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Building and Environment 42 (2007) 1538–1543

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Long-term harvesting effects on skid road in a fir(Abies bornmulleriana Mattf.) plantation forest

Ender Makinecia,�, Murat Demirb, Ersel Yilmazc

aDepartment of Soil Science and Ecology, Faculty of Forestry, Istanbul University, 34473 Bahcekoy, Sariyer, Istanbul, TurkeybDepartment of Forest Construction and Transportation, Faculty of Forestry, Istanbul University, 34473 Bahcekoy, Sariyer, Istanbul, Turkey

cDepartment of Forest Yield and Biometry, Faculty of Forestry, Istanbul University, 34473 Bahcekoy, Sariyer, Istanbul, Turkey

Received 30 November 2005; received in revised form 7 December 2005; accepted 16 January 2006

Abstract

In this study, long-term timber harvesting effects on a skid road were investigated in a pure fir (Abies bornmulleriana Mattf.) plantation

forest. For this purpose, herbaceous understory, forest floor and soil samples were collected from the skid road and from an undisturbed

area as a control plot. Unit mass (kg ha�1), organic matter ratio and moisture on herbaceous and forest floor samples were determined in

undisturbed area and on the skid road. Soil characteristics were examined at two depths (0–5 cm and 5–10 cm). We quantified sand, silt

and clay rates, electrical conductivity, fine soil (o2mm) weight, coarse soil fraction (42mm), root mass, organic carbon, moisture

equivalent, total porosity, bulk density, moisture, compaction and pH values in soils.

It has been concluded that the amount of herbaceous understory and forest floor mass on the skid road decreased considerably

compared to the undisturbed area. Parallel to this, the amount of organic matters in the herbaceous understory and the forest floor on

the skid road decreased as well. There were crucial differences in the values of compaction, bulk density, fine soil weight, total porosity,

organic carbon and moisture equivalent of the soil samples from the skid road and the undisturbed area at both investigated soil depths.

Soil on skid road has negative characteristics on water and air status, as a result of compaction caused by timber production.

r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Harvesting; Skid road; Soil; Forest floor; Herbaceous understory

1. Introduction

Logging operations can cause significant and widespread soil disturbance, including removal, mixing andcompaction of various soil layers. Disturbance canadversely affect both soil physical properties and soilnutrient levels to such an extent that severely diminishedgrowth of subsequent tree rotations as well as significantincrease in runoff and sediment loads may result [1]. It isvery well known that the production works being carriedout in the forest have many negative impacts on the forestecosystem. It has also been determined that the production

e front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

ildenv.2006.01.003

ing author. Tel.: +90212 2261100x25302;

61113.

esses: emak@istanbul.edu.tr (E. Makineci),

ul.edu.tr, muratdemir1973@yahoo.com (M. Demir),

edu.tr (E. Yilmaz).

and skidding negatively affect the amounts and variety offorest floor and herbaceous understory as well as youthdevelopment and living conditions of the soil organisms[2–11]. Skidding or yarding on terrain requires theconstruction of relatively dense network of forest roadsincluding skid roads, haul roads and landings [12,13].Erosion of organic and nutrient rich surface soil andcompaction decrease forest productivity, also the transportof sediment to streams and subsequent sedimentation leadsto loss of stream habitat and alteration of streamhydrology. Soil is the habitat for plant roots and the homeof numerous micro-flora, including viruses, bacteria, fungiand blue-green algae, and a host for animals fromunicellular protozoan to small vertebrates. Simple commu-nities of soil organisms, present from the earliest stages ofsoil genesis, become more complex and grow to astronom-ical numbers in mature forests soils. The soil micro-floraand fauna complement each other in the comminution of

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Fig. 1. Sampling points on undisturbed area and skid road.

E. Makineci et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 1538–1543 1539

litter, mineralization of essential plant nutrients, andconservation of these nutrients within the soil system.Harvesting directly affects these processes through thereduction and redistribution of organic matter, compac-tion, changes in plant cover, and modification of micro-climate, all of which affect the distribution, compositionand activity of the soil biological communities [8]. Ground-based skidding may result in soil compaction and other soilstructural changes, influencing soil water retention, andreducing soil aeration, drainage, and root penetration. Thesoil damage affects hill slope infiltration and surface andsubsurface flows [14].

In this study, the impacts of timber production activitiesthat have been carried out for many years (since 1956) onthe herbaceous understory, forest floor and soil propertiesat two soil depths (0–5 and 5–10 cm) on the skid roads in afir (Abies bornmulleriana Mattf.) plantation stand havebeen investigated.

2. Material and methods

Belgrad Forest is located in Istanbul province, in theMarmara geographical region of Turkey, between411090–411120N latitudes and 281540–291000E longitudesand covers an area of 5441.71 ha. The research area is inthe boundaries of zone 64 of Belgrad Forest. According tothe (long-term) data given by Bahcekoy MeteorologyStation, the nearest meteorology station to the researcharea, average annual precipitation is 1074.4mm, annualmean temperature is 12.8 1C, mean high temperature is17.8 1C and the average low temperature is 9 1C. Theclimate of Istanbul Belgrad Forest is close to sea (ocean)climate with medium water deficit in summers. Vegetationperiod maintains for 7.5 months (230 days) on average.

Research area is a pure fir (Abies bornmulleriana Mattf.)plantation stand. Altitude is 190m, slope is 17% andexposes to the east aspect. Canopy cover has beenestimated as 0.7. Average diameter (dbh) is 24.38 cm,average height is 22.76m and stand density has beenmeasured as 1889 trees ha�1. The skid road passingthrough the stand in South–North direction has long beenused (since 1956) in the production works. It was estimatedthat 103m3 timber was skidded annually during harvestactivities on the skidding road [15]. Skidding works in theresearch area are being carried out by manpower, animalpower and machinery. Main dominant herbaceous plantspecies are Hedera helix L., Rubus ssp., Galium odoratum

(L.) Scop., Ruscus aculeatus L., Ruscus hypoglossum

L., Viola ssp.L., Salvia forskahlei L. and Trachystemon

orientale (L.) G.Don. In this study the impacts of skiddingon the forest floor, herbaceous cover and the surface soillayer (down to 10 cm depth), thereof has been examined incomparison with the undisturbed area. The skid road andcorrespondingly the undisturbed area were sampled atseven different points at 10m intervals. For this purposeseven samples were taken from each of herbaceous cover,forest floor, 0–5 cm soil and 5–10 cm soil, (Fig. 1) where

there is no skidding impact and at least 30m away from theskid road (at least one tree length far away from skid roadedge to reduce side effects) (Fig. 1). Herbaceous coversamples were taken by cutting aboveground parts of allherbaceous mass in 1m2 area and the samples of the forestfloor were taken from 1

4m2 (0.25m2) area by collecting all

the forest floor in that area. Soil compaction at the samepoints where herbaceous cover and forest floor sampleswere taken, was measured at two different soil depths(0–5 cm and 5–10 cm) by using a pocket penetrometer. Soilsamples were taken from 0–5 and 5–10 cm with the aid of100 cm3 steel soil cores. A total of 300 cm3 soil sample wastaken for each of the soil depths of the sampling points. Allsamples were collected in September 2004. Samples wereput in polyethylene bags and labeled. Collected samples,brought to the laboratory from the research area, werepromptly weighed (within 1 h). Percentage of moisture andweight values of oven dried samples were calculated fromthe difference between the values of wet and oven driedsamples after the herbaceous cover samples were driedunder 65 1C and forest floor and soil samples dried under105 1C over 24 h. Weight values given in relevant tables ofherbaceous cover, forest floor and soil samples are ovendried values. Organic matter amounts of the herbaceouscover and forest floor samples were found by loss onignition method after grinding and burning at 550 1C. Soilsamples were sieved through 2mm sieves and thus, fine soil(o2mm), root (roots were weighed after rinsing withdistilled water and dried under 105 1C for 24 h) and coarsesoil fraction (42mm) weights were found. Sand, silt andclay ratio of soil samples in the laboratory were found by

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Table 2

Forest floor properties

Characteristics Skid

road

Undisturbed Asymp. Sig. 2-

tailed

Forest floor mass

(kg ha�1)

4799.17a 8598.94b 0.005 **

Moisture (%) 38.56a 46.63a 0.066 NS

Organic matter (%) 68.69a 57.09b 0.050 *

Organic matter (kg ha�1) 3280.70a 4839.91b 0.048 *

Values are mean. Significance levels are: NS represents nonsignificant, *

0.05–0.01 and ** 0.01–0.001, values within columns followed by the same

letter are not statistically different at 0.05 significance level.

E. Makineci et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 1538–15431540

Bouyoucos hydrometer method. Organic carbon ratio wasdetermined by Walkey and Black wet digestion method.Also weight of fine soil (o2mm) and 42mm soil fraction,bulk density, total porosity, moisture equivalent, pH andelectrical conductivity values were measured in thelaboratory as described in Karaoz [16–18].

The values found for the undisturbed area and for theskid road were compared statistically at 0.05 significancelevel by using independent sample t-test statistical analysis.Mean values found for all properties are shown in relevanttables.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Properties of herbaceous understory

Total unit mass of herbaceous understory is 488.46kgha�1

in skid road and 1125.11 kg ha�1 in undisturbed area(Table 1). This result shows that skidding led to consider-able decrease of herbaceous mass on skid road. Possibleeffects of skidding logs such as crushing and breaking-offcan cause diminished growth, and quantity of herbaceouscover on skid road. However, after skidding changed forestfloor and soil properties which might indirectly affectherbaceous plant production. Organic matter rate andmoisture content of herbaceous understory do not showsignificant differences between skid road and undisturbedarea (Table 1). The organic matter amount of theherbaceous understory in unit area on the skid road andin the undisturbed area is considerably different due to thebig difference in unit mass of herbaceous cover between theskid road and the undisturbed area. And greater organicmatter amount in unit area has been detected in theundisturbed area (998.68 kg ha�1) (Table 1). Noteworthydifference could not be found in terms of moisture rates(Table 1). In agreement with our results, many researchershave also set forth the negative impacts of skidding on theherbaceous cover [3–5,7,19].

3.2. Properties of forest floor

In undisturbed area, forest floor mass (8598.94 kg ha�1)is significantly higher than skid road (4799.17 kg ha�1)

Table 1

Herbaceous cover properties

Characteristics Skid

road

Undisturbed Asymp. Sig. 2-

tailed

Herbaceous mass

(kg ha�1)

488.46a 1125.11b 0.000 ***

Moisture (%) 67.46a 67.04a 0.807 NS

Organic matter (%) 88.80a 88.61a 0.869 NS

Organic matter (kg ha�1) 436.59a 998.68b 0.000 ***

Values are mean. Significance levels are: NS represents nonsignificant and

*** 0.0014, values within columns followed by the same letter are not

statistically different at 0.05 significance level.

(Table 2). Less forest floor in skid road show that skiddingof logs decreased the forest floor on skid road. In addition,some of the trees along the skidding route are cut duringbuilding of the skid roads in order to prevent anypreclusion on skidding works and to have a straight skidroad. Therefore, the number of trees per unit area on theskid road decreases. It is also estimated that, subject to thedecreasing number of trees, amount of litter fall is alsodecreasing. Organic matter rate (68.69%) of forest floor onskid road is significantly higher than those of undisturbedarea (57.09%) (Table 2). Due to skidding and long-termuse of skid road, there is the presence of last year’s shededleaves containing high organic matter rates in the forestfloor on the skid road. In addition, changed soil propertiesafter skidding should be effective on decrease of biologicalactivities, decomposition and mineralization of forest flooron the skid road. Depending on the considerable differencein the forest floor mass, organic matter amounts (kg ha�1)in unit area also show important differences, and organicmatter amounts in undisturbed area (4839.91 kg ha–1) aremuch higher than the skid road (3280.70 kg ha–1) (Table 2).Moisture rate of forest floor does not show signi-ficant difference between undisturbed area and skid road(Table 2).

3.3. Soil properties

3.3.1. 0–5 cm soil depth

Some soil properties such as sand rate, pH, electricalconductivity, coarse soil (42mm) weight, root mass andmoisture rate do not show significant differences in theundisturbed area and on the skid road (Table 3). However,other investigated soil properties in 0–5 cm depth such assilt and clay rates, fine soil (o2mm) weight, organiccarbon, moisture equivalent, total porosity, compactionand bulk density show significant differences betweenundisturbed area and skid road (Table 3).Average compaction value has been measured as

3.71 kg cm�2 on the skid road and 1.55 kg cm�2 in theundisturbed area (Table 3). This compaction values showthat 0–5 cm soil depth on the skid road is substantiallycompacted in comparison with the undisturbed area

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Table 3

Investigated soil properties in 0–5 cm soil depth

Characteristics Skid road Undisturbed Asymp. Sig. 2-tailed

Sand (%) 52.13a 48.84a 0.292 NS

Silt (%) 27.55a 21.99b 0.001 **

Clay (%) 20.32a 29.17b 0.027 *

pH 5.89a 5.69a 0.398 NS

Electrical conductivity (mhos cm�1) 138.62a 155.37a 0.577 NS

Fine soil (o2mm) weight (g cm–3) 0.779a 0.589b 0.024 *

Coarse soil (42mm) weight (g cm–3) 0.122a 0.076a 0.069 NS

Root mass (g cm–3) 0.00109a 0.00146a 0.468 NS

Organic carbon (%) 4.22a 13.24b 0.001 **

Moisture equivalent (%) 21.26a 27.22b 0.000 ***

Total porosity (%) 47.42a 59.09b 0.000 ***

Moisture (%) 25.40a 29.25a 0.133 NS

Compaction (kg cm�2) 3.71a 1.55b 0.000 ***

Bulk density (g cm–3) 0.908a 0.706b 0.033 *

Values are mean. Significance levels are: NS represents nonsignificant, * 0.05–0.01, ** 0.01–0.001 and *** 0.0014, values within columns followed by the

same letter are not statistically different at 0.05 significance level.

Table 4

Investigated soil properties in 5-10 cm soil depth

Characteristics Skid road Undisturbed Asymp. Sig. 2-tailed

Sand (%) 48.44a 48.01a 0.908 NS

Silt (%) 27.04a 29.65a 0.257 NS

Clay (%) 24.52a 22.34a 0.373 NS

pH 5.63a 5.49a 0.570 NS

Electrical conductivity (mhos cm�1) 105.18a 87.65a 0.282 NS

Fine soil (o2mm) weight (g cm–3) 0.838a 0.735b 0.044 *

Coarse soil (42mm) weight (g cm–3) 0.080a 0.127a 0.182 NS

Root mass (g cm–3) 0.00376a 0.00309a 0.571 NS

Organic carbon (%) 3.12a 9.01b 0.000 ***

Moisture equivalent (%) 20.51a 25.23b 0.018 *

Total porosity (%) 51.12a 55.71b 0.007 **

Moisture (%) 24.03a 23.95a 0.956 NS

Compaction (kg cm�2) 3.35a 1.98b 0.000 ***

Bulk density (g cm–3) 0.983a 0.866b 0.017 *

Values are mean. Significance levels are: NS represents non significant, * 0.05–0.01, ** 0.01–0.001 and *** 0.0014, values within columns followed by the

same letter are not statistically different at 0.05 significance level.

E. Makineci et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 1538–1543 1541

(Table 3), and soil compacted significantly by harvesting.Organic carbon rate (4.22%) on the skid road has beenfound quite lower than the undisturbed area (13.24%)(Table 3). Depending on the compaction of the soil and lessquantity of soil organic matter, considerable differenceswere found between the undisturbed area and the skid roadwith regard to bulk density, fine soil weight, total porosityand moisture equivalent values. Soil bulk density(0.908 g cm�3) and fine soil weight (0.779 g cm�3) on theskid road are quite higher than those in the undisturbedarea (Table 3). Similarly, due to compaction and lowerorganic matter the values of total porosity (47.42%) andmoisture equivalent (21.26%) on the skid road areconsiderably lower than the total porosity (59.09%) andthe moisture equivalent (27.22%) in the undisturbed area(Table 3). Mean silt rate (27.55%) is quite higher and themean clay rate (20.30%) is lower on the skid road than the

undisturbed area (Table 3). The reason of the importantdifferences in the silt and clay rates might be due to thechanges in the natural structure of the soil because of soilcompaction with possible surface flows and erosion effects.In addition to the changes in the soil properties, decreasingforest floor and herbaceous cover and changes in theproperties of the decomposing organic matter can effect thesoil properties.

3.3.2. 5–10 cm soil depth

Results for the soil samples taken from 5–10 cm depthare mostly similar to the results found for 0–5 cm depthexcept silt and clay rates (Table 4). Distinct from the resultsin 0–5 cm soil depth, no considerable differences werefound in the clay and silt rates between the undisturbedarea and skid road. Possible reason of changes in silt andclay rates should be, subject to the soil compaction, the

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change in the natural soil structure before the skidding.Compaction, bulk density, total porosity, moisture equiva-lent, organic carbon, fine soil weight show signifi-cant differences between skid road and undisturbed area(Table 4). These results indicated that skidding effectscause continuous compaction and lower organic matter upto 10 cm soil depth. The reasons of lower organic matter in5–10 cm soil depth might be similar to 0–5 cm soil depth.Furthermore, changed soil properties in 0–5 cm depth onthe skid road might led to both lower biological activityand decomposition of organic compounds in the 5–10 cmsoil depth. Depending on the compaction of the soil andlower organic matter, considerable differences were foundbetween the undisturbed area and the skid road with regardto the soil bulk density, fine soil weight, total porosity,moisture equivalent and compaction. Bulk density(0.983 g cm�3) and fine soil weight (0.838 g cm�3) on theskid road are quite higher, where as the total porosity(51.12%) and moisture equivalent (20.51%) are lower onthe skid road than undisturbed area (Table 4). Sand, siltand clay rates do not show significant differences betweenskid road and undisturbed area. According to sand, silt andclay rate results, it can be interpreted that there were no soillosses and erosion via runoff at 5–10 cm soil depth. Noimportant differences were found between the skid roadand undisturbed area regarding to other investigated soilparameters including pH, electrical conductivity, coarsesoil weight, root mass and moisture rate (Table 4).

Many studies reported that skidding and timberproduction works in the forestry applications generallyincrease compaction of the soil. Crucial changes may occuron the physical characteristics concluded as the higher bulkdensity, lower porosity, organic matter content and waterholding capacity of the soil because of compaction[1–3,8,11,20–24].

4. Conclusions

In this research we tried to explain the long-term impactsof skidding works which have been carried out for manyyears on the topsoil properties, forest floor and herbaceouscover on a skid road located in fir (Abies bornmulleriana

Mattf.) plantation stand. Skidding caused decrease offorest floor and herbaceous cover on skid road to a greatextent. Furthermore, skidding has been effective at bothsoil depths (0–5 and 5–10 cm) which were examined.Compaction of soil with the impact of skidding has causedincrease of fine soil weight and bulk density values anddecrease of total porosity and moisture equivalent rates onthe skid road. Negative impacts of soil compaction havebeen set forth by many researches. Compaction of soilcauses decrease in the permeability and infiltration capacityof the soil which leads to pooling of water on the groundand therefore loss of moisture through evaporation[4,8,10,19,20,23,25,26]. Therefore, root development slowsdown, water and nutrient uptake of plants decreases. Totalporosity reduction and worsening of soil aeration nega-

tively affect aerobe soil organisms and also effect the lifeactivities of other organisms [3,8,20]. Moreover, there ispossible increase in denitrification as nitrate nitrogen is lostto the atmosphere because of soil compaction. Thus, soilcompaction causes nitrogen losses in the soil [20,23].Decrease of infiltration and permeability in the soil onthe slope areas because of compaction can cause severe soilerosion [10,25,27–29]. Lessening of the herbaceous coverand forest floor after skidding leaves the soil vulnerableagainst erosion and forest floor decomposition andmineralization also decrease because of unfavorable soilconditions. Thus, retardation occurs in the nutrient cycle inthe forest ecosystem [2,3,7,8,11,20,23,24].It is obvious that changes because of soil compaction will

cause negative impacts on the water and air status of thesoils on the skid roads. Prompt actions should be taken inorder to prevent and minimize such negative impacts of theskid roads. Especially, the skid roads should not be usedfor long periods without taking any actions after they built.Long-term utilization of the same skid road increases thedamages. Therefore, avoiding long-term utilization of skidroads may decrease the damages. Rehabilitation works(such as mulching etc.) [26,30,31] on the skid roads wheresoil properties have been drastically degraded, would beregenerated in terms of protection of the ecosystem.Additionally, in order to prevent and lessen such negativeimpacts and to prevent the forest floor and the herbaceousunderstory losses on the soil caused by compaction,attaching a conical skid cap at the end of the timber thatis being skidded or usage of slides may decrease thedamages.

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