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Language Laboratories Research

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.21635.12321

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I

Language Laboratories

A Research paper

Submitted to the Department of English College of Education in Karbala

University as partial fulfilment for the requirements of the degree of B.A. in

English language.

By :

Mostafa Sadik Khaleel and Mostafa Ahmed Mahdi

Supervised by:

Asst. Lect. Ibaa Aldeen Hussam

2019 – 2020

II

بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم

(( الهذين آمنوا منكم والهذين أوتوا العلم درجات وللاه يرفع للاه

((بما تعملون خبير

(١١اآلية ) رقمسورة المجادلة,

III

DEDICATION

This piece of work wholeheartedly dedicated to our beloved parents, who

have been our source of inspiration and gave us strength when we thought

of giving up in times of woe and distress, who continually provide their

moral, spiritual, emotional, and financial support.

To our brothers, sisters, relatives, mentor, friends, and classmates who

shared their words of advice and encouragement to finish this study.

And lastly. we dedicated this research to our so blessed teachers. We are

witnesses on how dedicated you are in teaching your students and we feel

relieved that you are the one who will be nurturing our future.

IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful for my parents and my teachers. They were really helpful during my

educational journey. Without them I wouldn’t be the person I am today.

I would also like to thank my friends who have encouraged me whenever I was need for

encouragement.

And a special thanks go to (M.A. Ibaa Aldeen Hussam) my supervisor, who supported me with

my research.

V

Abstract

This research discusses key trends in language laboratory development from

approximately the 1950’s to the present day. Besides offering a brief history of language-lab

advancement, the digital revolution, and modern language-lab services, the researcher discusses

roles, characteristics, features and functions of language laboratories that are needed by English

second language teachers and students for better understanding and enhancement of language

proficiency and language skills . Besides offering a brief history of language-lab advancement,

the digital revolution, and modern language-lab services, the author discusses roles,

characteristics, features and functions of modern language laboratories that are needed by

teachers and students.

1

Contents

Section One ............................................................................................................................................................ 1

The History of Language Laboratories ................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 2

1.2 Language Laboratories; Past ........................................................................................................................ 4

1.3 Language Laboratory; Present ...................................................................................................................... 5

1.4 Future of Language Laboratories .................................................................................................................. 6

Section Two............................................................................................................................................................ 8

Types of Language Laboratory and Their Functions .............................................................................................. 8

2.1 Language Laboratory .................................................................................................................................... 9

2.1.1 Functions of Language Laboratory ....................................................................................................... 10

2.1.2 The Role of the Teacher in the Language Laboratory .......................................................................... 11

2.1.3 The Basic Aims of the Language Laboratory ....................................................................................... 11

2.1.4 Advantages of Language Laboratory ................................................................................................... 12

2.1.5 Disadvantages of Language Laboratory ............................................................................................... 13

2.2 Types of Language Laboratories ................................................................................................................. 14

2.2.1 Structural or Behaviouristic Lab ........................................................................................................... 14

2.2.2 Communicative Lab or Cognitive Lab ................................................................................................. 14

2.2.3 Integrative Lab or Socio-cognitive Lab ................................................................................................ 15

2.3 The Audio-Language Laboratory ................................................................................................................ 16

2.3.1 The Functions of the Audio Language Lab .......................................................................................... 16

2.3.2 The Role of the Teacher in the Audio – Language lab ......................................................................... 18

2.3.3 The Advantages of the Audio- Language lab ....................................................................................... 19

2.3.4 The Disadvantages of the Audio-Language lab ................................................................................... 20

2.4 Computer Assisted Language Laboratory (CALL) ..................................................................................... 20

2.4.1 The Role of the Teacher in CALL ........................................................................................................ 22

2.4.2 The Advantages of CALL .................................................................................................................... 22

2.4.3 The Disadvantages of CALL ................................................................................................................ 24

2.5 Less Popular Forms of Language labs ........................................................................................................ 25

2.5.1 Characteristics ...................................................................................................................................... 27

2.5.2 Shortcomings ........................................................................................................................................ 29

Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................... 31

References: ........................................................................................................................................................... 32

1

Section One

The History of Language Laboratories

2

1.1 Introduction

Foreign language learning lends itself naturally to the use of media. Linguists stress the

primacy of speech over writing in language: children can listen and speak before they learn to

read and write and all languages of the world are spoken, but not all have a writing system. So

the need for developing the learning process , further enhance the experience of learning a second

language, making it less time consuming and ease the acquisition of the second language and

making it more approachable for students and learners in general .Thus came the need for

developing and creating language laboratories for the reasons mentioned above . Warren B. Roby

provides a clear picture of the movement of language laboratories from the past up to the present.

Dating back to the late 1940s and early 1950s, language-learning services and facilities were

considered a chief innovation and an important part of modern foreign language programs in

secondary schools and university (Warren B. Roby. 2004: 523-541).

With the earlier views of language learning focusing primarily on the mastery of

grammatical competence, language laboratories were aimed for students to gain auditory

exposure to the target foreign language. After several decades, technological advancement offers

such thing as the Internet. Students are provided with the opportunity to hear the language they

are studying from native speakers via various learning resources (e.g., foreign television

programming). Foreign language learning has moved away from memorizing dialogs and

performing drills under the control of the teacher to processes such as interaction and negotiation

from the use of pair work activities, role plays, group work activities and project work.

Unquestionably, a large number of language laboratories around the globe are still in rows of

booths with limited use in real life while it is clear that many technological aids can improve the

teaching and learning (ibid).

Language Lab is an instructional technology tool consisting of a source unit that can

disseminate audio, audio/visual, videos, PCs, LCD projector, Internet and/or written materials to

students at individual seats, with a wide variety of potential feedback mechanisms. Teacher

computer is the Core part of the Language Lab. All features are available in Teacher Console.

Connection manager ensures stable and reliable connection with the students. The system

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automatically notifies if any problem arise between a student system and the teacher system. The

system connection manager continuously checks for new incoming connections. Student console

needs to login before starting a session (C.Visweswara Rao, 243).

Students are able to listen to files from their own library, practice and learn. The status bar

displays the connection status. Whenever Teacher console gets started, the connection manager

in Student console will find the teacher automatically and establishes a connection between the

servers. When a student PC gets connected with the teacher PC, it automatically reads out the

lessons list from the Teacher Shared Lesson database. Whenever teacher adds a new file to the

shared library, the system sends the new lesson details to student. Student can either play lessons

directly from student console or they are able to download the lessons to their own local folder.

Sharing lessons is the crucial part of LAN based learning systems. The teacher is able to take care

of individual student i.e., Call, Chat, Transfer files, Connect/Disconnect a student from Teacher

console, etc (ibid).

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1.2 Language Laboratories; Past

The first recorded language lab was established at the University of Grenoble in 1908

(Leon P.R. 1962: 275). Frank Chalfant brought the concept to the United States, establishing a

'phonetics lab' at Washington State University in 1911 or 1912. These early language labs used

phonographs to deliver audio, and were not yet divided into individual booths (Warren B. Roby.

2004: 523-541).

Language labs were well-suited to the audio-lingual method. By 1958, there were over 300

language labs in the US, with the majority in colleges and universities. In 1958, the National

Defense Education Act authorized federal financial assistance for American secondary school

foreign language programs. This led to the rapid creation of new language labs. By the mid-1960s,

there were an estimated 10,000 secondary-level and 4,000 post-secondary language labs in the

United States (ibid).

In the 1940s, linguists at the University of Michigan developed the behaviorist audio-

lingual method of foreign language learning. This method relied on repeated listening and

speaking drills. This method increased in popularity in the United States and Canada into the

1950s and 1960s (Richards and Rodgers. 2001: 204).

The word ‘laboratory’ originated in the late 15th century. It refers to a specific structure or

a room for mixing chemicals and preparing medicines by science experts. Scientists used to

follow structured steps to perform their experiments and research purpose. With the progress of

science few types of mechanical and electronic equipment were added to this structure. Later on

this structure was introduced for teaching learning process. Any learner can develop one’s subject

knowledge practically in controlled conditions. Observe and improve through own experience is

the key concern of any laboratory (Warren B. Roby. 2019: 525).

Today specific requirements of subjects and technology have changed the form of

laboratories. It has transcended the boundaries of various subjects. Nowadays laboratory is been

used by engineering and language students as well. Lab was widely in use in 1990 for many

language learning purposes. Many professionals were learning English in lab as well as many

5

were making course ware and software. This was the time to study about lab. If we analyze these

lab types we can observe what lab does. With the beginning of Language lab this first phase

started and specifically denoted during 1960 to 1970. As it is clear that this phase was the initial

phase of computer based language learning, computer technology was also in its primal stage. It

is also known as the childhood of language lab because it was working on a trial error base (ibid).

The strengths in using these innovative tools that learners were able to play the same model

for multiple times. Thus they could be benefited from an unlimited number of practicing with

native speaker voice. These devices never got tired while the teachers did. However, it was

admitted that machines could not replaced teachers. In EFL classes, teachers played the model

dialogues to students. Students mimicked and were evaluated by their teachers. Or students

recorded their voices and gave it to teachers for evaluations and corrections by teachers.

Textbooks were opened along with the recordings. Laboratories were recognized by a number of

language institutions at that time and the most notable laboratory then was The traditional CALL

(Computer Assisted Language Learning), used in the early 1980s was computer-based materials

for language teaching (Kitao, K. 1984. 35: 86-103) . The CALL Lab will be further discussed in

the next section .

1.3 Language Laboratory; Present

Since 1950s, language laboratories have well been developed. The old-style language labs

that a teacher arranged the listening practice allowed with a hard-wired analogue tape deck based

systems with 'sound booths' in fixed locations are outdated (M. Evans.2009.p22). During 2001-

2007, portable music players became a great achievement of language laboratories. In fact,

several of lab equipments have been replaced by more powerful devices. For example, videotapes

were changed to be videodisks which can interface with a computer. Later, it seems that

computers are also used for administration and evaluation the entire laboratories. In addition,

Japanese language labs were recognized as one of the world best technology-integrated

laboratories. Due to advanced technology, today’s language labs can both work with these

software only language lab solutions and deliver media synchronously. New language labs use

the content that is much more affluent. These contents are self authored or free. These include

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audio, video, flash based games, internet etc. Student and teachers are more engaged with a high

speed and variety of materials and activities. A fixed network has gone and teachers and students

can now access and work from these new “cloud” labs. These labs refer to use of “network-based

services, which appear to be provided by real server hardware, and are in fact served up by virtual

hardware, simulated by software running on one or more real machines. Such virtual servers do

not physically exist and can therefore be moved around and scaled up (or down) on the fly without

affecting the end user -arguably, rather like a cloud” (1). Cloud allows students and teachers work

on their own devices at anytime and anywhere.

The rapid growth of technology in language education maybe due to the reason that our

learners are growing up with technology. Thus they have naturally integrated it as part of their

lives. As these learners use technology to learn about the outside world. As a result, they partially

boost up the growth of innovation. In language learning, there are currently a numbers of devices

and methods that are “in” and used these include podcast ,Blogs,wikis (ibid).

1.4 Future of Language Laboratories

While E-Learning will undoubtedly be with English second or first language learning

management, it is very difficult to say what the labs in the future of English second or first

language learning classes will be like. In fact the question is whether language laboratories will

exist. Observing the trend, media in EFL learning can be supported and delivered with digital

technology rather than from physical language labs. EFL teachers need to reconsider if there is

the need for a lab that provides physical space for equipment and materials, teachers and students.

Or what we need is simply technology that allows, enables and manages the learning. If so, why

don’t we start thinking about redesigning, reformatting and redefining the physical language

laboratories, instrument, materials and lab managers to survive the future? Roles of teachers,

students and technology need to be redefined and readjusted. Most importantly, the teachers must

be at least able to match technology with their teaching philosophy, methodology, pedagogical

objectives and learners. So it will be difficult to predict the future of language laboratory but by

taking into consideration the great technical advancement of technology one can only imagine

how much easier the acquisition and the learning process of a second language would be for the

7

future is promising of course . But the greatest obstacles that will face the implementations of

future laboratories will be the teachers themselves and how much will they adapt and account or

even adopt such advanced technologies . Regardless of the promises and fears that encounter the

adoption of future laboratories the hopes for a better learning environment is there and the hope

that teachers will be motivated enough to discover and train themselves to implement those

technologies to their teaching process .

Language lab Design

8

Section Two

Types of Language Laboratory and Their Functions

9

2.1 Language Laboratory

Listening comprehension is a key component in language teaching. Language programs

with a communicative goal should focus on the quality of listening tasks based on authentic

materials as well as appropriate audio-visual equipment. In terms of the authenticity of the content

of listening activities, (Kilickaya ,F.2004, p. 2) explains that language “learners feel better with

authentic materials helping them involve in the ‘real‘ language as long as we, as teachers, provide

them with pedagogical support”. Instructors may create tasks from short academic lectures, radio

programs, authentic conversations, audio-books, songs, or short stories. In addition, audio-visual

equipment should be part of all language courses in which technology facilitates the teaching-

learning process. In regard to listening comprehension, most language programs include tape

recording, digital data or even computer software in their curriculum.

Carter and McCarthy point out that “since the mid-1970s tape-recording has been

sufficiently cheap and practical to enable the widespread study of talk—whether native speaker

talk or learner talk—and use of tape recorders in language classrooms” . Besides tape recorders,

the audio-language laboratory has been highly used in language teaching to make students aware

of the characteristics of spoken discourse (Carter and Mccarthy.2001 :14).

The audio-language laboratory has played an important role in language teaching for a long

time. Its main objective was to help language students improve the aural-oral skills. With the

implementation of the language laboratory, many language teachers developed new techniques

in order to derive all possible advantages of this tool in the field of applied linguistics. Carter and

Mccarthy expand on this and say that “when tape recorder and language laboratories gradually

came into existence in the 1950s, they were mainly used for pronunciation, grammar and

translation practice, often in the context of courses named as such. During the 1960s, the language

lab rapidly became one of the most innovative audio components ever built" (ibid). A language

laboratory is a teaching tool requiring the implementation of well constructed tasks based on the

students’ needs. In contrast to other material aids like radios, tape recorders, DVD players or TV

sets, language teachers must take into account some key considerations before using the language

lab. A language lab should not be seen. either as the teacher or a teaching method. The

10

effectiveness of the language laboratory directly depends on the teacher’s creativity and the

listening activities he or she is going to use (Underwood. 1984: 34).

Language laboratory plays an important role in the language learning process. As it is a

combination of various technological aids which gives many advanced facilities that can help a

student to learn a language developing all four skills. It proves that education and technology are

best complement of each other. Language lab is a class of English language learning where

teaching learning process happens with computers and other technical support. For language

learning students individually use a computer which is connected with a server (Akhdiyati. 2017,

:57).

2.1.1 Functions of Language Laboratory

Language lab sessions, , should be seen as a helpful complement of language courses as

long as creative and special tasks are developed for its use. In other words, the study of new

content and communicative activities may be conducted during the regular class period; then,

specific areas such as pronunciation (the segmental and supra-segmental features of language),

listening comprehension tasks, or further grammar practice must be reinforced in the lab with

recorded material especially designed for language lab sessions. These activities may include

pronunciation exercises, songs, cloze tests, and content questions based on interesting lectures or

talks. Finally, using a language lab has to do with the possibility of having some feedback; that

is, students can record the content and explanations given by the teacher during language lab

sessions. Then, they can listen to their own production and focus on their own mistakes. This is

a significant advantage over the other two types of language laboratories that can be found in the

market at that time (Underwood. 1984: 35)

It is assumed that students need intensive activities to attract they practice listening and

speaking in and out of their classes (Slobin. 1985: 164). He adds that the only linguistic materials

that can figure in language production are stretches of speech that attract the child’s attention to

a sufficient degree to be noticed and held in memory. Then the importance of language labs can

11

solve this problem and make English learning process is very attractive for both teachers and

students.

2.1.2 The Role of the Teacher in the Language Laboratory

Language teachers developed new techniques in order to derive all possible advantages of

this tool in the field of applied linguistics. So teachers were focusing on pronunciation mainly by

the use drills developed specifically for this kind of laboratory and they mainly concentrated on

the students needs and weaknesses material aids like radios, tape recorders, DVD players or TV

sets, were all taken into consideration by the teachers who use this the language laboratory and

The effectiveness of the language laboratory directly depends on the teacher’s creativity and the

listening activities he or she is going to use. But the language lab should not be seen either as the

teacher or a teaching method because it will hinder the learning process.

The study of new content and communicative activities may be conducted during the

regular class period; then, specific areas such as pronunciation (the segmental and supra-

segmental features of language), listening comprehension tasks, or further grammar practice must

be reinforced in the lab with recorded material especially designed for language lab sessions.

These activities may include pronunciation exercises, songs, cloze tests, and content questions

based on interesting lectures or talks (Underwood, 1984: 37).

2.1.3 The Basic Aims of the Language Laboratory

Many of us may have already used a language lab as a student or perhaps as a teacher

however it will be seen that the language lab has changed for the better. Jubil Ezer Shite (2017 p:

16) finds the opportunities and learning potential that a new Language lab can offer is vast

however it may be pleased to hear that some things stay the same because the basic aims of the

language lab are the same as they ever were and they are:

To improve listening skills – classroom and individual with high quality audio

To improve speaking skills – individual, paired, groups

To present and demonstrate language skills – both screen and voice in seconds

To monitor and guide students – discrete monitoring and intervention as required

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2.1.4 Advantages of Language Laboratory

Language lab plays a pivotal role in learning the spoken English too. The basic proficiency

in spoken English is imparted to students through the language lab. The need for a language

laboratory has been much felt in the domain of communication. The language laboratory enhances

the sensibility for the sounds and rhythm of a language. It helps the learners use technological

appliances effectively to communicate. It is also helpful to groom the learners’ personality

(C.Visweswara Rao. :246).

Hmoud, (2014, pp.84-94) reveals that the language lab provides access to native-speakers

to enhance students learning correctly. To pursue higher studies abroad, language lab would help

students in studying the language of the country where they are planning to complete their higher

education (i.e. EFL students are required to pass TOEFL/IELTS if they plan to study in some of

the English speaking countries).

• The language laboratory provides the audio exposure to foreign languages. Satellite radio,

Internet radio and pod casts are all available in a well established language laboratory.

• The language lab provides the learners with the facilities for audio and video recordings

and these help them improve their communicative skills as well as their body language.

• The language lab makes the production of requisite pedagogical materials imperative,

particularly in the case of teaching of languages.

• The language lab is the perfect place to organize seminars and workshops and various

aspects of educational technology, educational software, production techniques dubbing

etc.

• A language lab is generally used for two purposes: the primary purpose in which linguistic

expressions are learnt and practiced and secondary purpose in which communication

expressions are learnt and practiced.

• The language lab gives freedom to the learners to express their ups and downs freely

without any inhibitions in the process of language learning (Hill, L.A. P: 141-142).

13

2.1.5 Disadvantages of Language Laboratory

Language lab software is sometime costly and not affordable by every school. Teachers

are not skilled to handle lab software in effective way. If Students do not have sufficient

knowledge of computers than it is useless for them. It is based on drill and practice therefore it

does not provide any novelty in learning. Thus, it seems boring sometime. Although of the

various advantages of the language laboratory, it has also a few disadvantages or let us say

difficulties, which are related to the high cost, it needs skilled instructors, and it makes

unsuccessful instruction in some cases (V.K.Maheshwari,2017: 14-17).

• The language lab requires a high cost to be built in the university and to be kept on going.

It is very expensive to set up the language lab and. For some countries there is no lab

syllabus and usually language classes are conducted as theory. Furthermore, it needs more

money for resource management.

• The language lab would not let the English teaching-learning process be effective if there

are some troubles with the technology of it. Worse even, it becomes useless when the

electricity is off.

• The language laboratory needs an qualified teacher to be able to activate all the technology

provided in it.

• English has to employ technicians who would keep the equipment in the language

laboratory always in a high-quality conditions.

• These days student does not have enough patience to listen to pronunciation and practice

them so the recording of pronunciation is useless.

• As the teacher listens to students randomly the response can be unorganized and ineffective

as there are many students to attend to.

• The teacher should be well trained in executing the language lab effectively. Given the

nature of teaching, a language teacher may need an assistant in taking care of the

technological part while teacher attends to the instructional components.

• As technology changes rapidly, there should be a provision for upgrade in the medium of

instructions, which can be burden for school in terms of finances.

14

• According to (Hartoyo, 2006, 31), the program is different from traditional books that can

be carried around and studied wherever and whenever they wish: on a train, at home, in the

middle of the night, and so on. School computers or language laboratory can only be

accessed in restricted hours, so it only benefits people who have computers at home or

personal notebook.

2.2 Types of Language Laboratories

Though language laboratories has developed gradually over the last 30 years, this

development can be categorized in terms of three somewhat distinct phases which will be referred

to as behavioristic lab, communicative lab, and integrative lab (Barson & Debski,1996,49-68).

2.2.1 Structural or Behaviouristic Lab

The beginning of Language lab this first phase started and specifically denoted during 1960

to 1970. As it is clear that this phase was the initial phase of computer based language learning,

computer technology was also in its primal stage. It is also known as the childhood of language

lab because it was working on a trial error base. Its name suggests its category. Structural

knowledge was the priority of the time so all the language teaching activities were structure

centric. This clearly suggests that it was under the deep influence of Grammar- Translation &

Audio-lingual methods. Donald Bitzer’s PLATO is a product of this age. If we take PLATO as

an example we can understand that drilling practice was considered as the best exercise. Learners

are supposed to practice a prerecorded study material. Computer provides a text and learners

respond to the exercise in text. Computer provides feedback for the same after analyzing it. There

was a provision of error correction and re-teaching. Structural type of lab was aimed at

accurateness in language. The question was that how is it possible to bring accuracy directly

without using it frequently (Waschauer,1996: 3-20).

2.2.2 Communicative Lab or Cognitive Lab

With the development of computer technology lab got updated. At the end of 1980

communication technology was full-fledged. Common people could communicate faster with

technology but the condition was to learn English as computer provides English language which

15

is common to all. Many people started language learning with a view to communicate with others.

Communicative Lab types started in 1980 and lasted up to 1990. In Communicative Lab the

language is taught for interaction. Language is to communicate that’s why priority is given to

communication. Most people of the world are fluent of speaking their mother tongue though one

has no knowledge of grammar. It means that without the knowledge of grammar and structure

one can speak any language with practice. Anyone who is fluent in speaking can use the language

well so fluency is the target of Communicative Lab. Computer becomes a medium for

communicating effectively. In Communicative Lab all the computer based exercises are also

communicative one. Communicative Lab teaches English language rather teaching about

language. Rather teaching rules and structure directly if we start teaching a foreign language with

communicative practice it improves learner’s willingness to learn an unfamiliar language. The

Communicative Lab is cotemporary to the hike of personal computer. It would be just to say it a

quick and right utilization of computer technology (Waschauer,1996: 3-20)).

2.2.3 Integrative Lab or Socio-cognitive Lab

Within ten years of Communicative Lab users were fed up with Communicative Lab. With

some modifications and alterations a new type of lab came in to existence in 1990s as Integrative

Lab. Language is taught in social contexts. This was student centric and fulfilling social needs as

well. It very important to point out that during 1990s and 2000 the wind of social media was

blown. With computer and telephone people have started using Pagers and Cell Phones. To learn

various skills of English learners have to interact. In Integrative Lab learners provided a chance

to share their thoughts with their classmate or teacher. Unlike previous lab types it provides

regular chances to use technology in language learning. With the development of technology

Integrative Lab has developed subtypes but it is very popular even today. Integrative Lab is also

known as Sociocognitive Lab. The main reason for this is learner’s learning and receptive abilities

are used in a social framework. Learners work as a team not as individual. It’s a wonder that

computer network is used to build social network of learners. Contradictory to Communicative

Lab here the aim of learning is not fluency but the agency or group. Learner takes one’s decisions

and learns according to one’s choice. It provides a learner more freedom than any other type of

16

lab. The use of computer is to render students for real life and task based learning. It is a tool for

discourse making (Waschauer,1996: 3-20).

2.3 The Audio-Language Laboratory

When the language lab started gaining popularity in the United States, many administrators

decided to keep up-to-date with this new teaching technology and incorporated the lab into their

language centers. Eventually, the lab spread not only in language institutes but also in high-

schools and universities due to the increasing interest in learning other languages. For many

decades, the audio-language laboratory remained one of the most important audio materials ever

built. Since its invention, it has suffered a series o modifications in order for students and language

instructors to seize all its capability such as the opportunity to record the material that is used

during the lab sessions (Wilga M. Rivers .1970, 318-321).

Rivers lists three important statements related to use of the audio- language laboratory:

a) the language laboratory is not a teacher.

b) the laboratory work must be an integral part of the language program”.

c) the audio language lab is not a method .

It is important to understand these three different ideas in order to comprehend some complaints

that have been linked to the use of the language laboratory work (Wilga M. Rivers .1970, 318-

321).

2.3.1 The Functions of the Audio Language Lab

According to Rivers, the Audio- language laboratory can be used in order to implement a

technique that belongs to a certain method or combination of different methods. Even though its

use is not essential in teaching the aural-oral skills and the sub-skill of pronunciation, it would

help a lot to improve students’ listening comprehension, speaking, pronunciation as well as

grammar in communicative contexts. The writing skills can be taught when learners have already

achieved an oral competence in the foreign or second language. The same author says that

“teachers need to study carefully and critically the available materials to see that they are based

on sound grammatical and pedagogical principles and are interesting to the students” (Rivers,

17

1970, 319). In a class of thirty and more students, it has not been possible during classroom

sessions to give each student all the practice he needed, and there has been no effective way of

controlling the amount and accuracy of his learning practice out of schools hours. With the

establishment of a laboratory, much of this individual practice takes place in a situation where an

accurate model and immediate correction of mistakes are available. Each student is provided with

carefully graded and sequenced learning practice, and a way of verifying how he is progressing.

It must be emphasized, however, that the effectiveness of the learning is dependent on the thought

and care which the teacher has put into the programming of the practice tapes.

The work of the students in the laboratory will be only as good as the program with which

they are asked to work (ibid). The teacher should take into account the language areas in which

students need further practice. There is a teaching principle that says that the teachers should not

evaluate something their students have not practiced yet. Rivers says that if the students have not

“reached the stage where the work programmed for a particular laboratory session, it is better to

omit that session”; otherwise, the students are going to drop out in “frustration” and

“disappointment” .Even though teachers might include lab sessions in their courses, it does not

mean that all the techniques are linked to audio-lingual principles since different methods or

approaches can be combined (Rivers, 1970: 321).

The following are recommendations for language teachers before using the language lab:

1. Be sure you know how to operate the equipment.

2. At the beginning of the language course, explain to students what they are going to practice

in the language lab. Remember that if they do not depend too much on written materials,

they will take more advantage of the language lab sessions. In addition, explain that they

can record the language lab sessions and study at home the material they have recorded.

3. Short periods of time in the language laboratory are more effective than long ones.

4. The main objective of the lab session is for students to have extra practice in the areas

where they are having trouble; this means that the exercises studied there should not be an

exact repetition of the material already seen in the rest of the class.

18

5. Teachers should not use the lab for the entire lab session; that is, they should also use other

teaching aids such as a blackboard, an overhead projector, a TV set, and many others. A

combination of resources is a plus.

6. Once the teacher has finished with the presentation of the pattern drills, he or she must have

students use the material they have just practiced in real conversations (Rivers. 1970, p.

99).

2.3.2 The Role of the Teacher in the Audio – Language lab

Even though its use is not essential in teaching the aural-oral skills and the sub-skill of

pronunciation, it would help a lot to improve students’ listening comprehension, speaking,

pronunciation as well as grammar in communicative contexts. The writing skills can be taught

when learners have already achieved an oral competence in the foreign or second language. The

author says that “teachers need to study carefully and critically the available materials to see that

they are based on sound grammatical and pedagogical principles and are interesting to the

students” (Rivers, 1970: 319). This last statement means that if the teacher does not pay attention

to the type of material he or she is going to bring to the language lab session, the use of the

language lab and its effectiveness in helping students acquire second language would be greatly

diminished. teachers must pay close attention to the improvement reached by their students during

the time they spend in the lab sessions. practicing what has been taught in a previous class lesson,

or work for which the student has been prepared in some way by the teacher”. The teacher should

take into account the language areas in which students need further practice. There is a teaching

principle that says that the teachers should not evaluate something their students have not

practiced yet. Rivers says that if the students have not “reached the stage where the work

programmed for a particular laboratory session, it is better to omit that session”; otherwise, the

students are going to drop out in “frustration” and “disappointment”. Even though teachers might

include lab sessions in their courses, it does not mean that all the techniques are linked to audio-

lingual principles since different methods or approaches can be combined .It must be emphasized,

however, that the effectiveness of the learning is dependent on the thought and care which the

teacher has put into the programming of the practice tapes. The work of the students in the

19

laboratory will be only as good as the program with which they are asked to work. (Rivers 1970:

321).

2.3.3 The Advantages of the Audio- Language lab

It helps language students improve the aural-oral skills.

Teachers developed new techniques and activities that use the help of the lab to overcome

the various difficulties that learners encounter.

The ability to record the material that is used during the lab sessions gave the teachers the

advantage seizing all its capability for the development of the learning process.

Students were able to actively participate as much as possible repeating utterances aloud

instead of waiting for their turn.

An accurate model and immediate correction of mistakes were key components for the

learners to enhance their learning experience .

Each student is provided with carefully graded and sequenced learning practice, and a way

of verifying how he is progressing.

It gave each student the opportunity to hear native speech clearly and distinctly.

The students may hear this authentic native speech as frequently as he and his teacher

desire.

The taped lesson provides an unchanging and unwearying model of native speech for the

student to imitate.

In the Audio- language laboratory the student may listen to a great variety of foreign voices,

both male and female.

Each student may hear and use the foreign language throughout the laboratory session,

instead of wasting time waiting for his turn in a large group, as he does in the usual

classroom situation.

The laboratory frees the teacher from certain problems of class directions and classroom

management, enabling him to concentrate on the problems of individual students. (Lado,

p. 174).

20

2.3.4 The Disadvantages of the Audio-Language lab

The Audio- language laboratory should not be used with certain methods because it would

cause “so much time wasted.

It requires “teachers to study carefully and critically the available materials to see that they

are based on sound grammatical and pedagogical principles and are interesting to the

students” which is time consuming .

Teachers do not pay attention to the type of material he or she is going to bring to the

language lab session.

Teachers felt somehow released from implementing innovative and creative material for

the lab session. Robert Lado (1964, p. 173) describes this misconception as “the lab-as-

the-center attitude” in which language teachers consider the material brought to the lab

session as the center of the teaching process.

A large number of “students quickly got tired of the novelty, began to resent being forced

to sit there wearing those uncomfortable earphones, and started taking the booths apart”.

Comparing your own efforts with those of a native model on the tape demanded skills that

most school children did not have, though it was a valuable facility for more sophisticated

adult students. (Lado 1964, p. 173).

2.4 Computer Assisted Language Laboratory (CALL)

Since the appearance of language laboratories, technology has always been regarded as a

new panacea for language teaching and learning. A new medium was viewed as synonymous

with improved language pedagogy and consequently with better and more efficient language

teaching and learning. The first steps of CALL go back to the 60s. It was probably in Stanford

University that the first CALL software was developed. Some years later, in 1968, at the

University of New York, some software for German was implemented. The first European CALL

projects date back to the 70s: the University of Essex (with some Russian programs), the

University of Hull, the University of Aberdeen, the University of East Anglia, the University of

Surrey and Ealing College of Higher Education. However, the most ambitious CALL project was

PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations; Chapelle and Jamieson 1984),

21

at the University of Illinois. The popularity in the 60s of the behaviourist theories of the American

psychologist B. E. Skinner, helped their proliferation and introduction within linguistics and

language pedagogy. ln addition, the popularity of Skinner's theories and the first "flirtation" with

the computer within the teaching environment immediately converged. Behaviourist ideas were

taken as the theoretical soil on which to build the computer assisted learning and teaching

framework. The computer started to be considered not as a technological aid, as we understand it

now, but as an alternative to "traditional teacher assisted teaching".

Computer-assisted language lab (CALL) is succinctly defined in a seminal work by (Levy

1997: 11) as "the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and

learning" CALL embraces a wide range of information and communications technology

applications and approaches to teaching and learning foreign languages, from the "traditional"

drill-and-practice programs that characterized CALL in the 1960s and 1970s to more recent

manifestations of CALL, e.g. as used in a virtual learning environment and Web-based distance

learning. It also extends to the use of corpora and concordancers, interactive whiteboards,[2]

Computer-mediated communication. Computer-Assisted Language laboratory has a rather

extended background. Originally envisioned in the 1950s as a possible method for formalizing a

standard language learning format, as technology improved, in the 1960s and 70s programmers

began incorporating the language learning concepts of the time period, particularly the behaviorist

theory With the invention of the microcomputer, the communicative phase of CALL was

introduced, promoting actual patterns of communication as the proponents of this approach felt

that the drill and practice programs of the previous decade did not allow enough authentic

communication to be of much value”. More recently, language acquisition research has become

one of the fundamentals behind the shift to communicative CALL, since this method “reflects a

well-informed pedagogical practice due to its strong theoretical base requiring linguists to apply

second language acquisition theory to CALL applications in order to be more successful. CALL

applications were steadily gaining ground and teachers began using it with time (Levy 1997: 12).

The third phase is called Integrative CALL in which hypermedia and the Internet offers a

lot to language learning by providing more authentic, skill-based, creative and individualized

22

learning environments. These environments allow learners to explore, discover, ponder, search,

question, answer, communicate and receive feedback (Bahrani, 2011) on their progress and/or

proficiency at their tailored pace and objectives.

2.4.1 The Role of the Teacher in CALL

the teacher is usually considered to be slow in changing and upgrading himself/herself.

Implicitly or explicitly, however, the teacher is now being asked to be familiar with new

technology and teaching methodology using CALL applications, and also to be involved in the

use of computer materials in their teaching contexts. A starting point for fulfilling this

requirement could be to find appropriate roles and possible tasks for the teacher in CALL

environments. This suggests that language teachers need to identify their roles and respond to

new issues and demands on teachers. The roles of the teacher commonly found in the language

classroom are tutor, guide or facilitator. In addition to these roles, the teacher in CALL needs to

act as a CALL observer, designer, implementer, evaluator or manager. CALL observers observe

recent CALL activities, identify the types of CALL materials and build basic skills to deal with

CALL. Teachers who are directly involved in the design, implementation or evaluation of CALL

can be called CALL developers on the basis of the idea of categorizing CALL software

development in three modules which I refer to as design, implementation, and evaluation. CALL

designers create their own computer applications by practicing and utilizing programming

languages or authoring tools with instructional design approaches; CALL implementers use

CALL software which matches with students or teachers' needs in the classroom and develop

teaching methods for CALL practice; and CALL evaluators make comments on CALL materials,

approaches or courses with evaluation criteria. When teachers supervise the overall use of CALL,

they become CALL managers who guide other teachers to the world of CALL, facilitate CALL

in self-access or classroom settings, and manage CALL resources for learning and teaching

purposes (Son, 1997, 2000).

2.4.2 The Advantages of CALL

1. Interest and motivation Classical language teaching in classroom can be monotonous,

boring, and even frustrating, and students can lose interest and motivation in learning.

23

CALL programmers can provide student ways to learn English through computer games,

animated graphics, and problem-solving techniques which can make drills more interesting

2. Individualization CALL allows learners to have non-sequential learning habit; they can

decide on their own which skills to develop and which course to use, as well as the speed

and level by their own needs.

3. A compatible learning style Students have different style of learning, and an incompatible

style for students will cause serious conflicts to them. Computer can provide an exciting

“fast” drill for one student and “slow” for another.

4. Optimal use of learning time The time flexibility of using computer enables students to

choose appropriate timing for learning. Winter (1997) in Kiliçkaya (2007) stressed the

importance of flexible learning, learning anywhere, anytime, anyhow, and anything you

want, which is very true for the web-based instruction and CALL. Learners are given a

chance to study and review the materials as many times they want without limited time.

5. Immediate feedback Students receive maximum benefit from feedback only if it is given

immediately. A delayed positive feedback will reduce the encouragement and

reinforcement, and a delayed negative feedback affect the crucial knowledge a student must

master. Computer can give instant feedback and help the students ward off his

misconception at the very first stage. Brown (1997) in Kiliçkaya (2007) listed the

advantages of CALL as giving immediate feedback, allowing students at their own pace,

and causing less frustration among students.

6. Error analysis Computer database can be used by teacher to classify and differentiate the

type of general error and error on account of the influence of the first language. A computer

can analyze the specific mistakes that students made and can react in different way from

the usual teacher, which make students able to make self-correction and understand the

principle behind the correct solution. (Ravichandran, 2007)

7. Guided and repetitive practice Students have freedom of expression within certain bounds

that programmers create, such as grammar, vocabulary, etc. They can repeat the course

they want to master as many as they wish. According to Ikeda (1999) in Kiliçkaya (2007),

24

drill-type CALL materials are suitable for repetitive practice, which enable students to

learn concepts and key elements in a subject area.

8. Pre-determined to process syllabus Computer enhances the learning process from a pre-

determined syllabus to an emerging or process syllabus. For example, a monotonous paper

exercise of ‘fill-in-the-blanks’ type can be made more exciting on the screen in the self-

access mode, and students can select their own material. Therefore, CALL facilitates the

synthesis of the pre-planned syllabus and learner syllabuses “through a decision-making

process undertaken by teacher and learners together” (Breen 1986 in Ravichandran 2000).

2.4.3 The Disadvantages of CALL

Although there are many advantages of computer, the application of current computer

technology still has its limitations and disadvantages. Some disadvantages of CALL are as

follows:

1) Less-handy equipment.

The CALL program is different from traditional books that can be carried around and studied

wherever and whenever they wish: on a train, at home, in the middle of the night, and so on.

School computers or language laboratory can only be accessed in restricted hours, so CALL

program only benefits people who have computers at home or personal notebook.

2) Increased educational costs.

Gips, DiMattia and Gips (2004 cited in Lai & Kritsonis, 2006) highlighted educational

inequality of learning experiences by referring to low budget schools and low-income students

who cannot afford a computer. As long as computers become basic learning equipment, there

occurs an unfair condition for them. CALL programs don’t benefit them if few school

computers are only accessible in restricted hours and/or learners don’t have computers at

home. Moreover, though they manage to get computers, expensive hardware, software and the

need for updates are also another financial concern to cope with while applying CALL

programs.

25

3) Lack of trained teachers

It is necessary for teachers and students to have basic technology knowledge before applying

computer technology in second language teaching and learning. Therefore, computers will

only benefit those who are familiar with computer technology (Roblyer and Knezek. 2003: p

63).

4) Imperfect current CALL programs

At present, the software of CALL mainly deals with reading, listening, and writing skills.

There are some speaking programs have been developed recently, but their functions are still

limited. a program should ideally be able to understand a user’s spoken input and evaluate it

not just for correctness but also for ‘appropriateness’. Speaking program should be able to

diagnose a learner’s problem with pronunciation, syntax, or usage and then intelligently decide

among a range of options.

5) Inability to handle unexpected situations

The learning situation that a second-language learner faces are various and ever changing.

Computers merely have artificial intelligence, and it cannot deal with learner’s unexpected

learning problem or response to learner’s questions immediately as teachers do. computer

technology with that degree do not exist, and are not expected to exist quite a long time. In

other words, today’s computer technology and its language learning programs are not yet

intelligent enough to be truly interactive.

6) Healthy concerns

For some people, it is difficult to sit in front of a screen and read electronic texts for a while.

Some even may develop exhausted and irritating eye-problems, which slow their reading skill

down (Hartoyo, 2006).

2.5 Less Popular Forms of Language labs

We are not going to delve deep into these less popular forms of language laboratories . we

mainly going to discuss them briefly as follows ;

26

1) The Dial Access Lab: needs more spaces than the Conventional Lab. It also needs more

technicians at any given time. It is basically a broadcast operation. Depending on the size of

operation, any number of students can access a particular tape at any given time.

2) Mobile Lab: This is basically a console on wheels with storage spaces for headsets. It is best

used within a single building where it can be moved from one room to another (Writing is very

minimal).While the advantage of the mobile lab is that any classroom may be turned into a lab,

the drawback is that the equipment is heavy and hampers free movement. It requires time and

energy to set up.

3) Wireless Lab: The wires connecting the sources to student headsets are replaced by radio

transmission in a wireless laboratory. The console contains a small transmitter that serves this

purpose. Monitoring and intercom are NOT possible with this lab. (It combines well with the

Mobile Lab, though the important functions of monitoring and intercom are forfeited)

4) Portable Lab: This is similar to the Mobile Lab except that instead of being placed on wheels,

it is placed in weather–proofed packages enclosed in containers with handles. It is either powered

by batteries or portable electric generators. It is ideal for poverty stricken areas. (types of

Laboratory Installations. Wikieducator)

Whatever be the kind of lab, a serious criticism that comes from all quarters is that it is at

best a dialogue between the students and an electromagnetic tape, and, at worst, the apotheosis of

the system of parrot learning. (Cooper 46) In short, that it is a dehumanized method of language

learning.

Recent experience in the use of language laboratories techniques in the teaching of English

as a foreign language suggests that we need to criticise our concept of language laboratory use .

Certainly it is very far from being the panacea of EFL, and it is hard to escape the accusation that

it amounts to little more than a piece at sophisticated linguistic gimmickry, impressive the layout,

but of marginal 'effectiveness in improving all-round speech performance. (ibid),

Desmond, despite this essential drawback, teachers and researchers claim that there are

benefits of using language labs in ESL/ EFL classrooms. Some of the benefits are as follows:

27

The use of a modern language lab or reading lab system will allow the students to learn

any language or improve their own reading and speaking skills and develop their own

native language comprehension at an accelerated rate.

Listening skills are primary in becoming fluent. Even Level II language labs (the simplest

type of system) help develop listening skills, allowing the students to focus on the spoken

word and therefore enhancing their ability to repeat and understand the spoken language.

In a lab setting the students can be subdivided into small groups to either listen and respond

to the instructor's program material or interact with each other in conversational exercises.

There are many types of exercises and activities that can be developed by instructors for

both mainstream and special needs.

The ability of each student to speak at the same time and yet be audibly isolated from each

other allows efficient use of time and a higher degree of practice and learning. All of the

students can practice simultaneously (rather than one at a time) thus increasing the student's

actual practice and fluency (Roby, W.B. 2004. P: 523-541).

2.5.1 Characteristics

Acoustics: The language lab provides all students no matter where they are seated in the

room with equal opportunity to hear the instructor and to be heard by the instructor. Each

student can listen to the lesson material at a level set by themselves for their own comfort.

Privacy: The headset/microphone provides students with a psychological privacy that

promotes their speaking ability. It reduces the inhibitions felt in normal classroom

situations.

Attention: As the language lab allows the student to listen to the program stimulus

individually, each individual student's attention is focused on the program material being

studied.

Individualization: Even in labs that are not provided with digital recording capability, the

equipment usually provides the capability for dividing the class into several groups. These

groups can be listening to different programs on varying subject matters and at different

levels of inter-activity.

28

Developing Listening Skills: The language lab helps students develop good listening

skills and aids the process of communication. Students hear the correct language patterns

all the time through their headsets instead of mimicking other students who may be

pronouncing incorrectly.

Efficiency: The teacher can monitor individual students (and talk to them) much more

efficiently than in a regular classroom. Usually in a regular classroom all other students

stop speaking when the teacher communicates with an individual student. In a lab they will

continue working without interruption. Also, a teacher can interact with many more

students since he/she merely presses a mouse key or touches a button in order to be in

contact with a student. The language lab makes most efficient use of time, improving the

teacher/student time ratio and allowing the instructor to maximize the use of time in a given

lesson.

Variety: The language lab provides variety from regular classroom situations. The

teacher's role is changed and the students are more active for longer periods of time. The

use of visual stimulus coupled with selective audio materials increases the attention span

of the students.

Oral Testing: Oral test features allow instructors to test students with a question or

stimulus and only record the student's answer. Instructors who later play the student

recordings can easily mark the students work, which is made up of only the responses given

by the student.

Teacher Monitoring: Since the teacher is not concentrating on producing the next

question or drill, he/she can concentrate more on the student responses. The instructor has

more time to produce materials and oversee class activities due to the automatic rather than

manually controlled instructor console features.

Role Playing Exercises: Using the random pairing feature that all advanced modern

learning systems incorporate, instructors can generate a variety of exercises structured

around role-playing. Students can be paired or grouped together in small numbers and hold

conversational practice with each other. Due to the random selection of student partners

29

the students’ interest level is always high in anticipation of who their paired partner is likely

to be (Barson, J. & Debski, R. 1996.p149)

2.5.2 Shortcomings

No use of recordings for pronunciation. Students are interested in words, phrases and their

meanings. They do not have the patience to listen to the correct pronunciation and practice them.

Teacher listens randomly to students around the room. Individual student correction is haphazard.

All but the most simple or first generation laboratories allow the teacher to remotely control the

tape transport controls of the student booths (record, stop, rewind etc) from the master desk. This

allows for easy distribution of the master programme material, which is often copied at high speed

onto the student positions for later use by the students at their own pace (Barson, J. & Debski, R.

1996:150).

The technological changes in the language lab over the years are not only the result of

technological advancement but also of changes in language teaching / acquisition methods.

Earlier views of language learning focused primarily on the mastery of grammatical competence.

Language learning was viewed as a process of mechanical habit formation. Errors were to be

avoided through controlled opportunities for production (either written or spoken). By

memorizing dialogs and performing drills, the chances of making mistakes were minimized.

Learning was very much seen as under the control of the teacher. In recent years, language

learning has been viewed from a very different perspective. It is seen as resulting from processes

such as interaction and negotiation. Slowly began a movement away from traditional lesson

formats toward the use of pair work activities, role plays, group work activities and project work.

And there was a change in classroom dynamics. One result of the change in classroom dynamics

resulted in focus on language laboratory with student chairs equipped with headphones and

remotes. This has further changed shape with the student area taking a U-shape and the students

getting headphones and handsets to participate in the language activities. The new lab has come

up keeping in mind future classroom activities like role playing, group discussions and mock

interviews. Further, the new language lab is equipped with video recording facilities which can

act as a great mode of evaluation and feedback. By this visual evaluation of the students'

30

performance, the instructor can pin-point the areas that need to be improved or changed. Apart

from this, the students can also critically analyze their own performance. The new language lab

has come a long way from the cubicle setting and formatted class design and now can boast of an

open learning environ which is more interactive, and exciting. This user friendly, open

environment allows the students to enjoy equal audio-visual clarity and gives them the freedom

of eye-to-eye contact with the instructor. The language laboratory is a very helpful tool for

practicing and assessing one’s speech in any language. It provides a facility which allows the

student to listen to model pronunciation, repeat and record the same, listen to their performance

and compare with the model, and do self-assessment. From the above, one can conclude that a

successful implementation of the communicative method of teaching English makes it imperative

that the institute possess a language lab. But in a country like ours, the problems are numerous.

Generally language classes are conducted as theory classes with 100-150 students in a class.

There is no lab syllabus. When Institutes decide to have labs, they find language labs are pretty

expensive to set up. There are labs which need designated space and in old institutes there is lack

of space and funding; in the new ones the number of students is so high that it is difficult to

accommodate them at the same time. A lab meant for 40 or 60 student would fail to meet the

requirements as the teacher will not be able to focus or give time to all the students. Essentially a

lab with 20-25 students is the ideal one. Another question is about the number of hours to be used

in the lab. Going to the lab for 1 or 3 hours a week doesn’t serve the purpose. One needs to visit

the lab daily and be engaged in various language activities. In reality, students hardly find the

time to engage in the lab apart from the scheduled hours in the course of study. It is not feasible

for the language teacher to engage lecture classes and then be present in the lab throughout the

day. One needs trained assistants to help students whenever they come to the lab. And most

government institutes do not have such trained personnel and the new ones do not have the

authority to appoint many assistants. If these basic problems are sorted out and a language

syllabus with adequate number of lab hours is put in place only then language teaching and

learning can be a fulfilling task. Till then we will just be pouring in money in labs and equipments

without achieving the necessary ends (Barson, J. & Debski, R. 1996.p152).

31

Conclusion

In the present study we have discussed the historical background behind the

implementation of language laboratories to the teaching and learning environment , we also seen

how those labs developed over the years from their early beginning in fifties of the last generation

to the present time of twenty one century and imagined how the future will be for those labs .

secondly we discussed in details some of their kinds ( language laboratory , The Audio- language

laboratory, The Computer assisted language laboratory CALL and some less popular ones that

are less commonly used around the world.

32

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