Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

Transportation Research Part D 13 (2008) 187–192

www.elsevier.com/locate/trd

Notes and comments

Survived herbaceous plant species on compacted skid roadin a fir (Abies bornmulleriana Mattf.) forest – A note

Ender Makineci a,*, Beyza Sat Gungor b, Murat Demir c

a Istanbul University, Faculty of Forestry, Soil Science and Ecology Department, 34473 Bahcekoy, Sariyer, Istanbul, Turkeyb Istanbul University, Faculty of Forestry, Landscape Architecture Department, 34473 Bahcekoy, Sariyer, Istanbul, Turkey

c Istanbul University, Faculty of Forestry, Forest Construction and Transportation Department,

34473 Bahcekoy, Sariyer, Istanbul, Turkey

Abstract

This study examines the plant species of herbaceous cover on a skid road subjected to soil compaction due to timberskidding in a pure fir (Abies bornmulleriana Mattf.) plantation forest. Previous studies have shown that ground basedskidding damages soils, and degrades the ecosystem because it limits the recovery and growth of plant cover. However,some plant species can recover and survive after extreme degradation due to skidding. The composition of these speciesand their cover-abundance scales are examined. Sixteen species are determined belonging to 11 plant families.� 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Skid road; Timber skidding; Harvesting effects; Soil disturbance; Logging; Herbaceous plant species

1. Introduction

The potentially adverse ecological impacts of roads have received considerable attention in recent years butthe effects of roads on forest plant communities are not well documented. Studies focusing on exotic plantinvasions in roadside plant communities along main forest and grassland roads and in adjacent communitieshave been completed, but changes in plant composition within interior haul roads and skid trails have receivedlittle attention although their impacts on ecosystem properties could be substantial (Buckley et al., 2003).Skidding or yarding on terrain requires the construction of relatively dense network of forest roads includingskid roads, haul roads and landings (Ketcheson et al., 1999). Skid roads are tertiary roads that are used byskidders and forwarders that move logs from the point of felling and bucking to log landings. Apart fromthe felling of occasional trees to provide a clear path, few improvements are made to skid roads (Buckleyet al., 2003). Ground based skidding, timber harvesting and logging operations in forest ecosystems causethe reduction and redistribution of organic matter, changes in plant cover, organic layer and soil properties,and modification of microclimate (Arocena, 2000; Godefroid and Koedam, 2004). Forest operations can also

1361-9209/$ - see front matter � 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.trd.2008.01.002

* Corresponding author.E-mail address: emak@istanbul.edu.tr (E. Makineci).

188 E. Makineci et al. / Transportation Research Part D 13 (2008) 187–192

cause significant and widespread soil disturbance, including removal, mixing and compaction of various soillayers. Soil compaction typically alters soil structure and hydrology by increasing bulk density, breaking downaggregates, decreasing porosity, aeration and infiltration capacity and, possibly, inappropriate soil nutritionalstatus.

Here, we evaluated survived herbaceous plant species composition and their cover-abundance scales on theskid road subjected to compaction due to ground based timber skidding activities that have been carried outfor many years (since 1956) in a fir (Abies bornmulleriana Mattf.) plantation forest in Turkey.

2. Material and methods

Belgrad Forest is located in Istanbul province, in the Marmara geographical region of Turkey, between 41�090–41� 120 N latitude and 28� 540–29� 000 E longitude and covers an area of 5441.71 ha. The area studied is inzone 64 of the forest. According to long-term data from the Bahcekoy Meteorology Station, the nearest mete-orology station to the research area, average annual precipitation is 1074.4 mm, annual mean temperature is12.8 �C, mean maximum temperature is 17.8 �C and the average minimum temperature is 9.0 �C. The foresthas a maritime climate with medium water deficit in summers and an average vegetation period of 230 days.

The area is a pure fir (Abies bornmulleriana Mattf.) plantation forest at 190 m, with a 17% slope and with aneastern aspect. The canopy cover of trees has been estimated at 70% with an average tree diameter (dbh) of24.38 cm, an average height of 22.76 m and density of 1889 trees per hectare. The skid road passes through thearea in a south-north direction, and has been used since 1956. It is estimated that about 103 m�3 of timbershave been skidded annually along the road (Anonymous, 2005) using manpower, animal power andmachinery.

The composition of plants was observed along a 100 by 3 m belt transect in October 2006. Transect wasoriented across the road, perpendicular to its main axis as described in Buckley et al. (2003). The species com-position was characterized by classical phytosociological plots according to Braun-Blanquet (1964) cover-abundance values with the coverage for each species (vertical projection onto the ground) estimated visuallyand recorded for seven cover classes: r (1 or 5 individuals); + (few individuals {<20} with cover <5%); 1 (manyindividuals {20–100} with cover <5%); 2 (5%–25% cover); 3 (25%–50% cover); 4 (50%–75% cover); and 5(75%– 100% cover) (Godefroid and Koedam 2004). Undetermined herbaceous plant species were clippedand compared with samples at Istanbul University Faculty of Forestry Herbarium and guide-books. The gen-eral site characteristics of herbaceous plant species were reported as described in Davis (1965–1985).

3. Results and discussion

Previous studies have found that skidding caused declines in the organic layer and herbaceous cover on skidroad. Furthermore, skidding has been effective on both soil depths (0–5 cm and 5–10 cm) that were examined.Compaction of soil with the impact of skidding has caused increases in fine soil weight and bulk density valuesand decreases in porosity and moisture equivalent rates on the skid road (Makineci et al., 2007a). Also,ground cover on skid road has been found to have greater P, and significantly lower Ca and Mg contents.Organic layer of skid road has significantly lower K, Na, Fe, Zn, Cu and Mn contents than undisturbed area.In terms of soil chemical properties, only P and Fe concentrations in 0–5 cm soil layer differed significantlybetween skid road and undisturbed area, and skid road has significantly higher P and Fe contents (Table1) (Makineci et al., 2007b).

These studies showed that skidding has particularly negative impacts on herbaceous cover, organic layerand soil resulting in detrimental impacts on native flora, causing problems in establishing and maintaining her-baceous plants. Mariani et al. (2006) reported that organic layer removal reduces abundance of herbs andshrubs. Soil compaction can also severely reduce plant development by restricting root growth due to oxygenstress and lower percentages of water and air space in the soil (Barzegar et al., 2006).

In addition, Kozlowski (1999) mentions reduced photosynthesis when soils become increasingly compacted,as a result of smaller leaf areas. On the other hand, more adaptive and less herbaceous plant masses exist onskid road. We evaluated such plant species and their cover-abundance scales in the 100 by 3 m transect. 16plant species belonging to 11 plant families exist on the skid road (Table 2). Compositae was the most

Table 1Investigated soil properties in soil on skid road

Characteristics Unit 0–5 cm 5–10 cm

Sand (%) 52.13 48.44Silt (%) 27.55 27.04Clay (%) 20.30 24.51Soil acidity pH 5.89 5.63Electrical conductivity (lhos cm�1) 138.62 105.18Fine soil (<2 mm) weight (g cm�3) 0.779 0.838Coarse soil (>2 mm) weight (g cm�3) 0.122 0.080Root mass (g cm�3) 0.00109 0.00376Organic carbon (%) 4.22 3.12Moisture equivalent (%) 21.26 20.51Total porosity (%) 47.42 51.12Moisture (%) 25.40 24.03Compaction (kg cm�2) 3.71 3.35Bulk density (g cm�3) 0.908 0.983N (%) 0.345 0.279P (ppm) 1.88 0.00K (ppm) 146.83 130.77Na (ppm) 25.72 24.35Ca (ppm) 2003.55 1673.80Mg (ppm) 295.54 262.72Fe (ppm) 0.34 0.48Zn (ppm) 95.29 45.66Cu (ppm) 0.83 0.71Mn (ppm) 134.92 129.97

Source: (Makineci et al., 2007a,b).

Table 2Survived plant species on compacted skid road, their general site characteristics and the cover-abundance scales

The plant family The scientific name of theplant species

General site characteristics The cover-abundance scale

Caryophyllaceae Stellaria holostea L. Scrubs, roadsides, damp places +Compositae Crepis setosa Hall. Fil. Scrub grassy, roadside places rGramineae Brachypodium pinnatum (L.)

P. Beauv.Unshaded habitats, mainly grassy hillsides, meadows andlimestone pastures

1

Primulaceae Primula vulgaris Huds. subsp.vulgaris Huds.

Often damp places in open or shady turf slopes, evergreen ordeciduous woodlands, alpine meadows

+

Liliaceae Smilax aspera L. Macchie, scrub, ravines, and rocky limestone slopes 1Compositae Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten. Grazed clearings in pine forest, roadside banks, slopes, stream-

sides, drainsr

Berberidaceae Epimedium pubigerum (DC.)Moren et Decaisne

Forest clearings 1

Labiatae Lamium purpureum L. var.purpureum L.

Oak and fir forests, gravelly banks, fields and waste places +

Labiatae Ballota nigra L. subsp.anatolica P.H. Davis

Gorges, valleys, streamsides, hedges, bank, ruins +

Liliaceae Ruscus aculeatus L. var.aculeatus L.

Oak forests and scrubs, rocky limestone slopes 1

Compositae Conyza canadensis (L.)Cronquist

In moist conditions, often near sea coasts and weed of cultivation +

Rosaceae Fragaria vesca L. Moist places, especially in forest rCaprifoliaceae Lonicera etrusca Santi var.

etrusca SantiScrees, cliffs, roadsides, often among shrubs r

Cyperaceae Carex distachya Desf. var.distachya Desf.

Dry stony slopes, open forests, roadsides 1

Araliaceae Hedera helix L. Climbing over trees or creeping on the ground in woods +Rosaceae Rubus discolor Weihe et Nees. Deciduous forests and scrubs, shady banks, coastal plains r

E. Makineci et al. / Transportation Research Part D 13 (2008) 187–192 189

190 E. Makineci et al. / Transportation Research Part D 13 (2008) 187–192

common plant family, and Brachypodium pinnatum (L.) P. Beauv., Smilax aspera L., Epimedium pubigerum

(DC.) Moren et Decaisne, Ruscus aculeatus L. var. aculeatus L., Carex distachya Desf. var. distachya Desf.have the highest coverage. Six herbaceous plant species have the second highest cover abundance scale (+,few, with small cover); Stellaria holostea L., Primula vulgaris Huds. subsp. vulgaris Huds., Lamium purpureum

Table 3The characteristics and place of disturbed-degraded habitat where the plants can growth

Plant Species The characteristics and place of disturbed-degraded habitat Reference

Stellaria holostea L. Under atmospheric nitrogen deposition, N deposited oak forest,Denmark

Kristensen and Henriksen(1998)

Oak dune forest, Denmark Lawesson and Wind (2002)Recovered on footpaths that have been closed for access for 6 years,Belgium

Roovers et al. (2005)

Under disturbed Q. pyrenaica ecosystems by human intervention,Spain

Tarrega et al. (2007)

Under wooded landscapes human influented, UK Rotherham (2007)

Crepis setosa Hall. Fil. In reclaimed area contaminated with dioxin, Italy Sartori and Assini (2001)

Brachypodium pinnatum

(L.) P. Beauv.– –

Primula vulgaris Huds. subsp.vulgaris Huds.

Restoration of wet grasslands, Germany Rosenthal (2003)

Smilax aspera L. Undergrowth clearings of the coppice oak forests, Spain Camprodon and Brotons(2006)

Disturbed forest areas, potential restoration of natural vegetation,Spain

Arevalo and Fernandez-Palacios (2005)

Forest disturbances (grazing and thinning), Spain Onaindia et al. (2004)

Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten. Restoration of heathland/moorland, UK Tong et al. (2006)Restoration success in alluvial grasslands under contrastingflooding regimes, Germany

Bissels et al. (2004)

Norway spruce forests following clearcutting and shelterwoodcutting, Sweden

Hannerz and Hanell (1997)

In reclaimed area contaminated with dioxin, Italy Sartori and Assini (2001)Post-fire rehabilitation with straw mulch and barley seeding, USA Kruse et al. (2004)Plant reestablishment 15 years after the debris avalanche, USA Dale and Adams (2003)

Epimedium pubigerum (DC.)Moren et Decaisne

– –

Lamium purpureum L. var.purpureum L.

Radioactive-contaminated sites around nuclear power plant,Slovak Republic

Micieta and Murın (2007)

Under the Mediterranean dryland conditions, effects of tillagesystems, Turkey

Ozpinar (2006)

Man made habitats with irregular disturbances, Czech Republic Lososova et al. (2006)

Ballota nigra L. subsp. anatolica

P.H. DavisMan made urban habitats, urban-industrial ecosystems, Germany Bornkamm (2007)Contaminated soil of uranium waste depot, Czech Republic Soudek et al. (2007)Man made habitats with irregular disturbances, Czech Republic Lososova et al. (2006)

Ruscus aculeatus L. var. aculeatus

L.Forest disturbances (grazing and thinning), Spain Onaindia et al. (2004)Pine forest clearings along the French Atlantic sand dunes, France Lemauviel and Roze (2000)

Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist Primary succession in post-mining landscapes, Germany Wiegleb and Felinks (2001)Plant reestablishment 15 years after the debris avalanche, USA Dale and Adams (2003)Pine forest clearings along the French Atlantic sand dunes, France Lemauviel and Roze (2000)On Mn mine tailings, and heavy metal accumulation in plants,China

Yun-Guo et al. (2006)

In reclaimed area contaminated with dioxin, Italy Sartori and Assini (2001)In roadside communities along an altitudinal gradient, Spain Arevalo et al. (2005)Contaminated soil of uranium waste depot, Czech Republic Soudek et al. (2007)

Table 3 (continued)

Plant Species The characteristics and place of disturbed-degraded habitat Reference

Fragaria vesca L. Oak dune forest, Denmark Lawesson and Wind(2002)

Restoration of heathland/moorland, UK Tong et al. (2006)Response to cattle grazing in mesic semi-natural grassland, Finland Pykala (2005)Restoration success in alluvial grasslands under contrasting floodingregimes, Germany

Bissels et al. (2004)

Norway spruce forests following clearcutting and shelterwood cutting,Sweden

Hannerz and Hanell(1997)

Contaminated soil of uranium waste depot, Czech Republic Soudek et al. (2007)

Lonicera etrusca Santi var. etrusca

SantiOn hedgerows influented by different management regimes, Spain Schmitz et al. (2007)

Carex distachya Desf. var.distachya Desf.

Plant reestablishment 15 years after the debris avalanche, USA –described as Carex sp.

Dale and Adams (2003)

Restoration of heathland/moorland, UK – described as Carex sp. Tong et al. (2006)Forests following clearcutting and shelterwood cutting, Sweden.described as Carex sp.

Hannerz and Hanell(1997)

Hedera helix L. Recovered on footpaths that have been closed for access for 6 years,Belgium

Roovers et al. (2005)

Undergrowth clearings of the coppice oak forests, Spain Camprodon and Brotons(2006)

Forest disturbances (grazing and thinning), Spain Onaindia et al. (2004)Pine forest clearings along the French Atlantic sand dunes, France Lemauviel and Roze

(2000)In reclaimed area contaminated with dioxin, Italy Sartori and Assini (2001)Man made urban habitats, urban-industrial ecosystems, Germany Bornkamm (2007)

Rubus discolor Weihe et Nees. Forest disturbances (grazing and thinning), Spain-described as Rubus

sp.Onaindia et al. (2004)

E. Makineci et al. / Transportation Research Part D 13 (2008) 187–192 191

L. var. purpureum L., Ballota nigra L. subsp. anatolica P.H. Davis, Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist andHedera helix L. The other plant species Crepis setosa Hall. Fil., Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten., Fragaria vesca

L., Lonicera etrusca Santi var. etrusca Santi, Rubus discolor Weihe et Nees. conform to the ‘‘r” category beingsolitary with a small coverage (Table 2).

The results show that these plant species have the ability to grow on extreme soil and site conditions. Thisconfirms earlier studies (Table 3) in other regions that showed the survival capability of most of these specieson degraded, polluted or disturbed habitats that limit plant growth and survival.

References

Anonymous, 2005. Harvesting Reports of Istanbul-Bahcekoy Regional Directorate of Forestry, Istanbul (in Turkish).Arevalo, J.R., Fernandez-Palacios, J.M., 2005. Gradient analysis of exotic Pinus radiata plantations and potential restoration of natural

vegetation in Tenerife, Canary Islands (Spain). Acta Oecologica. 27, 1–8.Arevalo, J.R., Delgado, J.D., Otto, R., Naranjo, A., Salas, M., Fernandez-Palacios, J.M., 2005. Distribution of alien vs native plant

species in roadside communities along an altitudinal gradient in Tenerife and Gran Canaria (Canary Islands). Perspectives in PlantEcology, Evolution and Systematics 7, 185–202.

Arocena, J.M., 2000. Cations in solution from forest soils subjected to forest floor removal and compaction treatments. Forest Ecologyand Management 133, 71–80.

Barzegar, A.R., Nadian, H., Heidari, F., Herbert, S.J., Hashemi, A.M., 2006. Interaction of soil compaction, phosphorus and zinc onclover growth and accumulation of phosphorus. Soil and Tillage Research 87, 155–162.

Bissels, S., Holzel, N., Donath, T.W., Otte, A., 2004. Evaluation of restoration success in alluvial grasslands under contrasting floodingregimes. Biological Conservation 118, 641–650.

Bornkamm, R., 2007. Spontaneous development of urban woody vegetation on differing soils. Flora 202, 695–704.Braun-Blanquet, J., 1964. Pflanzensoziologie-Grundzu ge der Vegetationskunde. Springer Verlag, Vienna.Buckley, D.S., Crow, T.R., Nauertz, E.A., Schulz, K.E., 2003. Influence of skid trails and haul roads on understory plant richness and

composition in managed forest landscapes in Upper Michigan, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 175, 509–520.

192 E. Makineci et al. / Transportation Research Part D 13 (2008) 187–192

Camprodon, J., Brotons, L., 2006. Effects of undergrowth clearing on the bird communities of the Northwestern Mediterranean CoppiceHolm oak forests. Forest Ecology and Management 221, 72–82.

Dale, V.H., Adams, W.M., 2003. Plant reestablishment 15 years after the debris avalanche at Mount St Helens, Washington. The Scienceof the Total Environment 313, 101–113.

Davis, P.H., 1965–1985. In: Flora of Turkey and East Aegean Islands, vol. 1–10. University Press, Edinburgh.Godefroid, S., Koedam, N., 2004. The impact of forest paths upon adjacent vegetation: effects of the paths surfacing material on the

species composition and soil compaction. Biological Conservation 119, 405–419.Hannerz, M., Hanell, B., 1997. Effects on the flora in Norway spruce forests following clearcutting and shelterwood cutting. Forest

Ecology and Management 90, 29–49.Ketcheson, G.L., Megahan, W.F., King, J.G., 1999. ‘‘R1–R4” and ‘‘Boised” sediment prediction model tests using forest roads in

granitics. Journal of American Water Resource Assessment 35, 83–98.Kozlowski, T.T., 1999. Soil compaction and growth of woody plants. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 14, 596–619.Kristensen, H.L., Henriksen, K., 1998. Soil nitrogen transformations along a successional gradient from Calluna heathland to Quercus

forest at intermediate atmospheric nitrogen deposition. Applied Soil Ecology 8, 95–109.Kruse, R., Bend, E., Bierzychudek, P., 2004. Native plant regeneration and introduction of non-natives following post-fire rehabilitation

with straw mulch and barley seeding. Forest Ecology and Management 196, 299–310.Lawesson, J.E., Wind, P., 2002. Oak dune forests in Denmark and their ecology. Forest Ecology and Management 164, 1–14.Lemauviel, S., Roze, F., 2000. Ecological study of pine forest clearings along the French Atlantic sand dunes: perspectives of restoration.

Acta Oecologica 21, 179–192.Lososova, Z., Chytry, M., Kuhn, I., Hajek, O., Horakova, V., Pysek, P., Tichy, L., 2006. Patterns of plant traits in annual vegetation of

man-made habitats in central Europe. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8, 69–81.Makineci, E., Demir, M., Yilmaz, E., 2007a. Long term harvesting effects on skid road in a fir (Abies bornmulleriana Mattf.) plantation

forest. Building and Environment 42, 1538–1543.Makineci, E., Demir, M., Comez, A., Yilmaz, E., 2007b. Chemical characteristics of the surface soil, herbaceous cover and organic layer of

a compacted skid road in a fir (Abies bornmulleriana Mattf.) forest. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 12,453–459.

Mariani, L., Chang, S.X., Kabzems, R., 2006. Effects of tree harvesting, forest floor removal, and compaction on soil microbial biomass,microbial respiration, and N availability in boreal aspen forest in British Coloumbia. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 38, 1734–1744.

Micieta, K., Murın, G., 2007. Wild plant species in bio-indication of radioactive contaminated sites around Jaslovske Bohunice nuclearpower plant in the Slovak Republic. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 93, 26–37.

Onaindia, M., Dominguez, I., Albizu, I., Garbisu, C., Amezaga, I., 2004. Vegetation diversity and vertical structure as indicators of forestdisturbance. Forest Ecology and Management 195, 341–354.

Ozpinar, S., 2006. Effects of tillage systems on weed population and economics for winter wheat production under the Mediterraneandryland conditions. Soil and Tillage Research 87, 1–8.

Pykala, J., 2005. Plant species responses to cattle grazing in mesic semi-natural grassland. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 108,109–117.

Roovers, P., Bossuyt, B., Gulinck, H., Hermy, M., 2005. Vegetation recovery on closed paths in temperate deciduous forests. Journal ofEnvironmental Management 74, 273–281.

Rosenthal, G., 2003. Selecting target species to evaluate the success of wet grassland restoration. Agriculture, Ecosystems andEnvironment 98, 227–246.

Rotherham, R.I., 2007. The implications of perceptions and cultural knowledge loss for the management of wooded landscapes: a UKcase-study. Forest Ecology and Management 249, 100–115.

Sartori, F., Assini, S., 2001. Vegetation evolution in reclaimed area contaminated with dioxin. Chemosphere 43, 525–535.Schmitz, M.F., Sanchez, I.A., Aranzabal, I., 2007. Influence of management regimes of adjacent land uses on the woody plant richness of

hedgerows in Spanish cultural landscapes. Biological Conservation 135, 542–554.Soudek, P., Petrık, P., Vagner, M., Tykva, R., Vaclav, P., Petrova, S., Vanek, T., 2007. Botanical survey and screening of plant species

which accumulate 226Ra from contaminated soil of uranium waste depot. European Journal of Soil Biology 43, 251–261.Tarrega, R., Calvo, L., Marcos, E., Taboada, A., 2007. Comparison of understory plant community composition and soil characteristics

in Quercus pyrenaica stands with different human uses. Forest Ecology and Management 241, 235–242.Tong, C., Le Duca, M.G., Ghorbani, J., Mars, R.H., 2006. Linking restoration to the wider landscape: a study of a bracken control

experiment within a upland moorland landscape mosaic in the Peak District, UK. Landscape and Urban Planning 78, 115–134.Wiegleb, G., Felinks, B., 2001. Primary succession in post-mining landscapes of Lower Lusatia – chance or necessity. Ecological

Engineering 17, 199–217.Yun-Guo, L., Hui-Zhi, Z., Guang-Ming, Z., Bao-Rong, H., Xin, L., 2006. Heavy metal accumulation in plants on Mn mine tailings.

Pedosphere 16, 131–136.