in listeners, performers or consumers of music, but rather

creates a “sense of heightened feeling or expressivity“ and establishes a subjective bond between

the consumer and the music (cf. 2002: 24). Thus, in the hermeneutic approach to musical meaning

the link between the signifier and the signified is a dissociated one, and music represents a

‘freestanding signifier’, which is detached from the signified and thus allows for a high degree of

subjectivity in its interpretation (cf. Kramer 2002: 24). In other words, music becomes signified by

its subjective perception and interpretation rather than by signifying (cf. Kramer 2002: 24).

2.2.6. Approach 6: Self-referentiality and hetero-referentiality in both music and literature

(Werner Wolf)

Werner Wolf, as opposed to many other common theories and beliefs, ascribes similar semiotic

status to the different forms of media music and language and thus argues for their comparability by

seeing a justification for their fusion in their many parallels and similarities (cf. 1999: especially 22-

33). This approach towards the semiotics of music differs from the other conceptions presented in

this study by Petermann or Kramer, since one of the major parallels between music and literature is,

12

according to Wolf, the self-referential and hetero-referential nature of both forms of media, which

many other theorists deny (cf. 1999: 33). However, Wolf starts by arguing that both, music and

literature, consist of discrete units or signifying complexes which form a chain of signifiers, which

ultimately produce meaning by relating to signifieds (cf. 1999: 23). Thus, he acknowledges that not

only in literature, but also in the field of music one can indeed speak of a ‘musical sign’ which

conveys meaning (cf. Wolf 1999: 23). However, according to a common belief musical meaning is

generally not believed to be of extra-referential nature, as is the case with literature, where meaning

is typically created by the signifieds’ reference to something outside the literary object or, in other

words, the signifieds produce hetero- or extra-referential, but not self-referential meaning (cf. Wolf

1999: 26). Musical meaning, on the other hand, is believed by numerous semiologists to be entirely

self-referential, whereas verbal (literary) meaning is always created by the reference to an external

entity (hetero-referentiality) (cf. Wolf 1999: 26). This corresponds to Gier's theory of the self-

referentiality of music and the lack of ability to denote anything outside itself (cf. Gier 1995: 63).

Thus, a stark contrast is assumed between the two arts in terms of their meaning and the function of

their signifieds, describing music as the more ‘pure’ and aesthetic art, since it is inherently self-

referential and can create meaning within itself, without requiring an external referent (cf. Wolf

1999: 26). However, Wolf makes an essential concession in terms of the differences in semiotic

status between the two art forms by accentuating their similarities instead. For once, Wolf

acknowledges the possibility that also words can be self-referential (a characteristic which is

conventionally attributed to music) (cf. 1999: 26-27). Likewise, he argues that music can be hetero-

referential too, i.e. that it is actually able to refer to something outside itself and have denotative

meaning (cf. Wolf 1999: 27-28). According to the British author John Fowles a musical note has

“no meaning by itself“, but is dependent on the context or system it occurs in (cf. 2004: 431). Wolf

acknowledges this, but contradicts Fowles in that he argues that the same is true for words or verbal

components, which also evolve their meaning only when viewed and regarded in their specific

contexts, e.g. the context of an individual language or the context of a particular text (Wolf 1999:

26). This implies that also verbal meaning can be partially defined as self-referential due to its

contextual dependance (cf. Wolf 1999: 26). The self-referentiality of literary language is, above all,

based on the ‘poetic function’ of language (cf. Wolf 1999: 26). Thus, words’ meaning is not created

exclusively by a hetero-referential relation to an extralinguistic reality (cf. Wolf 1999: 26), but can

be self-referential based on the poetic function of language. This formalistic and phonological self-

referentiality which is typically ascribed to music can be found in literature above all in metrical

literary texts, respectively lyrical poetry, thus also in lyrics (cf. Wolf 1999: 27). In fiction, self-

referentiality is generally absent, since prose conventionally involves the telling of story, which

13

naturally implies meaning that exceeds self-referentiality (cf. Wolf 1999: 27). Similarly to

literature’s capacity of self-referentiality, musical meaning can be extra-referential, against general

and conventional notions about musical meaning. An example for this extra-referentiality in music

is intertextuality, i.e. the reference to an extrinsic work which transcends the composition in

question (cf. Wolf 1999: 27). Another example of extra-referentiality in music would be iconic

references to physical or emotional movements or to extra-musical spheres within a piece of music

(e.g. the evocation of certain cultural and historical periods by certain characteristic overtones in a

symphony) (cf. Wolf 1999: 27-28). This extra-referentiality in fact is the reason for music’s appeal

“to the human sense of rhythm, to the emotions and ultimately also to the imagination“ (Wolf 1999:

28), and therefore, music’s capacity of extra- or hetero-referentiality is actually decisive for music’s

affective effect on humans. In summary, Wolf acknowledges significant parallels between music

and literature in asserting that they are both capable of self- and hetero-(extra-)referentiality (cf.

1999: 33). Despite a historical and widespread belief that music and literature differ strongly from

each other in terms of their semiotic status, Wolf concedes to them several unmistakeable and

essential common features, which eventually make the two forms of media comparable and

compatible for an intermedial union with each other (cf. Wolf 1999: especially 22-33). In other

words, Wolf sees in the comparability of the two distinct art forms music and literature a

legitimization of their intermedial fusion (cf. 1999: 33), which happens, as it were, in the production

of lyrics. The notion of comparability of music and literature, thus, can be considered the basis of

intermedial products such as lyrics and thus will be elaborated on in the next chapter.

2.3. Arguments for the comparability of music and text (as premise for their

intermedial fusion)

What legitimizes the fusion of the two distinct media literature and music in the concrete case of

lyrics? A justification for why lyrics can be added effortlessly to music can be found in the concept

of Intermediality, which is based on the compatibility, as in close interconnection and capacity of

fusion of the respective media. This presupposes a certain comparability between music and

literature, as has already been mentioned in the previous chapter. Werner Wolf ascribes to literature

as well as to music the same status of an aesthetic and artistic medium, not least in consistingly

using the term ‘literature’ instead of ‘language’, which emphasizes the aesthetic and artistic nature

of the medium (cf. Wolf 1999: 12). This brings both forms of media together on the same level,

which is indispensable for the two media to become comparable and compatible with each other.

The following chapter will present an overview of the relevant parallels and similarities between the

two art forms music and literature, which make them comparable and compatible with each other

14

and thus serve as a basis for their union in intermedial products such as lyrics. What basically

legitimizes the fusion of the two art forms music and literature in intermedial products such as lyrics

is their comparability (cf. Wolf 1999: 14). The first and most significant argument for their

comparability is, according to Werner Wolf, that they can both be analyzed in semiotic terms (Wolf

1999: 14). When both literature and music are considered forms of art, they are likewise

conventionalized signifying practices of humanity which underlie certain principles and are based

on generic systems, i.e. grammar or the tonal system, and in both arts finite and individual works

are being produced for communication purposes (cf. Wolf 1999: 12). Both forms of media, music

and literature, constitute systems of discrete signs made up of semiotic components (signifiers and

signifieds) but it is difficult to find correspondences in music to signifying units on a lower level

such as verbal words or morphemes, since the musical correspondence to single words or phonemes

in literature could be equally single notes but also parts of chords or melodies, i.e. the

correspondences to linguistic (literary) lower level signifying units in music are arbitrary and not

clearly definable (cf. Wolf 1999: 15). In music, the last clearly identifiable signifying unit is a

musical phrase, which could correspond to that of a sentence or phrase in literature phonemes (cf.

Wolf 1999: 15). Thus, both art forms are considered and declared sign systems which can be

submitted to semiotic analysis, which is a significant common denominator that makes the two art

forms comparable to each other (cf. Wolf 1999: 14). This comparability and compatibility for an

intermedial union between music and literature in turn facilitates a translation of elements from one

medium into the other (cf. Wolf 1999: 11). This translatability of elements from one medium into

the other can take on various forms, of which two of the most common ones are the translation of

musical structures into text (cf. Petermann 2014: 3) or the transposition of musical elements into

images (e.g. in the form of subjectively perceived imaginary contents) (cf. Wolf 1999: 28). The

latter would manifest itself in the transformation of acoustic material into imaginary visual contents,

i.e. subjective and vague, individually perceived images. Music has the power to evoke visions and

stimulate imagination by its mere acoustic material (cf. Wolf 1999: 28). This may have direct

implications for the musicalization of literature and consequently for lyrics: if music can be

transformed in the listener’s mind into images, this process can also happen vice versa, i.e. literary

images can be transformed and ‘re-translated’ into music (cf. Wolf 1999: 28). In other words, the

translatability of music into images potentially allows for the reverse process, where literary images

in texts, and thus also in lyrics, can be transposed into music (cf. Wolf 1999: 28). The other type of

‘transaction’ of material from the one medium into the other mentioned earlier is the translatability

of musical contents into text. Petermann justifies this translatability of musical elements into text

(which follows from their comparability) by the high capability of literature to imitate music and its

15

ability to overtake its features and elements (cf. 2014: 3). The translation of selected musical forms

and techniques into text can be a crucial feature in the composition of novels such as the ‘Musical

Novel’ (cf. Petermann 2014: 7), but also an approach to writing lyrics, which, by nature, as being an

accompanying text to a musical piece, can support the musical structure by imitating it, which can

be effectuated by translating musical elements and structures into text. Thus, lyrics containing

language which imitates and doubles musical structures can be added to music in order to reinforce

its meaning. This possibility of translation of media-inherent musical structures into the medium of

text is another evidence for the comparability and compatibility of music and literature (cf. Wolf

1999: 11). The latter is the main premise of the existence of lyrics, since a fusion of the two media

would be impossible if the two media were incompatible with each other. From this translatability

of musical elements into text naturally follows the musicality of lyrics, which is inherent in the text

type lyrics, since lyrics are texts which are designed to accompany music, thus they inherently

contain a certain amount of musicality, and patterns, structures, elements which are typical for

music (cf. Wolf 1999: 33). In this way they resemble lyric poetry (cf. Wolf 1999: 13). Literature,

especially poetry, and thus also lyrics, can infer its signifiers with musicality in order to create a

musical atmosphere (cf. Wolf 1999: 33), for example by the submission of literary signifiers to a

metrical pattern, which is an obvious literary analogy to the structure of recurrent rhythm in musical

pieces (cf. Wolf 1999: 22). The following section will provide an overview of the specific common

elements and similar aspects in music and text which are translatable into the other medium and

make the two art forms comparable and compatible with each other.

2.3.1. The acoustic nature of both art forms

The basis of the musicality of language, and, in a more aesthetic sense, literature, lies in its acoustic

origin (cf. Wolf 1999: 15). In other words, text, respectively literature, originally has the same

acoustic nature as music does, which is responsible for this stark similarity between the two art

forms (cf. Wolf 1999: 15). The qualities of musical acoustic signifiers such as pitch, timbre, volume

and rhythm can also be applied to poetry, before all other forms of literature due to its high degree

of musicality (cf. Wolf 1999: 15). This circumstance facilitates the translatability of musical

elements into text and thus renders possible a potential intermedial fusion (cf. Wolf 1999: 15-16).

Thus, acoustic signifiers constitute one of the major parallels between the two arts. However, the

importance of these acoustic signifiers is more distinct in music than in verbal texts, since in music

the aural aspect forms the very ‘essence’ for its medium and is more significant than in literature,

where the acoustic component is secondary and not as quintessential (cf. Wolf 1999: 16). A literary

text is never primarily regarded as sound, however in poetry the aural qualities are still more

relevant than in prose. In other words, the acoustic signifiers are more essential to the semiotics of

16

lyric poetry than of any other literary genre (cf. Wolf 1999: 16). Thus, if poetic texts resemble music

by their foregrounding of acoustic signifiers, lyrics consequently are highly similar or comparable

to music as they resemble poetry more than prose by their use of rhythmic patterns and other

musical structures and elements. In other words, lyrics reproduce the acoustic nature of music. In

this similarity between poetry, and, as a consequence, also lyrics and music due to their common

foregrounding of acoustic signifiers we can find a justification for the addition of lyrics to music,

and thus for the intermedial fusion between these two forms of media.

2.3.2. Segmentation and division (in music as well as in poetry)

Another parallel feature between music and literature respectively lyrics is the convention of formal

segmentation and division into various parts, which is inherent in music (best exemplified by

classical pieces) but also applies to lyrics (cf. Wolf 1999: 17). Thus, the structural division into parts

is another element which can be translated from the medium music to text and vice versa. In lyrics,

the fragmentary form of music correlates with the structure of the poetic text, which is also

conventionally expected to be divided into various stanzas (cf. Wolf 1999: 17). This one signifier

(regarding the structure and form) is common and of equal importance in both literary and musical

discourses and therefore a major common denominator which supports the comparability between

the two forms of media (cf. Wolf 1999: 17).

2.3.3. Recurrences (repetition, variations etc.)

Another major similarity between music and literature is the possibility and frequent use of

recurrences on various levels, in the form of repetition and/or variation of motifs, contrasts and

deviations, which allow the “unfolding of self-referential aesthetic relations within both a piece of

music and a literary text“ (Wolf 1999: 17). These recurrences, thus, are a significant instance of the

self-referential function of literature mentioned in a previous section (cf. Wolf 1999: 26). The vital

character of repetition is also confirmed by O’Meally, who notices that in the very special case of

jazz music and other descendant genres of African music, repetitive words and rhythms have long

been acknowledged as a central characteristic (cf. 1998: 70). This repetitiveness which evolves both

on the level of music as well as on text level leads O’Meally to consider repetition an organizing

factor in music, which is an indispensable premise for improvised, and thus also jazz music (cf.

1998: 70). There are several types of recurrences in music, one of the major ones being the

recurrent structure of bars, consisting of beats grouped into various meters (cf. O’Meally 1998: 70),

which correspond to verses in poetic texts (cf. Wolf 1999: 17). This is confirmed by O’Meally, who

highlights the fact that music is based on a continuous beat or meter and involves submission of a

melody and/or lyrics to a steady rhythmical unit or a metrical system, such as bars (cf. 1998: 70).

17

This metrical structure and rhythmical segmentation is also clearly present in lyrics in the form of

verses (cf. Wolf 1999: 17). On the level of smaller units of signifiers it is the melodic recurrence in

the form of either repetition or variation of phrases, which appears in musical pieces in the form of

so-called ‘motifs’, as well as in literary texts in the form of repetitions or rhymes, which are

essentially repetitive identical sound patterns which can also be varied (cf. Wolf 1999: 17). Then,

finally, the most explicit recurrent structures in music and in literature are the thematic ones, where

the dimensions ‘theme’, ‘phrase’ and ‘motif’ are subject of analysis in both art forms (cf. Wolf

1999: 17-18). Thus, even the same vocabulary is used in both arts to describe these dimensions (cf.

Wolf 1999: 17-18). However, there is a significant difference between the two forms of media in

terms of their presentation of themes, namely that in music the themes appear on the level of

signifiers, i.e. on a more directly visible and explicit level: “a musical theme is an unmistakable

chain of signifiers (notes)“ (Wolf 1999: 20), whereas literary themes are more covert and implicit,

since they are denoted and alluded to on the level of the signifieds (cf. Wolf 1999: 20). In literary

works, themes are concepts inferred and interpreted by the reader on the basis of components in a

dissociated and intermittent way throughout the work, but which can also reoccur in several

different works in the same form or in different variations (which would be called ‘transtextual’

themes) (cf. Wolf 1999: 20). In this aspect literary themes clearly differ from musical themes, which

reoccur with the same or similar signifiers, i.e. are repeated in the same form. Therefore, musical, as

opposed to literary themes, are unique, original and always restricted to the work they occur in (cf.

Wolf 1999: 20).

2.3.4. Possibility of transcription into a visual system

Another parallel feature between music and literature which facilitates their comparability and

compatibility is the fact that the acoustic signifiers of both media can be transcribed into a visual

system, i.e. the acoustic signifiers of music and literature both have visual correspondents (cf. Wolf

1999: 15). In music, tones respectively sounds can be transcribed into a visual system of notes and

in language spoken words can obviously be transcribed into letters. Acoustic components can be

transferred into the textual and thus both arts can be mediated via a textual channel, which

furthermore allows for repeated reproduction (cf. Wolf 1999: 15).

In summary, the two art forms music and literature are to a certain extent related and share

significant commonalities, such as the fact that they can both by submitted to semiotic analysis

(they are both sign systems) (cf. Wolf 1999: 14) and that media-inherent structures of both forms of

art can be translated into the other medium (cf. Petermann 2014: 3). What renders possible this

translatability are their numerous similarities on the level of the signifiers, namely their shared

18

acoustic, structural/formal and repetitious qualities and the capacity to transcribe the acoustic

signifiers of the respective art form into a visual system (cf. Wolf 1999: 15). There are certain

relevant differences between music and literature which slightly (but not crucially) restrict the

comparability between the two art forms. One of them is, for example, the importance given to the

acoustic signifying units in the respective art form: acoustic signifiers are more essential to the

nature of music than in fiction, and within fiction the acoustic component is even more relevant and

foregrounded in poetry than in prose (cf. Wolf 1999: 16). Furthermore, there is the difference in the

nature of themes, which indeed occur in both medial forms but are more variable and original in

music, since in literature themes can occur in the same way in many different works (they can be

‘transtextual’, i.e. transcending the boundaries of only one work), whereas in music they are are

always individual and different form work to work (cf. Wolf 1999: 20). This implies that music and

literature are compatible and comparable with each other due to their basic commonalities, but only

in a restricted way, since music will never really and ultimately be set equal literature to music (cf.

Wolf 1999: 33), but can approach it by the use of metaphors and imitation (cf. Wolf 1999: 33-34).

Despite these essential differences, which will always prevent literature from becoming music and

will always set these two forms of media apart (cf. Wolf 1999: 33-34), they are, due to the many

similarities they share, in fact comparable to each other and therefore can enter in an intermedial

union. This compatibility of music and literature for an intermedial junction is the basis for the

existence of lyrics. Lyrics can be considered intermedial in two ways: on the one hand, they are

literary texts infused by musical patterns and structures, implying that literature and music merge

within them. On the other hand, lyrics are a central constituent of an intermedial product called

‘song’ and thus are involved in the formation of another intermedial fusion of music and literature.

The various forms of intermediality and processes of intermedial junction which are involved in the

production of lyrics will be presented in the next chapter.

2.4. Forms of Intermediality relevant for lyrics

The types of intermediality which are relevant for this study naturally are those which are involved

in vocal musical pieces, respectively music which is accompanied by lyrics, since the latter are the

objects of analysis of this study. Thus, in the following chapter the intermedial processes which

form the basis of lyrics and also songs (of which lyrics are a substantial constituent) will be

described and investigated more closely. A musical piece in which lyrics are involved consists of the

merge between the two forms of media music and literature, wherein the literary medium, in the

form of lyrics, is hereby added as an additional sign system to music and combined with it.

Therefore, the musical pieces, respectively songs, which are the frame of the lyrics we discuss in

19

this study, comprise the two separate sign systems of music and literature to form an intermedial

product. However, also lyrics in themselves constitute an intermedial work, because within them

musical patterns and elements are adapted to influence and structure the textual components, which

is an inevitable process in a text which is designed to correlate with music. These diverse types of

Intermediality, and also the mise en abîme structure of an intermedial work (lyrics) within an

intermedial work (song), will be presented and elaborated on more precisely in the course of the

following pages.

2.4.1. A vocal song as an intermedial work

A vocal song is an intermedial product formed by the fusion of the two compatible forms of media,

and as such an exemplary product of musico-literary relations (cf. Wolf 2015: 463). Within this

product, a textual component (lyrics) is applied to music as a linguistic addition, thus constituting

an additional sign system to combine with music. Therefore, it is a fact that two sign systems, the

linguistic and the musical one, are involved in the construction and signification of vocal music (cf.

Wolf 2015: 463). It is the combination of the semiotics of both forms of media involved which

results in the ultimate meaning of an (inherently intermedial) vocal musical piece, of which not only

the musical component, but also the lyrics constitute a substantial part (cf. Wolf 2015: 463). This is

also confirmed by Werner Wolf, who claims that “[…] intermediality is an integral part of the

signification and/or the semiotic structure of individual works, texts or performances“ (2015: 463).

In view of the presence of two sign systems in the intermedial product ‘vocal song’, it is paramount

to consider that the musical as well as the linguistic sign system involved can co-exist separately,

since they are autonomous, semiotically independent and not inseparably connected (cf. Wolf 2015:

463), and can produce self-referential as well as hetero-referential meaning on their own (cf. Wolf

1999: 26-28). Thus, a vocal song can be classified as belonging to Wolf’s intermedial type

‘plurimediality’, since the most explicit and essential feature of a plurimedial work is that the media

involved are heterogeneous, semiotically independent and materially present on the level of

signifiers of the work in question (cf. Wolf 2015: 463). In other words, in a plurimedial hybrid such

as a vocal song the original medial components are autonomous, superficially visible and equal in

presence on the surface of the work, which also implies that they can potentially be separated from

each other (cf. Wolf 2015: 463; cf. Wolf 1999: 42). Music and text in a vocal song are indeed

autonomous and distinct units which can be analysed separately and can thus be classified as

plurimedial works of intermediality (cf. Wolf 2015: 463). The possibility of a potential separation of

the media in question implies that the intermediality involved in plurimediality is overt, since both

medial components are visible and theoretically independent or separable from each other (cf. Wolf

2015: 463). The various media involved in plurimedial products visibly appear on the level of

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signifiers, which is thus heterogenous, but are not necessarily connected to each other in a

hierarchical relationship of dominance, and thus can be categorized as overt intermediality (cf. Wolf

1999: 42). Furthermore, plurimediality includes the possibility of one medial component imitating

or interpreting the other, e.g. a vocal song can be divided into harmony, melody, and lyrics, but

clearly, in a performative context, a song is not just a mere juxtaposition of music and words, but it

is a synthesis of those media (cf. Wolf 2015: 463). This phenomenon is called ‘plurimedial

combination’ or ‘intermedial fusion’, which describe the syncretist process which takes place when

two forms of media are fused together in a performative context (cf. Wolf 2014: 463). This

‘plurimedial combination’ or ‘intermedial fusion’ definitely applies to the intermedial product vocal

song, in which the two equally dominant media involved music and text can be separated for the

purpose of analysis, and are not merely juxtaposed but fuse with each other in the context of

performance (cf. Wolf 2015: 463). A vocal song can thus, according to Wolf, be classified as an

intermedial (plurimedial) product, which furthermore involves plurimedial combination or

intermedial fusion due to the interaction of the media involved in a performative context (cf. Wolf

2015: 463). Being works of plurimediality, vocal songs belong to the wider category of overt

intracompositional intermediality, where the level of perceptibility of intermediality is the highest

(cf. 2015: 468).

2.4.2. Lyrics as intermedial works

According to Emily Petermann’s definition, any given work where boundaries between various

forms of media are crossed or different forms of media are combined within it and influence each

other are works of intermediality and can therefore be called ‘media products’ (2014: 17). Thereby,

the relationship between the materially present medium and the foreign medium it refers to (either

by imitation or thematization) is crucial for its classification as intermedial product (cf. Petermann

2014: 17). Lyrics are specimens of such intermedial ‘media products’, within which two distinct

forms of media, music and text, are combined and interfere with each other, since the lyrical text

imitates musical elements, structures and techniques in order to correlate with the music it

accompanies. Thus, it is legitimate to define lyrics as products of intermediality or intermedial

‘media products’, since it is the interaction and mutual influence between the different forms of

media within a work which classifies it as intermedial (cf. Petermann 2014: 17). If according to

Petermann the media product must be located within one medium and its relationship to another

medium eventually classifies it as intermedial (cf. 2014: 17), lyrics comply with this concept, since

they are located within the medium of literature, but make use of musical elements and techniques

without changing their literary character. The relationship of the dominant medium (literature) to

the non-dominant (‘foreign’) one (music) in lyrics is one of imitation (showing), which means

21

borrowing techniques and adapting elements from the other medium and making them perceptible

in the dominant medium by implicit reference (cf. Petermann 2014: 24). This process definitely

takes place in lyrics, where musical structures are metaphorically suggested (imitated) and

integrated into the text. If we want to define lyrics as intermedial products according to Wolf’s

typology, the type of intermediality relevant for lyrics would be ‘covert’ intermediality, since the

medium which is non-dominant in lyrics, namely music, is only indirectly present as a concept and

a trace, and not directly discernible on the level of signifiers, while the dominant medium, namely

text, is clearly visible on the surface of the work (cf. Wolf 1999: 42). This results in a homogeneous

level of signifiers, where the ‘foreign’ medium is concealed by the dominant one and only vaguely

discernible as a signified, a concept denoted in the signification of the work, while only the

dominant medium is materially present on the level of signifiers (cf. Wolf 1999: 42). This implies a

hierarchical relationship and the impossibility of separation of the two forms of media involved (cf.

Wolf 1999: 41-42). Another term related to covert intermediality used by Wolf in a later work is

‘intermedial reference’, which, next to ‘plurimediality’ (overt intermediality) is the second basic

type of intracompositional intermediality (cf. Wolf 2015: 464)1.

In summary, lyrics, in addition to being a substantial part of the overtly intermedial, respectively

multimedial product ‘song’, form an intermedial product of their own, by their capacity to imitate

and adapt musical structures, which is inevitable in a product which is basically designed to fit and

support musical structures. Thus, lyrics constitute a product of covert intermediality where the non-

dominant medium is merely suggested and covered by the dominant one, resulting in a

homogeneous ’surface’ where only one medium is directly discernible (cf. Wolf 1999: 42). In

Petermann’s terms, lyrics would be classified as intermedial products which are superficially

literary but derive their intermedial character from the imitation of certain features of another

medium (music) (Petermann 2014: 17). Both variants describe the same constitution, namely that

the musical elements which have been modeled on the literary component are indirectly perceptible

while only the latter (the ‘dominant medium’) is materially present (cf. Wolf 1999: 42). In contrast

to lyrics, a vocal song is an overtly intermedial (plurimedial) work (cf. Wolf 1999: 41-42), or a

multimedial product (cf. Petermann 2014: 17) which is characterized by the visibility and equal

perceptibility of more than one media on the surface of the work, which are not inseparably

connected and can theoretically exist independently from each other. This criterium clearly applies

to the medium vocal song, in which the two forms of media music and lyrics are both materially

1‘intermedial reference’ is described by Werner Wolf as follows: “the involvement of another medium occurs only indirectly or

covertly (…), namely through the signifiers and signifieds of the work in question pointing towards the non-dominant ‘target’ medium” (Wolf 2015: 464). This corresponds to his notion of ‘covert intermediality’.

22

present and visible on the level of signifiers of the work, and are related to each other via

intermedial connections, but can still exist as autonomous units on their own (cf. Petermann 2014:

17; Wolf 1999: 42). A lyric can be read without the music it usually accompanies, and the music can

be played instrumentally without a vocal utterance of the lyrics. Thus, the two forms of media

which are combined in a vocal song form two theoretically independent units which can exist and

be analysed separately from each other (cf. Wolf 2015: 463). Therefore, the type of Intermediality

involved in lyrics differs from the one in vocal songs, but both types are relevant for lyrics, since

lyrics constitute an intermedial product on their own, while at the same time being an elementary

and central medium involved in the intermedial product ‘vocal song’. Thus, there is a certain mise

en abîme structure of intermediality of which lyrics are a constitutive part, and it is essential to be

aware of the forms of Intermediality involved in lyrics in order to determine their signification,

since all media involved and their (intermedial) relations to each other are relevant for the semiotics

of lyrics (cf. Wolf 2015: 463).

3. The importance, role and function of lyrics

3.1. Importance: Why are lyrics applied to songs?

In the article “Why do songs have words?“ (1989: 77-96.), Simon Frith maintains that within songs,

“words are the signs of a voice“ (1989: 90). By this he implies that the text is responsible for the

musical piece’s “social use“, since lyrics constitute the voice which directly addresses the listeners

and thus makes the song accessible and comprehensible to people (cf. Frith 1989: 90, 93).

Moreover, Frith means by the term ‘voice’ that lyrics enhance a song’s emotional effect, since a

song does not only convey semantic meaning, but is a speech act or a performance, which emits

emotional meaning by specific sound structures and is directly expressive of the character of its

interpret (cf. Frith 1989: 90). By involving personal statements and stories, individual messages and

emotional utterances such as elements of pleaing, sneering or commanding, lyrics are often marked

by a highly personal and emotional contents which reveals the minds of their authors, as well as of

their interprets (cf. Frith 1989: 90). Thus, lyrics play a major role in the overall affective effect and

meaning of a song. Furthermore, Simon Frith concedes to contemporary pop songs, which might

also apply to (contemporary) jazz compositions, the ability to elaborate on ordinary language (cf.

1989: 91). He claims that lyrics are based on everyday language and ordinary words, which are

transferred to music, thereby acquiring a “new resonance and power“ (Frith 1989: 91). In other

words, if music is added to a text the latter is infused with a strong “linguistic vitality“ (cf. Frith

1989: 93). However, there are also critics who minimize the importance of lyrics by claiming that

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they lose their relevance as soon as they are combined with music, because music is the more

appreciated and dominant medium in the moment of performance (cf. Tippett 1989: 29). According

to the British composer Sir Michael Tippett, a poem ceases to be perceived as poetry in the very

moment it is embedded into a musical context, since the dominant and more captivating medium is

music, which is capable of overpowering poetry and reducing its appreciation as poetry (cf. Tippett

1989: 29). According to him, a poem can only be perceived explicitly and purely as poetry when it

is recited, read out aloud or silently, or simply rendered in a conventional literary way, without

entering an intermedial relationship with another equally autonomous and independent medium like

music (cf. Tippett 1989: 29). The latter is capable of distracting attention from the text and

minimizing its perception as a piece of literature, and in fact virtually destructing its appreciation as

poetry (cf. Tippett 1989: 29). In other words, Tippett denies the simultaneous appreciation of both

involved art forms, music and poetry, when listening to a song (cf. Tippett 1989: 29). The

appreciation of the one medium falls at the expense of the other, the valorization of poetry is

substituted by the valorization of music despite their co-existence (cf. Tippett 1989: 29), and despite

their equal perceptibility and presence on the level of signifiers in the plurimedial product ‘vocal

song’ (cf. Wolf 2015: 463). The fact that music and poetry are both visible and tangible forms of

media which are materially present on the level of signifiers, i.e. on the surface of the song (cf. Wolf

2015: 463) apparently does not imply that they are equally appreciated, according to the view of

some critics and musico-literary researchers. Similarly, Lawrence Kramer addresses the assumption

that numerous musico-literary theorist attribute a certain superiority to the medium music by

ascribing to it the capability to express “[…] more than words can say“ and to move beyond the

limited boundaries of language and its system of rationality (cf. 2002: 12). They believe in the

capability of music to reach meta-linguistic spaces which go beyond the sphere of logic and

rationality and thereby take precedence over language (cf. Kramer 2002: 12). It is questionable,

however, to make a general statement about the perception of music and literature in an intermedial

relationship, since perceptions are highly individual and differ from person to person. It might be

true that the musical component often enters our perception in a very strong and imposing way in

the moment of performing or consuming music. This might be due to the fact that music tends to

directly address the emotional and affective qualities in the human being (cf. Kramer 2002: 11-12).

However, this ability is also attributed to text, words or language, which are capable of addressing

the listener directly by representing an immediate voice (cf. Frith 1989: 90). Thus, language, just as

well as music, are capable of establishing a direct connection to the listeners and thus appealing to

their emotional and affective channels (cf. Kramer 2002: 11-12; cf. Frith 1989: 90). In other words,

language, as an inherently hetero-referential medium (cf. Wolf 1999: 26), finds its way to exceed

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the limits of logical and rational spheres and to reach meta-linguistic spaces. Therefore, in the

moment of performance or consumption of a vocal song, the textual component cannot be ignored.

Just as we perceive both media in the act of making or listening to music, since they both

effectively are perceptible on the level of signifiers (cf. Wolf 2015: 463), we are potentially able to

appreciate both. As has been outlined in the preceding lines, some critics clearly support the

precedence and dominant role of music in intermedial products such as songs (cf. Tippett 1989: 29-

32; cf. Kramer 2002: 11-12), while others believe in the crucial role and function of the textual

component, respectively lyrics in songs (cf. Frith 1989: 77-96). These functions can be diverse and

various, and a significant variety of them will be presented in the next chapter.

3.2. Functions

3.2.1. Lyrics as media of communication

According to Simon Frith, successful (pop) songs, i.e. songs which are destined to be consumed by

a vast majority of people, need lyrics in order to establish direct communication with the listeners,

since conversation is more paramount for people than music (cf. 1989: 93). Lyrics to Simon Frith

are, thus, ‘direct voices’ which speak to the addressees, make them feel personally addressed and

thus help creating a personal relation between the song and the listener (cf. 1989: 90). Lyrics as a

voice express speech acts, which resemble those of everyday language, which due to its familiarity

enhances listeners’ sensation of feeling directly addressed and facilitates them access to the song in

question (cf. Frith 1989: 90). The fact that successful pop songs have always contained lyrics in

addition to the instrumental music and that a pop hit hardly ever has been a merely instrumental

song is a significant indicator that lyrics have a strong appeal to listeners, which is to a significant

part due to their communicative function between the song and the listener (cf. Frith 1989: 90).

From this we can furthermore conclude that lyrics are apparently highly beneficial and decisive for

a pop song’s selling potential (cf. Frith 1989: 90).

3.2.2. Lyrics as narrative instrument (‘Musical Narrativity’)

As has already been discussed in previous chapters, it has generally been perceived for a long time

that music lacked the ability to narrate on its own (cf. Kramer 1995: 119), and that it was mostly

and conventionally self-referential instead and thus fundamentally different from literary narratives

(cf. Wolf 1999: 26). But Werner Wolf has provided evidence that also music could be hetero-

referential and denote concepts which existed outside the musical sphere, such as body movements

or intertextual references (cf. Wolf 1999: 27-28). However, if lyrics are added to a self- or hetero-

referential musical piece, they can turn the musical piece into a narrating entity, a vocal song.

25

Lyrics, by their ability to narrate in their own right (cf. Wolf 1999: 26), have the potential to serve

as narrative instruments for the completion of a song. Lyrics are necessary and indispensable in

vocal music, but they are not relevant for instrumental music, whom especially Neubauer (cf. 1997:

118 f., cited in Wolf 1999: 30) denied the ability to narrate, but attributed the ability to symbolize

stories instead. Instrumental music shows rather than tells, by evoking thematic plots, for example,

or the development of themes (cf. Neubauer 1997: 119, cited in Wolf 1999: 30). However, if it is

combined with lyrics, instrumental music becomes vocal and an additional sign system and

communicative channel is added. In vocal music, thus, it can be said that showing, effectuated by

the music (cf. Neubauer 1997: 119, cited in Wolf 1999: 30), is combined with telling, effectuated by

the literary text that is added to it (cf. Wolf 1999: 30). Literary texts, and thus lyrics, can act as

telling agents (cf. Wolf 1999: 30), and can thus be considered to have a significant narrative

function.

3.2.3. Lyrics as reflector of social changes and cultural norms (‘reflection theory’)

In his cultural scientific investigation of pop songs and the concept of lyrics in pop music, the

content analyst Mooney focussed on their potential to reflect cultural and societal norms, which he

summed up under the term ‘reflection theory’ (cf. Frith 1989: 78). According to this theory, the

various periods, epochs and historical, socio-cultural atmospheres or ‘moods’ could be discernible

in the changing and alternating themes of pop lyrics (cf. Frith 1989: 78-79). In love songs,

specifically, Mooney saw the reflection of “the deepest currents of thoughts“, and the reflection of

the change in ideas and practices of love, which is always correlative to the respective changes in

societal norms and values (cf. Frith 1989: 78). Mooney could detect traces of the culturally relevant

emotional needs of the people living in the respective periods the lyrics were produced in (cf. Frith

1989: 78). From 1920 to 1940, for example, Mooney found that lyrics were generally morbid and

bleak, reflecting the generally prevailing disillusionment of the Great Depression, while lyrics

written between 1895 and 1925 were reflective of the proletarianism and patriotism of the American

Empire of these days by their “unorthodox and abandoned“ nature (cf. Frith 1989: 78). The same

reflection of cultural norms and societal developments could be detected in lyrics of the Fifties,

where post-war counterculture was represented by illusionary images of a sane and peaceful world

which were clearly dedicated to the masses in order to fuel and support the huge consumer boom of

the post-war era (cf. Frith 1989: 78). Similarly, in many lyrics of the Sixties the change in sexual

mores, the sexual revolution and general liberation in terms of sexual issues is clearly detectable (cf.

Frith 1989: 78). These examples illustrate Mooney’s assumption that lyrics were able to reflect

current socio-cultural, historical processes, ideological and emotional changes at the times they

were written and produced in (cf. Frith 1989: 78). However, the method of Mooney and other

26

fellow content analysists was later considered to be somewhat superficial and even flawed, since

their procedure was unsystematic and simplistic, by, amongst other factors, not taking into

consideration the musical and performative setting of the analysed lyrics (cf. Frith 1989: 78-79).

The present analysis does not include an analysis of the latter aspects either, but does not need to

since the method of analysis in the present case is a comparative literary one and includes only to a

limited extent a cultural content analysis. Simon Frith’s stance on the popular and also widely

acknowledged ‘reflection theory’ is that it can only apply to ‘authentic’ musical genres, such as folk,

country, blues and as a consequence also jazz, which are not primarily designed for commercial

purposes and mass culture, but are based on the authentic experiences and real needs of the

population (cf. 1989: 80). Frith furthermore sustains that analysts have treated lyrics as a reflective

vehicle not of mere popular culture but of “popular cultural confusion”, as reflectors of the

turbulences caused by social change (cf. Frith 1989: 79). Thus, in summary, lyrics of ‘authentic’

musical genres, such as folk, blues, and for that matter, probably also lyrics of the related genre

jazz, express the ideologies, social problems and changes affecting the respective culture at the time

of their production and thus reflect not only social and cultural realities but also common social

values and attitudes of a given period (cf. Frith 1989: 80). It follows that due to the inevitable

change of ideologies, general social norms and values, and thus also the changing needs of the

public, also lyrics change over time, which is essentially the basic assumption of the present study

and is open to confirmation or rejection in the following analysis of selected lyrics.

3.2.4. Lyrics as reflector of emotional tendencies and ideological realities prevailing in a

given society (‘Lyrical Realism’)

Closely connected with the reflection of cultural and social changes is another function of lyrics

which can be described best by the term ‘lyrical realism’. This function concerns the establishment

of a direct relationship between the text and the social or emotional realities it reflects (cf. Frith

1989: 82). In his discussion of folk songs, Frith offers the view that folk lyrics provide a “historical

record of popular consciousness“ (cf. 1989: 82), which involves not only social but also emotional

dimensions. According to the British folk singer A.L. Lloyd songs and lyrics became a desired and

efficient vehicle for people to express their emotions, hopes and aspirations (cf. Lloyd 1975: 158,

cited in Frith 1989: 82). By this he means that songs do not only accurately reflect social, political

or cultural realities but also individual (or collective) fantasies, hopes and dreams (cf. Frith 1989:

82). This phenomenon of lyrics’ representation of people’s emotional and affective realities is called

‘Lyrical Realism’. Concerning the authenticity in lyrical realism, however, the question arises as to

whether lyrics are supposed to depict reality accurately or whether their main aim is to challenge

prevailing cultural norms and ideals by representing a constructed reality (cf. Frith 1989: 83). In the

27

latter case lyrics would be questioning actual cultural reality by presenting an alternative counter-

concept (cf. Frith 1989: 83). The authors of Disco-Pleasure-Discourse (1979), J. Taylor and D.

Laing, stress the notion that ideology (which, essentially, is a construct) is more crucial to the

cultural production of a given age than actual reality (cf. 1979: 46, cited in Frith 1989: 83). Thus,

lyrics are also realistic and authentic when they portray a (constructed) ideological currents of a

given time, and not only when they reflect social and emotional realities of the public. Another

musical semiologist whose ideas have already been presented earlier is Lawrence Kramer, who

shares the notion that lyrics relate to human emotional realities and experiences, formulated in the

following sentence: “Texted vocal music is linked to a definite human content by default. Remove

text and voice, and the link is broken.“ (cf. Kramer 2002: 12). He implies that text in music is an

indispensable element which directly refers to human experience, to emotional (on the individual

level) and societal (on the collective level) realities, issues and experiences.

3.2.5. Lyrics as reflector of production norms

Until the mid-Sixties the British and American composing business was mainly oriented towards

commercial purposes (cf. Frith 1989: 77). Composers were not independent artists who aimed at

expressing themselves creatively via their art, but they were basically businessmen who wrote and

produced songs and lyrics for commercial publication purposes and in order to satisfy the needs and

demands of the masses (cf. Frith 1989: 77). They were primarily engaged in producing what was

called the “bland, universal, well-made song“ (Frith 1989: 77), and this led to a so-called ‘lyrical

standardization’ in popular music (cf. Frith 1989: 78). According to J. G. Peatman, one of the first

systematic analysts of pop song lyrics, all lyrics investigated in the course of his research shared the

same theme, namely romantic love with the variations ‘happy in love’, ‘frustrated in love’ or the

then newly emerging type involving a sex interest (cf. Peatman 1942: 3, cited in Frith 1989: 78).

This lyrical standardization in pop music production evidently reflected the producers’, composers’

or music industry’s intention to encourage people to buy the same products. The composers’

productive activity was also oriented towards meeting the demands of important people in positions

of corporate control, who dictated the rules for lyrical contents based on their commercial interests

(cf. Etzkorn 1963: 103-104, cited in Frith 1989: 78). Thus, the ‘bland, universal, well-made song’

was a homogeneous and cliché-laden construct of a song representing a rigid model for the ideal

and commercially successful pop song (cf. Frith 1989: 77). However, a change towards more liberty

and diversity in terms of lyrical contents and form started in the Sixties, when the competition

amongst lyricists and composers increased significantly. In response to this, lyricists employed in

the music industry started producing lyrics with more controversial contents and daring topics, in

order to obtain a stronger appeal to the audience and eliminate their competition (cf. Frith 1989:

28

89). Rigid corporate control of music production implied a smaller and limited spectrum of song

formats while less excessively controlled production norms allowed for more variety in musical and

lyrical products (cf. Frith 1989: 89). This shows that the changes in lyrical contents across history

do not only depend on the changes in public societal ‘mood’ and attitudes (see ‘reflection theory’ in

the previous section), but that they were also highly dependent on the production instance or the

music production industry lying behind it (cf. Frith 1989: 89). The original source, not only the

receiving instance of the songs, became more crucial (cf. Frith 1989: 89). In summary, the above

presented facts illustrate the decisive and fundamental influence which the production norms of a

given time have on musical and lyrical standards.

3.2.6. Lyrics as influence on listeners’ minds, feelings and attitudes

Lyrics are not only believed to reflect emotional realities of individuals or general attitudes of

societies of a given point in history, but also to strongly influence these in the first place. They are

generally believed to have significant effects on their listeners or readers, and whether they be banal

or profound they inevitably affect their audience’s minds and feelings and influence their attitudes.

In mass culture, pop lyrics generally can be characterized by a high degree of trite and banal

contents, which potentially mediates to the listeners a squew and unrealistic, euphemistic vision of

the world (cf. Frith 1989: 80, 88). According to many mass culture critics, consumers of pop songs

can be at risk to take lyrics’ contents for reality and project it directly onto their own lives (cf. Frith

1989: 88), which is a dangerous development if this contents is banalized and simplified in order to

meet the demands of the vast masses in a commercialized music business (cf. Frith 1989: 80). An

essential way in which lyrics could influence people’s feelings and emotional lives was by

providing them with the (allegedly) appropriate vocabulary for articulating those feelings (cf. Frith

1989: 93). By offering conventional language and commonplace terms presented in an easily

digestible and simplistic song, lyrics alleviated people of their inarticulacy when it came to

expressing profound feelings (cf. Horton 2004: 182-183). In other words, banal pop song lyrics

enabled people to articulate the experience of their relationships (cf. Horton 2004: 182-183), and

thus had a strong impact on the real emotional lives of individuals. From this notion we deduce that

lyrics do not only reflect emotional realities (‘Lyrical realism’) (cf. Lloyd 1975: 158, cited in Frith

1989: 82), as has been discussed in the previous section, but they also provide the vocabulary for

expressing them and thus have a direct influence on the individual emotional realities and real

relationships of people (cf. Horton 2004: 182-183).

29

3.2.7. Lyrics as area of projection of individual identities

Finally, lyrics, as texts which are interpreted by a vocalist or read aloud or silently, can serve as a

source of identification and an area of projection of one’s self (cf. Horton 2004: 183). While

individuals progress in reading or listening to lyrics, they acquire the meaning of private individual

histories, which Donald Horton otherwise terms as the “continuous translation of cultural patterns

of rhetoric into personal expression“ (2004: 183). Thus, consumers of lyrics transpose their own

private truths and ideas to lyrics, which thereby becomes an area of projection which helps

individuals to construct their own identity (cf. Horton 2004: 183). Especially to young people who

are still in the process of developing their own individual personality, lyrics facilitate an easier

orientation in the vast space of possibilities (cf. Horton 2004: 183). In other words, lyrics enable

individuals to find a “socially valid and personally satisfactory conception“ of themselves, by

serving as a platform for identification and thus having a significant function in the personal

development of individuals (cf. Horton 2004: 183). By this Horton offers a highly relevant

depiction of how lyrics of popular (love) songs can be used by their consumers (cf. Frith 2004: 3).

4. Analysis of selected traditional and contemporary jazz lyrics

4.1. Overview

The following chapter will provide an insight into the results of the investigation of selected

specimens of the jazz repertoire and provide case studies as evidence. The analysis will include two

significant approaches to facilitate a profound and elaborate depiction of the differences and

parallels between traditional and modern jazz lyrics. Firstly, the selected jazz lyrics will be

submitted to a formal literary analysis, in the course of which the rhetorical figures, formal aspects

and the thematic qualities of the jazz lyrics in question will be investigated. The study will not

restrict itself, however, to a merely formal literary analysis but will also take into consideration the

cultural and socio-historical circumstances of the periods the lyrics were produced in and point out

reflections of these in the lyrics in question. In other words, the analysis will not obliterate the

question as to how and in which ways the lyrics and their literary characteristics reflect the socio-

cultural and -historical background and developments of the era they were produced in. The literary

and the cultural aspects of the musico-literary intermedial product lyrics mutually influence each

other in the creation of an ultimate signification. The objects of investigation were a total of twenty-

two selected specimens of jazz lyrics extricated from the official jazz canon, a majority of them

having been included in the verified New Real Book of Jazz (1988). One half of the selected sample

is constituted by lyrics of traditional jazz compositions, while the other half consists of lyrics of

30

contemporary jazz songs. The study is based on the principle assumption that significant differences

and parallels can be found between modern and traditional jazz lyrics, and it is the central aim of

the following literary analysis to confirm or reject this hypothesis. The eventual results cannot be

used to assert a general and universally valid statement about the differences and similarities

between traditional and contemporary jazz lyrics, since the sample of the present study only

comprised a limited number of specimens of jazz lyrics. Therefore, the findings of the present study

apply to the concrete selection of jazz lyrics which have been submitted to investigation in the

present study, but can be considered sufficient, however, to indicate a possible tendency in both

traditional as well as modern jazz lyrics in general. The results of the literary analysis of selected

traditional and contemporary jazz lyrics and the investigation as to their reflective function of

cultural structures will be presented in the course of a detailed description in the following pages.

4.2. Findings

4.2.1. Differences

4.2.1.1. Differences on the level of language and linguistic style

4.2.1.1.1. More metaphors / metaphorical, poetic language in traditional jazz lyrics

In the course of the comparative analysis of selected traditional and contemporary jazz lyrics it soon

became evident that the traditional lyrics in the present sample can be generally characterized by a

higher amount of metaphorical language. The linguistic style applied to lyrics in traditional jazz

tunes proved to be of a more poetic and lyrical nature than many contemporary ones, while the

latter were characterized by a generally less floral and decorative but more factual and concrete

language. This becomes evident in Esperanza Spalding’s contemporary piece “I Know You Know”,

or several compositions of the Eighties, such as, for example, “The Island”, “Let Me Be The One”,

or “Easy” which are officially categorized as modern jazz pieces. Their linguistic style is more

concrete, plain and straightforward than the one in the majority of the traditional pieces analysed for

this study, resulting in a low degree of metaphorical, poetic character. On the contrary, lyrics found

in traditional jazz pieces such as in “Turn Out the Stars”, “Early Autumn”, “Angel Eyes” or “Spring

Can Really Hang You Up The Most”, for example, abound in metaphors, symbols and poetic,

abstract and aesthetic language. There have also been four specimens of contemporary jazz lyrics

investigated in this study which are indeed, just as their traditional antecedents, rich in metaphorical

and symbolic language and characterized by an unmistakable poetic style, namely “Girl In The

Other Room”,”Stolen Moments”, “Just The Two Of Us” and “Sticky Wicket”. However, the present

study has shown a clear bias towards high degree of metaphorical content in traditional jazz lyrics

(9 out of 11 (minus “Rhythm-A-Ning” and “Twisted”)) and a general tendency towards a factual

31

and concrete, plain linguistic style in contemporary pieces (7 out of 11). This abundance of imagery

and metaphorical language in traditional jazz lyrics compared to contemporary ones could have

many possible reasons. Firstly, it could be a result of the increasing media diversity of the modern

age. We are nowadays confronted with an overwhelming number and broad variety of images,

mediated to us via manifold channels of communication, which, however, were not as omnipresent

and dominant in earlier decades of the twentieth century. It might be, thus, that in the traditional

jazz era lyrics were infused with metaphors and imagery transported via poetic and aesthetically

appealing language, since language and literature were one of the few adequate forms of media to

transmit images in those days. In other words, the reason why traditional lyrics contained a greater

amount of imagery and number of metaphors (at least deducing from the results of the present

study), could be, thus, that in former days language was one of the few forms of media capable of

mediating imagery. Nowadays, on the other hand, visual images in all possible forms are

omnipresent and constantly and directly available and visible on a great variety of channels of

communication. The need for images, which we are nowadays oversaturated with, somehow also

had to be satisfied in a time before the great boom of media of communication and technological

advance, and lyrics, as constructs of language which can evoke images, served this purpose

perfectly. The rapid technological development of our society and great increase in new

technologies could also be crucial when it comes to the explanation as to why contemporary lyrics

tend towards concrete and factual language. The poor amount of imagery and poetic substance in

many modern lyrics could implicitly and unconsciously reflect the technological advance which

characterizes our society and influences humanity significantly. This reflection of the rapidly

progressing development of a technologized system in lyrics confirms the ‘reflection theory’ which

has been mentioned in the section dedicated to the function of lyrics, which conveys precisely this

notion of lyrics’ capacity to reflect ongoing cultural tendencies and social changes, realities and

norms (cf. Frith 1989: 78). If we believe in this conception, we can indeed legitimately interpret the

straightforward, plain and rather concrete linguistic style which is found in the majority of

contemporary lyrics (at least those which have been included in this study) as a reflection of a

technologized capitalist society where characteristics such as linearity, logics and plainness (as

opposed to exuberance, verbosity and other hyperbolic excess) are valid. On the other hand, the

simplicity and plainness of the words applied in contemporary jazz lyrics can also be a response to

the increasing complexity of the modern world. It could be an unconscious counter-weight to the

rapidly increasing developments and complex structures of contemporary age and reflect the need

for more simplicity and straightforwardness. Both options are plausible, and in both variants the

32

social and cultural changes and developments of the respective times are at any rate reflected,

confirming the ‘reflection theory’ mentioned earlier (cf. Frith 1989: 78).

4.2.1.1.2. More personifications of natural elements in traditional jazz lyrics

The present analysis has shown that while the number of elements of nature represented as

symbolisms is fairly equal in modern as well as traditional jazz lyrics (see chapter 4.2.2.4.), there is

a definite difference in terms of the appearance of personifications of natural elements between the

two groups of jazz lyrics. A vivid example of the personified use of elements of nature is the

traditional jazz ballad “Turn Out The Stars” by Bill Evans, which delivers powerful images of

personified natural entities, such as contained in the phrases “the ocean’s roar”, “don’t let the rivers

run”. Moreover, “Turn Out The Stars” contains a couple of elements extracted from the semantic

field of astronomy, such as “stars” and “comet”, which are, as opposed to their true nature, treated

as tangible, manipulable objects. In these cases one could preferably speak about an ‘objectification

of abstract entities’, which is not equal, but definitely related to the rhetorical figure of

personification. Other exemplary instances of personifications of natural elements can be found in

the traditional jazz lyrics “Early Autumn”, contained amongst others in the phrase “when an early

autumn walks the land and chills the breeze / and touches with her hand the summer trees”. Similar

to “Early Autumn”, in “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most” a personification of an element

of nature (spring) already appears in the title phrase. Other significant instances of personifications

of natural elements related to nature in “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most” are contained

in the phrases “Morning’s kiss wakes trees and flowers”, “Old man winter was a gracious host” and

“Spring arrived on time”. Amongst the sample of modern jazz lyrics, only one instance in which a

natural element was personified could be found, contained in the phrase “only stars will listen” in

the modern jazz lyrics “The Island”. Therefore, the analysis of the contemporary and traditional jazz

lyrics selected for this study has revealed that personifications of natural elements are more frequent

and common amongst traditional jazz lyrics than in modern jazz lyrics, a tendency which at least

applies to the lyrics investigated for this study, but could be true for a wider sample of jazz lyrics.

4.2.1.1.3. More ellipses in contemporary jazz lyrics

A further relevant difference between traditional and modern jazz lyrics which has resulted from the

comparative analysis carried out in this study is the higher amount of elliptical language in

contemporary lyrics in comparison to traditional ones. The contemporary pieces “I Know You

Know” by Esperanza Spalding, “Sticky Wicket” by Al Jarreau or “Salt” by Lizz Wright contain a

considerable amount of elliptical phrases, such as “nothing like me” (“I Know You Know”), “it

33

must be“ (“Salt”) and “seventy-thirty, morning, [...]“ (“Sticky Wicket”). Lyrics of traditional jazz

tunes selected for this analysis, by contrast, hardly ever show instances of elliptical language and

are characterized by full complete sentences instead. All in all, amongst the contemporary jazz

lyrics there are 3 out of 11 pieces which contain ellipses, while amongst the traditional jazz lyrics

there are only two examples (“Detour Ahead”, “Blizzard Of Lies”) which contain ellipses. This

increased number of ellipses in language visible in modern jazz lyrics could also be suggestive and

reflective of the advance of new technologies and the inflationary technologization of society,

which in turn produces a great diversity in forms of communication. These manifold new

communication forms bring with them a reform in communicative style, which is characterized by

rapidity, efficiency and curtness. Written communication in full sentences is becoming increasingly

rare as it is considered too obstructive and redundant. This tendency towards quick and direct

communication reflects a society which is based on the values of economic efficiency, profit and

rapid development. Thus, in a world where communication is becoming increasingly minimal and

straightforward, clipping of words and abbreviations are becoming more convenient as they

facilitate a quicker communication. Elliptical phrases are convenient rhetorical figures to symbolize

this tendency and more so, apply it to literary pieces, as they represent curtness, abbreviation and

rapidity. Therefore, the linguistic particuliarity and rhetorical device ellipsis, by its form and

function could reflect a certain cultural tendency and social development of our contemporary age.

Thus, again, the notion that lyrics reflect ongoing cultural developments and social processes which

mark the time of their production, which is summed up under the term ‘reflection theory’ (cf. Frith

1989: 78) is confirmed.

4.2.1.1.4. tendency towards conversational and colloquial linguistic style (natural and

authentic language) in contemporary jazz lyrics

A further insight which has emerged from the analysis of the selected jazz lyrics is that words in

modern jazz songs are largely rendered in a typically oral, conversational and fairly colloquial style,

while in traditional jazz lyrics these stylistic characteristics hardly apply. The colloquial style and

conversational tone is indicated by a great number of apocopes, aphaeresis, ellipses, as has already

been pointed out in an earlier section, and additionally by the use of slang words, which constitute

elements which typically occur in everyday oral communication and conversational language.

Examples of these elements in modern jazz lyrics which resemble spoken language and indicate

colloquialism and a conversational tone are apocopes such as “there’s red light flashin’ / look out

you’re goin’ too fast” or “grown men weepin’” in “Sticky Wicket”, or apocopes and aphaeresis such

as “I’ve been dreamin‘ ‘bout you every night / all I wanna do is hold you tight / you’re ev’rything I

34

want” which occur in “Let Me Be The One”. Other exemplary instances of colloquial elements are

the slang words “what the heck” in “Sticky Wicket” or those in “I Know You Know” (e.g. “just to

see what’s cooking”). The application and use of these colloquial elements inevitably leads to an

oral and conversational linguistic style in contemporary pieces, which in turn results in natural and

authentic language which resembles everyday human communication forms. According to the

author and critic Clive James, this reflection of everyday language is highly desirable, if not

indispensable in lyrics, illustrated by his his statement that the best lyricists should engage in

celebrating common speech (cf. James 1972, cited in Frith 1989: 92). Therefore, it is not surprising

that also some classic traditional jazz lyrics adopted a somewhat oral, conversational style or an

occasional colloquial element. An illustrative example of those are the lyrics of the traditional jazz

standard “Twisted”, which has already been mentioned as exceptional and out of the ordinary in

comparison to other classic jazz standards in its unconventional choice of main theme and contents.

There, a considerable number of colloquial elements can be found, such as the aphaeresis “‘cause”

and apocopes “couldn’t”, “happ’nin‘” or “swingin’”, which results in the impression of an

altogether natural and authentic language (except for the rhymes). Likewise, the lyrics in the song

“Rhythm-A-Ning” or in “Satin Doll”, which are both integral parts of the canon of classic jazz

standards, also contain elements of “folk language“ respectively slang words, such as “cattin’”,

“flippin’”, “wig” (“Satin Doll”) or “listen to this cat” (“Rhythm-A-Ning”). Similarly, in the

traditional jazz standard “Angel Eyes”, slang words and apocopes such as “it doesn’t do a bit of

good” or “Pardon me, but I gotta run” occur. However, a natural authentic ‘folk’ language

characterized by a conversational oral style and colloquialisms is generally less present in classic

jazz standards, with a few exceptions, but it is generally a feature which can be ascribed to modern

jazz lyrics. In 7 out of 11 modern jazz lyrics which have been analysed for this study a significant

number of relevant apocopes, aphaeresis or slang words could be found. Amongst the sample of

traditional jazz lyrics, however, only in 4 out of 11 specimens colloquial elements such as apocopes,

aphaeresis or slang words could be found.

4.2.1.1.5. More nonsensical language in modern jazz lyrics

Another aspect which clearly marks contemporary jazz lyrics in comparison with traditional ones is

the more frequent use of nonsensical language. However, the number of neologisms (not

nonsensical but meaningful word creations) which were found in modern as well as traditional jazz

standards of this sample was the same in both categories. Exemplary instances of neologisms in

modern jazz lyrics are the word creations ‘super-best’ and ‘superness’ in “Easy” and the word

collocation ‘boogie down’ in the equally entitled modern jazz piece by Al Jarreau. However, the

35

same quantity of neologisms could be detected in the traditional jazz lyrics analysed for this study.

In the traditional jazz standards “Early Autumn” the neologism ‘April-hearted’ could be detected

(line 8), and the neologism ‘twitter-twitt’ was found in “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The

Most”. Likewise, the title phrase of “Rhythm-A-Ning” also constitutes a neologism. In terms of

nonsensical words or phrases, however, the lyrics of modern jazz standards range above the

traditional ones, since in the latter only one instance of nonsensical linguistic units could be found:

“switch e – rooney” in “Satin Doll”. In contemporary jazz lyrics, such as in Al Jarreau’s “Boogie

Down” two nonsensical phrases could be found: “Puttin’ all my really for real” and “I got my

certain and my sure ‘nough on”. In summary, a total number of three neologisms was filtered out in

contemporary jazz lyrics, and an equal number of three neologisms was found in traditional ones.

However, more nonsensical phrases could be found in contemporary jazz standards (if only two,

which both occurred in the same song (“Boogie Down”)), and were only detectable in one example

of traditional jazz lyrics (“Satin Doll”). Thus, in general, nonsensical language is a feature which

can be found to a slightly higher extent in lyrics of modern jazz pieces, while neologisms, on the

other hand, could be found to an equal extent in both modern as well as traditional jazz standards.

4.2.1.1.6. increased number of clichés in contemporary jazz lyrics

The use of clichés is apparently a substantial and crucial feature in lyrics, deducing from their

frequent appearance. This is supposedly due to the inherent commonplace and easily recognizable

character of clichés, which enhances the effect lyrics have on listeners and their potential to catch

the listeners’ attention. Simon Frith even involves clichés in the definition of a key function of

lyrics, by saying that one of their essential purposes is to demonstrate the commonplaces and

platitudes of everyday language via the use of clichés (cf. Frith 1989: 92). In other words, Frith

attributes to lyrics the capacity to expose in which common and unsophisticated manners things are

expressed in everyday language (cf. Frith 1989: 92). Exemplary instances of these clichés can be

found in both traditional as well as in contemporary jazz lyrics, but within the sample which has

been analysed for this study a greater number of lyrics could be found in contemporary jazz lyrics.

Lyrics in modern jazz standards such as “The Island”, “Let Me Be The One”, “Easy”, “Just The

Two Of Us”, “I Know You Know” and “Stolen Moments” contain numerous clichés or cliché

phrases, such as “hold me in your arms”, “all I wanna do is hold you tight” and “you’re everything I

want” (“Let Me Be The One”), or “catch me while I’m falling” and “free my wings for flying”

(“The Island”). Other cliché words or phrases can be found in “I Know You Know” (“I love you

babe”), “Stolen Moments” (“I loved you”, “pretty baby”, “kissin’”), “Easy” (“heart’s on fire”) and

“Just The Two Of Us”, which contains the common cliché images related to nature “rainbows”,

36

“sun”, “morning dew” and “raindrops”. In traditional jazz standards, on the other hand, significant

instances of cliché words or phrases could only be found in four instances. In “Early Autumn” the

cliché phrases “I miss you so”, “darling” and the cliché images of “summer trees” or “winding

country lane” could be found. In “Turn Out The Stars” the cliché symbolism of a ‘skylark’ could be

detected, while in “The Nearness Of You” the cliché image ‘pale moon’ and the phrases “dreams

come true” and “feel you so close to me” occur. Similarly, “Speak Low” contains the symbolic

cliché image “summer day” and the word “darling” which is also a common cliché applied in many

lyrics. A special case in terms of clichés amongst the sample of traditional jazz lyrics are those of

“Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most”, which play with the common notion and stereotypical

symbolic meaning of “spring” by using it in an entirely unconventional and opposed way to its

usual application (see chapter 4.3.2.3.). In summary, the number of clichés in contemporary jazz

lyrics exceeds the one in traditional jazz lyrics. Only four of the latter group contained clichés,

while in six of the former category significant and numerous instances of clichés could be found.

Clichés in general seem to be an integral element in lyrics of popular music (cf. Frith 1989: 92), and

as this study has shown, apparently also in related genres such as jazz music. They serve to attract

attention due to their recognizable character and furthermore reflect (elements of) common speech,

and thus also contribute essentially to lyrics’ compliance with Clive James’ notion that lyricists are

supposed to create resemblance to ordinary speech and “celebrate“ it (cf. James 1972, cited in Frith

1989: 92).

4.2.1.2. Differences on the formal level

4.2.1.2.1 More ‘scenas’ (lack of verse repetition / frequent absence of ‘refrain’) in traditional

jazz lyrics

In Sir Michael Tippett’s terms, songs which are characterized by a lack of verse repetition and

which thus move in “a long line [...] from beginning to an end“ are called ‘scenas’ (cf. 1989: 29). In

contrast to them, songs which largely include verse repetition are called ‘strophic’ songs (cf. Tippett

1989: 29). The present investigation of selected jazz lyrics from different epochs has shown that the

text of the various stanzas in traditional jazz lyrics tends to be varied from beginning to end. In

other words, many traditional jazz lyrics investigated for this study are characterized by a

continuous variation of verse text, which is always altered from stanza to stanza / verse to verse,

and even lack a standard refrain, as in a compact verse block (stanza) which is repeated multiple

times within a song. They do include single verse phrases, such as, for example, “spring can really

hang you up the most” (“Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most”) or “blame it on my youth”

(“Blame It On My Youth”), which occur repeatedly throughout the pieces in question, but they do

37

not contain refrains in the form of repeated identical full stanzas. This would correspond to Sir

Michael Tippett’s category of ‘scenas’, as in songs which lack verse repetitions and are based on a

coherent and uninterrupted structure (cf. 1989: 29). Therefore, many traditional lyrics analyzed for

this study could be categorized as ‘scenas’ according to Tippett’s terminology (cf. 1989: 29),

whereas the majority of modern jazz lyrics included in this study would be classified as ‘strophic’

works, showing an explicit repetitive structure by the use of repeated identical refrains. Examples

for ‘scenas’, thus, in this study would be the traditional jazz lyrics of “The Nearness Of You”,

“Blame It on My Youth”, “Detour Ahead”, “Satin Doll”, “Angel Eyes”, “Spring Can Really Hang

You Up The Most”, “Twisted”, “Early Autumn” and “Turn Out The Stars”. Only two specimens of

the pool of traditional jazz lyrics could be categorized as ‘strophic’ (“Speak Low” and “Rhythm-A-

Ning”), where a definite repetition of verse blocks (“Speak low / when you speak love”;

“Thelonious can do that / you listen to this cat”) could be ascertained. On the other hand, the

majority of the sample of contemporary jazz lyrics selected for this study could be classified as

‘strophic’ by their frequent repetition of identical refrains. The stanzas/verses in these contemporary

jazz lyrics remained varied and were not repeated in an identical form all over again, but the refrain,

which in fact is also a block of verses/stanza was frequently repeated throughout the pieces in

question, and thus the latter could be classified as ‘strophic’. Examples of such ‘strophic’

contemporary jazz lyrics in this study are “Just The Two Of Us”, “I Know That You Know”,

“Blizzard Of Lies”, “Easy”, “Sticky Wicket”, “Salt” and “Let Me Be The One”. However, there are

also specimens of modern jazz lyrics which follow the pattern of a scena and thus constitute

exceptions in modern jazz lyrics. Evident examples for scenas in modern jazz lyrics, in the sense of

songs which are clearly marked by a coherent and natural (as in lacking extensive repetition) style,

are “Stolen Moments”, “The Island”, “Boogie Down” and “The Girl In The Other Room”.

Naturally, in view of the structural differences between strophic songs and scena, the poetry used

for strophic songs differs from the one applied in scena. The poetry in strophic songs is bound to

include repetition, whereas in song texts orientated towards a coherent and natural style (‘scena’)

this repetitive quality is largely absent and replaced by a greater diversity of text (cf. Tippett 1989:

29). The present study has demonstrated that the repetitive quality is mostly present in modern jazz

lyrics, while traditional jazz lyrics often consist of a greater variety of text characterized by

coherence and the lack of verse repetitions.

4.2.1.2.2. More text in contemporary jazz lyrics

In the course of the analysis of selected traditional and contemporary jazz lyrics it became evident

that the modern lyrics analysed for this study often consisted of a greater amount of text, longer

38

stanzas (respectively verses, in musical terms), or in other words, they simply contained a higher

quantity of textual information. This is especially exemplified by the contemporary jazz lyrics

“Sticky Wicket”, “Easy”, “Stolen Moments”, “I Know You Know”, “The Girl In The Other Room”,

“Blizzard of Lies”, “The Island” and “Just The Two of Us”. In these contemporary jazz lyrics the

greater amount of text naturally led to longer stanzas and/or a higher number of stanzas. However,

there are also modern jazz lyrics, such as “Let Me Be The One” and “Salt” which do not abound in

textual length. Similarly, also amongst traditional jazz lyrics there are exceptions, such as

“Twisted”, “Turn Out The Stars”, “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most” and “Angel Eyes”

which in fact consist of a great amount of text and are also lengthy, thus resembling many of their

contemporary successors. In summary, amongst contemporary jazz lyrics the number of specimens

which contain a great quantity of text is 9 out of 11, while only 4 out of 11 lengthy ones were found

amongst the traditional jazz lyrics. Therefore, one could say that in modern lyrics there is often a

greater amount of text and a higher number of stanzas than in traditional jazz lyrics, which rather

tend towards a more compact and less extended form.

4.2.1.3. Differences on the level of contents

4.2.1.3.1. more intricacy and diversity on the content level in contemporary jazz lyrics

While the intricacy in many traditional jazz lyrics became manifest on the level of language (in

terms of metaphorical contents, i.e. poetic character and lack of colloquialism, resulting in stylized

language), in modern jazz lyrics this intricacy is predominant on the level of contents. The analysis

has shown that the spectrum of themes addressed in lyrics of contemporary jazz songs is more

extended, wider and more varied than in traditional ones. The limited palette of themes in the

traditional jazz lyrics investigated for this study is predominated by the topic of love, which is

represented variably in the form of ‘lost love/yearning for the past’, ‘difficult/problematic (ongoing)

love’, or ‘happy love’. The majority of traditional jazz lyrics investigated for this study represents

the first type ‘lost love/yearning for the past’ (Early Autumn, Angel Eyes, Turn Out The Stars,

Blame It On My Youth, Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most). The second type ‘struggles,

conflicts or difficulties of (ongoing) love’ is the thematic content of “Speak Low” and “Detour

Ahead”. The type ‘happy love’ is the least frequent one in the group of traditional jazz standards

and only occurs in “The Nearness Of You”. The theme only deviates from the standard one of love

and its variations in three cases among the sample of traditional jazz lyrics, namely in “Satin Doll”,

“Rhythm-A-Ning” and “Twisted”, in ways which will be specified below. In modern jazz lyrics,

however, a greater variety of topics is presented and the limited palette of standard themes is

somewhat extended. In “Sticky-Wicket”, for example, a lascivious, promiscuous woman’s fate in a

39

patriarchal world is addressed, while in “Salt”, the essential value of the maintenance of one’s self-

respect and zest for life is thematized. Another more complex topic such as the inner conflicts of

women is the central theme in “The Girl in the Other Room” and also the topic of superficiality of a

capitalist society oriented towards materialism addressed in “Blizzard of Lies” is a specimens of an

unconventional theme for lyrics. The latter also applies to “Boogie Down”, which essentially

propagates an optimistic, fun-oriented, hedonistic world view and motivates people to dance and

enjoy life. Furthermore, in “Stolen Moments”, the ‘unconventional’ and ‘illicit’ type of love of an

‘affair’ is addressed, which is not the standard way to present the topic of love in pop or jazz lyrics

either. Thus, also the thematization of illicit love affairs, as is done in “Stolen Moments”, is

extraordinary compared to common thematic conventions, and thus contributes to the

multifacetedness of themes in modern jazz lyrics. One could also classify the topic addressed in

“Stolen Moments” as a specimens of the standard and frequently occurring love variation

‘difficult/problematic love’, but due to its originiality and singularity in the present sample it can be

categorized as definite deviation from the standard themes. However, also modern jazz lyrics are

certainly not exempt from the standard cliché themes either, and inevitably deal with the topic of

love and some of its variations too. This is exemplified by “Just The Two Of Us”, “Let Me Be The

One” and “The Island”, which represent the classic theme ‘happy love’. The variation ‘struggles,

conflicts or difficulties of (ongoing) love’ is addressed in only two instances (“I Know You Know”,

“Easy”), while there is no specimen of the selected sample which represents the variation ‘lost

love/yearning for the past’. Similar to the exceptions in modern jazz lyrics, there are also examples

in traditional jazz lyrics which ‘dare to’ address unconventional or extraordinary topics, such as the

lyrics of “Twisted”, which is an exception in terms of its contents in the group of investigated

traditional jazz lyrics, since it deals with the unusual topic of mental disease and psychoanalysis in

an ironic way. Other traditional jazz lyrics which diverge from the standard topics are “Rhythm-A-

Ning” and “Satin Doll”, which portray an exuberant hedonistic lifestyle set in a happy nightlife

scenery, thus differing content-wise from the other investigated traditional jazz lyrics, which mainly

address the topic of love in limited variations. It is also striking that the thematic deviations in the

sample of contemporary jazz lyrics partially match with the ones in traditional jazz lyrics. “Boogie

Down” (contemporary) as well as “Rhythm-A-Ning” (traditional) both propagate a hedonistic and

fun-oriented, easy-going way of life. Similarly, “Sticky Wicket” (contemporary) and “Satin Doll”

(traditional) both address the topic of lasciviousness or promiscuity and thus imply sexual contents.

The overall distribution of themes in both modern and traditional jazz lyrics would be depicted in

the following way:

MOD. TRAD.

40

Happy love “Just The Two Of Us”

“The Island”

“Let Me Be The One”

“The Nearness Of You”

Difficult/problematic (ongoing)

love

“I Know You Know”

“Easy”

“Speak Low”

“Detour Ahead”

Lost love/yearning for the past / “Early Autumn”

“Angel Eyes”

“Turn Out The Stars”

“Blame It On My Youth”

“Spring Can Really Hang You

Up The Most”

Other topics (deviations from

the above presented standard

themes)

“The Girl In The Other Room”

“Salt”

“Blizzard Of Lies”

“Boogie Down”

“Sticky Wicket”

“Stolen Moments”

“Satin Doll”

“Rhythm-A-Ning”

“Twisted”

The above presented distribution proves that the thematic variation is clearly greater in

contemporary than in traditional jazz lyrics, in that there are six specimens which deviate

thematically from the standard themes ‘happy love’, ‘difficult/problematic (ongoing) love’ and ‘lost

love/yearning for the past’. In traditional jazz lyrics, on the other hand, only in three instances other

themes than the classic ones are addressed. Furthermore, the above presented table depicts the fact

that there is a clear tendency in traditional jazz lyrics towards the theme ‘lost love/yearning for the

past’ (in 5 out of 11 cases), whereas no such contents could be found in contemporary jazz lyrics.

The latter, other than addressing a great diversity of different topics which deviate from the standard

ones (6 out of 11 cases) have a definite tendency towards the type ‘happy love’ instead (3 out of 11

cases). In summary, it can be said that the spectrum of themes dealt with in contemporary jazz lyrics

is definitely wider, more varied and diverse, as opposed to traditional ones, where the spectrum of

themes was found to be more limited and less original by being restricted to three variable types of

love and deviations in only three cases.

41

4.2.2. Parallels and similarities

4.2.2.1. Parallels and similarities on the level of contents

4.2.2.1.1. ‘the dialogue of courtship’

In the course of the analysis of selected traditional and contemporary jazz lyrics not only numerous

differences and deviations in certain aspects have been found, but also a few considerable basic

parallels and similarities between the two groups of jazz lyrics have become manifest. A significant

and blatant similarity between traditional and modern jazz lyrics is the frequently recurring theme

of love, human relationships and the conflicts and difficulties which arise from them. In Donald

Horton’s early article “The Dialogue of Courtship in Popular Songs” published in Simon Frith’s

Popular Music: Critical Concepts in Media and Cultural Studies (2004) Horton’s notion of the

‘dialogue of courtship’ or ‘drama of courtship’ is presented, which can be considered, albeit in many

significant variations, an essential key feature of the contents of lyrics. According to Horton, the

‘drama of courtship’ is a widespread basic theme which is very frequently purported in lyrics of

popular music of his day (note that the article in question was first published in 1957) (cf. 2004:

173). The ‘drama of courtship’ theme is essentially recognizable by its scenery of dating and its

presentation of relationships of courting and ‘wooing’ which are shared between a lyrical speaker

and a love interest (cf. Horton 2004: 173). Many lyrics, in his opinion, essentially reflect intimate

conversation and dialogues of courtship between two lovers, and this is purported amongst other

means by direct and immediate address of the lyrical speaker towards his/her love interest,

emphasizing the quality of dialogue between lovers (cf. Horton 2004: 173). The speaker is mostly

represented as ‘I’ which addresses a ‘You’ representing the former’s love interest, mostly in the

form of an appeal, a request, demand or reproach, implying the desire for a response from the

addressee (cf. Horton 2004: 173). In some cases, however, only a certain feeling or emotional

information is expressed by the speaker towards the addressee (cf. Horton 2004: 173). Horton

embeds the ‘dialogue of courtship’ (the type of conversation shared between the lyrical speaker and

his/her love interest within lyrics) into the ‘drama of courtship’, which describes the different stages

of development of love relationships shown in lyrics (cf. 2004: 174). Horton names the various

phases of love potentially described in lyrics as follows: ‘Prologue: Wishing and Dreaming’, ‘Act I:

Courtship’, ‘Act II: The Honeymoon’, ‘Act III: The Downward Course Of Love’ (cf. 2004: 174-

177). Despite the fact that Horton’s article on the ‘dialogue of courtship’ was published in as early

as 1957 and some of the details of his definition of ‘the drama of courtship’ did not prove to appear

in the lyrics investigated for this study, in general the ‘dialogue of courtship’ could be found in the

majority of the lyrics analysed for the present paper. Thus, the present analysis has proven that the

‘dialogue of courtship’ or variants of it are indeed a significant feature which has been applied to

42

numerous jazz lyrics of different epochs. Mostly, the ‘dialogue of courtship’ theme is indicated in

the lyrics in question by immediate address of the lyrical speaker towards his/her love interest,

implied by the two personal pronouns ‘I’ and ‘You’. The latter, however, in two cases is replaced by

a 3rd person singular pronoun (in “Satin Doll” and “Angel Eyes”), thus not implying direct

conversation (dialogue) and, as a consequence, intimacy between the lyrical speaker and his/her

lover but an estranged and distanced relationship. Indeed, in “Angel Eyes” the lyrical speaker

suffers from the separation and the subsequent estrangement from his/her lost lover, and, similarly,

in “Satin Doll” the relationship between the lyrical speaker and his/her love interest is a loose and

superficial, mostly sexual, and thus not emotionally intimate one, characterized by a quality of

distance which is symbolized by the use of the third person singular pronoun instead of the first

person singular pronoun, as is the case in most lyrics containg the ‘dialogue of courtship’ theme.

Donald Horton names four essential forms in which the ‘dialogue of courtship’ can be indicated:

either in the form of an appeal, a demand (or request), a reproach or a sentiment (feeling) (cf. 2004:

173). The distribution of these variants in the lyrics investigated for this study is depicted in the

following table:

DIALOGUE OF COURTSHIP

MODERN TRADITIONAL

Appeal “Easy”

“Stolen Moments”

“Just The Two Of Us”

Sticky Wicket

“Early Autumn”

Demand “Let Me Be The One”

“The Island”

“Turn Out The Stars”

“Speak Low”

Reproach “I Know You Know” “Blame It On My Youth”

“Angel Eyes”

Sentiment / Feeling / “The Nearness Of You”

“Spring Can Really Hang You

Up The Most”

“Satin Doll”

Therefore, within the sample of contemporary jazz lyrics the number of examples which purport the

‘dialogue of courtship’ theme is 7 out of 11, and within the sample of traditional jazz lyrics 8 out of

11 specimens contain the ‘dialogue of courtship’. Therefore, the ‘dialogue of courtship’ theme

43

occurs in the definite majority of both groups, and even in one more case in the traditional section.

In total, it occurs in fifteen out of twenty-two cases, and thus is present in the majority of the sample

of lyrics submitted to analysis for the present study. In most of the lyrics containing the ‘dialogue of

courtship’, the latter comes in its usual form, indicated by a ‘romantic’ and intimate tone implying

an amorous relationship or the previous dating phase. This is the case in the traditional jazz lyrics

“The Nearness Of You”, “Speak Low”, and “Satin Doll”, and in the modern jazz lyrics “Stolen

Moments”, “Easy”, “Sticky Wicket”, “Just The Two Of Us”, “I Know You Know”, “Let Me Be The

One” and “The Island”. However, the quality of relationship implied in 5 of the 15 lyrics which

contain the ‘dialogue of courtship’ is not one of “dating” or “courtship”, which Donald Horton

explicitly points out as the standard form of its appearance (cf. 2004: 173). Instead, these lyrics

represent relationships which have failed and thus gone far beyond the stage of dating and

courtship. Therefore, they can be defined as lyrics who deal with a variable type of ‘dialogue of

courtship’, but are still essentially about the possible situations which can result from two people

engaging in an intimate relationship with each other. The characteristic markers of the ‘dialogue of

courtship’ theme, namely direct address in the form of an appeal, demand, reproach or simply the

revelation of a certain feeling towards the addressee (cf. Horton 2004: 173) remain the same in this

variant of the theme in question. The latter applies to the traditional jazz lyrics “Early Autumn”,

“Turn Out The Stars”, “Blame It On my Youth”, “Angel Eyes” and “Spring Can Really Hang You

Up The Most”, and does not occur in the sample of contemporary jazz lyrics. All of these lyrics

have been qualified as belonging to the thematic category of ‘lost love/yearning for the past’, which

corresponds to the meaning of the different variant of the ‘dialogue of courtship’ (a relationship

which has failed and gone way beyond the stage of dating and courtship). The frequent appearance

of the ‘dialogue of courtship’ theme in jazz lyrics is not surprising, since human relationships and

related aspects have always been integral to human experience and life, which can be reflected by

lyrics (cf. Kramer 2002: 12).

4.2.2.1.2.’I’/’You’ Juxtaposition

Closely related to and interlinked with the ‘dialogue of courtship’ theme is the juxtaposition of the

two personal pronouns ‘I’ and ‘You’, which seems to be a typical feature of nearly all lyrics

investigated for this study, except for “Satin Doll” and “Angel Eyes”, where direct address between

the speaker and the addressee is absent and the latter is referred to in the third person singular. The

relation between the ‘I’ and the ‘You’ instance is a central feature in all the lyrics analyzed in the

course of this study, reflecting the claim of literature to be channeled via a connection (involving a

message, a code, a context and a contact) between a transmitter and an addressee (cf. Jakobson

44

1960: 88). The direct address between the lyrical speaker and the addressee could reflect the address

which the author of the lyrics intends to direct via the lyrical speaker towards the listener or reader.

Alternately, the ‘I’ could be used by the lyricist in order to introduce a general pronoun into the text,

with which anyone who is performing or listening to the lyrics could identify with. In other words,

it could be used as a universal pronoun which any listener or performer could feel represented by,

since the identity of any person or individual could potentially be inserted into the position of the

‘I’. Thus, the function of the first personal singular pronoun in lyrics could be to serve as gateway

or direct ‘entry’ into the lyrics or song by facilitating an area of projection for individuals. Similarly,

the ‘You’ can be an additional channel for the listener or performer to enter the song by providing

another role to identify with, the passive one of being addressed. In other words, both personal

pronouns, the first person singular as well as the second person singular, serve as ‘docking site’ for

any individual to identify with the lyrics and the song, be it by taking on the active role of the

speaker (via the ‘I’) or the passive role of the addressee (via the ‘You’). Thus, one could

furthermore say that the ‘I’ and the ‘You’ in lyrics are in a certain way synecdoches, in that they

stand for the total of individuals, despite their literal singularity. As a consequence, individuals feel

naturally more drawn into and personally engaged with the lyrics, by identifying with the

(universal) personal pronouns. Therefore, the common use of specifically the first and second

singular personal pronouns might not be unintentional, since they are highly effective tools when it

comes to engaging the listeners and/or performers personally with the lyrics. This personal

engagement respectively the identification of the listeners with the music is related to one of the

essential functions of song words listed by Donald Horton. According to the latter, one possible

function of lyrics is the deliverance of an impersonal language, a kind of “conventional, public

impersonal love poetry” which can be used by individuals to become articulate about their feelings

towards other people, which might be a “necessary alternative” in a culture where the skill to

verbally express profound feelings is not a characteristic trait (cf. Horton 2004: 182-183). Thus,

Horton insinuates that any individual who listens to lyrics identifies with them by imagining him-

/herself in the position of the subject (‘I’) or object (‘You’) of the lyrics in question, and

subsequently adapts the lyrics’ language for expressing his/her own emotions (cf. 2004: 183). For

this purpose, it is not necessary to use this language in a direct conversation, but it can suffice to

listen to the language uttered or sung by a third person and feel addressed by this singer, and then

projecting the dialogue (‘dialogue of courtship’) taking place between the lyrical speaker and the

adressee in the lyrics onto one’s immediate reality and relationship (cf. Horton 2004: 183). The

singer, who inserts his/her own identity into the place of the ‘I’ during a performance, thus takes on

the role of a “mutual messenger“ between the individuals in the audience engaging in a relationship

45

by providing them with suitable language for communicating within their relationship (cf. Horton

2004: 183). The use of this “public impersonal love poetry” or impersonal language to express one’s

feelings is only possible via an identification with the lyrics, which is facilitated by the ‘I’ and the

‘You’ as universal personal pronouns in which any individual can insert one’s own persona (cf.

Horton 2004: 183).

4.2.2.1.3. notions about femininity / anti-feminist propaganda

According to Terri Goddard, Marion Fudger and Jan Pollock, lyrics have always been a significant

vehicle to demonstrate and propagate notions and ideals about femininity of a given period (cf.

Goddard et al. 1977: 143, cited in Frith 1989: 81). They claim that lyrics are capable to depict

whichever norms and attitudes towards women and femininity society regards as relevant and

accurate for a given moment (cf. Goddard et al. 1977: 143, cited in Frith 1989: 81). Their proposal

includes the notion that lyrics are able to serve as a vehicle for anti-feminist propaganda in the form

of a range of biased and judgmental depictions of women (cf. Goddard et al. 1977: 143, cited in

Frith 1989: 81). Two of the most common variants of anti-feminist depictions of women in lyrics

are exploitative images of sexually submissive women or images of “mysterious“ and yet

“dependent“ and submissive, man-serving women (cf. Goddard et al. 1977: 143, cited in Frith 1989:

81). A couple of significant examples of traditional as well as contemporary jazz lyrics which have

been analysed for this study confirm that lyrics in fact do have the capacity to reflect prevailing

conceptions about femininity valid at a given point in time and represent anti-feminist notions such

as the ones mentioned above. Jazz lyrics such as the ones of the traditional standard “Satin Doll”

and the contemporary piece “Sticky-Wicket” contain implicit but clearly discernible judgmental

statements about their female protagonists (which are in both cases in the position of addressees, not

of the subject or lyrical speaker) and thus take on a sexist, anti-feminist stance. In “Sticky-Wicket”,

for example, an image of femininity which is the opposite of the typical feminine stereotype of a

submissive and chaste housewife is rendered, but which is, however, equally biased and judgmental.

The female protagonist in “Sticky Wicket” is depicted as a promiscuous and sexually active,

seductive woman, who is coquetting with her sensuality and sexual aura for the purpose of finding

sex partners, and thereby ruins her reputation and continually manoeuvres herself into dangerous,

difficult situations (hence the title “Sticky Wicket”). Likewise, in the lyrics of “Satin Doll“ by

Johnny Herndon Mercer a very similar image of femininity is rendered: the female protagonist is

portrayed as a promiscuous and seductive woman who plays with her typically feminine sensuality

and sexual appeal to men. The behaviour of the female protagonists in both lyrics (“Sticky Wicket”

and “Satin Doll”) would normally be proof of the characteristics of independence and personal

46

freedom in their agents, which is, however, decidedly boycotted in both lyrics by a male lyrical

speaker, who minimizes and devaluates the female addressees continually throughout the lyrics. In

“Satin Doll”, the female figure is, as is already implied by the title phrase, portrayed and even

referred to as a (merely physical) doll, which clearly is a form of (sexual) objectification and thus

deprives this independent and free-spirited woman of humanity, intellect, and spirit. Similarly, in

“Sticky Wicket” explicit allusions are made as to the guilt the female protagonist ought to feel about

having “got herself” into a “mess”, by which is probably meant the societal marginalization and

individual devaluation which results from women’s active and open sexual behaviour. Furthermore,

it is implied in “Sticky Wicket” that the only solution to the problem of a woman’s lost reputation,

reprobated social status and misery is the union with the (male) lyrical speaker, who thus designates

himself a heroic figure which is responsible for the salvation of notorious and ill-reputed women.

The fault of seduction, in any case, always lies with the woman, not with the man. These are solid

indicators which clearly reflect the male perspective and patriarchal structures of the societal and

cultural system the lyrics in question were written and produced in.

4.2.2.2. Parallels and similarities on the level of language and linguistic style

4.2.2.2.1 symbols of nature / naturalistic imagery

An obvious parallel between traditional standards and modern jazz compositions analysed in this

study is the use of naturalistic imagery in the form of symbols. A convincing example of the

symbolic use of elements of nature is the traditional jazz ballad “Turn Out The Stars” by Bill Evans,

which contains numerous elements related to nature or natural life such as “skylark”, “night“,

“fires“, or of the semantic field of astronomy, such as “stars“ and “comet“. Other exemplary

instances of symbolic naturalistic imagery occur in the traditional jazz lyrics “Early Autumn”,

contained already in the title (“autumn“) and furthermore exemplified by the words “land“,

“breeze“, “summer trees“, “rain“, “country“. Similar to “Early Autumn”, also in “Spring Can Really

Hang You Up The Most” seasons as symbols for life phases are represented (“spring“, “winter“),

and other symbols of nature are used (“trees and flowers”). In addition, naturalistic imagery in the

form of symbols can be found in the following traditional jazz standards: “Speak Low” (“summer

day”), “The Nearness of You” (“pale moon”, “soft lights”), “Blame It On My Youth” (“night and

day“), and “Detour Ahead” (”clear day“, “clear night“). Thus, a total of seven specimens of

traditional jazz lyrics contain naturalistic images in the form of symbolisms. Similarly, in the group

of contemporary jazz lyrics, a total of six works include symbolisms of nature in one form or the

other. Thus, amongst the group of traditional jazz lyrics there is one instance more which contains

naturalistic symbols, which does not constitute a sufficiently significant difference, however, and

47

thus can be valued as a parallel, since the number is almost equal in both the contemporary as well

as the traditional sample of jazz lyrics. Amongst the sample of modern jazz lyrics, thus, symbolisms

of nature can be found in the works “The Island” (“waters“, “moonlight“, “island“), “Just the Two

Of Us” (“crystal raindrops“, “rainbows“, “water“, “sun“, “flowers“), “Easy” (“distant beach“,

“shore“, “snow and fire“, “snowbird“), “Sticky Wicket” (“tree“), “Let Me Be The One” (“night“),

and “Blizzard Of Lies” (“blizzard“). It is remarkable that quite frequently seasons are used to

symbolize a specific mood, feeling or emotional phase. In “Speak Low”, for example, “summer

day“ is used as a metaphor to symbolize the peak of a relationship and in “Early Autumn”, the

image of “summer trees” is used as a metaphor for a love relationship at its peak which, however,

starts to desintegrate, triggered by the “touch” of an “Early Autumn” (“when an early autumn (…)

touches with her hand the summer trees”, a personification (see chapter 4.3.2.1.)). The season of

spring is even more commonly used as a traditional metaphor for beginning, the onset of something

new or stepping over a threshold, which is exemplified by the phrase “that spring of ours that

started so April-hearted” in line 8 of “Early Autumn”. However, it is given the opposite symbolic

meaning in “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most”, which will be specified in the

corresponding chapter in the analysis section below (see chapter 4.3.2.3.).

4.2.2.2.2. equal number of neologisms

The number of neologisms which were found in modern as well as traditional jazz standards of this

sample was the same in both categories. Exemplary instances of neologisms in modern jazz lyrics

are the word creations ‘super-best’ and ‘superness’ in “Easy” and the word collocation ‘boogie

down’ in the equally entitled modern jazz piece by Al Jarreau. However, the same quantity of

neologisms could be detected in the traditional jazz lyrics analysed for this study. In the traditional

jazz standards “Early Autumn” the neologism ‘April-hearted’ could be detected (line 8), and the

neologism ‘twitter-twitt’ was found in “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most”. Likewise, the

title phrase of “Rhythm-A-Ning” also constitutes a neologism. In summary, a total number of three

neologisms was filtered out in contemporary jazz lyrics, and an equal number of three neologisms

was found in traditional ones.

4.2.2.2.3. Rhymes

Another typical element which is present in all specimens of traditional as well as contemporary

jazz lyrics is the omnipresence of rhymes, which occur in manifold variations, be it full rhymes,

imperfect rhymes, assonant rhymes, crossed rhymes, envelope rhymes, etc. Rhymes are a

fundamental feature in lyrical poetry and highly responsible for poems’, and thus also lyrics’, poetic

48

and aesthetic character. Distinct rhyme types can change a poem’s or lyrics’ character, depending on

whether they are full, imperfect, assonant, irregular, etc. One could consider the different rhyme

types as different ‘flavours’, ‘colours’ / ‘nuances’ or, for that matter, as different ‘tones’ or ‘notes’.

Therefore, one could remotely compare the lyrical category of ‘rhyme’ with the musical parameters

of ‘harmony’ or ‘dissonance’ (cf. Wolf 1999: 22). Thus, the similarity between the textual element

‘rhyme’ and the musical parameter of assonance (harmony) and dissonance could be considered an

essential intermedial parallel between the two forms of media music and literature (cf. Wolf 1999:

22). The presence of rhymes in all of the lyrics which have been analysed for this study is a

significant indicator for the high degree of musicalization in lyrics, if we consider a rhyme a remote

equivalent to musical parameters. This musicality of lyrics confirms the comparability between

music and literature.

4.2.2.2.4. Repetition

Another central element which occurred in all of the lyrics analysed in the course of this study was

the occurrence of repetitive structures. Similar to rhymes, the rhetorical device of repetition can also

be considered a typically musical element, a characteristic feature and stylistic device in musical

pieces which can also be transferred to literary works. Various forms of recurrent repetitive

structures occur in all jazz lyrics analysed for this study, either in the form of immediate repetition

of words or phrases (e.g. “marooned, marooned, marooned” in “Blizzard Of Lies”; “your dance,

your dance” and “it must be, it must be true” in “Salt”), or an intermittent repetition throughout the

text of the title phrase (e.g. “Satin Doll”, “Blame It on My Youth”, “The Nearness Of You”, “Detour

Ahead”, “Easy”, “Angel Eyes”, “Boogie Down”, “Just The Two Of Us”, “Speak Low”, “The Girl In

The Other Room”, “Sticky Wicket”, “Blizzard Of Lies”, “Rhythm-A-Ning”, “Spring Can Really

Hang You Up The Most”, “Turn Out The Stars”, “Salt”, “I Know You Know”, “Let Me Be The

One”, “The Island”, “Early Autumn”), or the anaphoric repetition of a single word at the beginning

of subsequent lines or initial lines of subsequent stanzas (“You’re so fine that you fool the people /

you’re so fine that you’re foolin’ me / You’re so fine that you fool the people” in “Sticky Wicket”;

‘if’ in “Stolen Moments” and “Blame It On My Youth”).

4.3. Case Studies

4.3.1. Contemporary jazz lyrics

4.3.1.1. “Stolen Moments” (1975/78) - Words by Mark Murphy (1978), Music by Oliver

Nelson (1975)

49

1 If I told you I loved you, pretty baby (a)

2 Would it make up for what they say, (b)

3 If I hold you and shield you, darlin’ (c)

4 Would you linger a while today. (b)

5 If I hold you and hug you (d)

6 My kissin’ won’t bug you (d)

7 These gossips won’t hurt you (d)

8 I’ll never desert you (d)

9 And someday will find us (e)

10 Where people won’t bind us (e)

11 To the hands of time. (f)

12 I could use more than moments with you baby (a)

13 And I know where you steal them from (g)

14 There are so many things I’ll teach you (d)

15 And they call me a useless bum (g)

16 They just shatter and natter (h)

17 and patter and clatter (h)

18 They titter and twitter (i)

19 Their glitter gets bitter (i)

20 But we’re here, I steered here (j)

21 It’s weird here, those beards dear (j)

22 Watch the pantomime. (f)

(Source: “Stolen Moments”. Onedrive. [Online].

https://mmjnqg.dm2304.livefilestore.com/y3mkp77_A05uzfprrI83B7jGli1mYUK2uEoW-

pilXAogPaQjDhy2mcqQHIeX2C-_UXj5d9loj20MPBngb-

oWyi6jz1pwy9ofIgbKVUeXzuw_GX5PeDmhxUnVnaIESI63acwVKjsthK9f8z4I__9zIDb4Q0TTdvNPk_UNpbhI7ig-

4w/Stolen%20Moments.pdf?psid=1 [2016, March 26])

Formal aspects (Rhyme scheme, Metric structure): “Stolen Moments” follows a regular rhyme

scheme, represented by the following chronology of letters: abcbddddeef agdghhiijjf. The form of

the jazz lyrics in question is divided into four stanzas, whereby the first and the third one constitute,

in musical terms, verses and the second and the fourth stanza represent the refrain (in musical

terms). In addition to the regular terminal full rhymes which occur throughout the whole lyrics,

there are also internal full rhymes, such as “shatter“ – “natter“, “patter“ – “clatter“, “titter“ –

50

“twitter“, and “glitter“ – “bitter“ (line 16 to 19). Similarly, in line 20 and 21 further internal rhymes

occur: “but we’re here, I steered here / it’s weird here, those beards dear”. The second words of the

respective phrases (“we’re“, “steered“, “weird“, “beards“) rhyme with each other, while the third

words of the respective phrases, “here“, “here“ and “dear“, also rhyme, and moreover the words in

question cross-rhyme with each other. The rhyme constituted by the repetition of the word “here“

within line 20 and 21 is an internal identical rhyme. The words “steered“ and “weird“ form a full

internal rhyme, while “we’re“ and “beards“ are related to the other words in question as imperfect

rhymes. Moreover, “Stolen Moments” also contains an initial identical crossed rhyme at the

beginning of the text, in the form of an anaphoric repetition of the words ”if“ in line 1 and 3, and

“would“ in line 2 and 4.

Imagery, symbolism, rhetorical figures: The title phrase “Stolen Moments” constitutes the first

metaphor of the text in question, since “stolen“ moments imply a secret, forbidden act, and thus

could be symbolic of the illegitimate and controversial character of a secret affair between lovers.

The notion of secrecy and illegitimacy also connotes a certain sexual tension, which is

conventionally a vital factor in secret affairs. At the same time, the phrase “stolen moments”

contains a personification, respectively an ‘objectification’ or ‘concretization’ of the abstract entity

‘moment’. In contrast to their true nature, the abstract entity ‘moment’ is portrayed here as a

concrete tangible object one can steal, and thus also grasp and manipulate. A further metaphor can

be found in line 22, in the conclusive line of the text (“watch the pantomime“). There, the word

“pantomime” is used to represent the superficial masquerade, the falseness and hypocrisy other

people, except for the speaker and his/her lover, are displaying. Another intense and expressive

metaphor is contained in the phrase “where people won’t bind us / to the hands of time“ (line 10-

11). To be ‘bound to the hands of time’ figuratively depicts the human dependance on time by

evoking the image of being tied to the hands of the clock. The metaphor in question thus implies

that good timing and organized time-management is vital and indispensable in a clandestine

relationship, because the people involved have to share their time between their secret lover and the

actual, legitimate partner, and because they have to make sure not to get caught. Thus, the speaker

suggests that in an affair one is limited to the stretches of time where one is unseen and undisturbed.

In specific literary terms, the abstract concept ‘time’ in the phrase “where people won’t bind us / to

the hands of time” (line 10-11) can be interpreted in several ways: on the one hand it can be

classified as a personification of the abstract concept ‘time’, since it is given “hands”, which is a

clearly human attribute. On the other hand, “time” in said phrase can be considered an instance of

an abstract concept which stands for a concrete object, a clock, indicated by the word “hands”, and

51

thus can be described as a synecdoche, a form of metonymy, where the whole stands for a part of it.

Either way, the symbol of ‘being bound to the hands of time’ is a strong and vivid metaphor for

human dependence of and impuissance against time. Another important rhetorical figure is the

onomatopoesy which occurs in the words “shatter“ – “natter“, “patter“ – “clatter“, “titter“ –

“twitter“ in line 16-18 of the present lyrics. Their onomatopoetic character results from the fact that

they are synonyms of the act of gossiping, which conventionally involves a way of speaking where

lips move in a hectic, quick and light-tongued way in order to exchange information about other

people. This way of speaking is reflected by the sounds of the words in question. The way these

words are linked together corresponds to the rhetorical figure of an accumulation, since they are

connected by the linking word “and“. Furthermore, an anaphorical structure is applied in the first,

third and fifth line (the word “if“ is placed at the beginning of the respective lines), which results in

an intermittent anaphora. Moreover, the lyrics in question contain a considerable number of cliché

phrases or expressions: terms such as “I loved you“, “pretty baby“, “kissin’“, “darlin’“, or “I’ll

never desert you“ are specimens of the typical romantic cliché jargon. Furthermore, some words

have also been reduced to apocopes, which are typical abbreviations of words which are

reminiscent and imitative of an oral, conversational style (e.g. “kissin’”, “darlin’”). Finally, a

personification of the word “day”, which, similar to ‘moments’, is also an abstract temporal entity,

can be found in the phrase “and some day will find us“ (line 9). The personification of abstract

(temporal) entities is apparently a strong characteristic of the present jazz lyrics. It is a strong

rhetorical device which gives weight and special emphasis to the words in question, by striking the

reader or listener with a placement of the word in question in an unconventional, atypical context.

Main themes and contents: The title phrase “Stolen Moments” is already strongly suggestive of the

main theme of the lyrics in question, which is, essentially, an illegitimate love affair between the

lyrical speaker and his/her love interest. As has been already mentioned above, the very title “Stolen

Moments“ is already a metaphor for something secret, illegitimate and forbidden, since it evokes

the image of time which has been taken from someone else and used for illicit activities. By this

evocation of illegal, clandestine action also a certain notion of sexual tension is introduced, since

the notion of prohibition and secrecy reflects the sexual character of an affair. The general concept

propagated in “Stolen Moments” is ‘Us against the world’, which is supported by phrases auch as

“and some day will find us / where people won’t bind us / to the hands of time” and “they patter and

natter / and clatter and tatter/ they titter and twitter / their glitter gets bitter”. These lines support the

notion of an alienation of the speaker and his/her lover from the rest of the world and suggest an

enemization of ‘the others’, respectively society. This ‘Us against the world’ – theme can be

52

considered a variation of the so-called ‘dialogue of courtship’ theme introduced by Donald Horton,

since it clearly involves two lovers, who are in a passionate but problematic relationship with each

other. The ‘dialogue of courtship’ according to Donald Horton is the basis for the majority of pop

lyrics (and can be extended to jazz lyrics), which deal with the conflicts, issues, highs and lows of

love relationships or phases of courtship (cf. Horton 2004: 173). Corresponding to Donald Horton’s

concept of the ‘dialogue of courtship’, the lyrics in question actually reflect intimate conversation

(in this case rather in the form of a monologue by one lover), which is depicted amongst other

means by direct address (cf. Horton 2004: 173). The ‘dialogue of courtship’ inevitably involves two

partners, which are evidently the speaker, who is often identified as ‘I’, and a love interest, who is

identified and also addressed by the speaker as ‘You’ (cf. Horton 2004: 173). In this respect, the

lyrics of “Stolen Moments” correspond to the features of Donald Horton’s ‘dialogue of courtship’.

Furthermore, also Horton’s criterium of the speaker’s address towards the love interest in the form

of an appeal, a request or a demand applies in “Stolen Moments” (cf. Horton 2004: 173). The

speaker in the present jazz lyrics addresses his/her lover in the form of an appeal to ignore the

gossiping people around them and to focus on their intense relationship and private pleasure

instead. The lover is addressed by the words “baby” or “darlin’’ (line 1 and 3), which imply a

romantic relationship between the speaker and his/her addressee and correspond to Horton’s notion

of direct address of a love interest on the part of the speaker, which is a typical of the ‘dialogue of

courtship’ (cf. Horton 2004: 173). The relationship portrayed in “Stolen Moments” seems to be a

complicated and problematic one, since the speaker seems to be considered unsuitable for his/her

lover by society or by the others around them and subsequently tries to convince her/him not to pay

any attention to their opinions and focus on their own romantic relationship instead, which

according to the speaker is the only thing that counts. The key message of the lyrics of “Stolen

Moments” appears to be that love should be superior to external influences and immune against

gossip, envy or resentment.

4.3.1.2. “I Know You Know” (2008) - Words and Music by Esperanza Spalding and Leo

Genovese

1 The way (a)

2 You look at me (b)

3 When you think (c)

4 I'm not looking, (d)

5 Tells me, (b)

6 Your heart's (e)

7 A sleeping giant (f)

8 Worn out (g)

9 By someone (h)

10 You loved before me. (b) 11 I see you're scared (i)

12 Unconvinced by (j)

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13 What I've tried to say (k)

14 That I am yours (l)

15 And that nothing (d)

16 Will take me away. (k)

17 I know that you know (m)

18 But I'll sing it again; (n)

19 I love you babe (o)

20 And nothing (d) 21 Will take me away (k)

22 The way (a)

23 You always call me (b)

24 With some question (p)

25 And every time (q)

26 Try to pretend (r)

27 You didn't call me (b)

28 Just cause (s)

29 I was on your mind. (q)

30 Too soon for you (t) 31 To say out loud (u)

32 But I know. (m)

33 You love me (b)

34 And though (m)

35 We don't say it (v)

36 Already shows. (m)

37 I know that you know (m)

38 But I'll sing it again (n)

39 I love you babe (o)

40 And nothing (d) 41 Will take me away. (k)

42 You already know (m)

43 But I'll sing it again (n)

44 I love you babe (o)

45 And nothing (d)

46 Will take me away. (k)

47 I wait for you to open up. (w)

48 But, it's not a bore. (x)

49 You're just what I've been looking for. (x)

50 Why do you keep your head in the sand? (r) 51 Whoever you loved before me that ran's (r)

52 Nothing like me (b)

53 Nothing like me (b)

54 Nothing like me (b)

55 I know that you know (m)

56 But I'll sing it again; (n)

57 I love you babe (o)

58 And nothing (d)

59 Will take me away. (k)

60 You already know (m)

61 But I'll sing it again; (n) 62 I love you babe (o)

63 And nothing (d)

64 Will take me away. (k)

65 The way you look at me (b)

66 When you think (c)

67 I'm not looking. (d)

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68 The way you call me up (w)

69 Just to see what's cooking. (d)

70 The way you look at me (b)

71 When you think (c)

72 I'm not looking. (d)

73 I look at you (t)

74 That way too (t)

75 You just don't know (m)

76 That I do. (t) 77 I know that you know (m)

78 You already know (m)

(Source: “I Know You Know“. Metrolyrics. [Online]. http://www.metrolyrics.com/i-know-you-know-lyrics-esperanza-

spalding.html [2016, March 15]

Formal aspects (Rhyme scheme, Metric structure): The present lyrics are based on a vastly irregular

rhyme scheme, where numerous unrhymed passages occur, which one can also deduce from the fact

that the letters representing the rhyme scheme progress until (w). However, some noticeable rhymes

are applied in certain intervals, e.g. there is an identical rhyme based on the word „me“ which

encloses the second, fifth and tenth line, and which also occurs in numerous other lines (23, 27 and

33; 52, 53 and 54; 65 and 70). Another detectable rhyme is applied in line 13 and 16, consisting of

the words “say“ and “away“. Between the rhyming words there are always at least a couple of lines

which divide the rhyming words from one another. Furthermore, an imperfect rhyme occurs in the

twentyfifth and the twentyninth line (“mind“ – “time“) and another imperfect rhyme consisting of

the words “know“ – “shows“ occurs in the following stanza (line 32 and 36). The rhyme scheme

becomes more clear and regular only towards the end of the text, in the last stanza, becoming most

visibly present in lines 73 to 78. This could be interpreted as a symbolization of a ‘happy end’ for

the love relationship which is the contents of the lyrics in question, whose positive development

(the clarification of prevailing problems and conflicts) could be symbolized by the increasing

regularity of the rhyme scheme towards the end of the lyrics in question.

Imagery, symbolism, rhetorical figures: One of the most striking and distinctive rhetorical features

of the lyrics in question is the use of an oxymoron consisting of the opposition of the pronouns ‘I’

and ‘You’ which already becomes evident in the title phrase “I know you know“. This juxtaposition

of two opposed elements within immediate distance, i.e. within one sentence is a frequently

reoccurring rhetorical device applied in “I Know You Know”, where the two pronouns are

continually alternated (“the way / you look at me / when you think / I’m not looking, / tells me, /

your heart’s / a sleeping giant / worn out / by someone / you loved before me”). This alternation

occurs throughout the rest of the text, and even in the refrains (stanza three, six and eight) the first

55

person singular pronoun is alternated with the second person singular pronoun, thereby constituting

a juxtaposition of opposing elements and thus resulting in an oxymoron. This can be considered, as

has been mentioned earlier, a substantial ingredient of the ‘dialogue of courtship’-theme, which has

been described by Donald Horton as a frequently reoccurring and common element in lyrics of

modern songs (cf. Horton 2004: 173). It involves direct address of the ‘courted’ love interest on the

part of the speaker and for this purpose the use of the second person singular pronoun ‘you’ is

indispensable (cf. Horton 2004: 173). Another essential feature of the ‘dialogue of courtship’ theme

is the implication of a certain quality of relationship, namely that of “dating” and “wooing” (cf.

Horton 2004: 173). This also applies to the lyrics in question, since the relationship between the

speaker and her/his love interest apparently has not eventually been defined yet and involves a

certain degree of reluctance or doubts on the part of the addressee and thus is still at the stage of

dating and courtship. Moreover, the present lyrics contain several conventional metaphors which

also occur in everyday speech, such as the metaphor “sleeping giant” (line seven) for something

with a great amount of potential which has not become active yet, or to ‘keep one’s head in the

sand’ (line fifty). In the present lyrics the speaker defines her/his love interest’s heart as a “sleeping

giant“, suggesting that it could, but has not opened up yet to the speaker. The same meaning is

conveyed by the question phrase “Why do you keep your head in the sand?“. This common

metaphor implies the notion of hiding, of not daring to do something, of reluctance, procrastination

and regression. Despite their generally unconventional character, the lyrics in question do contain a

couple of clichés, for example the phrase “I love you babe“ (amongst others in line 19) and

“nothing will take me away“ (amongst others in line 21). According to Simon Frith, the use of

clichés in literature has been defined by the renown German author and literary icon Bertold Brecht

to have a specific function (cf. Frith 1989: 92). Brecht valued common clichés and cliché phrases

extracted from common speech for their power to “say significant things“ and “expose“ the

simplicity and banality of their nature (cf. Frith 1989: 92). In addition to the oxymoron, metaphors

and clichés also other rhetorical devices appear in “I Know You Know”: throughout the whole text a

significant amount of repetitions can be found. This concerns solitary words as well as junks of

words or phrases: the word “know“ is already repeated twice in the title and the same repetition

occurs numerous times throughout the lyrics, since it is a substantial part of the refrain, which is

also conventionally a repeating entity. Similarly, also title phrases are frequently repeated

throughout the length of their respective lyrics, since it is the nature of titles to contain a significant

message, a key word or a hint towards the meaning of the whole text, and by being repeated they

are given even more weight. Another phrase which is repeated several times towards the end of the

text is “nothing like me” (line 52-54), which the speaker apparently also wants to emphasise

56

especially. It is a strong and confident statement which elevates the speaker above others and places

her/him in an attractive, desirable light for the courted love interest. Another significant rhetorical

device is the intermittent anaphora which occurs in the last stanza of the lyrics in question, formed

by the intermittent occurrence of lines beginning with the phrase “the way” (line 65, 68 and 70).

The phrase “just to see what’s cooking“ is a colloquial, slang-like and informal expression, and at

the same time a metaphor for “what is going on“. The colloquial character of the phrase in question

supports the generally fairly informal, conversational and concrete linguistic style which

characterizes the text in question. The degree of abstract and poetic lyrical language is fairly low,

despite the rhymes, few metaphors and other rhetorical devices. This makes the text appear almost

like a narrative at times, and this is supported by the high amount of text and the relative scarceness

of rhymes.

Main themes and contents: the main theme generally corresponds to the terms of the ‘dialogue of

courtship’, whose characteristics have already been outlined in the analysis of the preceeding lyrics

of “Stolen Moments”. The speaker expresses her/his affectionate feelings towards her/his love

interest, who is still reluctant to entirely engage in a relationship, prompting the speaker to convince

him/her to admit his/her feelings and give in. The main theme can thus be described as the conflict

of uncertainty about the (potential) lover’s feelings, of miscommunication and inability to express

one’s true feelings in a love relationship.

4.3.1.3. “Sticky Wicket” (1984) – Words and Music by Al Jarreau, Jay Graydon and Greg

Phillinganges

1 You got yourself into such a mess that you can’t get out (a)

2 you made your own bed, so what the heck can you complain about? (a)

3 You’re seventeen, but you talk and you wiggle and walk like you’re twenty-four, (b)

4 Grown men weepin’, a te point temperature rise everywhere you go. (c)

5 And the fact is (d)

6 You’re so fine that you fool the people, (e)

7 You’re so fine that you're foolin’ me; (f)

8 you’re so fine that you fool the people, (e)

9 (It) ain’t so fine when you fool your own self baby, Look out. (a)

10 Such a mess, it’s a funny situation, (g)

11 sassiness got you up a tree, sticky wicket; (h)

12 Must confess, it’s an inside instigation, (g)

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13 No distress, You can talk-a to me (f)

14 Seven-thirty, Morning, Mr. Price what a day for school. (i)

15 Bright and early, Perfect little disguise for the folks you fool. (i)

16 Midnight passion, Ain’t no surprise to me what you're comin’ to. (j)

17 There’s red light flashin’, Look out you’re goin’ too fast, what you gonna do. (j)

18 You’re so fine that you fool the people, (e)

19 You’re so fine that you're foolin’ me; (f)

20 you’re so fine that you fool the people, (e)

21 (It) ain’t so fine when you fool your own self baby, Look out. (a)

22 Such a mess, it’s a funny situation, (g)

23 sassiness got you up a tree, sticky wicket; (h)

24 Must confess, it’s an inside instigation, (g)

25 No distress, You can change it, baby. (f)

26 London Bridge is fallin’, (k)

27 frightful sound, (l)

28 You can hear me callin’, (k)

29 here’s your crown, (l)

30 In the game you make a circle (m)

31 just to turn around. (l)

(Source: The New Real Book 1988: 341 – 342)

(Source: “Sticky Wicket”. aljarreau. [Online]. http://aljarreau.com/discography/ [2017, Feb 8])

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): The lyrics in question comprise a great amount

of text and follow the regular rhyme scheme aabcd efea ghgf iijj efea ghgf klklml. The majority of

the rhymes present in “Sticky Wicket” are regular full rhymes, such as “out“-“about“ (line 1-2),

“situation“-“instigation“ (line 10 and 12), “school“-“fool“ (line 14 – 15), “to“ – “do“ (line 16-17),

“fallin’” – “callin’“ (line 26 and 28) or “sound“-“around“ (line 27 and 31). However, there is also

an imperfect rhyme between the latter two lines, constituting the rhyme triplet “sound“-“crown“-

“around“, whereby the second element rhymes in an imperfect way with the other elements. The

lyrics in question mostly contain terminal full rhymes, however, there are also some initial rhymes

placed at the beginning of several lines, e.g. “you’re so fine that you fool the people / you’re so fine

that you’re foolin’ me / you’re so fine that you fool the people” (line 6-8, 18-20) or, likewise, “you

got yourself in such a mess […] / you made your own bed […] / you’re seventeen […]” (line 1-3).

58

In both examples, the initial words rhyme identically with the ones in the subsequent lines, and thus

can be considered identical initial rhymes, which can also be classified as anaphora. Moreover,

there is also another specific rhyme type, the internal full rhyme, which occurs in the third, fourth

and sixth stanza. In line 10-13 (stanza three), for example, an internal full rhyme occurs, consisting

of the words “mess“-“sassiness“-“must confess“-“no distress“ (“Such a mess, it’s a funny situation /

sassiness got you up a tree, sticky wicket / Must confess, it’s an inside instigation / no distress, You

can talk-a to me”). The same structure occurs in stanza six. Similarly, stanza four (line 14-l7)

contains internal imperfect rhymes, consisting of the words “seven-thirty“-“early“ and “passion“-

“flashin’”. A further specimen of an internal full rhyme can be found in the last stanza (line 28-29),

where the words “hear” and “here’s” constitute an internal full rhyme, since they occur within

subsequent lines (“you can hear me callin’ / here’s your crown”).

Imagery, Symbolism, rhetorical figures: The rhetorical figures applied to the lyrics of “Sticky

Wicket” are numerous, and one of the most evident ones is the repetition of the same initial phrase

in the second and fifth stanza, resulting in an anaphora, which has already been pointed out above.

Moreover, there is an alliteration in the last stanza (line 26-27), constituted by the pair of words

“fallin’” and “frightful”, which link two subsequent lines with each other: “London Bridge is fallin’

/ frightful sound”. Similarly, another alliteration is contained in the subsequent lines (28-29): “You

can hear me callin’ / here’s your crown”, where the voiceless velar plosives in “can”, “callin’“ and

“crown“ constitute an alliteration. Other alliterations are constituted by the words and phrases

“wiggle“ – “walk“ (line 3), “folks you fool“ (line 15) or “inside instigation“ (line 12, 24). A further

specimen of the latter can be found in the second and fifth stanza consisting of the words “fine“ and

“fool“, which are even more emphasized by their repetition in three subsequent lines. These lines

might comprise a moral statement concerning sexuality, designating uncontrolled sexual behaviour

as foolish or irrational. Another moral statement about a certain sexual behaviour might be

contained in the phrase “sassiness got you up a tree“ in line 11 and 23. To ‘get up a tree’ implies the

notion of fleeing or escaping from something, but also derives from the semantic field of animality

and suggests animalistic behaviour, which in turn implies primitivity and thus relates to the main

theme of the lyrics, namely promiscuous sexual behavior and pursue of sexual or carnal satisfaction,

which the speaker attributes to the protagonist of the lyrics. Another allusion to the realm of

promiscuity and open, uncontrolled sexual behavior is contained in the phrase “red lights flashin’“

(line 17). On the one hand, this phrase alludes to the red light district, but on the other hand it

contains also a symbol of alarm (“red lights”), or, alternatively, a symbol for stopping and finality

(symbolizing traffic lights, supported by the phrase “Look out, you’re goin’ too fast” in the same

59

line), which in turn implies prohibition and crime. Furthermore, the lyrics in question contain

numerous and frequently occurring apocopes (“fallin’“, “callin’“, “goin’“, “flashin’“) and colloquial

expressions or phrases such as “ain’t no surprise“, which are clearly reminiscent of a spoken and

conversational oral linguistic style. Finally, another important rhetorical figure which frequently

appears throughout the lyrics are ellipses or elliptical phrases, e.g. “must confess, it’s an inside

instigation” (line 12, 24), where the subject is missing, or “seven-thirty, morning, [...]“ (line 14),

which is not a syntactically complete sentence either, “midnight passion, ain’t no surprise to me

what you’re comin’ to” (line 16) or “London Bridge is fallin’ / frightful sound” (line 26-27), which

also constitute interrupted or incomplete sentences and thus can be considered ellipses.

Main Themes and Contents: The protagonist and addressee of the lyrics in question is apparently a

young and promiscuous, seductive woman, her age being indicated in line three (“seventeen”). She

seems to be premature and flirtatious, conveyed by the same verse line: “You’re seventeen, but you

talk and you wiggle and walk like you’re twenty-four“. The word “wiggle” in this context refers to

the movement of the protagonist’s bottom, which is also a clear sexual allusion and reveals the point

of view from which the addressee is observed, which is clearly a male perspective. The phrase

“made your own bed“ (second line) means in a figurative sense that the protagonist is responsible

for her own situation and brought a confused and complicated situation upon herself. Furthermore,

it bears an allusion to the apparently high level of sexual activity of the protagonist. The central

theme is clearly what is already implied by the title: a ‘sticky wicket’, which is a British informal

term for a difficult situation in a figurative way, evoking the image of a cricket pitch which has

become muddy and sticky after being drenched with rain, which makes it hard to play on (cf.

urbandictionary 2016, online). The lyrics clearly contain sexually allusive and daring content by

addressing the sexual promiscuity of a seventeen-year-old and the difficult situation (‘sticky

wicket’) which results from it. This is clearly a theme choice which exceeds the standard range of

lyrics’ contents, by being more controversial, more progressive or more realistic in the sense of

being taken out of real life or dealing with real life conflicts. The image of femininity which is

rendered is the opposite of the typical feminine stereotype of the submissive and chaste housewife,

but equally biased and judgmental. The female protagonist in “Sticky-Wicket” is portrayed as a

promiscuous, sexually active woman which could almost be set equal to a prostitute. This

corresponds to Goddard, Pollock and Fudger’s notion of lyrics’ ability to produce ‘anti-feminist

propaganda’. They sustained the notion that lyrics reflected whichever norms, attitudes and ethical

conceptions towards women and femininity society considered desirable and relevant for a specific

moment (cf. Goddard et al. 1977: 143, cited in Frith 1989: 81). The present specimen demonstrates

60

that lyrics can indeed be considered to work as medium for anti-feminist propaganda, by being

capable of suggesting unfavourable or compromising images or ideals about women, biased by a

male perspective. These ideals could be propagated by delivering exploitative images of sexual

submission of women, or alternatively by representing women as ‘mysterious’ and yet ‘dependent’

or submissive (objectified) beings (cf. Goddard et al. 1977: 143, cited in Frith 1989: 81). The latter

is the case in “Sticky Wicket”, since it becomes clear that the speaker feels a certain kind of

superiority towards the female addressee by appealing to her to join him, suggesting that this union

would save her from further ruin. This becomes evident especially in the lines 13 (“no distress, you

can talk-a to me”) or in line 25 (“no distress, you can change it, baby”), whereby “baby” is a

typically diminutive nickname which men often use (albeit mostly in a tender way) to call women,

or the other way around. By the phrase “You can hear me callin’ / here’s your crown” (line 28-29),

the speaker’s appeal to the young woman becomes explicit, suggesting that the union with himself

would be a remedy for her ‘fallen’ status and ruinous reputation, ‘refining’, ‘upgrading’,

‘improving’ her (suggested by the symbolic word “crown”).

4.3.1.4. “Easy” (1981) – Words and Music by Al Jarreau, Tom Cannin and Jay Graydon

1 Yesterday, you left Brazil and went (a)

2 away to see the world. (b)

3 Looking for a distant beach, (c)

4 a different shore-a faster whirl. (b)

5 Thinking that your hearts’ desire (d)

6 Hungered for some Paris or Berlin. (e)

7 Caught between the snow and the fire- (d)

8 Will sweet Carioca love again? (a)

9 Your superman gonna do the (f)

10 super-best he can (a)

11 To free the pearl. (b)

12 Giving you the superness (g)

13 that he can do. (h)

14 Believe me, girl (b)

15 That everyday your need is higher. (d)

16 But love is not Chicago or L.A. (i)

17 Home is where your heart's on fire (d)

18 And where that restless snowbird melts away. (i)

19 It's easy, easy- (j)

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20 Let your love ring out. (k)

21 Let my loving in to stay. (i)

22 It's easy, (j)

23 Let your love ring out (k)

24 Let my loving in today. (i)

25 It's easy (j)

26 Let your love ring out. (k)

27 Let my loving in to stay. (i)

28 Ain't it easy? (j)

29 Let your love ring out. (k)

30 Let my loving in to stay. (i)

31 Settle down, there ain't (l)

32 no need to run around. (m)

33 It's really clear (n)

34 That I'm the man (a)

35 Who's gonna do the super-best he can (a)

36 To keep you near. (n)

37 Everyday your need soars higher. (d)

38 Love is not Chicago or L.A. (i)

39 Home is where your heart's on fire. (d)

40 Can't deny this love is here to stay. (i)

41 Easy, easy- (j)

42 Let your love ring out. (k)

43 Let my loving in to stay. (i)

44 Easy- (j)

45 Let your love ring out. (k)

46 Let my loving in to stay. (i)

47 Ain't it easy? (j)

48 Let your love ring out. (k)

49 Let my loving in to stay. (i)

50 Ain't it easy? (j)

51 Let your love ring out. (k)

52 Let my loving in to stay. (i)

53 Easy, easy, easy. (j)

54 Easy- (j)

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55 Let your heart ring out. (k)

56 Let my loving in to stay. (i)

57 It's easy- (j)

58 Let your love ring out. (k)

59 Let my loving in to stay. (i)

60 Ain't it easy? (j)

61 Let your love ring out. (k)

62 Let my loving in to stay. (i)

63 Ain't it easy? (j)

64 Let your love ring out. (k)

65 Let my loving in to stay (i)

(Source: The New Real Book 1988: 77)

Formal Aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): The rhyme scheme of the present lyrics follows

the pattern abcbdeda fabghb didi jkijki jkijki lmnaan didi jkijki jkijki jjki jki jkijki. The majority of

rhymes are full, e.g. “desire“-“fire“ (line 5,7), “pearl“-“girl“ (line 11,14), “higher“-“fire“ (line 15,

17), “L.A.“-“away“ (line 16, 18), “stay“-“today“ (line 21, 24), “man“-“can“ (line 34, 35) or “clear“-

“near“ (line 33, 36). Moreover, there is an imperfect rhyme in the second and fourth line, consisting

of the words “world“ and “whirl“. An assonant rhyme occurs in line 1 and 8, consisting of the

words “went“ and “can“, which both contain a similar vowel when pronounced, but consist of

different consonants. The word pair appears to be intended as envelope rhyme, enclosing the first

stanza (the first as well as the concluding line).

Imagery, Symbolisms and Rhetorical Figures: The title word “easy” is a key word which is repeated

numerous times throughout the lyrics. In addition to this repetition, another obvious rhetorical

figure is the anaphora consisting of the word “let” at the beginning of several subsequent lines in

the fourth, fifth, eighth, ninth, tenth and eleventh stanza. The lyrics in question also contain the type

of oxymoron which has frequently occurred in the lyrics analysed for this study, namely the one

involving the two opposite personal pronouns ‘you’ and ‘I’, respectively possessive pronouns ‘your’

and ‘my’. This often appears in the context of the ‘dialogue of courtship’, which is a frequent theme

in lyrics of popular music and can also be detected in jazz lyrics, as this study has shown (cf.

Horton 2004: 173). Moreover, a considerable number of metaphors can be found in the lyrics in

question: a “different shore” (line 4) can be interpreted as a metaphorical image for a different lover,

a “distant beach” (line 3) can be understood as a metaphor for a new relationship. Another striking

and unmistakeable rhetorical figure is the neologism created based on the adjective “super”, which

63

is turned into the noun ‘superness’ (line 12). The word in question is normally used as an adjective

but applied here as a noun, probably to give it more substance and emphasize its meaning. The

word ‘super’ also occurs as part of the noun “superman” (line 9) and furthermore as an adverb, in

‘super-best’ (line 10), which also constitutes a neologism. A similar strategy is applied to the word

“love” and “loving” in line 20 and 21, where two distinct word forms of the same word are

presented, which could be a symbol for the continually differing and changing, temperamental and

uncertain character of the notion (and also real phenomenon) of love. The notion of uncertainty is

supported by the rhetorical question “Aint it easy?” (line 47), which appears at the end of the lyrics

and due to its interrogative, querying character accentuates the concept of uncertainty. The words

“love” and “loving” are moreover personified in the phrases “let your love ring out“ (e.g. line 20)

and “let my loving in today“ (e.g. line 21), and thus yet more substance and importance is given to

the words in question. Another personification can be found in the phrase “your need soars higher

everyday” (line 37), where the notion of need is depicted as a moving living object which is able to

“soar”. The action of soaring is associated with wings, birds and flying, which in turn is associated

with the concept of freedom, and thus the speaker somehow insinuates that a need could be a

substantial factor in the pursuit of freedom. Thus, the line in question could be interpreted as an

implication by the speaker that a sexual or libidinous need (since this is a key theme in the present

lyrics) leads to freedom, or in other words, that a drive issuing from a certain need must be satisfied

in order to liberate an individual. In short, the speaker might want to imply that needs are the

catalysts for the search and pursuit of freedom. The theme of liberation again comes into play in the

phrase “free the pearl” (line 11), which can essentially be understood as a metaphor for a woman’s

sexual liberation. The image of the “pearl” is strongly reminiscent of the female sexual organ, or

more precisely the clitoris, and the liberation of this sexual organ as the speaker suggests in line 11

(“free the pearl”) is clearly an appeal for women’s sexual liberation. However, by ‘freeing the

pearl’, the lyrical speaker in the specific context of the present lyrics could also mean the sexual

stimulation or satisfaction of sexual desire of his / her own specific love interest. Following this

track, the phrase “let my loving in today” (line 21) could also be interpreted as a sexual allusion and

a metaphor for coitus, referring to and symbolizing penetration. It is however remarkable and vital

to note that the speaker ascribes a sexually active role to both, him-/herself and his/her lover, by

adding the line “let your love ring out” to “let my loving in today”, addressed towards the love

interest. Thus, equal importance and an equally active role is ascribed to (the sexuality of) both

involved partners or sexes. The words “in” and “out” at the same time constitute an oxymoron, and

thus the opposite character or sexual roles of both partners involved in a sexual union are after all

represented, but are not depicted in a hierarchical stucture. Moreover, another unconventional

64

element in the lyrics in question is the mentioning of place names, which here work as metaphors:

“Hungered for some Paris or Berlin” (line 6) could be interpreted as searching for a different and

new urban, mondane or sophisticated (characteristics which are usually associated with old

European cities) lover, or alternatively, “Chicago or L.A.” (line 16), cities which are conventionally

associated with easy-going, relaxed, but also rich and high class lifestyle. The speaker clearly states

that “Love is not Chicago or L.A.” (line 16), which brings together an abstract concept with

concrete worldly elements (actual, tangible and really existing places). In addition to the numerous

rhetorical devices which have been mentioned so far, the lyrics in question furthermore contain an

oxymoron comprised in the phrase “snow and fire“ (line 7), a conventional cliché metaphor

contained in the phrase “heart’s on fire“ (line 17), which in turn is embedded into a variation of a

common idiomatic phrase (“home is where your heart’s on fire“, line 17). Furthermore, the present

lyrics also contain a considerable number of rhetorical questions, such as “Will sweet Carioca love

again?” (line 8) or “Aint it easy?“ (line 47). The latter phrase is peculiar, since it questions the main

principle of the contents of the text, which is stated at first in an affirmative tone (“it’s easy, easy /

let your love ring out“, line 19-20) and already becomes evident and is purported by the title. More

specifically, the basic notion conveyed by the title and by the stanzas containing the title word is

that love and its demonstration and fulfillment should be “easy”. The truth of this statement is

however questioned towards the end of the lyrics by a rhetorical question, which indicates

insecurity and doubts as to the certainty of the key message of the text.

Main Themes and Contents: in terms of the contents it soon becomes obvious that there is a clear

outline of the setting in the form of an indication of time and place: names of real places such as

Brazil or Carioca, and European cities (Paris, Berlin) are mentioned. Carioca (Brazil) is indicated as

initial, original point of departure (line 8), but the speaker suggests that his/her love interest intends

to go somewhere else and to leave him/her. This other place is depicted as a “distant beach” (line 3),

a “different shore” (line 4) which, as has already been mentioned, could be interpreted as a

metaphor for a different lover and a new relationship. It is remarkable that the symbolisms which

are used here are taken out of the semantic field of nature and natural elements (“shore”, “beach”).

In addition to the indications of place, also time seems to be an important factor in the lyrics in

question. The speaker uses several indicators of time: the initial word is “yesterday”, indicating the

past and something which has ended, and later follows another indication of time consisting of the

word “today” (line 21). This implies that the speaker is hopeful that his/her love interest will come

back and will live with him/her in the future. The past, where the love interest searched for

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something new is over, indicated by the word “yesterday“, and the presence (“today“) should bring

them together again.

4.3.1.5. “Just The Two Of Us” (1980) - Words and Music by Bill Withers, William Salter

and Ralph MacDonald

1 I see the crystal raindrops fall (a)

2 And the beauty of it all (a)

3 Is when the sun comes shining through (b)

4 To make those rainbows in my mind (c)

5 When I think of you some time (c)

6 And I want to spend some time with you (b)

7 Just the two of us (d)

8 We can make it if we try (e)

9 Just the two of us (d)

10 Just the two of us (d)

11 Just the two of us (d)

12 Building castles in the sky (e)

13 Just the two of us (d)

14 You and I (e)

15 We look for love, no time for tears (f)

16 Wasted waters's all that is (f)

17 And it don't make no flowers grow (g)

18 Good things might come to those who wait (h)

19 Not to those who wait too late (h)

20 We got to go for all we know (g)

21 Just the two of us (d)

22 We can make it if we try (e)

23 Just the two of us (d)

24 Just the two of us (d)

25 Just the two of us (d)

26 Building 'em castles in the sky (e)

27 Just the two of us (d)

28 You and I (e)

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29 I hear the crystal raindrops fall (a)

30 On the window down the hall (a)

31 And it becomes the morning dew (b)

32 And darling, when the morning comes (i)

33 And I see the morning sun (i)

34 I want to be the one with you (b)

35 Just the two of us (d)

36 We can make it if we try (e)

37 Just the two of us (d)

38 Just the two of us (d)

39 Just the two of us (d)

40 Building big castles way on high (e)

41 Just the two of us (d)

42 You and I (e)

(Source: “Just The Two Of Us”. Google Play. [Online].

https://play.google.com/music/preview/Tgosodbf4gr3lhkcfszkyulfaom?lyrics=1&utm_source=google&utm_medium=se

arch&utm_campaign=lyrics&pcampaignid=kp-lyrics [2016, May 5])

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): The rhyme scheme of the lyrics in question

follows the structure aabccb dedd dede ffghhg dedd dede aabiib dedd dede. It comprises a couple of

imperfect rhymes, such as “mind“ – “time“ (line 4 and 5) or “tears“ – “is“ (line 15 and 16).

Moreover, there is an assonant rhyme (“comes“ – “sun“) in lines 32 and 33. Most rhymes are full,

e.g. “fall“-“all“ (line 1-2), “through“-“you“ (line 2 and 6), “sky“-“I“ (line 12 and 14), “grow“-

“know“ (line 17 and 20), “wait“-“late“ (line 18-19). In terms of the rhymes’ placement structure,

there are frequent envelope rhymes such as bccb (line 3-6) or ghhg (line 17-20), but also crossed

rhymes (dede). Moreover, there is also an internal rhyme in line 19 (“not to those who wait to late“)

and an identical internal rhyme in line 5-6 (“when I think of you some time / and I want to spend

some time with you”).

Imagery, Symbolism, rhetorical figures: One of the most obvious rhetorical figures in “Just The

Two Of Us” is the oxymoron contained in the phrase “You and I“ (line 14, 28, 42) which is a

substantial part of the refrain of the song and thus occurs repeatedly throughout the lyrics. Another

oxymoron, despite being stretched and distributed over three verse lines is the mentioning of the

notion of rain in “raindrops” (line 1) and the word “sun” (line 3), which are two opposed principles.

The product of these two opposed natural elements is a rainbow, which is mentioned in the

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subsequent line. The title phrase is repeated frequently throughout the lyrics, which is a common

phenomenon in lyrics since the title phrase is frequently contained in the refrain, a block of verse

lines which is repeated as a whole several times. Likewise, the word “morning” is repeated three

times in the seventh stanza: “and it becomes the morning dew / but darling, when the morning

comes / and I see the morning sun“ (line 31-33). Thus, the notion of ‘morning’ and its symbolic

meaning of new beginning is emphasized. Furthermore, the phrase “wasted waters’s“ in line 16 is

an alliteration and at the same time a metaphor for tears, using a natural element (water). A further

alliteration is contained in the phrase “got to go“ (line 20) which in turn is part of the phrase “we

got to go for all we know“, which contains six phonetically similar words with a similar vowel, and

thus could be furthermore considered an instance of an internal assonant rhyme. Moreover, the text

contains several colloquialisms and slang expressions, such as “it don’t make no flowers grow“

(line 17) and “building `em castles in the sky“ (line 26). The latter phrase is a common metaphor for

daydreaming or wishing for something. The phrase in line 18 and 19 (“good things might come to

those who wait / not to those who wait too late“) is an anti-thesis, which consists of the opposition

of two elements, whereby the mentioning of and emphasis of the negative one makes the principle

idea more evident and striking. This anti-thetical phrase could be interpreted as an example of the

carpe diem motif: the phrase “good things might come to those who wait, not to those who wait too

late“ implies that innecessary prolonged and excessive waiting is not profitable but rather inhibiting

and one should make use of one’s time and concentrate on enjoying and consuming the moment

instead. One should try out love and other pleasureable things immediately rather than waiting for

them to happen. This is also the key principle and central idea of Andrew Marvell’s poem “To His

Coy Mistress” (1681) (cf. Marvell 1681/2006: 1703), and thus even in contemporary jazz lyrics

traces of these seemingly timeless principles can be found. Another striking feature of “Just The

Two Of Us” are the numerous images of elements of nature which are scattered throughout the text,

such as “sun”, “rain” and “water”. These features again are connected to an earlier age, namely the

Romantic era, in which natural elements were a common feature integrated into literary works of

the times and used as personfications or symbols, for example by the emblematic English poet

Wordsworth (cf. Oerlemans 2002: 31). In the Romantic era the literary genres of poetry and lyrical

literature flourished and their popularity reached a new peak, and a characteristic feature of them

was the description of landscapes and nature (cf. Oerlemans 2002: 1). The latter were central topics

and objects of interest of writers in the Romantic era and are thus highly typical for Romantic

literature (cf. Oerlemans 2002: 1). It might be due to the importance metaphorical images of nature

had during the Romantic era, where lyrical poetry was the most popular and most highly valued

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literary genre, that these elements are still used so frequently and excessively in contemporary song

lyrics, which are closely related to the genre of poetry.

Main Themes and Contents: The basic theme in “Just The Two Of Us” is quite evidently the typical

notion of ‘Us against the World’, which is already explicitly conveyed in the title “Just The Two Of

Us“ and is perceptible in a similar way in Mark Murphy’s lyrics to “Stolen Moments” which have

been analyzed at an earlier stage in this study. This theme is closely linked to the typical ‘dialogue

of courtship’- scenario, of which one specific feature is the speaker’s direct address of his or her

love interest, which indicates the romantic or even intimate relationship between the two persons

involved (cf. Horton 2004: 173). The speaker demands and urges the addressee (his or her love

interest) to give the relationship a try, to take action and not to lose time while they have it. Thus,

Bill Withers and his co-writers William Salter and Ralph MacDonald propagate the carpe diem –

attitude, which was already supported by the restauration poet Andrew Marvell and some of his

fellow contemporaries in the 17th century, by insinuating the necessity of profiting from the moment

and not waiting for something to happen.

4.3.1.6. “The Island” (1981) - English Lyrics by Alan & Marilyn Bergman, Music by Ivan

Lins & Vitor Martins

1 Make believe we’ve landed (a)

2 on a desert island, (a)

3 Bathe me in the waters, (b)

4 warm me in the moonlight, (c)

5 Taste me with your kisses, (d)

6 find the secret places; (d)

7 Touch me `til I tremble, (e)

8 free my wings for flying and (a)

9 catch me while I’m falling. (f)

10 Keep your arms around me (g)

11 like there’s no tomorrow, (h)

12 Let me know you love me. (g)

13 On our little island, (a)

14 not a soul can see us, (d)

15 Show me how to love you, (i)

16 teach me how to please you. (i)

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17 Lay your dreams beside me, (g)

18 only stars will listen, (a)

19 to our cries and whispers. (b)

20 You were made to love me (g)

21 and I was made to love you. (i)

22 Keep your arms around me, (g)

23 lose yourself inside me, (g)

24 Make it last forever. (j)

25 I can see the island (a)

26 shining in the distance. (k)

27 Now we’re getting closer, (j)

28 Keep your arms around me, (g)

29 Love we’re almost there. (l)

(Source: The New Real Book 1988: 159)

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): the lyrics in question follow the rhyme scheme

aabcdd eafghg adii gabgiggj akjgl. Only a few explicit identical rhymes occur intermittently

throughout the lyrics, such as “keep your arms around me” and “let me know you love me” in lines

10 and 12, or “you were made to love me” and “keep your arms around me” (line 20 and 22), which

all end on the word “me”. Likewise, an identical rhyme also occurs at the end of the subsequent

lines 15 and 16 (“show me how to love you / teach me how to please you”). The first two line ends

constitute an apocopated rhyme, where the penultimate syllable of one word is rhymed with the last

syllable of the other word: “landed”-“island” (“Make believe we’ve landed / on our little island”). A

full rhyme occurs at the end of the first stanza (line 5-6), if one only considers the last syllable:

“kisses“-“places“. A symbiosis of an imperfect and assonant rhyme occurs in the last stanza, where

“island“ is rhymed with “distance”, which has similar vowels and also consonant (‘s’, ‘n’), but does

not really rhyme however. Otherwise, the rhymes are generally scattered intermittently throughout

the text rather than following each other up in immediate succession. An example is the syllable ‘-

es’ which occurs in lines 5 and 6 and only occurs later again, in line 14, in a phonetically similar

variant (“us”).

Imagery, Symbolism, Rhetorical Figures: One of the most apparent rhetorical figures which is

already foreshadowed in the title is the cliché symbol of an island, which symbolizes exclusion and

isolation, and is also often portrayed as a desirable place and an object of longing where people are

able to escape their daily routines and civilized life. An island, thus, is a symbolic place for the

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‘apart’, the ‘exclusive’ and the ‘exotic’, and thus sensual, but it can also conventionally signify a

place of exile, separation, isolation and loneliness. In the case of the present lyrics the image of the

‘island’ is used as a symbol for a desirable place, where lovers are amongst themselves and

undisturbed by the external world and the boredoms and banalities of everyday life. The image of

the ‘island’, as it is used here, thus, is also symbolic for the romantic relationship between the

speaker and his/her addressee, which, when associated with an island, is portrayed as something

special, exclusive and outstanding. In addition to the symbol of the island used to represent the

relationship between the speaker and his/her love interest, there are also several allusions to sex,

which are rendered in the following metaphorical phrases: “find the secret places“ (line 6), “touch

me ‘til I tremble” (line 7) and “bathe me in the waters“ (line 3), which could also refer or represent

metaphorically the interchange of bodily fluids. These imperatives can be understood ambiguously,

since in addition to the figurative meaning of a sexual allusion they could also be a reference to the

geographical elements of an island. Thus, the images created by these phrases can be essentially

understood as geographical metaphors which symbolize the human body. The present lyrics, thus,

use elements of nature serve as symbolic images and metaphors. In addition to these metaphors,

there is a personification of an element of human experience, namely ‘dreams’. In the phrase “Lay

your dreams beside me“ (line 17) dreams are treated as if they were tangible concrete objects,

despite being abstract concepts. Another personification of a natural element is contained in the

phrase “only stars will listen“ (line 18), which portrays stars as agents of human activities and thus

the phrase in question can be defined as personification. Furthermore, an alliteration is contained in

the phrase “free my wings for flying“ (line 8), which at the same time is a cliché used to

demonstrate the high-spiritedness which follows from successful love. Another alliteration can be

found in line 12: “Let me know you love me”. Clichés are abundant, best exemplified by the

phrases “make it last forever“ (line 24), “catch me while I’m falling” (line 9) or “you were made to

love me” (line 20), “and I was made to love you“ (line 21), which at the same time is an oxymoron

bringing together two distinct or opposite concepts (‘me’ vs. ‘you’), which is a basic feature of the

‘dialogue of courtship’ theme, i.e. the widespread and common theme of human relationships and

love stories which is frequently made the substance of lyrics (cf. Horton 2004: 173). Apart from the

above mentioned metaphors and symbolisms the language applied in “The Island” can be

characterized by a general lack of abstract, poetic character but a rather cliché-laden one instead,

which results in a rather superficial and shallow impression. The latter is supported by the many

cliché expressions which are integrated into the text, such as “moonlight”, “dreams”, or “love”.

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Main Themes and Contents: The main theme of the lyrics in question consists of very conventional

elements: love, pleasure, sexuality. The general linguistic mode these thematic elements are

rendered in is similar to the one applied in the above analysed traditional jazz standard “Turn Out

The Stars”, namely imperative speech, but it differs from the latter decisively in that it is not as

resolute, intricate and poetic (and it also follows another purpose), but soft, tender and sensual

instead, reflecting the sexually laden and erotic, exotic atmosphere.

4.3.1.7. “Let Me Be The One” (1984) - Words and Music by Angela Bofill, Rick Suchow,

Alan Palanker

1 Baby, listen to me please, (a)

2 I’ve been dreamin’ `bout you every night; (b)

3 Now that you are here with me, (a)

4 All I wanna do is hold you tight. (b)

5 Now take me in your arms, (c)

6 I’ve waited for so long, (d)

7 Let me be the one, (d)

8 Please don’t deny my heart, (c)

9 You’re ev’rything I want, (d)

10 Let me be the one. (d)

11 Now take me in your arms, (c)

12 I’ve waited for so long, (d)

13 Let me be the one. (d)

14 Please don’t deny my heart, (c)

15 You’re ev’rything I want, (d)

16 Let me be the one. (d)

(Source: The New Real Book 1988: 183)

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): the rhyme scheme of the lyrics in question is

very regular, albeit not always explicitly. The first quartet forms a classic crossed rhyme (abab),

whereby the first and the third line end on an assonant rhyme (“please“ – “me“), where the same

vowel is applied but the consonants do not correspond to each other. The second quartet forms an

envelope rhyme (cddc) and also contains an assonant rhyme (“arms“ – “heart“) and an imperfect

rhyme (“long“ – “one“). This is followed by an imperfect rhyme (“want“ – “one“) in line 9 and 10

(dd). In the next stanza the envelope rhyme comprising an assonant and an imperfect rhyme (cddc)

and the concluding imperfect rhyme couplet (dd) are repeated. Furthermore, there is an internal

72

rhyme (“me”-“be”) in line seven, ten, thirteen and sixteen. The fact that there are numerous rhymes

stands in contrast to the generally unsophisticated character and simplistic linguistic style applied in

“Let Me Be The One”. The quantity of text is considerably reduced, i.e. instead of a variety of text

there is a repetition of a whole set of lines (line five to ten are repeated in line eleven to sixteen).

This is fairly unusual when compared to the majority of the other contemporary jazz standards

which have been analyzed in this study so far, where there is very frequently a high density and

quantity of text (see “Sticky Wicket”, “I Know You Know”, “Stolen Moments”, “The Island”, etc.).

Imagery, Symbolism, Rhetorical figures: the lyrics in question abound in romantic cliché

expressions and phrases such as “Now take me in your arms“ (line 5, 11) or “All I wanna do is hold

you tight” (line 4), “You’re everything I want” (line 9, 15). These cliché phrases make the lyrics in

question appear rather superficial and banal, an effect which is very often produced by lyrics of

mainstream commercial pop music (cf. Frith 1989: 80), and is thus strange to be found in a piece in

the renown jazz anthology “The New Real Book“, which does not purport commercial pop music.

However, due to their simplistic language and repetitive structure the lyrics in question resemble

those applied in commercial pop songs. They start with a direct address of the speaker’s love

interest, thus constituting, in literary terms, an apostrophe. The lyrics contain numerous words

whose syllables are clipped at the end (apocopes, e.g. “dreamin’”, line 2), and also words which are

clipped at the beginning, named aphaeresis (e.g. “’bout”, line 2). The use of apocopes and

aphaeresis reflects modern spoken language by imitating oral and conversational style.

Main Themes and Contents: The main themes of “Let Me Be The One” are, similarly to the above

analysed song “The Island”, love, longing and ‘romantic’ passion. The lyrics can be characterized

by a highly simplistic, unpoetic and unsophisticated linguistic style, which results from the

abundancy of cliché words and phrases included but also from the general lack of metaphorical or

abstract language.

4.3.1.8. “Blizzard Of Lies” (1983) – Words by Samantha Frishberg, Music by Dave

Frishberg

1 We must have lunch real soon, (a)

2 your luggage is checked through, (b)

3 We’ve got inflation licked, (c)

4 I’ll get right back to you. (b)

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5 It’s just a standard form, (d)

6 tomorrow without fail, (e)

7 Pleased to meet you, thanks a lot, (f)

8 your check is in the mail, (e)

9 marooned, marooned, marooned, (a)

10 in a blizzard of lies, (g)

11 marooned, marooned, marooned, (a)

12 in a blizzard of lies. (g)

13 Your nose and knee’s not all you’ll freeze (h)

14 when you’re in it up to your thighs. (g)

15 It looks like snow but you never know (i)

16 when you’re marooned in a blizzard of lies. (g)

17 You may have won a prize, (g)

18 won’t wrinkle, shrink or peel, (j)

19 Your secret’s safe with me, (k)

20 this is a real good deal. (j)

21 It’s finger lickin’ good, (l)

22 strictly by the book, (l)

23 What’s fair is fair, I’ll be right there, (m)

24 I am not a crook, (l)

25 marooned, marooned, marooned, in a blizzard of lies, (g)

26 marooned, marooned, marooned, in a blizzard of lies. (g)

27 Better watch your step, (n)

28 when your old dog Shep (n)

29 can’t even look you in the eyes. (g)

30 You’re cold and lost, (o)

31 and you’re double crossed, (o)

32 when you’re marooned in a blizzard of lies. (g)

33 We’ll send someone right out, (p)

34 now this won’t hurt a bit, (q)

35 He’s in a meeting now (p)

)36 the coat’s a perfect fit. (q)

37 It’s strictly fresh today, (r)

38 service with a smile, (g)

39 I’ll love darling, `til I die, (g)

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40 we’ll keep your name on a file, (g)

41 marooned marooned, marooned, in a blizzard of lies, (g)

42 marooned, marooned, marooned, in a blizzard of lies. (g)

43 Walk on, walk on, with hope in your heart, (s)

44 and you’re in for a big surprise (g)

45 when you’re marooned___, marooned___, (a)

46 marooned, marooned, marooned in a blizzard of lies, (g)

47 a blizzard of lies. (g)

(Source: The New Real Book 1988: 23-24)

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure, Style): the present lyrics follow a very regular

rhyme scheme represented by the following chronology of letters: abcb defe agag hgig gjkj llml

ggnngoog pqpqrggg gg sgagg. There are mostly full rhymes, such as “through“-“you“ (line 2,4),

“fail“-“mail“ (line 6,8), “peel“-“deal“ (line 18, 20), “step-“Shep“ (line 27,28), “lost“-“crossed“ (line

30,31), “bit“-“fit“(line 34, 36) or “smile“-“file“ (line 38,40). However, there is also a significant

number of assonant rhymes, such as “smile“-“die“-“file“, where the vowel remains similar in all

three rhyming elements, but the consonants change. Another instance of an assonant rhyme can be

found in line 21 and 22 (“good“-“book“) and in line 33 and 35 (“out“-“now“), where only the

consonants change but the vowel sound stays the same. Furthermore, there are internal rhymes in

line 13 (“your nose and knee’s not all you’ll freeze”), line 15 (“It looks like snow but you never

know”), line 20 (“this is a real good deal”) and in line 23 (“What’s fair is fair, I’ll be right there”).

Imagery, Symbolism, Rhetorical Figures: An obvious repetition occurs throughout the duration of

the lyrics, namely of the word “marooned”, which generally occurs in a triple form. A threefold

repetition of a specific word or phrase is one of the most effective forms of repetitions and can be

defined as a special form of ‘list of three’, which is thus often used in political speeches or

advertisements in order to persuade the audience and make the contents memorizable and

recognizable (cf. Iñigo-Mora 2010: 340). Moreover, there are also other rhetorical devices applied

to “Blizzard of Lies”, such as an accumulation (“wrinkle, shrink or peel“, line 18) which at the same

time constitutes a list of three, and also numerous aphaeresis (“I’ll”, “He’s”, “you’re”, “the coat’s”)

and also apocopes (“lickin’”) and slang phrases such as “it’s finger lickin’ good“ (line 21). The

lyrics can be characterized by a curt, easy-going, colloquial and conversational linguistic style,

which clearly imitates spoken language. Another obvious rhetorical device is the metaphor which is

already introduced in the title, “blizzard of lies“, whereby an element of nature (a blizzard, as in a

75

strong wind or storm) is used to symbolize a great number of lies. Furthermore, there is an

alliteration comprised in the phrase “secret’s safe“ (line 19) and in the phrase “won’t wrinkle, shrink

or peel” (line 18).

Main Themes and Contents: There is clearly a great amount and variety of textual material

comprised into a single lyric, which was also observed in other jazz standards analysed for this

study (e.g. in “I Know You Know”, “Sticky Wicket”, “The Island”, “Turn Out The Stars”, “Stolen

Moments”, etc.). The beginning of the lyrics is apparently based on the concept of medias in res, i.e.

the immediate entry into the main action. This has the effect that the lyrics seem cryptic and

confusing at first, since the listener or reader does not know the background to the action and is

ignorant at first as to what the speaker is aiming at. “Blizzard of Lies” is a critical text, which

intends to reveal the superficiality, falsity and hypocrisy and the system of lies people confront each

other with in everyday life. It is a rather unconventional, more creative, unusual and sophisticated

topic choice, compared to the limited range of standard topics in lyrics, such as love in its mult iple

variations (as, for example, in “The Island”, “Let Me Be The One”, “Speak Low”, “Early Autumn”,

etc.). There is another striking feature in terms of the setting of the contents of the present lyrics,

which is determined once more by a certain kind of vocabulary which appears scattered throughout

the whole lyrics. This type of vocabulary is part of the jargon of bureaucracy and bank business or

economy. Words and phrases, such as “inflation”, “it’s just a standard form“, “check”, or “real good

deal“ are indicators of this specific jargon which is used by the speaker in order to indicate that the

lyrics in question essentially deal with modern life. The latter is depicted in the present lyrics as

fast, quick-paced, and characterized by a constant hurry (“we must have lunch real soon“) and the

orientation towards business, career, travelling (“luggage”), trade and money. Furthermore, the text

of “Blizzard of Lies” comprises numerous standard small talk phrases people use in everyday life,

such as “pleased to meet you“, “I’ll get right back to you“, “I’ll be right back“, “What’s fair is fair“,

“service with a smile“ (which at the same time is an alliteration). These platitudes are distributed

throughout the whole text and placed within it as if to reveal and mock the superficial and shallow

communication people exchange and the high number of innecessary platitutes which are integrated

into everyday language. Moreover, these shallow small talk phrases are probably applied in order to

mock the superficiality which is often characteristic for business conversations and dialogues,

where everything is oriented towards profit. The general insinuation by the speaker seems to be that

a capitalist, profit-oriented world is superficial, false and catches one up in a “blizzard of lies”.

Therefore, the text can be classified as highly critical and complex, especially when it comes to its

choice of theme.

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4.3.1.9. “Boogie Down” (1983) - Words and Music by Al Jarreau and Michael Omartian

1 I can be (a)

2 what I want to (b)

3 and all I need (a)

4 is to get my boogie down. (Rep) (c)

5 You can be (a)

6 what I want to (b)

7 you know all I need (a)

8 is to get my boogie down (Rep) (c)

9 I got my certain and my sure ‘nough on, (d)

10 and I’m puttin’ all my really for real. (e)

11 you face that curtain with your best stuff on, (d)

12 you are the winner, and you’re gonna feel; (e)

13 You can be (a)

14 what you want to, (b)

15 and all you need (a)

16 is to get your boogie down, (c)

17 I can be (a)

18 all I want to (b)

19 and all I need (a)

20 is to get my boogie down (c)

21 Now you go one and two and three, (a)

22 Here’s a little step for you and me; (a)

23 Come and strut your stuff and leave enough (f)

24 for the nearest boogie and truest boogie woogie (Rep.) (a)

(Source: The New Real Book 1988: 29)

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): The rhyme scheme of the present lyrics follows

the structure abacabac dede abacabac aafa. The first rhyming words (‘a’) only rhyme in an assonant

way with each other, i.e. they share the same vowel but do not rhyme in terms of their consonants

(‘be“ – “need“). However, there are also two full rhymes included, namely “real“ – “feel“ in line 10

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and 12, and “three“-“me“ in line 21 and 22. Furthermore, there is an identical rhyme at the end of

line 9 and 11, consisting of the identically repeated word “on“.

Imagery, Symbolism, Rhetorical Figures: There are numerous repetitions of entire blocks of phrases

throughout the lyrics, e.g. “all I need / is to get my boogie down“ in lines 3-4, 7-8, 15-16 and 19-20.

This is an obvious rhetorical device to emphasize the phrase in question, which in this case

additionally includes the title (“Boogie Down”), and both strategies are efficient for emphasizing

and conveying the key message of the lyrics. On a linguistic level it is significant that the personal

pronoun changes several times throughout the text, making the subject position be assumed

alternately by the ‘I’ or the ‘You’. The first stanza is exclusively written from a first personal

singular perspective. At the beginning of the second stanza (line 5), the second person singular

pronoun is suddenly applied only to be exchanged for the first person singular subject again in the

subsequent line. In the fourth stanza the subject changes entirely to the second person singular,

while it changes to the first person again in the fifth stanza. This alternation between the first and

second person singular pronoun constitutes an oxymoron on the large level, since it occurs

throughout the whole lyrics, but sometimes, e.g. in the second, third and sixth stanza, the subjects

are alternated within immediate distance or within the same phrase, e.g. “here’s a little step for you

and me“ (line 22). This ‘You and I’ or ‘You and Me’ opposition is a typical feature of the ‘dialogue

of courtship’ – theme, which has already ocurred a considerable number of times in the course of

this analysis and has been defined as a frequent and common theme in lyrics of popular music (cf.

Horton 2004: 173). However, it is especially peculiar that in the first and third stanza only the

subjects are changed around whereas the rest of the text remains the same. This is a fairly

unconventional and witty feature which cannot be found in any other of the jazz lyrics analyzed in

this study. There are a couple of words which occur in a nonsensical context and are used in an

absurd way: “certain“, “sure“ and “really“ are placed in phrases in a very peculiar way in which

they do not make sense: “I got my certain and my sure ‘nough on” (line 9) and “and I’m puttin’ all

my really for real” (line 10). Thus, the latter phrases constitute semantic barbarisms due to the

wrong application of vocabulary within them, which leads to a nonsensical construct, although the

syntax is in order. Furthermore, the phrase “really for real” constitutes an alliteration. Another

alliteration is contained in the phrase “strut your stuff“ (line 23). Alliterations, as is also the case

with repetitions, lead to an easy memorization of the words or phrases in question, for which reason

they are also popular rhetorical devicies frequently applied in commercials or advertisements. The

present lyrics furthermore contain aphaeresis (“`nough“) and apocopes (“puttin’“), and also

colloquial slang words such as “gonna“, which emphasize the unmistakeable spoken, oral and

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conversational linguistic style the lyrics are written in. The word collocation contained in the title

and repeated several times throughout the lyrics, ‘boogie down’, constitutes a neologism since it is a

new word creation for a title, and thus apparently means something but has not been used before. It

also constitutes a neologism in the context of its verse line, since to ‘get one’s boogie down’ is a

new word creation which has not existed before (“All I need / is to get my boogie down”).

Main Themes and Contents: the main theme of “Boogie Down” is that everyone can be the person

he/she wants to be and that one has a great variety of possibilities and opportunities in life, implied

explicitly by the recurring phrases “I can be / what I want to” (line 1-2) respectively “You can be /

what you want to” (line 13-14). Moreover, the thematization of the musical and also dancing style

‘Boogie Woogie’ at the latest becomes apparent in the phrase “now you go one and two and three“

(line 21), which is reminiscent of a dancing instruction. The generally confusing text with its

nonsensical expressions (the wrongly applied vocabulary and neologisms which have been pointed

out in the previous section) also reflects the movements of the ‘Boogie’, which is a fast-paced and

hectic music to which dancers move back and forth or up and down. Another element which reflects

this dancing movement of going back and forth or hopping up and down is the subject alternation of

‘you’ and ‘I’, which changes several times during the lyrics. Thus, the movement and rhythm of the

‘Boogie’ is reflected by phrases such as “you and me”, “now you go one and two and three” or

“here’s a little step for you and me” and also by the frequently alternating subject change.

4.3.1.10.“The Girl In The Other Room” (2004) – Words and Music by Diana Krall and Elvis

Costello

1 The girl in the other room (a)

2 She knows by now (b)

3 There's something in all of her fears (c)

4 Now she wears it threadbare (d)

5 She sits on the floor (e)

6 The glass pressed tight to the wall (f)

7 She hears murmurs low (b)

8 The paper is peeling (g)

9 Her eyes staring straight at the ceiling (g)

10 Maybe they're there (d)

11 Or maybe it's nothing at all (f)

12 As she draws lipstick smears on the wall (f)

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13 The girl in the other room (a)

14 She powders her face (h)

15 And stares hard (i)

16 Into her reflection (j)

17 The girl in the other room (a)

18 She stifles a yawn (k)

19 Adjusting the strap of her gown (k)

20 She tosses her tresses (l)

21 Her lover undresses (l)

22 Turning the last lamp light down (k)

23 What's that voice we're hearing? (m)

24 We should be sleeping (n)

25 Could that be someone who's weeping? (n)

26 Maybe she's there (d)

27 Or maybe there's nothing to see (o)

28 It's just a trace of what used to be (o)

29 The girl in the other room (a)

30 She darkens her lash (p)

31 And blushes (p)

32She seems to look familiar (q)

(Source: “The Girl In The Other Room”. Songlyrics. [Online]. http://www.songlyrics.com/diana-krall/the-girl-in-the-

other-room-lyrics/ [2016, April 16])

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): the rhyme scheme of the present lyrics follows

the structure abcdefbgg dff ahij akkll kmnn doo appq. In the first stanza only the last two lines

rhyme with each other (“peeling”-“ceiling”), except for an additional spelled (but not phonetic)

rhyme consisting of “now” and “low”. The rest of the stanza is characterized by a lack of rhymes,

which makes the rhyme scheme very irregular at first. However, the second stanza already consists

of the full rhyme “all”-“wall“ (line 11-12) and a single line (10), which rhymes with the last word of

line 4, however (“threadbare“-“there“, line 4, 10). There’s also a triple rhyme in the fourth stanza

consisting of the word “yawn“ line (18), which rhymes imperfectly with “gown“ (line 19) and

“down“ (line 22). Moreover, there is an imperfect internal rhyme consisting of the words “fears”

(line 4), “wears“ (line 5) and “hears” (line 7). An internal full rhyme occurs in line 12 and 15,

consisting of the words “smears“ and “stares“. Another specimen of an internal full rhyme occurs in

line 10, consisting of the words “they’re“- “there“ in immediate succession. The third stanza is

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entirely irregular again in terms of its rhyme scheme, but from the fourth stanza onwards a clear and

regular rhyme scheme is applied again. The fact that some stanzas are characterized by an irregular

rhyme scheme supports and correlates with their contents, which depicts a mysterious, diffuse and

cryptic situation.

Imagery, Symbolism, Rhetorical Figures: There are some explicit effective rhetorical devices

applied to the present lyrics, such as the alliterations “paper is peeling“ (line 8), “staring straight“

(line 9) and “they’re there” (line 10), which at the same time is a homophonic phrase. Further

alliterations can be found in the phrases “last lamp light“ (line 22), “What’s that voice we’re

hearing“ (line 23). A repetition of the word “maybe” appears in the tenth and eleventh line (second

stanza), which correlates with the mysterious atmosphere of uncertainty which prevails in the song,

which is already conveyed by the title. The image of the “girl in the other room“ suggests a

somewhat mysterious and cryptic stranger as a protagonist of the song and creates an eery image of

an unknown and mystic being which is close by. The fourth stanza depicts and creates images of

clear actions, conveyed for example by the phrase “tosses her tresses“ (line 20). This phrase is also

an alliteration and by this rhetorical strategy represents the vehemence and energetic character of

the action of tossing. Another exemplary clear and decisive action depicted in the second stanza is

“adjusting the strap“ (line 19), which again is a strong energetic action which suggests strictness

and force. On the contrary, the metaphorical phrase “her lover undresses“ (line 21) suggests a more

tender and soft action, reinforced by the use of the soft voiced consonants /l/, /d/, /v/ and /n/.

Main Themes and Contents: The song thematizes the conflict of a woman, her self-reflection and

conflicted perception of herself. The protagonist is apparently in doubt of herself, in pain and inner

conflict. She is always and continuously referred to in the third person singular (“she”) and thus

remains a mystic, strange and cryptic person, since the use of the personal pronoun has the effect of

making her an unknown and unspecific person. On the other hand, significant information and

knowledge is conveyed about her psychological state, her fears and inner life, and thus she becomes

an individual person despite being referred to in the third person singular. The title phrase “The girl

in the other room” also makes the protagonist appear an intangible and phantom-like stranger, and

thus supports the mystic and cryptic character which results from the third person singular

reference. However, the intangible, abstract and mystic protagonist actually becomes individualized

in the course of the text, since a profound insight into her feelings and her emotional realm is

offered. A striking feature of the lyrics in question is that they consist of a great amount and variety

of text (i.e. lack of repetition), which gives the listener or reader the impression of listening to or

81

reading a story. Furthermore, it seems that the main message of the text is rendered in a less

concrete and rather obscure way, providing a greater challenge for the listener or reader to

comprehend the main message, thus resembling the contemporary jazz piece “Salt” which has been

analysed earlier.

4.3.1.11. “Salt“ (2003) – Words and Music by Lizz Wright

1 How can you lose your song (a)

2 When you have sung it for so long? (a)

3 And how can you forget your dance, your dance (b)

4 When that dance is all you ever had? (c)

5 It must be, it must be true (d)

6 You can't separate the two (d)

7 Oh no, you can't (b)

8 It's impossible to do (d)

9 Just like the salt in the stew (d)

10 Oh my, it's all a part of you (d)

11 One thing that life cannot do (d)

12 Life can't do it, no (e)

13 It can't take your song from you (d)

14 So when life brings a chance, a chance (b)

15 For you to give your part, to give your part away (f)

16 Don't just stand there feeling scared (g)

17 Don't be afraid (f)

18 Cause there could be a treasure right there (g)

19 Now listen, listen to the truth (d)

20 It does not matter, doesn't matter what to do (d)

21 Still gonna be you (d)

22Just like the salt in the stew (d)

23 Yeah, it's all a part of you (d)

24 And one thing, the one thing that life cannot do (d)

25 Hey, hey, hey, can't do it no (e)

26 It can't take your song from you (d)

27 Life can't take it (h)

28 You don't give it (h)

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29 Life can't take it (h)

30 It can't take your song from you (d)

(Source: “Salt“. Metrolyrics. [Online]. http://www.metrolyrics.com/salt-lyrics-lizz-wright.html [2016, April 16])

(Source: “Salt“. allmusic. [Online]. http://www.allmusic.com/album/salt-mw0000020164 [2017, Feb. 8])

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): The rhyme scheme of the present lyrics is aabc

ddbdddded bfgfg ddddd ded hhh d. It is striking that the majority of rhymes are based on the /u/-

sound contained in the words “true“, “two“, “do“, “stew“, “you“ which occur in mostly

immediately subsequent lines in the second, fourth and fifth stanza and in the last line. In addition

to these full rhymes there is another one in line 16 and 18, consisting of the words “scared“ and

“there“. Moreover, there are two assonant rhymes consisting of the words “dance“ and “can’t” (line

3 and 7), and “away“ and “afraid“ (line 15 and 17), whose vowels are similar but whose consonants

differ. Furthermore, an identical rhyme occurs in lines 27-29, which all end on the word “it“.

Imagery, Symbolism, Rhetorical Figures: The present lyrics comprise numerous valuable rhetorical

devices, of which one of the most powerful is the phrase “lose your song“ (line 1) which is

essentially a depiction of an immaterial entity (“song“) as a tangible object which one can “lose“.

Therefore, the phrase in question is essentially a personification (in the sense of a concretization as

a tangible entity) of “song“. Furthermore, there are numerous repetitions of phrases, such as in the

third line (“your dance, your dance”) and in the fourteenth line (“a chance, a chance”) and in line

27-29 (“life can’t take it / you don’t give it / life can’t take it“). There is also a repetition in line 20

(“does not matter, doesn’t matter what you do”) and a similar one in line 24 (“And one thing, the

one thing that life cannot do”) where the respective contents in question is emphasized by the

repetition and the negation. Another peculiar repetition appears in line five, where the first part of

the phrase constitutes an ellipsis, and is only completed in the repetition (“it must be, it must be

true”). This repetitive and elliptical structure causes the impression that the speaker is occasionally

searching for words, and can thus be considered an attempt to imitate authentic oral conversation

and spoken language, which after all often contains elliptical or interrupted phrases and repetitions.

The words “song” and “dance” appear to have figurative meaning and actually symbolize abstract

notions such as spirit, the inner self, the meaning of life. The word “song” in the first line could

symbolically represent the motivation and ‘fuel’ of life, the spirit of moving on and being alive.

This notion could also be symbolized by the very title of the lyrics, “Salt“, which can be used as a

symbol for the zest of life, i.e. for the one special element which makes life more interesting,

83

outstanding and enjoyable. According to this assumption, the lines “life can’t do it, no / it can’t take

your song from you“ (line 12 - 13) would mean that the hardships of life can never be strong

enough to destroy one’s zest for life and motivation to be alive. The abstract entity ‘life’ is

represented here as a person who is able to act, thus constituting a personification of the abstract

notion ‘life’. Furthermore, the present lyrics also contain a recurring simile: “just like the salt in the

stew” (line 9 and 22). In addition to the metaphors, symbols, abstraction, ellipses, etc. the lyrics of

“Salt” also contain several colloquialisms, e.g. “yeah“, “Oh my“, “Oh no, you can’t“ and “Hey, hey,

hey, can’t do it no“, which are elements of natural speech which resemble common spoken

language.

Main Themes and Contents: At first, the theme of “Salt” is not directly discernible and seems

diffuse and vague. The theme is not pointed out concretely but in more abstract and symbolic terms

and thus gives the whole text a somewhat cryptic aura. However, in the course of the lyrics the main

theme is gradually revealed and becomes more and more concrete, and turns out to be what has

already been pointed out in the preceeding section, namely the importance of the maintenance of

one’s ‘zest of life’ and the spirit of moving on despite difficulties and hardships.

4.3.2. Traditional jazz lyrics

4.3.2.1. “Early Autumn” (1949) - Words by Johnny Herndon Mercer, Music by Ralph Burns

& Woody Herman

1 When an early autumn walks the land and chills the breeze, (a)

2 And touches with her hand the summer trees, (a)

3 Perhaps you’ll understand what memories I own. (b)

4 There’s a dance pavilion in the rain (c)

5 all shuttered down a winding country lane (c)

6 all russet brown, a frosty window pane (c)

7 shows me a town grown lonely. (d)

8 That spring of ours that started so April-hearted (e)

9 seemed made for just a boy and girl. (f)

10 I never dreamed, did you, any fall would come in view so early, early? (d)

11 Darling, if you care please let me know, (g)

12 I’ll meet you anywhere (h)

13 I miss you so, (i)

14 Let’s never have to share (h)

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15 another early autumn. (j)

(Source: The New Real Book 1988: 76)

(Source: “Early Autumn”. Jazzstandards. [Online]. http://www.jazzstandards.com/compositions-3/earlyautumn.htm

[2017, Feb 8])

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): the rhyme scheme in “Early Autumn” has the

following structure: aabcccd efd ghihj. It consists mainly of full rhymes, except for two pairs of

imperfect assonant rhymes, occurring in line 3 and 7 (“own”-“lonely”), and 8 and 10 (“girl”-

“early”). In both cases, the two words involved only remotely rhyme with each other, however their

vowels are similar when pronounced.

Imagery, Symbolism, Tropes: In terms of rhetorical devices, the most eminent ones in the present

lyrics are probably the personifications or metaphors of elements of nature. Already the title “Early

Autumn” offers the representation of an element related to nature which has a strong symbolic

significance in the lyrics in question. The concept of seasons, such as autumn or spring, is used here

to symbolize specific emotional phases, human feelings or also changes in life. Spring, for example,

is a symbol for new beginning, while autumn symbolizes decay, degradation or loss, often in

combination with love. The convention of seasons as symbolisms is confirmed by their frequent use

in titles or lyrics of significant jazz standards (or other songs), such as in “Autumn Leaves”,

“Autumn in New York”, “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most” (which is also part of this

study) or “April In Paris”. Here, the concept of spring is introduced in line eight and used precisely

in order to convey its symbolic meaning of new beginning, fresh start or the onset of something

promising. Similarly, autumn, as in ‘early autumn’ is used as a metaphor for the early and untimely

ending of a relationship, i.e. it is used in its conventional way of symbolizing decay and degradation

or the end of something. Thus, one could consider the use of conventional symbols as a first

instance of clichés in the present lyrics. The language which is used is highly metaphorical and rich

in personifications of natural elements, illustrated by the following example: “When an early

autumn walks the land and chills the breeze / And touches with her hand the summer trees“ (line

one and two). Clearly, a powerful image is created here: a season, i.e. a nature-related abstract non-

human entity, is personified by being attributed the ability to walk or to touch. The abstract image of

an “early autumn” is given human faculties and thus is made dynamic, autonomous and also more

unpredictable. Reiterating the title phrase in the form of a personification is a strong and efficient

way to emphasize it. Natural elements and seasonal change seem to be the central motifs of the

song: already in the first stanza the image which is created includes autumn (“Early Autumn”, line

85

one), summer (“summer trees”, line two) and even winter (“frosty window pane”, line six). The

fourth season is mentioned in line eight, explicitly introduced by the word “spring” and furthermore

alluded to by the word creation “April-hearted”. Other natural elements such as “rain” (line four),

and “fall” (line ten) occur throughout the length of the lyrics. In addition to the personifications of

natural elements and metaphors there are also other significant rhetorical devices included in the

lyrics, such as the anaphoric structure “all shuttered down a winding country lane / all russet brown,

a frosty window pane“ (line five and six), where both lines begin with the same word. Furthermore,

the lyrics als contain a neologism in the form of the term “April-hearted“ (line eight), a word

creation which symbolizes the lightheartedness and easiness which are conventionally attributed to

spring. Moreover, the lyrics of “Early Autumn” contain a considerable number of poetic cliché

images related to nature, such as “summer trees“, “winding country lane“, “breeze“, and

furthermore romantic cliché phrases or words such as “I miss you so“ or “darling“. Moreover, there

is an oxymoron created by the juxtaposition of “boy” and “girl” (line eight and nine), which is a

symptom of the underlying theme, which is related to the ‘dialogue of courtship’, a frequently

recurring theme in lyrics which has been mentioned earlier. In the tenth line there is a rhetorical

question (“I never dreamed, did you, any fall would come in view so early, early?”) combined with

the repetition of the words “early, early“, which are also included in the title and are thus given

additional weight and emphasis by being placed at a neuralgic point, the end of the refrain. It is

significant that the title phrase “Early Autumn” only appears at the very end of the lyrics and

assumes a singular and peculiar position by not rhyming with any other syllable in the lyrics. This

strategy marks the singularity and importance of the respective phrase as the key phrase of the

lyrics.

Main Themes and Contents: The main theme of the lyrics in question is already symbolized by the

title phrase “Early Autumn”. This metaphor consisting of an element of nature symbolizes a

relationship which has ended too early. The title phrase as well as other parts of the lyrics suggest a

nostalgic and sentimental feeling on the part of the speaker, who laments the loss and untimely

ending of his/her relationship. In this lamentation about a love which broke apart too soon one can

find an obvious parallele to the formerly analyzed lyrics of “Speak Low”, which was composed in

the same decade and equally addresses the theme of a relationship which did not last. In “Speak

Low” as well as in “Early Autumn” the speaker addresses and laments the ephemeral nature of the

moment and of love: “I never dreamed, did you, any fall would come in view so early, early?“, line

ten in “Early Autumn”) and “our summer day withers away too soon, too soon“, line three in

86

“Speak Low”. Both use metaphors of nature and of seasons in order to symbolize love and elation

with spring and deterioration and recession with fall.

4.3.2.2. “Turn Out The Stars” (1966) – Words by Gene Lees, Music by Bill Evans

1 Turn out the stars, (a)

2 turn out the stars, (a)

3 let eternal darkness hide me, (b)

4 if I can’t have you beside me. (b)

5 Put out their fires, (c)

6 their endless splendour, (d)

7 only reminds me of (e)

8 your tenderness. (f)

9 Stop the ocean’s roar, (g)

10 don’t let the rivers run. (h)

11 Let me hear no more, (g)

12 the wond’rous music of a skylark (i)

13 in the sun. (h)

14 Let it be done. (h)

15 Turn out the stars, turn out the stars, (a)

16 shut off their light. (j)

17 Stop ev’ry comet in its magic lonely flight. (j)

18 Let there be night. (j)

19 Turn out the stars. (a)

(Source: “Turn Out The Stars“. Onedrive. [Online].

https://pd5qsw.dm2304.livefilestore.com/y3m4hr1_4hQRew7aQEUyfNZiRJtCptSz8sM6RQu7ABa4uLCiT2b6lGgRET

X__V1TeXH-LKOeC3dWxclKbbbzIYrkKoYzYx-czt9Ilb8DAjpfv1IXg4HKBUHHRNEzoAdTbuX96Kve-

z3MJ_avwENJu9pQSruWqboVv_zrIIfPxFl71Q/Turn%20Out%20The%20Stars.pdf?psid=1 [2016, March 26])

(Source: “Turn Out The Stars“. Allmusic. [Online]. http://www.allmusic.com/song/turn-out-the-stars-mt0010736547

[2017, Feb 8])

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): The lyrics in question take on a regular form

which can be generally depicted as aabb cdef ghgi hh ajjja. In the first stanza there are two pairs of

87

terminal identical rhymes, which produces a repetitive effect and thus facilitates easy memorization.

The second stanza becomes irregular in terms of its rhyme scheme, and this also reflects the

exasperated, desperate tone of the speaker, who suggests increasing anger, emotional fury and

confusion. Thus, at this point the rhyme scheme as a formal feature is symbolic of the contents and

reflects and supports it. The first tonal peak (which becomes evident when the lyrics are consumed

in an aural way and performed in combination with the music), occurs in the second stanza, and is

supported and accentuated by the use of terms such as “fires” and “splendour”, which suggest

bombastic strength and grandeur. This peak in emotion is also supported by the melody, which

increases in pitch, and likewise the decrease of pitch and tension in the music (the decrescendo) is

reflected and reinforced by the word ‘tenderness’, which occurs at the end of the second stanza.

Imagery, Symbolism, rhetorical figures: The lyrics of “Turn Out The Stars” contain a significant

number of personifications of elements of nature. Phrases such as “the ocean’s roar” (line 9), “don’t

let the rivers run” (line 10) and “let eternal darkness hide me” (line 3) clearly attribute human

faculties to natural elements and suggest that the earth and its elements are characterized by a highly

dynamic quality. The purpose of the speaker is, however, to eliminate this dynamic feature in the

earth’s processes and lead it towards stagnation and even extinction, in response to the dead hopes

and spirits of the speaker. There is an abounding repetition of the phrase which also constitutes the

title of the song, “turn out the stars“. The repeated imperative order to “turn out the stars” and

similar commands raise the question as to the identity of the speaker who is in the position to give

these orders. Many passages in the lyrics give rise to the assumption that the speaker either is him-

/herself, or alternatively addresses a higher force, a metaphysical power or someone who is in

charge of the universe, and thus a sort of metaphysical note is added to the lyrics, which is also

supported by the apocalyptic scenery which becomes evident in numerous passages of lyrics (e.g.

“eternal darkness”, line 3). Moreover, the tone the speaker adopts is resolute, domineering and

imperative, which is purported explicitly by the accumulaton of imperative orders which he/she

gives throughout the lyrics. Due to them the speaker adopts an air of a supernatural force or

universal authority and appears like a universally powerful, god-like figure. This is supported

especially by the phrase “Let there be night”, which is an unmistakeable allusion to the emblematic

biblical phrase “let there be light” in Genesis 1:3 (cf. kingjamesbibleonline, online). Optionally, one

could interpret the speaker’s imperative ejaculations as a plea to a more powerful and superior

authorities. The identity of the speaker thus remains ambiguous. The phrase “turn out the stars”

furthermore is another form of personification, or rather ‘objectification’ or ‘concretization’ of a

natural element, since it treats an element of nature as a concrete and tangible object which can

88

simply be manipulated and turned off. Since stars are abstract elements of nature, as in distanced

and not within physical immediacy of human grasp, unreachable and not submitted to human

manipulation, their depiction by the speaker as tangible, modifiable objects within human reach is

surprising and unconventional, and thus the rhetorical device of objectification of abstract entities

(which could be seen as a type of personification) applies in this instance. In addition to ‘stars’ as a

central motif for the lyrics in question, the speaker also uses numerous other elements of nature and

also elements of the field of astronomy, such as ‘sun’ or ‘comet’, exemplified by the following

phrases: “skylark in the sun”, “stop ev’ry comet”, “stop the ocean’s roar”, “don’t let the rivers run”,

“put out their fires”. The title phrase “Turn Out The Stars” is repeated numerous times throughout

the lyrics, and its repetition at the beginning of the first stanza results in an anaphora. The same

repetition occurs in line fifteen and one last time in the final line, reinforcing the finality the phrase

suggests by its position at the very end of the lyrics.

Main Themes and Contents: the main theme of “Turn Out The Stars” is unmistakeably the loss of

love, failed love, and the resulting feeling of desperation and devaluation, which is reflected by the

apocalyptic scenery which is created throughout the lyrics of “Turn Out The Stars”. The speaker

feels an overwhelming desire for annihilation, for a universal break-down and dissolution of

existence, which is reflected by the imperative tone of the language. The latter creates an effect of

finality, which in turn reflects the apocalyptic scenery and destructive desires of the speaker:

imperative forms such as “turn out the stars“, “let there be night“ and “let it be done“ convey the

notion of finality. Existence is devaluated, life’s value is denied, the speaker suggests that life is

worthless without the person the speaker loves (“let eternal darkness hide me / if I can’t have you

beside me”, lines 3-4). Just as it was the case in the formerly analysed traditional jazz standard

“Speak Low”, also in “Turn Out The Stars” the topic of love is rendered in a more sophisticated and

intricate, subtle way, effectuated by the use of more complex rhetorical devices which results in a

higher degree of lyrical and poetic character. This has not always been the case, since popular music

has been criticized for its consistent delivery of a distorted and romanticized image of love and

sexuality and for its misrepresentation of authentic human relationships (cf. Frith 1989: 80, 88). In

the case of “Turn Out The Stars”, the strength and metaphorical nature of the lyrics convey a

profound deepness of emotion. Due to this emotional profundity of its contents and intricate lyrical

character, “Turn Out The Stars”, as it is already a late specimen of traditional jazz standards, already

introduces a certain new current of modernity and progressive, innovative direction of new maturity

into jazz music.

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4.3.2.3. “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most” (1955) – Words by Fran Landesman,

Music by Tommy Wolf

1 Once I was a sentimental thing (a)

2 Threw my heart away each spring (a)

3 Now a spring romance (b)

4 Hasn't got a chance (b)

5 Promised my first dance to winter (c)

6 All I've got to show's a splinter (c)

7 For my little fling (a)

8 Spring this year has got me feeling (a)

9 Like a horse that never left the post (d)

10 I lie in my room (e)

11 Staring up at the ceiling (a)

12 Spring can really hang you up the most (d)

13 Morning's kiss wakes trees and flowers (f)

14 And to them I'd like to drink a toast (d)

15 But I walk in the park (g)

16 Just to kill the lonely hours (f)

17 Spring can really hang you up the most (d)

18 All afternoon the birds twitter-twitt (h)

19 I know the tune. This is love, this is it (h)

20 Heard it before (i)

21 And don't I know the score (i)

22 And I've decided that spring is a bore (i)

23 Love seems sure around the new year (j)

24 Now it's April. Love is just a ghost (d)

25 Spring arrived on time (k)

26 Only what became of you, dear? (j)

27 Spring can really hang you up the most (d)

28 Spring can really hang you up the most (d)

29 Love came my way. I thought it would last (l)

30 We had our day, now it's all in the past (l)

31 Spring came along, a season of song (m)

32 Full of sweet promise (n)

33 But something went wrong (m)

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34 Doctors once prescribed a tonic (o)

35 Sulfur and molasses was the dose (d)

36 Didn't help one bit (h)

37 My condition must be chronic (o)

38 Spring can really hang you up the most (d)

39 All alone, the party is over (p)

40 Old man winter was a gracious host (d)

41 But when you keep praying (a)

42 For snow to hide the clover (p)

43 Spring can really hang you up the most (d)

(Source: “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most“. Genius. [Online]. https://genius.com/Fran-landesman-tommy-

wolf-spring-can-really-hang-you-up-the-most-lyrics. [2016, April 16])

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): the rhyme scheme of the lyrics in question can

be represented by the following chronology of letters: aabbcca adead fdgfd hhiii jdkjdd llmnm

odhod pdapd. It is remarkable that in most stanzas, except for the first, the fourth and the sixth, the

first line always rhymes with the fourth one in a full rhyme (“feeling”-“ceiling”, “flowers”-“hours”,

“year”-“dear”, “tonic”-“chronic”, “over”-“clover”), always enclosing two non-rhyming lines (e.g.

fdgfd or odhod). However, in said stanzas additionally the second line continuously rhymes with the

last line (“spring can really hang you up the most”), which due to its identical repetition at the end

of most stanzas and its prominent position as the title phrase is considered the refrain or hook line.

Thus, every stanza except the first, fourth and sixth one contains a pair of full rhymes comprising

the second and the last line, resulting in combinations such as “post”-“most”, “dose”-“most”,

“toast”-“most”, “ghost”-“most”. The ‘adead’-structure, as it is found in most stanzas of the lyrics in

question, can be considered a special form of crossed rhyme, since there is only one solitary line

between the crossed rhymes, otherwise it would be a regular ‘adad’ crossed rhyme pattern. Thus,

the rhyme scheme in “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most” is definitely based on a certain

regulated pattern, and this pattern slightly indicates a cyclic structure, since the first rhyme finds its

‘way back to’ its correspondent in the fourth line, and the same is true for the second and last line of

the various stanzas. This cyclic structure could be symbolic for the continuous cycle of seasons,

which in turn symbolizes the circle of life.

Imagery, Symbolism, rhetorical figures: It is significant that the beginning of the second stanza is

marked by the word ‘spring’, which plays with the notion and symbolic meaning of ‘new

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beginning’ which is conventionally attributed to spring. There is an explicit simile in the second

stanza: ‘like a horse that never left the post’, which is a strong metaphor at the same time. In

addition to the latter, an explicit metaphor for love can be found in the fourth stanza (line 19), where

love is equalized with a bird’s tune in the phrase: “I know the tune. This is love, this is it“.

Furthermore, there are numerous personifications of abstract entities such as winter, love and

morning (e.g. “Old man winter“ in the last stanza, “love seems sure around the new year“ and “love

is just a ghost“ in the fifth stanza, “Love came my way“ in the sixth stanza and also “morning’s kiss

wakes trees and flowers“ in the third stanza). ‘To kill the lonely hours’ is an idiomatic expression

and at the same time it is essentially a personification of hours, since one can only kill living things.

The above named personifications are partly supported by an adequate spelling, which reinforces

the personified character of the abstract concept in question (e.g. “Love came my way“, where a

capital ‘L’ is used intentionally). Moreover, “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most” contains a

neologism in the form of the word ‘twitter-twitt’, which is an expression where the meaning can be

guessed at easily (thus, it is no barbarism), but which is still a word creation. Moreover, there is an

implicit alliteration in line 37, contained in the phrase “my condition must be chronic“. This phrase

supports the general theme of the lyrics, which essentially deal with inner restlessness and the

strong feeling of longing due to a lack of love. A reflection of this restlessness and inner conflict

and tumult could be found in the great density and number of words, and in the versatility of their

sounds: already the title phrase, which is repeated continuously throughout the lyrics (“spring can

really hang you up the most“) contains many words of different phonetic sounds and distinct vowels

and consonants, which could be considered symbolic for the inner restlessness which is plaguing

the speaker. Alternatively, it could also reflect the multi-faceted character of seasonal change.

Furthermore, the key phrase in question is also significant due to the personification of the abstract

notion of spring it contains. In the present lyrics, the concept of spring is treated as something

which can “hang you up”, which in this context is a colloquial expression for deceiving or

disappointing someone. This phrase, therefore, is very cleverly used as a catchy title which

frequently reoccurs throughout the lyrics, due to its unusual excessive length and its partly

contained colloquial language and personification of the abstract notion of spring. Concerning the

linguistic style it is significant that the lyrics in question consist of a great amount of text, which is

rich in metaphorical and poetic language. Furthermore, it becomes apparent already in the title that

common clichés are handled and employed in an unusual and unconventional way. This feature is

indeed a striking one in the present lyrics: the cliché of ‘spring’ as a symbol for ‘new love’ and ‘new

beginning’ is broken and applied in an antithetical way by depicting spring as an unhappy season of

stagnation and deception. The first indication of this becomes present in the title, where the phrase

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“spring can really hang you up the most” already foreshadows the unconventional negative and

destructive meaning spring will be given in the lyrics. In other words, the lyricist openly mocks and

challenges the commonly used cliché of spring as a benevolent and beautiful season, by

deconstructing and demystifying it. It is no longer a symbol of love or new beginning, but portrayed

as a season which brings failure, stagnation, boredom and loneliness instead. This makes the lyrics

in question a somewhat rebellious and unconventional specimen of traditional jazz lyrics.

Main Themes and Contents: The key theme of the lyrics in question is, as has already been

mentioned in the previous section, the inner restlessness and loneliness which one endures while

desperately waiting for love, and the resentment for past relationships which have failed. As has

been mentioned above, spring is not used as a symbol for a new and fresh beginning and the gradual

growing of a new love but as a symbol for stagnation, deception or lack of fulfillment. This is

certainly a novel and uncommon way to deal with the notion of spring in lyrics, which is normally

used to symbolize the advent of a new love and romance. Thus, “Spring Can Really Hang You Up

The Most” creates an antithesis to the conventional symbolic meaning of spring.

4.3.2.4. “Angel Eyes” (1946) - Words by Earl Brent, Music by Matt Dennis

1 Have you ever had the feeling (a)

2 That the world's gone and left you behind (b)

3 Have you ever had the feeling (a)

4 That you're that close to losing your mind (b)

5 You look around each corner (c)

6 Hoping that she's there (d)

7 You try to play it cool perhaps (e)

8 Pretend that you don't care (d)

9 But it doesn't do a bit of good (f)

10 You got to seek till you find (b)

11 Or you never unwind (b)

12 Try to think (g)

13 That love is not around (h)

14 Still it's uncomfortably near (i)

15 My old heart (j)

16 Ain't gaining no ground (h)

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17 Because my angel eyes ain't here (i)

18 Angel eyes (j)

19 That old devil sent (k)

20 They glow unbearably bright (l)

21 Need I say (m)

22 That my love's misspent (k)

23 Misspent with angel eyes tonight (l)

24 So drink up all you people (m)

25 Order anything you see (n)

26 Have fun you happy people (m)

27 The drink and the laugh's on me (n)

28 Pardon me (n)

29 But I gotta run (o)

30 The fact's uncomfortably clear (i)

31 Gotta find (b)

32 Who's now number one (o)

33 And why my angel eyes ain't here (i)

34 Tell me why my angel eyes ain't here (i)

35 Excusez moi my angel eyes ain't here (i)

36 Excuse me while I disappear (i)

(Source: “Angel Eyes”. Sting. [Online]. http://www.sting.com/discography/lyrics/lyric/song/90 [2016, April 16])

(Source: “Angel Eyes”. Jazzstandards. [Online]. http://jazzstandards.com/compositions-0/angeleyes.htm) [2016, April

16])

Formal aspects: The rhyme scheme of the lyrics in question is regular and appears in the following

pattern: abab cded fbb ghijhi jklmkl mnmn noiboiiii. The first and the sixth stanza are pure crossed

rhymes, whereby (a) and (m) constitute identical rhymes and (b) and (n) constitute full rhymes.

Similar to “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most”, most of the stanzas, except for the third

one, follow either a classical crossed rhyme scheme (first and sixth stanza) or a certain variant of it,

e.g. ‘ghijhi’ or ‘jklmkl’, where the second line rhymes with the fifth line and the third with the sixth,

resulting in an intermittent crossed rhyme where only one line is inserted between the crossing

rhymes (e.g. jklmkl). Furthermore, there is the variant ‘cded’ (second stanza), where only the

second and the fourth line constitute a rhyming pair, or ‘fbb’ where (b) again occurs as a full rhyme.

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Imagery, Symbolism, rhetorical figures: one of the most eminent rhetorical figures already appears

in the first verse line, namely a personification of the abstract concept love (“love is not around“)

and of heart (“my old heart is gaining no ground“). Similar personifications have already appeared

in other jazz lyrics analyzed in the course of this study, namely for example the personification of

the body part ‘feet’ in “Rhythm-A-Ning” or the personification of ‘love’ in “Spring Can Really

Hang You Up The Most”. Furthermore, there is the repetition of the word ‘misspent’, which marks

the ending of line 22 and is also put at the beginning of line 23, resulting in the rhetorical figure of

an anadiplosis. However, it is an unusual word to be highlighted, since it has a thoroughly negative

connotation and has an odd sound or character. The emphasis of such a negative and phonetically

obstructive word adds to the general mystic and negative, eery mood which the lyrics emit. There is

an oxymoronic relationship between the two opposite concepts of ‘devil’, which is mentioned in the

first line of the second stanza, and ‘angel’, which appears in the subsequent line (18-19). Two

exactly opposite principles are brought together in immediate sequence and thus constitute an

oxymoron. Moreover, there is an alliteration in line 32, contained in the phrase: “who’s now number

one“, giving weight to the penultimate phrase. The last verse line contains a gallicism, or a loan

word borrowed from French, which takes on the form of excusez moi, which might be placed there

intentionally to highlight the strange and unclear, somewhat blurry mood the song creates.

Main Themes and Contents: The general mood in “Angel Eyes” is dissatisfaction, deception and

disappointment which has issued from unrequited love or simply lack of love. The contents of the

lyrics seem intricate at first sight and the main theme appears to be more covert, obstructed and less

concrete than in other traditionaljazz lyrics. This appearance is owed amongst others to the cryptic

language which results in a mystic, mysterious and darkish mood. The impression of eeriness is

reinforced not only by the minor mode the music is written in but also by the numerous words and

concepts which suggest dark and evil principles, like “devil” or “misspent”. The image of “angel

eyes” which are observant, vigilant, but actually soft and benevolent, radiates a mystic and candid

atmosphere which suffuses the whole lyrics. However, the theme of the lyrics in question is

essentially the overcoming of a deceived relationship, the escape from the memory of a former

lover by which the speaker is haunted. It appears that the speaker is haunted by the image and the

memory of his or her former lover’s eyes, which he/she calls “angel eyes”, while desperately

wanting to overcome this bad memory and striving to find a new lover (“gotta find / who’s now

number one”, line 31-32). It is significant that the sixth stanza (line 24-27) is suddenly played in

major chords, which supports the altered character of the contents, which suddenly shifts towards a

positive setting. Correspondingly, the music acquires a more positive and happy sound which

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correlates with the hedonistic Dionysian scenery of drinking, pronouncing toasts and directing one’s

attention to the good sides of life. The phrase “Excuse me while I disappear“ (line 36) at the end of

the lyrics supports the fact that the song will now come to a close and slowly fade out. It also

corresponds to the notion of an angel, since angels are mystic and metaphysical creatures which

appear and disappear or fade away. The mystic and eery sound, purported amongst other factors by

the minor mode the music is held in, also relates to the concept of an angel, which is basically a

paranormal and metaphysical creature, thus, the sound of the music supports the text, or more

precisely the metaphysical, somewhat mystic notion of ‘Angel Eyes’, which is the main subject of

the lyrics.

4.3.2.5. “Blame It On My Youth” (1934) – Words by Edward Heyman, Music by Oscar

Levant

1 If I expected love (a)

2 When first we kissed (b)

3 Blame it on my youth (c)

4 If only just for you (c)

5 I did exist (b)

6 Blame it on my youth (c)

7 I believed in everything (d)

8 like a child of three (e)

9 You meant more than anything (d)

10 all the world to me (e)

11 If you were on my mind (f)

12 All night and day (g)

13 Blame it on my youth (c)

14 If I forgot to eat (h)

15 and sleep and pray (g)

16 Blame it on my youth (c)

17 If I cried a little bit (h)

18 when first I learned the truth (c)

19 Don’t blame it on my heart (i)

20 blame it on my youth. (c)

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(Source: The New Real Book 1988: 22)

Formal Aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): the rhyme scheme of “Blame It On My Youth”

is easily determinable, since it follows a regular pattern: abc cbc dede fgc hgc hcic. Most rhymes

are full, such as “kissed“-“exist“ (line 2, 5), “everything“-“anything“ (line 7, 9), “three“-“me“ (line

8, 19), “day“-“pray“ (line 12, 15) or “truth“-“youth“ (line 18, 20). However, there are also two

imperfect rhymes consisting of the words “you“ and “youth“ (line 4, 6) and “eat“-“bit“ (line 14,

17).

Imagery, Symbolism, Rhetorical Figures: there is a clear anaphorical structure due to the fact that

the word “if“ is repeated at the beginning of the respective first lines of the first, second, fourth,

fifth and sixth stanza. Furthermore, there is a repetition of the title phrase “blame it on my youth” at

the end of the same stanzas (all stanzas except for the third). There are other significant rhetorical

figures in “Blame It On My Youth”, such as the alliteration “meant more” in line 9, the simile “like

a child of three“ in line 8, and the oxymoron “night and day“ (line 12). Moreover, there is an

occasional alternation of the subject: the first person singular pronoun ‘I’ is sometimes replaced by

the second person singular pronoun ‘you’, which was also found in the contemporary jazz standard

“Boogie Down” analysed in the course of this study. This ‘I’-‘You’ alternation also constitutes an

oxymoron since it brings together two distinct and opposed principles (in this case, persons) and it

is also a typical feature of the ‘dialogue of courtship’ theme (cf. Horton 2004: 173). The title phrase

is not only repeated at several neuralgic points of the lyrics, but it is also emphasized by means of

an antithesis of the title, which occurs at the end of the lyrics: “Don’t Blame it on my heart / blame

it on my youth“ (line 19-20).

Main Themes and Contents: The general theme is fairly profound as it concerns intimate

interhuman relationships but it is not rendered in hyperbolic or citchy, exaggeratedly romantic

language, but in an honest and sincere tone instead. The main subject of the lyrics in question is the

lamentation of a lost love. The speaker seems to justify him-/herself for why the relationship did not

last and finds the reason in his/her young age and lack of experience. Thus, we can again define the

general theme as an instance of the ‘dialogue of courtship’, in the sense of a drama of relationships

and dysfunctional and lost loves.

4.3.2.6. “Speak Low” (1943) - Words by Ogden Nash, Music by Kurt Weill

1 Speak Low, (a)

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2 when you speak, love, (a)

3 Our summer day withers away (b)

4 too soon, too soon; (c)

5 Speak low, (a)

6 when you speak, love, (a)

7 Our moment is swift, like ships a-drift (d)

8 we’re swept away too soon. (c)

9 Speak Low, (a)

10 darling, speak low, (a)

11 love is a spark lost in the dark (e)

12 too soon, too soon; (c)

13 I feel (f)

14 wherever I go, (a)

15 that tomorrow is near, tomorrow is here (g)

16 and always too soon. (c)

(Source: The New Real Book 1988: 432)

(Source: “Speak Low”. jazzstandards. [Online]. http://jazzstandards.com/compositions-1/speaklow.htm [2017, Feb 8])

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): the lyrics in question follow a regular rhyme

scheme: aabc aadc aaec fagc. An imperfect rhyme closes the first two lines of the first and second

stanza (“low” – “love”). Within line three, there is an internal full rhyme constituted by the words

“day“ and “away“ (“our summer day, withers away”) and similarly, in line seven an internal rhyme

formed by “swift“ – “a-drift“ occurs. The same is true for line eleven (“spark“ – “dark“) and line

fifteen, where an internal full rhyme is formed by “near“ – “here“. The last stanza starts with a

different phrase: “I feel” replaces the hitherto always used “Speak low” at the beginning of the first

line of a stanza. This marks the climax of the lyrics, the entry of the last and concluding stanza.

There is no rhyme between the first and the second line of the last stanza (“feel” – “go”), as

opposed to the former stanzas, where “low” always rhymed in an imperfect way with “love”. This

change in rhyme quality and the obliteration of the title phrase “Speak low” as the initial phrase of

the last stanza marks the climax and the last cycle of four lines which leads towards the end of the

form. Another noticeable rhyme is the rhyme contained in the phrase “too soon”, which is an

assonant rhyme, where the involved words share the same vowel quality but have different

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consonants. Furthermore, it is remarkable that the phrase “too soon” closes every stanza, and thus

constitutes an identical rhyme across the boundaries of the four stanzas of “Satin Doll”.

Imagery, Symbolism, rhetorical figures: “Speak Low” contains a small set of powerful metaphors,

of which one significant specimen is the phrase “love is a spark lost in the dark” in line eleven. It

clearly equals love with a spark which can easily vanish and become extinct in the dark, thus

suggesting that love is ephemeral, and the effect of this metaphor is enhanced by the included full

rhyme. A similar meaning is conveyed by the next metaphor, which is contained in the phrase “our

summer day, withers away” (line three). “Summer day” is a metaphor for the relationship between

the speaker and the adressee, the time spent together or the shared love in general, and its figurative

meaning becomes especially evident when looking at the possessive pronoun (‘our’) which is

unusual in the same context as the temporal unit ‘day’, and thus suggests meta-linguistic meaning.

“Summer“ as a season, i.e. an element of nature, is used here as a metaphor for a happy, positive

and joyful phase, a symbol for the peak of feelings which one reaches when in love. Similarly, other

seasons have different symbolic character, as some of the subsequent case studies in this paper will

show (cf. “Early Autumn”, “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most”). In line seven the phrase

“our moment is swift, like ships a-drift” can be defined as a simile, since it compares the “moment“,

which again is a metaphor for time spent together in a relationship (cf. “Stolen Moments”), to a ship

which has drifted away. In addition to the metaphors, there are also other rhetorical devices applied

to the lyrics in “Speak Low”: There are numerous repetitions which occur several times throughout

the length of the lyrics, e.g. “too soon“ is repeated at the end of each stanza and in the first and third

stanza is repeated twice within a line. The word “speak” is also repeated numerous times, and thus a

word which represents a substantial part of the title is repeated several times throughout the whole

text, thus enhancing the title phrase’s signification and providing an indication of the key message

of the text. Another repetition concerns the word “tomorrow”, which is repeated twice at the end of

line of fifteen, thus constituting an internal identical rhyme. In general, repetition always stresses

and emphasizes the respective words and their contents and meaning and draws special attention to

them. The fact that the word ‘tomorrow’ is repeated suggests that a special importance is given to

the future, that it is immediate and will remove the present, and in other words that the present is

ephemeral and will be gone soon. Thus, the essential motive is a carpe diem motif, which suggests

that the present moment must be valued and enjoyed because the future will replace it “too soon”.

Main Themes and Contents: “Speak Low” is definitely a specimen of traditional jazz lyrics which

deals with the topic of love in a more profound and poetic way, using strong metaphors, powerful

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similes and also repetitions, which add to the high degree of lyrical, poetic character of the lyrics in

question. In the 1930s, pop songs which were determined for mass culture could be characterized

by their distorted and shallow representation of human emotions purported by unsophisticated

imagery and simplistic language. They were criticized for failing to represent authentic

relationships and potential problems or conflicts which could arise from them, and for distributing

wrong, trite and banal conceptions about love (cf. Frith 1989: 80). This wrong reflection of real

human relationships and related realities, above all, concerned mass culture, but was not purported

by other more alternative musical genres such as folk, blues, gospel or jazz, for that matter (cf. Frith

1989: 80). Thus, it is not surprising that also in “Speak Low”, a jazz standard composed in 1943, the

representation of love strives to be more authentic and realistic. The lyrics of the song in question

actually do reflect real world problems and human struggles by drawing attention to the ephemeral

nature of love. The speaker continually emphasizes the fact that the nature of love is evanescent,

and thus suggests a humble attitude towards love, the importance of appreciating and enjoying it

while it lasts. The phrase “speak low / when you speak, love“ has ambiguous meaning, and can, on

the one hand, be understood as a direct address to the love interest of the speaker, whom he/she

calls “love”, thus constituting an apostrophe, or alternatively it can be interpreted as an invitation to

“speak low” when it comes to talking about love, in which case “speak low” would be understood

as a metaphor for being humble. Thus, the phrase in question constitutes an amphibology, i.e. an

ambiguity which derives from grammar or syntantical aspects (cf. collinsdictionary 2017, online),

but in this case the syntax is marked by a comma, thus the ambiguity is somewhat relieved and

biased towards the variant of direct address.

4.3.2.7. “Detour Ahead” (1947) - Words and Music by Herb Ellis, John Frigo and Lou

Carter

1 Smooth road, clear day (a)

2 But why am I the only one (b)

3 Travelin' this way (a)

4 How strange the road to love (c)

5 Should be so easy (d)

6 Can there be a detour ahead (e)

7 Wake up, slow down (f)

8 Before you crash (g)

9 And break your heart (h)

10 Gullible clown (f)

11 You fool, you're headin' (e)

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12 In the wrong direction (i)

13 Can't you see the detour ahead (e)

14 The further you travel (j)

15 The harder to unravel (j)

16 The web he spins around you (k)

17 Turn back while there is time (l)

18 Can't you see the danger sign (l)

19 Soft shoulders surround you (k)

20 Smooth road, clear night (m)

21 Oh lucky me, that suddenly (n)

22 I saw the light (m)

23 I'm turning back away (a)

24 From all this trouble (o)

25 Smooth road, smooth road (p)

26 No detour ahead (e)

(Source: “Detour Ahead”. Genius [Online]. https://genius.com/Billie-holiday-detour-ahead-lyrics [2016, July 15])

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): the lyrics of “Detour Ahead” follow a regular

rhyme scheme which could be represented as abacde fghfeie jjkllk mnmao pe. There are many full

rhymes, such as “day“-“way“ (line 1, 3), “down“-“clown“ (line 7, 10), “travel“-“unravel” (line 14-

15 and “night“-“light“ (line 20, 22). However, there is also an imperfect rhyme constituted by the

words “time“ and “sign“ (line 17-18), and an internal imperfect rhyme constituted by the word

combination ”lucky me“-“suddenly“ within one line (line 21).

Imagery, Symbolism, Rhetorical Figures: The word which stands at the beginning of the lyrics in

question as initial title word (”detour“) is a symbol for the intricate ways which are involved in the

pursuit of happiness or love, as the lyrics in question seem to suggest. The essential analogy

presented in the lyrics in question is drawn between the pursuit of love or happiness and a road trip,

i.e. the former is depicted metaphorically by the latter. More specifically, the opening phrase

“smooth road, clear day“ (line 1) symbolizes the situation at the beginning of a relationship when

no conflicts or complications are suspected and the partners involved are full of positive

expectations and hope. Evidently, the phrase which opens the next stanza, “wake up, slow down /

before you crash“ (line 7-8) symbolizes the delusion and naiveté and the subsequent tendency to act

in an irrational way (symbolized by the notion of going too fast while driving, suggested by the

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phrase “slow down”), which is often the case when one is in love. The car crash would symbolize

the heartbreak, the failure of the relationship which could follow from an exceedingly fast and

irrational romantic engagement with another person. The same symbolic meaning is shared by the

phrase “you’re headin’ in the wrong direction“ (line 11). The latter can be done while driving on the

road, in a literal sense, and in a figurative sense it can equally be done in matters of interhuman

relationships, where one can set one’s mind on the wrong person or pursue the wrong idea or

illusion of a relationship. “The web he spins around you“ (line 16) is clearly a metaphor for the act

of seducing someone, or rather deceiving someone by seductive behaviour and also trapping

someone into one’s field of dominance. The phrase “clear day” in the first stanza symbolizes the

hopeful and expectant feeling of the speaker concerning his/her relationship, but this turns into a

notion of insecurity, doubt and lack of safety in the fourth stanza symbolized by the word ‘night’

and the general shift of the setting into a nocturnal one. In the nighttime unexpected things can

happen, and the speaker wants to emphasize the fact that the same is true for human relationships or

love. Alternatively, the shift of the general setting into a nocturnal one implied by the word ‘night’

could symbolize the blindness which often befalls those who are in love (“can’t you see the danger

sign”, line 18). However, there is still ‘light’ involved in the fourth stanza, which infuses the night

with hope and expectation and thus the word ‘light’ in “Detour Ahead” acquires its conventional

symbolic meaning as a giver of hope and expectancy. The last stanza offers us the phrase “smooth

road, smooth road“ (line 25), i.e. presents a repetition of the already frequently used phrase “smooth

road”, suggesting that the dangers which could have potentially threatened the relationship of the

speaker and his/her love interest have eventually not set in and that everything is alright again,

metaphorically symbolized by a smooth road without obstacles and other disturbances. In addition

to the metaphors and symbols presented above there is also an abundance of other rhetorical devices

in “Detour Ahead”: the third stanza contains an anaphora, constituted by the word “the” which

stands at the beginning of three consecutive lines. Another striking rhetorical device is the use of

ellipses at the beginning of stanza one, two, and four (“smooth road, clear day”, “wake up, slow

down”, “smooth road, clear night”). Similarly, the incoherent phrase “gullible clown“ in line 10

constitutes an ellipsis in the context of its line, where it is inserted as an isolated syntactic element

which does not constitute a full sentence on its own. Furthermore, in line 19 there is an alliteration:

“soft shoulders surround”. The last phrase is an exact negation of the title: “Detour Ahead” is turned

into “No detour ahead”, thus, the last line offers an ultimate antithesis to the the title.

Main Themes and Contents: The general theme of “Detour Ahead” is the ways of love symbolized

by a road trip as an analogy to love’s progress or development. The text suggests that it is highly

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possible and probable to encounter detours (as a metaphor for problems, conflicts, deviations) on

one’s path towards a relationship or love, or while one is in a relationship. It conveys the feeling of

easiness and naiveté which is conventionally associated with people in love and the blindness and

inability to criticize or question the relationship. However, in the end, the speaker acknowledges the

warning signs or perceives the danger, and recoils in order to avoid the “detour ahead”, i.e. the

potential problems, conflicts or failure of the relationship. The communication form in “Detour

Ahead” is essentially a monologue. Despite the fact that there is at first a subject identified as ‘I’,

which in the second stanza changes to ‘You’, the speaker continually remains the same, but only

refers to him-/herself in two distinct ways. Thus, the present lyrics do not contain the typical

‘dialogue of courtship’ feature of a direct address by the speaker towards the love interest (cf.

Horton 2004: 173), despite the involvement of two different personal pronouns, which in this case

represent the same subject (the speaker) in two different ways rather than the speaker and his/her

love interest.

4.3.2.8. “The Nearness Of You” (1937) – Words by Ned Washington, Music by Hoagy

Carmichael

1 It's not the pale moon that excites me (a)

2 That thrills and delights me, (a)

3 oh no, it's just the nearness of you (b)

4 It isn't your sweet conversation (c)

5 That brings this sensation, (c)

6 oh no, it's just the nearness of you (b)

7 When you're in my arms (d)

8 and I feel you so close to me (a)

9 All my wildest dreams come true (b)

10 I need no soft lights to enchant me (a)

11 If you'll only grant me the right (e)

12 To hold you ever so tight (e)

13 And to feel in the night (e)

14 the nearness of you (b)

(Source: “The Nearness of You”. Lyricsmode. [Online].

http://www.lyricsmode.com/lyrics/h/hoagy_carmichael/the_nearness_of_you.html [2016, July 15])

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Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): The rhyme scheme of “The Nearness Of You”

is very regular and can be represented by the following letters: aab ccb dab aeeeb. The rhymes are

exclusively of the full and the identical type, e.g. “conversation”-“sensation” (line 4-5), “right“-

“tight“-“night“ (line 11-13), “you“ – “true“ (line 6, 9), which are representative of the full rhymes,

and “me“-“me“ (line 1-2) which is representative of the identical type.

Imagery, Symbolism, Rhetorical Figures: A classic antithesis lies at the beginning of each stanza:

“it’s not the pale moon that excites me” (line 1), “it isn’t your sweet conversation” (line 4), “I need

no soft lights to enchant me” (line 10), where two elements are opposed to each other and the

negative one is stressed in order to render the principal idea (contained in the phrase “it’s just the

nearness of you”) more striking. Moreover, a cliché is contained in the phrase “dreams come true“

(line 9). The title provides a rare and unnatural application of the noun “nearness“ (“the nearness of

you”). Normally the word ‘near’ is used as an adjective. However, in the case of the present lyrics it

is turned into a noun and thus given more weight and a greater impact and importance. Furthermore,

some significant natural elements are used as images (“pale moon”, “soft lights”), a common

feature of many specimens of lyrics analysed for this study (e.g. “Early Autumn”, “Spring Can

Really Hang You Up The Most”, “Turn Out The Stars”, “Speak Low”, etc.). However, the cliché

character of the present lyrics is reduced and diminished by the poetic and aesthetically enriching

rhetorical figures which occur intermittently throughout the text, such as antitheses and poetic

images of natural elements.

Main Themes and Contents: The setting implied by the lyrics in question is a nocturnal one, which

conveys the notion of intimacy and sensuality, which is also implied by the title “the nearness of

you“. Thus, the nocturnal setting in which the action of the lyrics is embedded clearly supports the

main theme and the image conveyed by the title (nearness and intimacy), which is the basic

recurring motif of the lyrics. Furthermore, the theme of the ‘dialogue of courtship’ is addressed by

the lyrics in question, again taking on the form of a lovestruck speaker who addresses his/her love

interest (cf. Horton 2004: 173).

4.3.2.9. “Satin Doll” (1953) – Lyrics by Johnny Herndon Mercer and Billy Strayhorn, Music

by Duke Ellington

1 Cigarette Holder which wigs me (a)

2 Over her shoulder, she digs me, (a)

3 Out cattin’, that Satin Doll. (b)

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4 Baby shall we go out skippin’, (c)

5 careful, amigo, you’re flippin’, (c)

6 Speaks Latin, that Satin Doll. (b)

7 She’s nobody’s fool, so I’m playin’ it cool as can be, (a)

8 I’ll give it a whirl, but I ain’t for no girl catching me (Switch e-rooney) (a)

9 Telephone numbers, wee, you know, (d)

10 Doing my rhumbas with uno, (d)

11 And that’n’ my Satin Doll. (b)

(Sources: The New Real Book 1988: 308)

(cf. Gioia 2012: 359 – 360)

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): The rhyme scheme of “Satin Doll” is very

regular and follows the pattern aab ccb aa ddb. The first two lines of every stanza are ended by full

rhymes, except for the first stanza (line 1-3), where the first two lines are closed by an identical

rhyme (“me”), and where, however, the penultimate words build a full rhyme (“wigs” – “digs”).

There are internal full rhymes in the third line of every stanza (“cattin’“ – “Satin“, “Latin“ –

“Satin“, “that’n’“ –“Satin“). A certain significance is attributed to the word “Satin”, since it already

occurs in the title and also reoccurs as the hook line at the end of every stanza, and is furthermore

supported by the internal rhyme with the formerly mentioned words. Moreover, there are also

internal full rhymes in the third stanza (line 7-8): “fool“ – “cool“, “whirl“ – “girl“, and the

respective lines additionally end in terminal full rhyme (“be” – “me”).

Imagery, Symbolism, Tropes: One of the mosts eminent rhetorical features applied in “Satin Doll”

is the use of colloquialisms and slang words. The colloquial character of the words is often

demonstrated and highlighted in written form by the use of apocopes (“cattin’”, “flippin”,

“skippin’”, “playin’” etc.). The spectrum of slang expressions taken out of U.S. American spoken

language and applied in “Satin Doll” is fairly wide: “rhumbas“, “cattin’“, ”which wigs me“, “she

digs me”. In order to interpret some of these expressions correctly it was necessary to consult an

American Dictionary which provided the possible meanings of the colloquial slang expressions in

question. According to the Collins Dictionary of American English, the word ‘wig’ used as a

transitive verb is a slang word used in the U.S. to express the notion of making someone crazy,

excited or ecstatic (cf. collinsdictionary 2016, online). Alternately, it can mean upsetting or

annoying someone. In the context of the lyrics in question the former meaning is probably true,

since the speaker apparently is getting excited over a woman holding a cigarette and looking at

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him/her intently. To ‘dig’ is also a specimen of U.S. American slang words in the specific context of

these lyrics, if it is interpreted as a transitive verb expressing ‘to understand’, ‘to approve of or like’

or ‘to notice’ respectively ‘to look at’ (cf. Collinsdictionary 2017). In the context of the present

lyrics several of these meanings could be adequate, since in combination with the phrase “over my

shoulder“, “she digs me“ could mean that the female individual in question becomes aware of the

speaker by looking over her shoulder and immediately likes or approves of his/her appearance, or

comprehends his/her intentions. In the third line, the word “cattin’” is a variant of the slang phrase

‘to cat around’, which is used in the U.S. to express the notion of being on the look-out for a sexual

partner in a promiscuous way, or practicing promiscuity (cf. collinsdictionary 2016, online). At the

latest at this point the notion of promiscuity and female seduction is introduced into the lyrics of

“Satin Doll”. The word “skippin’” according to the Collins Dictionary of American English can

have several meanings but always suggests a certain light-footed, hopping movement, which is

probably meant in the case of the present lyrics as a metaphor for promiscuity, for being imprudent

and “easy to get”. An alternative meaning for “skippin’” used in an informal way would be to

escape in a hurried way under suspicious circumstances (cf. collinsdictionary 2016, online).

Similarly, the word “flippin’” is ambiguous, since it could, amongst others, suggest quick and jerky

movement, but in the case of the present lyrics adapts the meaning it conveys in a U.S. American

slang context, namely to become excited, mad or ecstatic as a result of losing self-control, which

fits into the context of these lyrics (cf. collinsdictionary 2016, online). The word amigo in line five

is a loan word from Spanish. Another colloquial slang expression which occurs in the U.S.

American slang context is the phrase ‘to give something a whirl’ (line eight), which according to the

Cambridge Dictionary means to attempt something for the first time or to give something a try (cf.

dictionary.cambridge 2017, online). These slang expressions and colloqualisms mostly used in a

U.S. American linguistic and cultural context clearly mark the lyrics of “Satin Doll” and constitute

the most outstanding stylistic and rhetorical characteristic of the lyrics in question. In addition to

these U.S. American slang words, the word “uno” is probably a colloquial and abbreviative form for

“you know”.

Main Themes and Contents: The protagonist of the lyrics of “Satin Doll” is a woman who is

portrayed as object of desire of the speaker, who reveals a predominantly male perspective by

projecting his sexual thoughts and desires on the woman. This woman soon gets depicted as a

promiscuous femme fatale, a libertine and seductive woman who pursues a hedonistic way of life.

The notion of her seductive aura is supported by the revelation that she is apparently an exotic

woman (“speaks Latin”, line six), which emphasizes her sexual attraction. The lyrics portray the

woman in question as one who is interested in “catting around”, i.e. in seducing men to be her

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sexual partners, and thus ascribing her a certain independence, which was conventionally only

reserved for men. However, at the same time the woman in question is described as a “satin doll”,

and thus portrayed as a void object, a non - human object of lust, a merely physical area of

projection for male desire, deprived of any humanity and spirit. The message which is conveyed

here, thus, is that promiscuous women’s value only lies in their bodies and that women who pursue

this kind of hedonistic lifestyle are ‘easy’ and can merely serve as ‘toys’, or more specifically,

‘dolls’ for men to play with. Thus, an outward sexism can be detected in the lyrics of “Satin Doll”,

which can be considered a reflection of the predominating views and perspectives on the value of

women of the times of their production. According to Goddard, Fudger and Pollock, lyrics have

always been a powerful and significant vehicle to demonstrate and propagate the notion about

femininity valid at a given period (cf. Goddard et al. 1977: 143, cited in Frith 1989: 81). In this

context we can understand the lyrics of “Satin Doll” as a sort of ‘anti-feminist propaganda’, which

was frequently purported via lyrics and reflected a decisive male perspective in a system of deep

rigid patriarchal structures. According to Goddard, Fudger and Pollock, lyrics of all times are able

to reflect, purport and propagate the feminine ideal, the image of the ideal femininity which women

were supposed to correspond and adhere to at the respective times (cf. Goddard et al. 1977: 143,

cited in Frith 1989: 81). Likewise, lyrics, such as those in “Satin Doll”, are also able to demonstrate

the image of a ‘wrong’ type of woman, namely the promiscuous, sexually open and voracious,

‘easy’ and independent woman. This type of woman also occasionally becomes the subject in lyrics

(cf. “Satin Doll” and “Sticky Wicket”) and represents one of the prototypical depictions of

femininity. While mediating (pseudo-)ideal images of women, lyrics such as “Satin Doll”) use a

strategy which is clearly anti-feminist. The relationship portrayed between the speaker and the

addressee (the speaker’s object of desire) clearly lacks profundity and tenderness, but abounds in

desire and sexually laden attraction. This is reflected by the continuous reference to the addressee in

the third person singular (“she”), which runs counter to the conventional direct address between

speaker and love interest in the ‘dialogue of courtship’ (cf. Horton 2004: 173). The indirect address

implies a more distanced and emotionally detached connection between the characters involved,

which in fact corresponds to the nature of the mere physical, sexual connection which takes place

between addressee and speaker in “Satin Doll”.

4.3.2.10. “Rhythm - A - Ning” (1957) – Words by Jon Hendricks, Music by Thelonious

Monk

1 Some folks dance and others sing (a)

2 Others find some way to swing (a)

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3 Thelonious can do that (b)

4 You listen to this cat (b)

5 It's a dance, your feet approve (c)

6 You can make your body move (c)

7 Thelonious can do that (b)

8 You listen to this cat (b)

9 You don't have to know how (d)

10 Just be like a loose goose (e)

11 You want me to show how (d)

12 Then you got to turn your body loose (e)

13 Some cats swing and others don't (f)

14 Don't you be the kind that won't (f)

15 Thelonious can do that (b)

16 You listen to this cat (b)

(Source: “Rhythm-A-Ning”. Googledocs. [Online]. https://docs.google.com/document/d/1E86yLu852PkW-

H11XVc3b84bnHJf7BFvMTyqO4oC7BE/edit [2016, May 5])

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): “Rhythm-A-Ning” follows a straight and

regular rhyme scheme, which can be represented as follows: aabb ccbb dede ffbb. Similarly, when it

comes to the type of rhymes, the lyricist Jon Hendricks was straightforward by using almost

exclusively regular full rhymes. Additionally, there are three internal rhymes: “loose goose” (line

10), “know how” (line 9) and “show how” (line 11), whereby the latter two rhymes additionally are

eye rhymes.

Imagery, Symbolism, rhetorical figures: There are a few outstanding rhetorical devices applied in

“Rhythm-A-Ning” which deserve closer attention. First of all, the title is an instance of a significant

rhetorical figure, namely that of a neologism. “Rhythm-A-Ning” is the creation of a verb to

represent the performing of the legendary chord progression ‘Rhythm Changes’, which the song in

question is also based on. The chord progression named ‘Rhythm Changes’ is highly significant in

jazz music and has been popular since its first occurrence in George Gershwin’s “I Got Rhythm”

(1930) (cf. Gioia 2012: 343, 345). This emblematic harmonic progression derives its name from

George Gershwin’s composition “I Got Rhythm”, which was the first work in jazz literature to be

based on this typical and frequently used chord progression (cf. Gioia 2012: 343). Similarly, the title

of “Rhythm-A-Ning” also evidently refers back to the title of Gershwin’s classic “I Got Rhythm”

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and the famous chord progression ‘Rhythm Changes’ which resulted from it. Thus, in the case of

“Rhythm-A-Ning”, the title phrase bears an explicit intertextual reference to another important

work of the jazz canon. In addition to this intertextuality, the title already conveys the information

that the subsequent song it entitles is based on “rhythm changes” and that the composer by writing

it, or the musicians, by playing it, are essentially ‘rhythmning’ respectively ‘rhythm-a-ning’. The

title thus represents a new word creation which refers to the action of ‘doing’ rhythm changes. This

was not unusual for Thelonious Monk, who included intertextual reference to other, often older and

essential classic works in many of his compositions (cf. Gioia 2012: 343). Furthermore, the lyrics in

question contain another significant reference, namely to the composer of the song in question

himself. In line three, seven and fifteen (“Thelonious can do that / you listen to this cat”) a clear

reference to Thelonious Monk, the composer, is provided. In general, the language is fairly

concrete, unmetaphorical and lacks poetic or sophisticated character. Nevertheless, we find a simile

in line ten: “just be like a loose goose“, whose effect is enhanced by the inclusion of an internal

rhyme. Furthermore, there is a personification of a body part in line five: “your feet approve”. In

this case, the physical body parts feet are given a human faculty, which is the strongest metaphor in

the lyrics in question. This style of relatively concrete and unmetaphorical language is supported by

some significant instances of colloquial expressions, such as “some folks“ or “this cat“, which are

slang words used usually in an informal oral text. The latter expression can be used as a nickname

for a good or virtuous jazz musician and thus again bears a reference to and protagonizes the

composer of the song in question.

Main Themes and Contents: the text of the song in question radiates a certain light-heartedness and

a joyful and hedonistic mood. The setting which is described in the lyrics involves dancing and

movement, listening to live music (“you listen to this cat”) and, thus, an image of wild and

exuberant urban nightlife is created. Thus, there seems to be a clear parallel between the present

lyrics and another composition of the same period, “Satin Doll” by Duke Ellington, which has also

been analysed in this study. They resemble each other strongly in terms of their contents and

themes. Both address topics such as the flourishing dancing and nightlife scene, and thus they

apparently portray a particular cultural reality in the Fifties. Similar to “Satin Doll”, the lyrics of

“Rhythm-A-Ning” lack profundity and complexity, probably purposefully in order to reflect the

strive for a positive, light, joyful and pleasurable world, which was a general acute need in the

Fifties in order to counteract and repress the hardships of the preceding period of war (cf.

Ratzenböck 1985: 177; cf. Gioia 2012: 358-359). Thus, it is not surprising to find lyrics written in

the Fifties, which convey and propose a hedonistic and light-hearted, pleasure-centred lifestyle such

109

as can be found in “Satin Doll” and “Rhythm - A - Ning”. In “Rhythm - A – Ning”, the speaker

requests listeners to ‘loosen up’, get wild and excited and enjoy themselves, suggesting that this

kind of pleasure and exaltation is available to everyone and that everyone is allowed to have fun.

Thus, similarly to “Satin Doll”, “Rhythm-A-Ning” equally celebrates a hedonistic and exalting, life-

approving lifestyle. Related to this life-approving and pleasure-oriented attitude prevailing in

“Rhythm-A-Ning” are also the many references to animality which occur in the piece in question.

Phrases such as “be like a loose goose” or “turn your body loose” and “make your body move”

suggest the notion of animality, which is closely linked to sexuality and carnality. This constitutes

another parallel to the formerly analysed lyrics of “Satin Doll”, which contain decisive hints and

allusions to sexuality or carnal pleasure.

4.3.2.11. “Twisted” (1952) - Words by Annie Ross, Music by Wardell Gray

1 My analyst told me (a)

2 that I was right out of my head, (b)

3the way he described it (c)

4 he said I’d be better dead (b)

5 than live (d)

6 I didn’t listen to his jive, (d)

7 I knew all along (e)

8 he was all wrong, (e)

9 and I knew that he thought (f)

10 I was crazy but I’m not, oh, no. (g)

11 My analyst told me (a)

12 that I was right out of my head. (b)

13 He said I’d need treatment (h)

14 but I’m not that easily led, (b)

15 He said I was the type that was most inclined, (i)

16 When out of his sight to be out of my mind (i)

17 and he thought I was nuts, (j)

18 no more ifs or ands or buts, oh no. (g)

19 They say as a child I appeared a little bit wild with all my crazy ideas, (k)

20 but I knew what was happ’nin’, I knew I was a genius. (l)

21 What’s so strange when you know that you’re a wizard at three? (m)

22 I knew that this was meant to be. (m)

23 Well I hear little children were supposed to sleep tight, (n)

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24 That’s why I drank a fifth of vodka one night. (n)

25 My parents got frantic didn’t know what to do, (o)

26 but I saw some crazy scenes before I came to. (o)

27 Now, do you think I was crazy? (p)

28 I may have been only three but I was swingin’. (q)

29 They all laughed at A. Graham Bell, (r)

30 They all laughed at Edison and also at Einstein, (s)

31 so why should I feel sorry if they couldn’t understand the reasoning and logic that went on in my head? (b)

32 I had a brain, it was insane, (t)

33 Soldiers used to laugh at me when I refused to ride on all those double decker buses (u)

34 All because there was no driver on the top. (v)

35 My analyst told me that I was right out of my head, (b)

36 But I said „Dear Doctor, I think that it’s you instead,“ (b)

37 Cause I have got a thing that’s unique and new. (w)

38 It proves that I’ll have the last laugh on you. (o)

39 Cause instead of one head (b)

40 I got two. (w)

41 and you know two heads are better than one. (x)

(Source: The New Real Book 1988: 375)

Formal aspects (Rhyme Scheme, Metric Structure): In the first two stanzas of “Twisted” the rhyme

scheme is fairly regular and takes on the form of abcbddeefg abhbiijg. From the third stanza

onwards the rhyme scheme becomes increasingly irregular. Most rhymes are full, e.g. “along” –

“wrong” (line 7-8), or “head”- “dead” (line 2 and 4) or “head” – “led”, which are both intermittent

rhymes. Moreover, there are the terminal full rhymes of “inclined” - “mind” in line 15 and 16, and

“tight” – “night” in line 23 and 24. However, there is also a distinct rhyme type, namely an eye

rhyme, in line 5 and 6 (“live” – “jive”), which rhymes according to its spelling but does not do so

when pronounced. The form of the song in question is comparatively long when contrasted with

other traditional jazz standards, which results from its high amount and great variety of text and

lack of text repetitions. Consequently, the lyrics in question, despite their regular rhyme scheme at

the beginning and the resulting inkling of lyrical character, also resemble a narrative, due to their

length, lack of repetition and ‘conversational’ tone.

Imagery, Symbolism, Rhetorical figures: A striking feature of the piece in question is the high

degree of colloquial language, indicated by the frequently occurring apocopes and aphaeresis (e.g.

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‘‘cause’, ‘couldn’t’, ‘happ’nin‘’, ‘swingin’’), and by idiomatic phrases or colloquial expressions

such as “I was right out of my head“, “I’ll have the last laugh on you“ or “I got“ instead of “I have

got”. The general character of the language of the text in question is rather concrete, unmetaphorical

and resembling natural speech than lyrical or poetic. However, despite its general tendency towards

colloquiality, the language of “Twisted” is not entirely natural due to its relatively high quantity of

rhymes, which enhance its poetic quality again. Thus, the present piece resembles modern pieces

such as “I Know You Know” in that it rather resembles the telling of a story than a poem, resulting

from the lack of abstract metaphors or symbolisms and a high amount of text and numerous

colloquialisms instead. Another relevant and effective rhetorical device employed in “Twisted” is

the anticlimactic structure which becomes visible towards the end of the lyrics. In stories very often

a certain climax is reached towards the end and some sort of solution or relieve is presented to the

listener or reader. In “Twisted” however, the opposite takes place: at the beginning one would

expect something to happen at the end, but instead the story disintegrates and falls apart, it leads

towards chaos and confusion. This corresponds to the rhetorical figure of an anticlimax, where a

sudden unexpected turn or twist occurs in the course of a text, or the text suddenly leads to nothing

and ends witout a conclusion, which surprises and confuses the reader who has been prepared for

something more interesting or great (cf. ultius 2017, online). In addition to the above mentioned

colloquialisms and the anticlimactic structure, there are other minor rhetorical devices such as

repetitions (“they all laughed at“ in line 29 and repeated in the subsequent line) or the rhetorical

questions “Now, do you think I was crazy?“ in line 27, “What’s so strange when you know that

you’re a wizard at three?” in line 21, or “so why should I feel sorry if they couldn’t understand the

reasoning and logic that went on in my head?” in line 31.

Main Themes and Contents: As has already been mentioned in the previous section, “Twisted” does

not involve verse repetitions and thus acquires a slightly (oral) narrative character by its coherent

and fairly natural language. In general, this unconventional character also reflects the unusual or

extraordinary, as in ‘out of the ordinary’ or ‘twisted’, character of the mind of the speaker. The

speaker is apparently a person who is mentally disturbed and confused, indicated already explicitly

by the first phrase “my analyst tole me / that I was right out of my head”. Furthermore, there are

also numerous shifts and twists on the content level, the speaker jumps back and forth in his/her

narration, reflected on the langue level by an incoherent structure often without connectors or

linking words. Thus, the twisted and chaotic structure of the contents of the lyrics makes apparent

the unstructured thoughts of the seemingly mentally disturbed speaker, and this in turn is reflected

by the title word “Twisted“. In other words, the disturbed mind of the speaker, his/her madness and

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confusion on the content level, which is already hinted at in the title, is also reflected by the form:

as the text progresses the structure of the lyrics is getting more and more chaotic and increasingly

dissolves, which reflects and supports the notion of madness and chaos which is conveyed by the

lyrics also contentwise. Thus, in “Twisted”, form and contents correlate with each other. The further

the text proceeds, the more the speaker talks her-/himself into a frenzy and becomes increasigly

confused and his/her narration more and more confusing. Similarly, the melody is becoming more

and more topsy-turvy and wild at the end of the song, while it is still fairly straight, clear and

structured at the beginning, which one can witness when the lyrics in question are rendered together

with music in an aural way. At the final phrase the speaker eventually seems to have reached total

craziness and confusion implied by the long and absurd phrase: “Soldiers used to laugh at me when

I refused to ride on all those double decker buses all because there was no driver on the top“, which

comes entirely out of context in the present text and seems to have no semantic relation to the

preceding text. The speaker ends up in an entirely nonsensical state. The madness of the speaker is

furthermore reflected by the great amount of text. The text of “Twisted” is very verbose, caused by

the apparent ‘verbal excess’ of the speaker, and thus the length and density of the text (form)

supports the notion of craziness and eccentricity or mental confusion of the speaker (contents). In

general, the theme of the perturbations of a crazy or mentally disturbed person is a fairly unusal

topic to be treated in lyrics, and especially so in the canon of traditional jazz standards, but the topic

is actually reflective of one of the many tendencies of the mid-20th century. In America of the

twentieth century (especially from the 1920s to the 1960s), psychoanalysis gained increasing

popularity and was fundamental in developing the so-called ‘cult of the self’(cf. Samuel 2013:

xiv).Thus, the lyrics in question reflect cultural currents, tendencies or norms which were

prevailing, valid or popular at the times they were produced in, and thus confirm the above

mentioned ‘reflection theory’, according to which lyrics have the power to reproduce and reflect

societal values, cultural norms and tendencies (cf. Frith 1989: 78).

5. Conclusion

The main objective of the present study was to determine in which specific literary aspects

traditional jazz lyrics differ from or correlate with contemporary ones and how the respective

cultural and socio-historical context of the time of their production is reflected in them. The analysis

in the present study, thus, primarily focussed on the literary component in lyrics, and did not take

into consideration the musical element, despite the indebatable importance of music as a

fundamental constituent in the intermedial product lyrics. It was ascertained in the theoretical part

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of the present study that the objects of investigation, the selected traditional and contemporary jazz

lyrics, were essentially intermedial products, which combined elements of two distinct forms of

media (literature and music) in a phenomenon called ‘covert intermediality’, since not both forms of

media involved in the intermedial product were equally visible and perceptible on its level of

signifiers (cf. Wolf 1999: 42). Lyrics are essentially literary texts, which, however, imitate and

allude to another medium, namely music, and thus can be classified as ‘covert intermedial

products’, where the non-dominant medium (music) is covered and merely ‘suggested’ by the other

dominant and materially present medium (literature), resulting in a hierarchical structure between

the two forms of media involved (cf. Wolf 1999: 42). In other words, the musical elements which

have been modeled on the text in lyrics are merely indirectly perceptible while only the textual

component is materially present, thus lyrics can be classified as covert intermedial products (cf.

Wolf 1999: 42). In addition to this, lyrics are a substantial constituent of a further intermedial

product, namely a vocal song (cf. Wolf 2015: 463). This type of intermedial product can be assigned

to the intracompositional type of intermediality referred to as ‘plurimediality’, or ‘multimediality’,

in Petermann’s terms (cf. Petermann 2014: 17-18), which applies if two distinct media, and thus the

intermediality itself, can be discerned clearly and directly on the surface of the work (cf. Wolf 2015:

463; 1999: 41-42). Thus, lyrics are also involved in the overtly intermedial product ‘vocal song’,

where the media involved are theoretically separable and can be used independently from each

other, by being both equally represented on the superficial level of signifiers of the work and not

submitted to a relation of dominance (cf. Wolf 1999: 41-42). A major argument for lyrics’

intermedial character is that lyrics as pieces of poetry are dependent on an aesthetic context, i.e.

they only evolve their aesthetic and poetic function – become art – when they are rendered in a

specific context (cf. Stacey 1989: 18). In the case of lyrics, this context or frame which renders

possible the evolvement of their aesthetic potential would be music and/or performance (cf. Frith

1989: 90). Thus, more than one medium, i.e. at least one additional medium providing a specific

context to activate lyrics’ aesthetic and poetic nature, must be inarguably and indispensably

involved in lyrics, and therefore they are classified as intermedial products. Another major

argument for lyrics’ intermediality can be found in Werner Wolf’s notion of the comparability of

music and literature, which is an indispensable premise for their intermediality (cf. 1999: 11-22).

The comparability between literature and music enables the translation of elements from one

medium to the other and thus is an obligatory premise for intermedial processes between the two

forms of media in question (cf. Wolf 1999: 15). In the concrete case of an intermedial union of

music and literature this translation would concern, for example, musical structures and components

like rhythm, timbre, multiple voices or instruments, or formal segmentation which are transferred to

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text (cf. Wolf 1999: 15). This translatability of musical elements into text, i.e. the fact that similar

elements can be transferred from one medium into the other, is the reason for the musicality of

lyrics, since lyrics are densely infused by musical structures in order to adapt to the other medium

(music) they combine with (cf. Wolf 1999: 33). In other words, the comparability of music and text

renders possible the ‘musicalization’ of a text, therefore enabling the existence of lyrics, which, in

fact, can inarguably be considered a musicalized text (cf. Wolf 1999: 11, 33). In the entire sample of

selected lyrics analysed in the course of the present study the degree of musicalization was clearly

discernible. An eminent example of a typically musical element applied to the entire sample of jazz

lyrics analysed for this study are the frequently recurring repetitive structures, a technique borrowed

from the medium music and transferred to the literary one. Repetition occurs in all jazz lyrics

analysed for this study, be it in the form of immediate repetition of words or phrases (Salt “so when

life brings a chance, a chance”), or the recurring phrase constituting the title and refrain which is

repeated intermittently throughout the piece (e.g. “Satin Doll”, “Blame It on My Youth”, “The

Nearness Of You”, “Detour Ahead”, “Easy”, “Angel Eyes”, “Boogie Down”, “Just The Two Of

Us”, “Speak Low”, “The Girl In The Other Room”, “Sticky Wicket”, “Blizzard Of Lies”, “Rhythm-

A-Ning”, “Spring Can Really Hang You Up The Most”, “Turn Out The Stars”, “Salt”, “I Know You

Know”, “Let Me Be The One”, “The Island”, “Early Autumn”). Another exemplary instance of

repetition which occurred in numerous specimens of jazz lyrics analysed for the present study is the

anaphoric repetition of a single word at the beginning of subsequent lines or initial lines of

subsequent stanzas (‘if’ in “Stolen Moments” and “Blame It On My Youth”), or mixed forms such

as anaphorical and identical repetition of a phrase (“Sticky Wicket”: “You’re so fine that you fool

the people / you’re so fine that you’re foolin’ me / You’re so fine that you fool the people”). A

further intermedial aspect which confirms the high degree of musicalization in lyrics are the musical

parameters of ‘harmony’ and ‘dissonance’, which are remotely reflected by perfect and imperfect

rhymes in lyrics or other types of rhyming poetry (cf. Wolf 1999: 22). In all of the lyrics analysed

for the present study either perfect or imperfect rhymes were present, and these frequent rhymed

passages can be considered a remote analogy to the musical parameters of ‘harmony’ respectively

‘dissonance’, thus constituting another intermedial parallel between the two forms of media in

question. Therefore, the comparability of music and literature, which facilitates an interchange of

medium-inherent elements and structures between the media involved and thus becomes the

premise for their intermedial fusion (e.g. in a musicalized text) (cf. Wolf 1999: 11-22), is confirmed

by the objects of investigation analysed in this study. More precisely, the significant number of

musical traces, in the form of characteristic elements such as repetitive structures and perfect or

imperfect rhymes, which have been detected in the selected lyrics analysed for this study constitute

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vivid examples of intermedial parallels between text and music, and thus prove the intermedial

nature of lyrics. The basic assumption that lyrics are essentially a product of intermediality is vital

to their definition, since in order to establish an ultimate meaning of a given medial product, the

individual semiotics of all medial components involved and furthermore the specific intermedial

relation between them must be determined (cf. Wolf 2015: 463). In other words, intermedial

relations are significant and essential in the signification of an intermedial artefact such as lyrics (cf.

Wolf 2015: 463), and therefore it has been paramount to discuss Intermediality in this study.

However, the present study only provided sufficient space to elaborate on the analysis of one of the

medial constituents involved in lyrics, namely the literary component. The musical component, in

whose context lyrics are usually rendered, indeed play a crucial role in the essential meaning of

lyrics (cf. Frith 1989: 90; cf. Stacey 1989: 18; cf. Jones 2011: 18-19), and thus would be a suitable

and interesting object of investigation to be included in further studies of lyrics. In other words, in

order to gain further insight into the meaning and structure of lyrics or a vocal song, one could

engage in an intermedial study, respectively a detailed semiotic study of both media involved in the

intermedial products lyrics or vocal song, which does not only focus on the literary component of

lyrics or a vocal song, but furthermore investigates the musical constituent of the respective

intermedial products. Thereby, a more precise and detailed perspective and comprehension of the

meaning of lyrics or vocal songs would be facilitated. The present study, however, did not intend to

profoundly analyse both forms of media involved in lyrics but was primarily interested in the

analysis of the literary constituent of the intermedial product lyrics. The focus within this literary

analysis was placed on three essential literary aspects of the lyrics in question, namely rhetorical

devices, form and contents. The latter aspect, the themes and contents of the respective lyrics, were

investigated as to their reflection of ongoing socio-cultural or historical processes on the basis of

concepts of cultural research of popular music (cf. Frith 1989, 2004; cf. Horton 2004) and related to

them. The ultimate intention of the literary analysis was to filter out considerable differences and

parallels between jazz lyrics of an earlier age, from the beginnings of the jazz era to the year 1980,

and jazz lyrics of a more recent epoch, from the 1980s until the present, which can be considered

the contemporary age of jazz music (cf. allmusic 2016, online). The sample for this analysis

comprised twenty-two selected examples of jazz lyrics, whereby one half was assigned to the

category of traditional jazz lyrics and the other part consisted of specimens of contemporary jazz

lyrics. Due to the limited set of sample texts, a universal statement which is generally true and valid

for all jazz lyrics cannot be made on the basis of this study. However, a set of remarkable

differences and significant parallels between the jazz lyrics investigated specifically for this study

has resulted, which can furthermore be understood as a tendency which could potentially apply to

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jazz lyrics in general. The analysis of the selected jazz lyrics has indeed proven to be effective and

shown that there are actual discernible and concrete differences and parallels between traditional

and contemporary jazz lyrics on a literary level in terms of their linguistic, formal and thematic

characteristics. In total, nine significant differences have been found between traditional and

modern jazz lyrics, while seven parallels between the two groups of jazz lyrics in question have

been filtered out in the course of the investigation. Thus, the number of differences between

traditional and modern jazz lyrics slightly exceeds the one of their parallels, and thus indicates that

there have indeed been significant changes over time with regard to specific literary aspects in jazz

lyrics, while other of these aspects have continuously remained the same. These changes have

become visible during the investigation of the present sample of traditional and contemporary jazz

lyrics and can be specified as follows: in traditional jazz lyrics, a higher amount of metaphorical

language could be detected, and, similarly, more so-called ‘scenas’, which describe the quality of

lack of repetition of identical verses or refrains (cf. Tippett 1989: 29), were found in traditional jazz

lyrics. In addition to the specific qualities of traditional jazz lyrics just described, the latter could

also be characterized by the presence of numerous and frequently occurring personifications of

elements of nature. Altogether, these three aspects which were present to a larger degree and

number in traditional jazz lyrics make the latter appear rhetorically and linguistically more

sophisticated than their contemporary equivalents, due to the increased substance of poetic

character which results from said elements. The analysed specimens of contemporary jazz lyrics, by

contrast, proved to contain a significantly greater portion of oral, conversational and colloquial

language, i.e. more natural and authentic language resembling ordinary speech. Furthermore, a

more frequent occurrence of ellipses, nonsensical language and clichés could be ascertained. The

features which have just been described point towards a less sophisticated, elaborate and intricate

linguistic style in contemporary jazz lyrics, since colloquialisms, interrupted phrases and sentences

(ellipses), nonsensical linguistic elements and trite clichés are characteristic of less poetic, less

advanced and linguistically more shallow texts. Therefore, based on seven out of nine differences

found in the course of the present analysis one could ascribe to traditional jazz lyrics a more

sophisticated character in a rhetorical and linguistic respect, and consequently a higher degree of

poetic substance when compared to their contemporary equivalents. On the other hand, the analysis

of contemporary jazz lyrics has shown a remarkably wider spectrum and a more complex, profound

and intricate quality of themes than the traditional jazz lyrics which have been submitted to

analysis. This circumstance, on the other hand, indicates more sophistication, complexity and

elaboration on the level of contents in contemporary jazz lyrics, while the same could be said for

traditional jazz lyrics on the level of linguistic style. Thus, the analysis has shown an interesting

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divergence in traditional versus contemporary jazz lyrics concerning the degree of complexity and

sophistication, which is more distinctive content-wise in contemporary jazz lyrics, and linguistically

in traditional ones. In addition to the greater variety and complexity of themes, also the tendency

towards a greater amount of text could be observed in numerous contemporary jazz lyrics. At this

point it would be appropriate to make a set of tentative assumptions as to the significance of these

specific differences. Deducing from the findings of this study, at an an earlier epoch, jazz lyrics

appeared to be characterized by a greater intricacy and sophistication on a linguistic level, while the

purported themes were less varied, more banal, monotonous and standardized. By contrast, in

contemporary jazz lyrics, as the present study proves, the variety and degree of complexity of

themes is definitely greater than in their traditional equivalents, while the great number of

colloquial, nonsensical and elliptical elements and clichés is indicative for less intricacy and more

pronounced simplicity on a linguistic level. Based on the ‘reflection theory’ presented in the section

about lyrics’ various functions in the present study (see chapter 3.2.3.), this lack of intricacy on a

linguistic level in modern jazz lyrics could be interpreted as being reflective of the ongoing social

changes of a rapidly increasing technological revolution and the resulting increase of virtual

communication, which is characterized by an abbreviated, reduced, minimalistic and fragmentary

language, replacing authentic communication and proper use of language in ‘real life’. In other

words, the widespread dwindling quality of properly applied, formulated and complex language

used in social media and other new forms of communication channels resulting from technological

advance could be reflected in the generally less sophisticated, less refined linguistic style found in

contemporary jazz lyrics. Furthermore, in a technologized world, information and contents have

become omnipresent, inflationary and permanently available, which could be reflected in the greater

diversity and the more complex character of contents and themes addressed in lyrics of the

contemporary sample. Moreover, another instance of lyrics’ reflective function of ongoing cultural

developments could be proven by the high amount of metaphorical language in traditional jazz

lyrics, which could reflect the vast absence of multimediality, respectively the comparably low

representation of pictures and images in the earlier decades of the twentieth century, when the lyrics

in question were written. Back then literature (and thus lyrics) was one of the few forms of media or

channels available for representing and distributing images. Nowadays, in a vastly technologized

society characterized by a permanent availability of information and multimediality, imagery in a

great variety of forms is omnipresent and mediated to us via numerous medial channels. Due to this,

literature is not the primary exclusive medium capable of purporting images and thus not required

to do so anymore, since it is replaced by an array of more advanced and complex forms of media

which represent images. This circumstance could be reflected in the comparably low amount of

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metaphorical language and literary imagery in contemporary jazz lyrics. In addition to the

significant differences between the selected traditional and modern jazz lyrics which could be

discerned in the course of the analysis and have just been described, also numerous specific literary

aspects which have been maintained in lyrics since the traditional era of jazz could be observed.

Two major features which are abundantly present in both traditional as well as contemporary jazz

lyrics and which have already been mentioned at an earlier stage are repetitions and rhymes, which

can be considered musical elements and thus confirm lyrics’ covert intermedial character. Another

eminent aspect which is equally present in both traditional as well as in contemporary jazz lyrics is

the ‘dialogue of courtship’ – theme, which concerns the frequently recurring standard depiction of

the notion of love, human relationships and the conflicts and difficulties which arise from them (cf.

Horton 2004: 173). The ‘dialogue of courtship’ theme is closely linked to the continuous

juxtaposition of the personal pronouns ‘I’ and ‘You’, an accompanying feature of the ‘dialogue of

courtship’ which constitutes another frequently occurring parallel in both traditional as well as

contemporary jazz lyrics. Moreover, it became evident that the use of symbols of nature and

naturalistic imagery was equally present and abundant in both traditional as well as contemporary

jazz lyrics, and that also neologisms were present to the same extent in both groups of jazz lyrics.

Furthermore, another significant element which occurred in an instance of traditional as well as in

one of contemporary jazz lyrics is the depiction of prevailing notions about femininity respectively

the propagation of anti-feminist ideas. Similar to the above mentioned instance where lyrics could

be interpreted as reflecting vehicles for certain characteristic social developments of their epoch

(e.g. the rapid advance of technologization), in the case of ‘anti-feminist’ notions one could equally

assume that lyrics act as a ‘propagating’ or ‘reflecting’ instance which strongly indicates ongoing

social processes and changes of cultural norms and values. The reflection of cultural changes and

social norms and developments with respect to ideas about femininity was visible in “Satin Doll”

and “Sticky Wicket”, which both give hints as to the feminine ideal which prevailed at the time of

their production. Therefore, it has become manifest that a particular function of the various ones

ascribed to lyrics (as described in chapter 3.2.) actually applied to the lyrics investigated for this

study: the function of lyrics as reflectors of cultural norms and social changes was clearly

discernible in the lyrics in question, and most eminently so in the specific instances of differences

and parallels described above. Thus, despite the controversy of the content analysts’ method which

ignored important aspects such as the performative context of lyrics (cf. Frith 1989: 78-79), the

‘reflection theory’ indeed turned out to apply in the lyrics investigated for this study. In summary,

the findings of the present study indicate that specific literary aspects, i.e. linguistic respectively

stylistic, formal and thematic features, in jazz lyrics have changed from the traditional until the

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contemporary era of jazz and that some of them have been consistently maintained throughout the

decades. The linguistic and stylistic differences between contemporary and traditional jazz lyrics

comprise more metaphorical language, more personifications of elements of nature in traditional

works and the integration of more colloquialisms, more ellipses, more nonsensical language and

more clichés in contemporary jazz lyrics. The formal differences between traditional and

contemporary jazz lyrics concern the higher quantity of text in contemporary jazz lyrics and the

general tendency towards the form of a ‘scena’, as opposed to a ‘strophic’ form, in contemporary

jazz lyrics. The differing thematic aspect is the greater diversity and complexity of themes in

contemporary jazz lyrics. The linguistic or stylistic, formal and thematic features which have

prevailed until today and can be found to the same extent in traditional as well as in contemporary

jazz lyrics can be listed as follows: one of the main thematic parallels is the depiction of prevailing

attitudes towards women and ideas about femininity in a given society at a specific epoch, which is

equally common in both categories of jazz lyrics. Furthermore, the common and abundantly present

theme of the ‘dialogue of courtship’ occurs in the majority of specimens of lyrics submitted to

analysis in this study, and is accompanied by the frequent juxtaposition of the personal pronouns ‘I’

and ‘You’, which is an inherent and closely related feature of the ‘dialogue of courtship’ theme (cf.

Horton 2004: 173). In addition to the ‘I’/’You’-Juxtaposition, another linguistic and stylistic feature

which is detectable to the same extent in both categories of jazz lyrics is the presence of

neologisms. The same is true for symbols of nature or naturalistic imagery, which is a rhetorical

device apparently used abundantly by traditional as well as contemporary jazz lyricists. Finally,

evident rhetorical and linguistic features which are inherent in poetic texts, and thus are also applied

to the same extent in both categories of jazz lyrics are rhymes and repetitive structures, which occur

in a vast abundance and are present in the entire sample of analysed lyrics. Deducing from the

findings of this study we can, thus, assume that jazz lyrics, just as other cultural discourses or

narratives, are subject to potential change over time in terms of their linguistic, stylistic, formal or

thematic qualities, while other specific literary features will be maintained independently of the

various epochs they are produced in. Furthermore, the results of the present study prove that jazz

lyrics are intermedial products, indicated by their discernible infusion with musical elements, e.g.

rhymes and repetition, which have been detected as substantial and consistent features of traditional

as well as contemporary jazz lyrics. Finally, specific differences and parallels between the selected

traditional and contemporary jazz standards, e.g. the higher amount of metaphorical language in

traditional jazz lyrics, the higher amount of colloquial and more concrete and simplistic language in

contemporary jazz lyrics, the greater variety and higher complexity of themes in contemporary jazz

lyrics and the equally distributed propagation of ideas about femininity, indicate that jazz lyrics are

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capable of reflecting ongoing cultural developments and changing social values and norms at a

given time. Therefore, lyrics can be considered a valuable and revealing aesthetic artefact and

medium of expression of a given culture at a given epoch.

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