13 13

113

Athina Dimopoulou Assistant Professor Faculty of Law National and Kapodistrian University of Athens

Ἄκυρον ἔστω legal invalidity in Greek inscriptions

In modern law1 invalidity clauses are frequent2 in most areas of law constitutional law family law successions property contracts corporate law and procedural law3 In contract law invalidity or nullity means that a contract or a particular clause in it is regarded as non-existent4 Legal invalidity in ancient Greek legal texts is expressed among other terms by ἄκυρος ἄκυρον ἔστω ἀτελὲς ἔστω5 Ἄκυρος in Liddell-Scott is the semantic opposite of κύριος or κυρία translating as without authority Regarding laws decrees and sentences it means more particularly invalid uratified obsolete6 Ἄκυρον ποιεῖν or καταστῆσαι is to set aside7 Νόmicroους ἀκύρους χρωmicroένη is understood as not enforcing the laws8 When the term is characterizing a person (ἄκυρον ποιεῖνκαθεστάναι τινά) it means not having authority9 The verb ἀκυρόω means to cancel set aside and it is used both in connection to ψήφισmicroα10 and to ἀποφάσεις11 Several aspects of legal invalidity in the Greek legal sources still remain though to be investigated Was invalidity limited to contracts and to the protection of private parties or was also the public interest taken into consideration Were some contracts ipso facto nulli while others had to be declared null and void by a court of law Was there a distinction equivalent to our notion of absolute and relative nullity Could nullity have an ex tunc effect or legal acts were only rescinded ex nunc Could nullity be used at court as either a sword or a shield Was there an action available for annulment And who could invoke nullity Can we speak of the equivalents of a lex perfecta imperfecta and minus quam perfecta regarding Greek legal rules The attempt to collect information on some of these questions proves a difficult task taking into account not only the lack of a systematic and

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 1 In modern law a distinction is made between absolute and relative nullity Nullity is absolute when there is contravention of a rule of law relating to public order ie involving matters of public policy nullity is relative when the interest protected is only of a private nature Where absolute nullity is concerned anyone can allege nullity and the courts must automatically invoke nullity Where relative nullity is concerned only the person protected can invoke nullity 2 The Greek Civil Code contains 168 references to the term άκυρο in the sense of invalid 3 Greek Constitution art 149 571ε 732 4 As a general principle an invalid contract is considered as not having taken place according to article 180 of the Greek Civil Code 5 IG V1 1390 6 And 18 (ψήφισmicroα) Pl Lg 954c (δίκη) Lys 1815 (συνθῆκαι) 7 Is 121 (διαθήκη) 8 Th 337 9 X HG 5324 ὁ δὲ ὀργισθεὶς ὅτι ἄκυρον αὐτὸν ἐποίουν 10 Din 163 κατὰ δὲ σαυτοῦ καὶ ταῦτα γράψας αὐτὸς τὸ ψήφισmicro᾽ ἀκυροῖς καὶ ποῦ ταῦτα δίκαια ἢ νόmicroιmicroά ἐστι 11 DS 1624

13 13

213

uniform Greek legal theory but also that legal invalidity remained largely unspecified even by Roman law posing several terminological and conceptual problems for the Roman jurists as well12

In Greek inscriptions statutory prohibitions invested with the sanction of invalidity concern a wide variety of cases throughout periods and geographical areas13 Occurrences of the ἄκυρον clause can be broadly distinguished in three categories a) judicial (or similar) decisions and rights b) legal statutes (international agreements laws decrees decree propositions entrenchment clauses) c) private legal acts (bilateral contracts testaments manumissions) In absence of a clear doctrine on legal invalidity the epigraphic instances of ἄκυρον may offer some indications on the concept and on the operation of legal invalidity in ancient Greek legal thought and praxis

1 Nullity and nullification of judicial decisions and related rights

Trials and sentences

During trials the casting of valid votes14 in a copper urn led to a (valid) judicial sentence15 The rule of majority16 was considered an expression of the democratic principle applied in a court of law In absence also of the right of appeal in ancient procedure invalidating judicial decisions was viewed as something highly irregular17 As Demosthenes (in a graphe nomon me epitideion theinai) states ldquoI take it that everybody will agree that to invalidate judicial decisions is monstrous impious and subversive of popular governmentrdquo18 The nullification of trials and sentences ex post should though be possible according to Plato19 in case of a verdict obtained after obstructing by force the other party or his

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 See Zimmermann R 1990 679 according to whom about 30 different terms survive in Roman sources to describe invalidity such as nullum nullius momenti non esse invalidum nihil agere inutile inane irritum imperfectum vitiosum See p 680 All that one may perhaps say by way of generalization is that the label ldquoinvalidityrdquo usually implied that a transaction was denied its natural (or typical) consequences As a rule this type of ldquocivilianrdquo invalidity could be invoked by anybody and at any time But there were exceptions On the evolution of the quasi nullus concept see Quadrato R 1983 79-107 13 This attempt is far from being exhaustive not covering other terms and expressions that may be denoting invalidity or with invalidity of contracts as a result of violence mistake duress influene or fraud On these see Biscardi A 1991226-230 Velissaropoulos J 2011220-222 14 Sentences at the Athenian courts are obtained through the casting of all valid votes in an urn made of copper the invalid ones in an urn made of wood according to the procedure described in the Athenaion Politeia The valid votes are the ones in favor of the plaintiff or the defendant thrown in the first urn the sum of which brings the condemnation or acquittal Invalid in this sense is the vote the judge chose to have no effect which was practically guaranteing his anonymity Arist AthPol 683-691 ἐmicroβάλλει τὴν microὲν κυ[ρία]ν εἰς τὸν χαλ]κοῦν ἀmicroφορέα τὴν δὲ ἄκυρο[ν] εἰς τὸν ξύλ]ινον 15 On the use of κύριος and ἄκυρος regarding a dikasterion see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001 107-108 16 On the majority principle see Maffi A 2012 21-31 and on judicial votes Todd SC 2012 33-48 17 The nullification of trials by citizens is considered by Plato as a sign of corruption of the city Plato Crit 50b4 ldquoΕἰπέ microοι ὦ Σώκρατες τί ἐν νῷ ἔχεις ποιεῖν ἄλλο τι ἢ τούτῳ τῷ ἔργῳ ᾧ ἐπιχειρεῖς διανοῇ τούς τε νόmicroους ἡmicroᾶς ἀπολέσαι καὶ σύmicroπασαν τὴν πόλιν τὸ σὸν microέρος ἢ δοκεῖ σοι οἷόν τε ἔτι ἐκείνην τὴν πόλιν εἶναι καὶ microὴ ἀνατετράφθαι ἐν ᾗ ἂν αἱ γενόmicroεναι δίκαι microηδὲν ἰσχύωσιν ἀλλὰ ὑπὸ ἰδιωτῶν ἄκυροί τε γίγνωνται καὶ διαφθείρωνταιrdquo τί ἐροῦmicroεν ὦ Κρίτων πρὸς ταῦτα καὶ ἄλλα τοιαῦτα πολλὰ γὰρ ἄν τις ἔχοι ἄλλως τε καὶ ῥήτωρ εἰπεῖν ὑπὲρ τούτου τοῦ νόmicroου ἀπολλυmicroένου ὃς τὰς δίκας τὰς δικασθείσας προστάττει κυρίας εἶναι 18 Dem 24152 ὡς δὲ τὰ δεδικασmicroέν᾽ ἄκυρα ποιεῖν καὶ δεινὸν καὶ ἀνόσιόν ἐστι καὶ δήmicroου κατάλυσις πάντας ἂν οἶmicroαι ὁmicroολογῆσαι 19 Plato Leg 954b6 Ἐάν τίς τινα δίκῃ παραγενέσθαι κωλύσῃ βίᾳ εἴτε αὐτὸν εἴτε microάρτυρας ἐὰν microὲν δοῦλον εἴτε αὑτοῦ εἴτε ἀλλότριον ἀτελῆ καὶ ἄκυρον γίγνεσθαι τὴν δίκην ἐὰν δὲ ἐλεύθερον πρὸς τῷ ἀτελῆ δεθῆναι microὲν ἐνιαυτόν ὑπόδικον δὲ ἀνδραποδισmicroοῦ τῷ ἐθέλοντι γίγνεσθαι

13 13

313

witnesses from attending the trial Verdicts could also be overturned in case of change of the political regime20

The invalidity of irregularly obtained sentences was a term included in the symbolon agreements by which two cities agreed upon the dispute resolution procedures among their citizens The earliest epigraphic occurrence of an invalidity clause comes from the symbolon of Athens with Phaselis (dating from 469-450 BC) where it is stated that in case a trial is brought against any citizen of Phaselis his conviction contrary to the terms of the jurisdiction agreement shall be invalid21

IG Isup3 10 (SEG 352) [ἔδο]ξεν τῆι βολῆι καὶ τῶι δ[ή]- [microωιmiddot Ἀ]καmicroαντὶς [ἐ]πρυτάνευε []νάσιππος ἐγραmicromicroάτευε Νε- []δης ἐπεστάτει Λέω[ν ε]ἶ-

5 [πεmiddot τοῖ]ς Φασηλίταις τὸ ψ[ήφ]ι- [σmicroα ἀν]αγράψαιmiddot ὅ τι ἂmicro microὲ[ν] Ἀθ- [ήνησι ξ]υ[microβ]όλαιον γένηται [πρὸς Φ]ασηλιτ[ῶ]ν τινα Ἀθή[ν]η- [σι τὰς δ]ίκας γίγνεσθαι παρ-

10 [ὰ τῶι πο]λεmicroάρχωι καθάπερ Χ- [ίοις καὶ] ἄλλοθι microηδὲ ἁmicroο τῶ- [ν δὲ ἄλλω]ν ἀπὸ ξυmicroβολῶν κατ- [ὰ τὰς ὄσας] ξυmicroβολὰς πρὸς Φα- [σηλίτας] τὰς δίκας εν[α]ιmiddot τὰς

15 [7]το[ς] ἀφελεν ἐὰν δέ τ- [ις ἄλλη τῶ]ν ἀρχῶν δέξηται δ- [ίκην κατὰ] Φασηλιτῶν τινος [8 ε] ἰ microὲν καταδικάσ- [θέντι ℎε δίκ]η ἄκυρος ἔστω

20 [ἄν δέ τις παραβ]α[ί]νηι τὰ ἐψη- [φισmicroένα ὀφ]ε[λέτ]ω microυρίας δ[ρ]- [αχmicroὰς ἱερ]ὰς τῆι Ἀθηναίαιmiddot τ-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 20 Andocides states that in the Reconciliation Agreement of 4032 BC the legal decisions and arbitrations obtained under democracy were considered valid official decisions under the Thirty invalid Andoc 187 Νόmicroος

τὰς δὲ δίκας καὶ τὰς διαίτας κυρίας εἶναι ὁπόσαι ἐν δηmicroοκρατουmicroένῃ τῇ πόλει ἐγένοντο τοῖς δὲ νόmicroοις χρῆσθαι ἀπ᾽ Εὐκλείδου ἄρχοντος 188 τὰς microὲν δίκας ὦ ἄνδρες καὶ τὰς διαίτας ἐποιήσατε κυρίας εἶναι ὁπόσαι ἐν δηmicroοκρατουmicroένῃ τῇ πόλει ἐγένοντο ὅπως microήτε χρεῶν ἀποκοπαὶ εἶεν microήτε δίκαι ἀνάδικοι γίγνοιντο ἀλλὰ τῶν ἰδίων συmicroβολαίων αἱ πράξεις εἶεν τῶν δὲ δηmicroοσίων ἐφ᾽ ὁπόσοις ἢ γραφαί εἰσιν ἢ φάσεις ἢ ἐνδείξεις ἢ ἀπαγωγαί τούτων ἕνεκα τοῖς νόmicroοις ἐψηφίσασθε χρῆσθαι ἀπ᾽ Εὐκλείδου ἄρχοντος 21 How such an annulment of a trial or sentence would take place is not clear An (unorthodox) nullification of the Amphictyonic decisions by Philomelus is recorded by Diodorus he simply erased the convictions he considered unjust from the stellae Destroying the publicly displayed sentences equaled to having them nullified by force since without such record the decisions were practically nonexistent DS 1624 πρῶτον microὲν γὰρ παρελθὼν εἰς τὴν Σπάρτην ἐν ἀπορρήτοις διελέχθη τῷ βασιλεῖ τῶν Λακεδαιmicroονίων Ἀρχιδάmicroῳ ὅτι κοινὸς ὁ ἀγών ἐστιν αὐτῷ περὶ τοῦ ποιῆσαι τὰς κρίσεις τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἀκύρους εἶναι γὰρ καὶ κατὰ τῶνΛακεδαιmicroονίων microεγάλας καὶ ἀδίκους ἀποφάσεις τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἐδήλωσεν οὖν αὐτῷ διότι τοὺς Δελφοὺς καταλαβέσθαι διέγνωκε καὶτῆς προστασίας ἐὰν ἐγκρατὴς γένηται τὰ δόγmicroατα τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἀκυρώσει hellip ὁ δὲ Φιλόmicroηλος ἐπαρθεὶς τῇ νίκῃ τὰς τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἀποφάσεις ἔκτε τῶν στηλῶν ἐξέκοψε καὶ τὰ περὶ τῶν καταδικῶν γράmicromicroατα κατέλυσεν αὐτὸς δὲ διέδωκε λόγον ὡς οὔτε συλᾶν τὸ microαντεῖον διέγνωκεν οὔτ᾽ ἄλλην οὐδεmicroίαν παράνοmicroον πρᾶξιν συντελεῖν βεβούλευται τῆς δὲ προγονικῆς προστασίας ἀmicroφισβητῶν καὶ τὰς τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἀδίκους ἀποφάσεις ἀκυρῶσαι βουλόmicroενος βοηθεῖν τοῖς πατρίοις νόmicroοις τῶν Φωκέων

13 13

413

[ὸ δὲ ψήφισ]microα τό[δε] ἀναγραψά- [τω ὁ γραmicromicro]ατεὺς ὁ τῆς βολῆς

25 [ἐστήληι λιθί]νηι καὶ καταθ- [έτω ἐmicro πόλει τ]έλεσι τοῖς τῶ- [ν Φασηλιτῶν] In a decree of Miletos (dating from 2287 BC) accepting the judgment of synedroi concerning

the sharing of citizenship with Cretans in view of the reconciliation that took place it is forbidden for anyone to be brought to trial regarding past events ([πε]ρὶ τῶν προγεγονότων) and if so the trial shall be invalid (καὶ ἡ δίκη ἄκυρος [ἔστω])22

Invalidating an otherwise binding judicial or arbitrary decision could come in two ways de iure if a different decision was reached on the same dispute and de facto if one of the parties was allowed not to comply with the prior decision In 164 BC after Sparta refused to comply with a decision regarding a territorial dispute with Megalopolis and appealed to the Achaean League the latter imposed a fine on Sparta which still refused to give up the contested territory and offered to submit to Roman arbitration23 In the following decision the arbitrators stress that their aim is not to render previous judgments ἄκυρα confirming thus the principle of res iudicata Invalidity is also mentioned as a de facto result the arbitrators wish to avoid by not allowing the Spartans to invalidate previous decisions by committing new crimes

IvO 47

ἐπε[ὶ] δὲ ἀναγκαῖόν [τε] καὶ ἀκόλουθ[ον τῷ ὅρ]κωι ὃν ltὠgtmicro[όσα]microεν καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς τῶν Ἀ-

15 χαιῶν σ[υ]ντελε[ῖ]ν τὰν κρίσιν [ltὣστrsquogt εἰς] τὰ γράmicromicroατα τὰ δαmicroόσια ἀπενεγχθῆ- microεν ἕνεκεν τοῦ microήτε τὰ ποτιδε[ό]microενα κρίσιος ἄκριτα γίνεσθαι microή- τε τὰ κεκριmicroένα ἄκυρα ὅπως δα[micro]οκρατούmicroενοι καὶ τὰ ποθrsquo αὑτοὺς ὁmicroονοοῦντες οἱ Ἀχαιοὶ διατε[λ]ῶντι εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ὄντες ἐν εἰ- ράναι καὶ εὐνοmicroίαι αἵ τ rsquo ἐν τοῖς Ἕλλασιν καὶ συmicromicroάχοις γεγενηmicroέ-

20 ναι πρότερον κρ[ ί]σεις βέβαια[ ι] καὶ ἀκήρατοι δ[ ι]αmicroένωντι εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον κα[ὶ] αἱ στᾶλαι καὶ τ[ὰ ὅρι]α τὰ τεθέ[ντα] ὑπὲρ τᾶν κρισ[ί]- ωmicro microένῃ κύρια διrsquo ὅλου καὶ microηθὲ[ν αὐτῶν ᾖ] ἰσχυ[ρότ]ερον γεγεν[ηmicroέ]- νας καὶ πρότε[ρ]ον κρίσιος Μεγ[αλοπολίταις καὶ Λακεδ]αιmicroον[ίοις] [ὑπὲ]ρ ταύτα[ς τᾶ]ς χώρας ὑπὲρ ἇς [νῦν διαφέρονται mdash mdash][mdash mdash]

κρίνοντες

[οὖν ο]ὕτω κα microάλιστα microένειν [τὰ ποθrsquo] αὑτοὺς τοὺς Ἀχαιοὺς ὁmicroονοοῦν- 40 [τας εἰ] τὰ κριθέντα παρ rsquo αὐτοῖς microηκέτι γίνοιτο ἄκυρα δι rsquo ἑτέρων ἐγ-

[κληmicroά]των ἀλλrsquo ὅρον ἔχοι τᾶς ποθrsquo αὑτοὺς διαφορᾶς κρίσιν δικ[αστ]η- [ρίου ἐ]γνωκότες δὲ ἐκ τ[ῶ]ν παρατεθέντων ἁmicroῖν παρrsquo ἀmicroφοτέρ[ων γραmicro]- [microάτων] καὶ Ῥωmicroαίους τοὺς προεστακότας τᾶς τῶν Ἑλλάν[ων εὐνοmicroί]- [ας καὶ ὁmicroο]νοίας ὅκ[α π]αρεγενήθησαν ποθrsquo αὑτοὺς Μεγ[αλοπολῖται]

45 [καὶ Λακεδαιmicroόνιοι ὑ]πὲρ ταύτας τᾶς χώρας διαφε[ρόmicroενοι ταύταν] [ἀποφάνασθαι τὰν γνώmicroα]ν διότι δεῖ τὰ [κεκριmicroένα εἶmicroεν κύρια mdash mdash]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 22 Miletos 54 c1 lines 5-13 εἶναι δὲ Μιλησίους τοὺ]ς microετασχόντας τῆς πολιτείας| [τῶγ Κρητῶν ἀφrsquo ἧς ἂν ἡmicroέρας τ]ὸ ψήφισ[micro]α τόδε κυρωθῆιmiddot microὴ ἐξεῖναι δὲ| [δικάζεσθαι κατὰ microηθενὸς αὐτῶν] microηθενὶ [πε]ρὶ τῶν προγεγονότων ἕως| [εἰς στεφανηφόρον τὸν θεὸν τὸν δεύ]τερον τὸmicro microετὰ Ἀθηναγόραν καὶ microῆνα| [c11-13microηδὲ ἐκεί]νοις κατὰ microηθενὸς Μιλησίων microηδὲ τῶν| [Μίλητον οἰκούντων ἀλλὰ] ἀφεῖσθαι πάντας ἀπὸ πάντων] ἐὰν δέ τις| [παρὰ τὸ ψήφισmicroα δικάζητ]αι microὴ γραφέ[τω]σαν αὐτῶι τὴν δίκην οἱ ἄρ|[χοντες microηδὲ βοηθείτωσαν τῶι ἀδ]ικουmicroένωι καὶ ἡ δίκη ἄκυρος|[ἔστω 23 Ager S 1996 no 137

13 13

513

In another arbitration between the cities of Melitaia and Narthakion (ca 140 BC) regarding a long territorial dispute (which is uncommon as Ager points out24 in being conducted by the Roman Senate itself) the senatorial decree regarding this conflict underlines that invalidating previous rulings decided according to the law is something that must not be done lightly

IG IX 2 89 περί τε τούτων τῶν πραγmicroά-

20 [τω]ν ἔτει ἀνώτερον τρίτῳ ἐπὶ τριῶν δικασ- [τη]ρίων νενικηκέναι ἐπὶ Σαmicroίων Κολοφων[ί]- [ων] Μαγνήτων κεκ[ρι]microένα εἶναι κατὰ νόmicroου[ς] ὅπως ταῦτα κύρια ᾖ οὕτω καθὼς καὶ ἄλλοις γεγονός ἐστινmiddot περὶ τούτου τοῦ πράγmicroατος

25 οὕτως ἔδοξενmiddot χάριτα φιλίαν συmicromicroαχίαν [ἀ]νανεώσασθαι τούτοις τε φιλανθρώπως ἀ- ποκριθῆναιmiddot ἄνδρας καλοὺς κἀγαθοὺς προσ- αγορεῦσαιmiddot ὅσα κεκριmicroένα ἐστὶν κατὰ νόmicroους οὓς Τίτος Κοΐγκτιος ὕπατος ἔδωκεν ταῦτα κα-

30 θὼς κεκριmicroένα ἐστίν οὕτω δοκεῖ κύρια εἶναι δεῖν τοῦτό τε microὴ εὐχερὲς εἶναι ὅσα κατὰ νόmicroους κε- κριmicroένα ἐστὶν ἄκυρα ποιεῖν middot A different kind of annulment concerning a Roman sentence is mentioned in an honorary decree

from Kolophon (ca 130-110 BC) for Πτολεmicroαῖον Πανταγνώτου Κνηmicroάδη The city is grateful among many other reasons because when one of its citizens was condemned in a Roman court in the province (of Asia) the benefactor undertook an embassy to the (Roman) general and managed to have the condemnation annulled25 saving thus both the citizen and the cityrsquos laws

Annulment of decisions and accusations as well a debts is also an extraordinary measure corresponding to times of crisis and imminent danger for the polis In a law the city of Ephesos voted in preparation of an expected invasion by Mithridates (8685 BC) after the Ephesias pledge allegiance to the Romans in order to rally the population they decide in what constitutes a complicated amnesty arrangement26 to cancel all debts of those registered by the sacred or public treasurers as debtors and atimoi to waive accusations and penalties of those registred as accused for religious or public offences or any kind of debt to proclaim void any execution against them and furthermore to cancell and render void all religious and public prosecutions unless concerning boundary and inheritance disputes

IEph 8 τοὺς microὲν ἐκγεγραmicromicroένους ἢ παρα[γεγραmicro]microένους ὑπὸ λογιστῶν ἱερῶν ἢ δ[η]- microοσίων ὡιτινιοῦν τρόπωι πά[λιν εἶ]ναι ἐντίmicroους καὶ ἠκυρῶσθαι τὰς κα- 30 [τ rsquo ] αὐτῶν ἐκγραφὰς καὶ ὀφειλήmicro[ατα] τοὺς δὲ παραγεγραmicromicroένους πρὸς [ἱε]- [ρ]ὰς καταδίκας ἢ δηmicroοσίας ἢ ἐπίτειmicroα ἱερὰ ἢ δηmicroόσια ἢ ἄλλα ὀφειλήmicroατ[α] ὡιτινιοῦν τρόπωι παρεῖσθαι πάντας καὶ εἶναι ἀκύρους τὰς κατ rsquo αὐτῶν

πράξεις middot

41 λελύσθαι δὲ καὶ εἶναι ἀκύρο[υς] τάς τε ἱερὰς καὶ δηmicroοσίας δίκας εἰ microή τινές εἰσιν ὑπὲρ παρορισmicroῶν χώρας ἢ διrsquo

ἀmicroφ[ισ]- βητήσεως κληρονοmicroίας ἐζευγmicroέναιmiddot

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 24 Ager S 1996 no 157 25 SEG 391243 II1 lines 51-58 ἑνὸς δὲ τῶν| πολιτῶν κατακρίτου γενοmicroέ|νου Ῥωmicroltαgtϊκῷ κριτηρίωι ἐν τῆι ἐ|παρχείᾳ πρεσβεύσας πρὸς τὸν| στρατηγὸν τὸν γενόmicroενον ἄκυ|ρον ἐποίησεν καὶ τὰ κρίmicroατα| καὶ τὸν πολείτην καὶ τοὺς νό|microους ἀβλαβεῖς ἐτήρησενmiddot 2613 Arnaoutoglou I 1998105-107 Harter-Uibopuu K 2014 forthcoming13

13 13

613

Legal prescription

Ἄκυρον ἔστω in international treaties sometimes refers to a limitation of the right to bring suit27 and to the legal prescription of such right which may be either absolute or occur after a set period of time In the treaty of sympoliteia between Smyrna and Magnesia Sip (dated around 245-243 BC) the citizens of both of cities would give an oath to abide by the treaty terms The parties seal their peace by also declaring invalid any accusation among their citizens regarding war crimes28 In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe (included in a letter of Thraseas to this city dated after 238 BC) all trials among citizens of both cities must take place within the year following the crime a period after the lapse of which they are declared invalid

SEG 391426 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ὅσα δrsquo ἂν ἀδικῆmicroατα ἴδια γένηται ἑκάστοις ἐὰν microὲν ὁ [Ἀρσιν]οεὺς ἐν Ναγίδωι τινὰ ἀδικήσηι ἢ ἀδικηθῆι λαmicroβανέτω τὸ δίκαιον καὶ [διδότ]ω κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους τοὺς Ναγιδέων ἐὰν δὲ ὁ Ναγιδεὺς ἐν Ἀρσινόηι [τινὰ] ἀδικήσηι ἢ ἀδικηθῆι λαmicroβανέτω τὸ δίκαιον καὶ διδότω κατὰ τοὺς [νόmicroου]ς τοὺς Ἀρσινοέων ἔστω δὲ αὐτοῖς πάντων τῶν ἀδικηmicroάτων

50 [ἐξ οὗ ἂ]ν χρόνου γένηται τὸ ἀδίκηmicroα προθεσmicroία ἐνιαυτός ἐὰν δέ τις [διελθ]όντος τοῦ χρόνου γράψηται δίκην ἢ ἐγκαλέσηι ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐ- [τῶι ἡ δίκη] middot Equal to legal prescription is also the sense of ἄκυρον in the treaty between Delphi and Pellana

where (according to the proposed reconstitution of the missing lines) the right of reference of a claimant to a third party (anagoge) is invalid if not exercised within the time limit set by the treaty29

2 Legal statutes and invalidity clauses The second broad category of ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions concerns legal statutes in the form

of international treaties laws decrees and decree propositions International treaties

In general international treaties remained valid as long as they were respected by all parties involved in spite of the usual clauses aiming to secure the parties abidance to their terms forever30 Their annulment was rarely decided in legal terms31 but came as a consequence either of the lack of commitment of the contracting parties or of their straightforward violation or by concluding a new or

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 On limitations of actions see Jones J W 1956 233-234 28 Smyrna 14 lines 41-43 συντελεσθέντων δὲ τῶν ὅρκων τὰ microὲν ἐγκλήmicroατα αὐ|τοῖς τὰ γεγενηmicroένα κατὰ τὸmicro πόλεmicroον ἤρθω πάντα καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω [microηδὲ] ἑτέροις ἐγκαλέσαι περὶ τῶγ κατὰ τὸν πόλεmicroον γεγενηmicroένων microή[τε]| διὰ δίκης microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόποmicro microηθέναmiddot εἰ δὲ microή πᾶν τὸ ἐπιφερόmicroε[ν]ον ἔγκληmicroα ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 29 FD III 1486 (Staatsvertraumlge III 558) IIA1 lines 14-19[αἰ δ]έ κα ἔξοθεν [κλέψηι ἢ Δελφὸς παρὰ Πελλα|νεῖ ἢ Πελλανεὺς παρὰ Δ]ελφῶι ὁ ἔχων ἀναγέτω τῶι ἐφαπτοmicroέν[ωι] ἔγγυον καταστάσ[ας ποὶ τὰν ἀρχὰν τὰν εἰσ|άγουσαν τὰν δίκαν ἔ]νδικον καὶ ἄνδρα ἀξιόχρεοltνgt ἃ microὲν ἐν [Δ]ελφοῖς ἢ Πελλανε[ῦσιν ἔχει δικαίως πεπάσθαι κατὰ|τοὺς νόmicroους τᾶς πόλιοςmiddot ἐξέ]στω δὲ τῶι microὲν microὴ δέξασθαι τὰν [ἀν]αγωγὰν εἰπόντι καθrsquo [ὅ τι δικαίως ἐφάπτοιτο]|[τῶι δὲ ἀποδείξασθαι ὅτ]ι ἀνάγοι καθότι πέπαται mdashmdash αἰ δέ [κ]α microὴ ἀνάγηι ἐν τῶι χρόνω [ ι τῶι γεγραmicromicroένωι ὁ ἔχων]|[ἁ ἀναγωγὰ ἀτελὴς καὶ ἄκυρ]ος ἔστω 3013 On entrenched provisions regarding alliances and treaties see Schwartzberg M 2004315-318 322-323 31 On the (different) question of annulment of older decrees as a result of treaties of alliance or other positive relationships see Rubinstein L 2008 116

13 13

713

conflicting treaty with a third party32 One rare example of annulment is included in the isopoliteia agreement between Messene and Phigaleia (dating from 240 BC) where in case of non-abidance of the citizens of Phigaleia to the pre-existing agreements between Messene and the Aitolians the current agreement shall also be invalidated33

IPArk 28 (= IG V2 419)

[ὅσα δέ κα ἄλλ]α ὁmicroολογήσωmicroες ποτrsquo ἀλλάλως ὁmicroό- [σαι ἀνφοτέρ]ως καὶ στάλας καταθέσθαι ἐν τοῖς [ἱεροῖς ὁπεῖ κ]α δοκεῖ ἀνφοτέραις ταῖς πολέο- [ις εἰ δέ κα microὴ ἐν]microένωντι οἱ Φιαλέες ἐν τᾶι φιλ-

20 [ίαι τᾶι πὸτ τὼς Μ]εσανίως καὶ Αἰτωλώς ἄκυρος ἔ- [σστω ἅδε ἁ ὁmicroολο]γία

Invalidity of an organrsquos decisions and of city laws

An invalidity clause (although not using the word akyros) appears already in what is considered to be the earliest legal inscription from Greece the law of Dreros34 limiting the iteration of the office of the Kosmos All actions of the Kosmos taken under the illegal tenure will be annulled (microηδὲν ἤmicroην) and he will also be subject to a fine35 This invalidity of official acts seems to have had an immediate effect Invalidity thus aims early on to safeguard citizens from illegal decisions of public officials Later on the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) forbids any manipulation of the cityrsquos legislation (κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους) in a simulacrum of democracy The decisions obtained in this way even if the cityrsquos highest authorities and the boule are involved are declared a priori invalid and the person responsible for this shall be punished as the instigator of an oligarchy IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1

ἐάν τις ἐν ὀλι- γαρχίαι κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους vacat vacat βουλὴν αἱρῆται ἢ τὰς ἄλλας ἀρχάς ὡς ἐν δηmicroοκρατίαι θέλων διαπράσσεσθαι τ[ε]-

115 χνάζων ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ τὸν τεχνάζοντα πάσ- χειν ὡς ἡγεmicroόνα ὀλιγαρχίαςmiddot Disregarding the law

Laws if not properly applied where in fact rendered invalid as it is already maintained by Cleon in the debate over the Mytileneans36 Later the verb ἀκυρόω in connection to a law in the meaning of (not) to be disregarded is to be found in the Greek transcription of the lex romana de

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 32 Lys Περὶ τῆς δηmicroεύσεως τῶν τοῦ Νικίου ἀδελφοῦ ἐπίλογος 154 οὐκ οὖν αἰσχρόν εἰ ἃ microὲν Λακεδαιmicroονίοις συνέθεσθε βεβαιώσετε ἃ δὲ αὑτοῖς ἐψηφίσασθε οὕτω ῥᾳδίως διαλύσετε καὶ τὰς microὲν πρὸς ἐκείνους συνθήκας κυρίας ποιήσετε τὰς δὲ πρὸς αὑτοὺς ἀκύρους 33 In this instance ἄκυρος ἔστω holds the sense of nullification of the agreement operating ex nunc and concerns all contracting parties 34 Nomima I80 ἇδrsquo ἔϝαδε | πόλιmiddot | ἐπεί κα κοσmicroήσει | δέκα ϝετίον τὸν ἀ|ϝτὸν | microὴ κόσmicroεν | αἰ δὲ κοσmicroησιε | ὀ(π)ε δικακσιε | ἀϝτὸν ὀπῆλεν | διπλεῖ | κᾱϝτὸν ἄκρηστον | ἦmicroεν | ἆς δοοι | κὄτι κοσmicroησιε | microηδὲν ἤmicroην ὀmicroόται δὲ | κόσmicroος | κοἰ δάmicroιοι | κοἰ | ἴκατι | οἰ τᾶς πόλ[ιο]ς 35 Youni M 2010152-153 36 Th 337 πάντων δὲ δεινότατον εἰ βέβαιον ἡmicroῖν microηδὲν καθεστήξει ὧν ἂν δόξῃ πέρι microηδὲ γνωσόmicroεθα ὅτι χείροσι νόmicroοις ἀκινήτοις χρωmicroένη πόλις κρείσσων ἐστὶν ἢ καλῶς ἔχουσιν ἀκύροις On citations regarding the laws rendered valid (κυρίους) only if applied by the courts see Harris E M 2013 99 On the reasons proposed on why the Athenians did not repeal unenforced laws see Wallace RW 2012 117-123

13 13

813

piratis persequendis37 found in Delphi (ca 101-100 BC)38 ordering the Roman Governors of the Provinces of Macedonia and Asia to take measures against pirates and to insure the collection of public revenues

Conflicts of laws

Direct abolition of enactments referred to as νόmicroοι or θεσmicroοί are rare39 One such example is a law of Kyme (Aeol) dating from the third century BC regarding a serious crime and judgments rendered by the dikasopoi40 If any other law included any clause contrary to this one it is declared invalid41 This term did not aim at a particular statute but resolved the matter of potential conflicts of laws by stating the supremacy of this legal rule over any conflicting one

Nullification regarding decrees and petitions

Nullification of a cityrsquos decree42 could derive from a clause contained in a subsequent decree New legislation sometimes incorporated provisions that nullified previous or inconsistent statutes43 but most often this was done by giving instructions to physically remove the older stones44 The simplest method for having a cityrsquos decision de facto abolished being the destruction of the inscription preserving it in an honorary decree of Priene for Euandros Sabyllou from Larisa in Thessaly (ca 300290 BC)45

the invalidity clause not only strikes any proposition against the current decree but also guarantees the physical integrity of the stele containing it which had been just re-erected

In general in decrees akyron is used in the sense of an act46 not having the legal effects it would normally have47 It is not ldquonon-existentrdquo but no commitment or valid obligation can derive from

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 37 Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 33-47 38 FD III 437 C lines 15-16 ὑπεναντίον τούτῳ τῷ νόmicroῳ microή τις ποείτω ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ ὅσα τέ τινας κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον δεῖ ποεῖν ποεῖτε microήτε τις ποείτω ᾧ ο[ὗ]|[τ]ος ὁ νόmicroος κατὰ παρεύρεσιν ἀκυρωθῇ ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ microήτε τις ποείτω microήτε| ἐπικρινάτω ὧι ἔλασσον ὅσα δεῖ κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον γέν[η]ταιmiddot 39 On this matter see Rubinstein L 2008 115 40 The law allowed the person guilty of the crime to be declared atimos and killed by anyone 41 IK Kyme 11 lines 10-13 αἰ δ[ὲ (microὴ) mdash mdash mdash]| [ἄτιmicroος θνασ]κέτω κτεινέτω δὲ αὐτὸν ὁ θέλωνmiddot ὁ δὲ ἀ[ποκτείναις]| [εὐάγης ἔστω κ]αὶ καθαρόςmiddot αἰ δέ ποι ἐν νόmicroῳ τινὶ ἄλ[λο τι γράφηται]|[ἐνάντιον τῷ ν]όmicroῳ τούτῳ ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 42 Provided the decrees were not superseding the law Hyp Ath 322 καὶ ὁ microὲν Σόλων οὐδ᾽ ὃ δικαίως ἔγραφεν ψήφισmicroά τις τοῦ νόmicroου οἴεται δεῖν κυριώτερον εἶναι σὺ δὲ καὶ τὰς ἀδίκους συνθήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων τῶν νόmicroων Such a law was in fact passed under the archonship of Euclides in 403|2 MacDowell 1962 128 43 In Athens the decree of Isotimides which barred anyone who had confessed to an act of impiety from entering the temples and the agora cancelled a former decree guaranteeing indemnity for disclosures This decree was at the origin of Andocidersquos conviction and exile from Athens When the Amnesty of 403 BC finally allowed Andocides to return home and in 400 he was put on trial for violating the Isotimides decree he won an acquittal with his defense speech On the Mysteries proving that the latter decree had been annulled And 18 ἢ περὶ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος τοῦ Ἰσοτιmicroίδου ὡς ἄκυρόν ἐστιν 44 On examples see Sickinger J P 2008103 n 21 22 45 Priene 46 lines 7-10 [ἐὰν δέ τις περὶ τ]ού[το]υ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἢ τῆς στή|[λης τῆς νῦν ἀ]πο[κα]θισταmicroένης ἢ| ἄρχων προτιθῆι|[ἢ ἰδιώτης συ]γ[κα]ταλύειν βουλόmicroενος τὴν δωρε|[ὰν τοῦ δή]microου ἄ[κ]υρα ἔστω middot 46 Invalidity concerned actions A judicial verdict could allthough indirectly annul a previous refusal to act as it illustrated in the speech by Lys 919 microήτε τοὺς βέλτιον καὶ δικαίως βουλευσαmicroένους ἀκύρους καταστήσητε The speaker (Polyaeunus) had been fined by the generals for slander a fine which was subsequently reported to the treasurers to collect as unpaid debt the latter refusing to do so on the grounds (if we are to believe the speaker) that it had been irregularly and maliciously imposed The speaker is asking the jury not to invalidate the decision of those who have acted on a better and on a just consideration 47 This is also the meaning of akyron used by Aristotle when he explains the supremacy of men over women children and slaves in order to define the invalidity of the womenrsquos willpower Arist Pol 1260a ἄλλον γὰρ

13 13

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such an act for being opposite to a prior interdiction and its effects can be immediately revoked without further decision In one occasion invalidity strikes a simple petition leading to the dedication of a statue in a public space in a decree concerning the temenos of Asklepeios in Rhodes (datation unknown) it is forbidden to anyone to submit a petition to erect a statue or other dedication at a certain area of the temenos in order not to obstruct the walks and policemen are instructed to remove to another place any dedication erected in spite of the interdiction48 Sometimes a specific action or proposal that may diminish the impact of a donorrsquos benefaction may also be declared ldquoinvalidrdquo In a dedication inscription from Cos (dated from the end of the first or beginning of the second century AD) a donator prescribes that no other statue may be erected on the same platform and that any attempt to contravene this shall be immediately null and void49

Entrenchment clauses

The most frequent occurrence of the ἄκυρον term in decrees concerns entrenchment clauses provisions that make decisions unamendable50 which as Rubinstein51 has correctly noted can be read as ldquoa guarantee issued to a particular individual group of individuals or to another communityrdquo regarding decisions that directly affect them52 Invalidity may be guaranteeing that a particular right bestowed upon a group of individuals would not be revoked In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe already mentioned an invalidity clause strikes any proposition by an archon or a rhetor introducing a contestation of the land given to the Nagidians53 In Thasos of early imperial times the same clause guarantees measures regarding the donation of lands and their subsequent possession by their owners54

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τρόπον τὸ ἐλεύθερον τοῦ δούλου ἄρχει καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν τοῦ θήλεος καὶ ἀνὴρ παιδός καὶ πᾶσιν ἐνυπάρχει microὲν τὰ microόρια τῆς ψυχῆς ἀλλrsquo ἐνυπάρχει διαφερόντως ὁ microὲν γὰρ δοῦλος ὅλως οὐκ ἔχει τὸ βουλευτικόν τὸ δὲ θῆλυ ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἄκυρον ὁ δὲ παῖς ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἀτελές 48 Suppl Epig Rodio 1 lines 10-22 microὴ ἐξέστω microηθενὶ αἰτήσασ|[θαι ἀνά]θεσιν ἀνδριάντος microηδὲ ἄλλου| [ἀναθ]ήmicroατος microηδενὸς ἐς τὸ κάτω microέρος| [τοῦ τ]εmicroένευς ἀπό τε τοῦ προπύλου| [ἐπrsquo ε]ὐθείας ἔστε ποτὶ τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα| [ὧ]ν ἐντι ταὶ αἰτήσιες πρότερον γεγενη|[micro]έναι ἢ ἐς ἄλλον τινα τόπον ἐν ὧι στα|θέντα τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα κωλύσει τοὺς περι|πάτουςmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἐν τούτωι τῶι τόπωι| αἰτήσηται ἀνάθεσιν ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐτ|[ῶ ] ι ἁ αἴτησις καὶ τοὶ ἀστυνόmicroοι εἴ κά τις| [ἀνα]θῆι microεθελόντω τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα ἐς ἄλ|[λον τ]όπονmiddot 49 Iscr di Cos ED 257 frg bcd1 lines 3-30 [κ]αὶ microηδενὶ ἄλλ[ῳ ἐ]ξῆ|microεν microήτε ἰδιώ[τᾳ micro]ήτε ἄρ|χοντι microήτε γυmicro[να]σιάρχῳ| ἢ ἐπιmicroελητᾷ τᾶς [γε]ρουσί|ας καθόλου microήτε εἰκόνα| microήτε ἄγαλmicroα microήτε ἀνδρι|άντα ἀναθέmicroεν ἐν ταύ|τᾳ τᾷ ἐξέδρᾳ τρόπῳ microηδε|νὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσι microηδε|micro ιᾷ microήτε τινὰ γνώmicroαν ἀ|γορεῦσαι περὶ τοῦ τειmicroαὶ| ἄλλου τινὸς ἀνασταθῆ|microεν ἢ ἀνατεθῆmicroεν ἐν αὐτᾶι | αἰ δέ κά τίς ποτε ἐπ[ι]χιρήσῃ ἢ εἰπεῖν ἢ γνώmicroαν ε[ἰ]σαγῆσ|θαι ἢ ἄλλως τι παρὰ τ[αῦ]τα πρ[ᾶ]|ξαι θελήσῃ τὸ microὲν ἐ[πιχ]ειρ ι[σ]|θὲν ἢ καὶ πιρασθὲν [ῥηθῆναι]|ἢ πραχθῆναι παραχρῆ[microα ἄκυ]|ρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστ[ω καὶ microη]|δὲν ἦσσον τὰ διατε[ταγmicroένα]|ὑπrsquo ἐmicroοῦ κύρια καὶ ἀmicro[ετακίνη]|τα ὑπαρχέτω καὶ ὁ [αἴτιος εἴ]|τε ἰδιώτας εἴτε ἄρ[χων εἴτε]|γυmicroνασίαρχος ἢ [ἐπιmicroε]|λητὰς εἴη τᾶς γ[ερουσίας ἀ]|ποτισάτω πα[ραχρῆmicroα δη]|νάρια χίλια 50 On entrenchment clauses in Athens see Schwartzberg M 2004 311-25 who maintains that the Athenians used entrenchment in highly restrictive contexts in certain financial decrees and in alliances and treaties exclusively for narrow strategic purposes in both the international and the domestic contexts and did not extend them to laws regulating the democracy 51 See Rubinstein L 2008117-118 identifying and categorizing a total of 80 examples of entrenchment clauses 52 IC II v 35 53 SEG 391426 lines 39- 45 microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ microηκέτι |[Ν]αγιδεῦσι παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶι περὶ τῆς χώρας τῆς δοθείσης| [α]ὐτοῖς κατὰ ψήφισmicroα τοῦτο ἀmicroφισβητῆσαι ἐὰν δέ τις ἄρχων προθῆι| [τι] δόγmicroα τltοιgtοῦτο ἢ ῥῆτωρ εἴπηι ὁ microὲν ἄρχων ἀποτεισάτω δραχmicroὰς microυρίας |[ἱερ]ὰς Ἀρσινόηι ἀπαραιτήτους ὁ δὲ ῥήτωρ δραχmicroὰς χιλίας καὶ ἡ γνώmicroη αὐ|[τῶ ]ν ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 54 IG XII Suppl 364 lines 7- 20 τὴν δὲ τῶν [ἀγρῶν κτῆσιν διατη]|ρεῖν ἀθάνατον ἡmicroᾶς καὶ microήτε [καταθεῖναί ποτε τοὺς]| ἀγροὺς ἡmicroᾶς microήτε ἀποδόσθαι [microηδενὶ microήτε συνόλους]| microήτε microέρη microήτε περι[ιδ]εῖν ἀπ[αλλοτριωθέντας αὐτοὺς]| κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τ[ις τῶν Θασίων περί τι]|νος τούτων ἢ γράψῃ ἢ ἐπιψ[ηφίσῃ ἢ ἀναγράψῃ εἰς τὸ]| τής πόλεως γραmicromicroατοφυλα[κεῖον τὴν γνώmicroην τὰ γραφέντα]| καὶ τὰ ψηφισθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι [καὶ ἀκρατῆ τὸν δὲ ἢ]| γράψαντα ἢ ἐπιψηφίσαντα ἢ ἀναγ[ράψαντα τὴν γνώ]|microην εἰς τὸ τῆς πόλεως | γραmicromicroατοφ[υλακεῖον ὀφεί]|λειν τοῖς τῶν Σεβαστῶν ναοῖς στατῆ[ρας

13 13

1013

When a future decree proposition (γνώmicroη) is declared invalid this invalidates in fact the whole decree voting procedure55 Detailed terms in entrenchment clauses56 often mention both private persons (ἰδιώτης) and city officials (ἄρχοντες ῥήτορες ἐπιmicroήνιοι) that may be involved the organs before which such propositions may take place (ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω) as well as all the steps leading to the adoption of new decisions (εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι) oraly or in writing (ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι) sometimes adding for the sake of exhaustivity the annulment of decisions ldquoin any other possible wayrdquo (τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν) The legislation process being an expression of the sovereignty of the demos the invalidity clause acts as a kind of limitation for future times of the operation of the majority principle57 in order to secure that no valid decision shall be reached in the future regulating the same matter in a different way Examples of rules that include a detailed enumeration of all possible ways of obtaining amendments declared a priori invalid include the law of Teos regulating the salaries of instructors for the youth58 and a decree of Chios forbidding the use of funds for other purposes than the ones prescribed

Chios 27 11 [mdash]ΙΑ καὶ micro[ὴ] ἐξεῖν[αι τ]οῖς [χρήmicroασι]

[τοῖς συναγ]οmicroένοις ἐκ τῆς [ὑ]ποσχέσεω[ς] [εἰς ἄλλο κ]αταχρῆσθαι microη[δ]ὲν ἢ εἰς τὰ [διατεταγ]micro ένα κατὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα

5 [ἐὰν δέ τις γ]ράψηι ἢ πρύτανις προ[θ]ῆι [ταῦτα εἰς ἄλ]λο τι microετενεγκεῖν ἢ κατα- [χρήσασθαι] ἢ ποιήσηι τίς τι παρὰ τόδε τὸ [ψήφισmicroα τό] τε γραφὲν ἢ πραχθὲν ἄκυρον [ἔστω καὶ ὀφε]ιλέτω τῆι πόλει δραχmicroὰς ΧΧΧ

10 [ὁ τούτων αἴτιο]ς καὶ ἔστω πρὸς τοῦτο [ὑποδικὸς κ]αθάπερ καὶ οἱ ἐξ ὠνῆς ὀφεί- [λοντες χρήmicro]ατα τῆι πόλειmiddot

In entrenchment clauses invalidity is either explicit or may be implied if (only) penalties or curses are directed against anyone who tries to annul the current provisions59 In order to invest an entrenchment clause with effectiveness invalidity apparently not being considered always sufficient in order to deter citizens from introducing changes in the future the provision of penalties60 added a financial risk to the challenge Combined sanctions (invalidity plus fine) are included in sacred laws61 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τετρα]|[κ]ισmicroυρίους καὶ ἄτιmicroον εἶναι καὶ αὐτὸν κ[αὶ γένος]middot [ἐνέχ]εσθαι δὲ αὐτοὺς καὶ τῆι εἰς τοὺς Σε[βαστοὺς ἀσε]|[βείαιmiddot 55 Cf the use of ἄκυρον in the Athenaion Politeia on the lack of sovereignety of the Boule to decide by itself Arist AthPol 454 τούτων microὲν οὖν ἄκυρός ἐστιν ἡ βουλήmiddot προβουλεύει δrsquoεἰς τὸν δῆmicroον καὶ οὐκ ἔξεστιν οὐδὲν ἀπροβούλευτον οὐδrsquo ὅ τι ἂν microὴ προγράψωσιν οἱ πρυτάνεις ψηφίσασθαι τῷ δήmicroῳ κατrsquo αὐτὰ γὰρ ταῦτα ἔνοχός ἐστιν ὁ νικήσας γραφῇ παρανόmicroων 5613 On entrenchment clauses and different measures aiming to preserve important resources and to guarantee compliance with relevant rules in late Hellenistic and imperial times see Harter-Uibopuu K 2013 (forthcoming)13 57 The interdiction and nullity clause for future decree propositions may have constituted in Athens grounds for a graphe paranomon 58 Teos 41 lines 40-46 ἢν δὲ οἱ ἐνεστηκότες ταmicroίαι ἢ οἱ ἑκάστοτε γινόmicroενοι| microὴ παραδῶσιν τὸ ἀργύριον τοῦτο κατὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα v3 ἢ ἄλλος τις ἄρχων| ἢ ἰδιώτης εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι ἐναντίον τού| τωι ἢ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον ἄρηι τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν ὡς δεῖ τὸ ἀργύρι| ον κινηθῆναι ἢ microὴ ἀναλίσκεσθαι ἀπrsquo αὐτοῦ εἰς ἃ ὁ νόmicroος συντάσσει ἢ ἄλλ[ηι που]| καταχωρισθῆναι καὶ microὴ εἰς ἃ ἐν τῶιδε τῶι νόmicroωι διατέτακται τά τε πραχθέν|τα ἄκυρα ἔστω 59 On examples of such inscriptions see Sickinger J P 2008 104 n 24 25 60 See Rubinstein L 2012329-354 61 IK Kalchedon 10 lines 10-13 [ὃς δέ] κα εἴπῃ ἢ προαισιmicroνάσηι ἢ ἐν [β]ουλᾶι ἢ ἐν δάmicroωι ὀ|[φειλέτω] δραχmicroὰς Μ ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἡρακλεῖος καὶ τὰ| [προαισ]ιmicroναθέντα ἢ ῥηθέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

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from the Asklepieion of Kos (dated from the end of the first century BC) concerning the sale of the priesthoods of Aphrodite Pandamos and Pontia62 and of Asklepios63 invalidating any decree proposing a different use of the thesauros of the sanctuary The penalties are not linked to any concrete damage (βλάβη) that may be incurred by any party64 to any demand of restitution to any unjust enrichment or transfer of property but rely upon the (implied) public interest and the collective (moral) damage of the community or of the sanctuary in case the current regulations are changed65 The combination of legal invalidity to penalties introduce thus avant la lettre the concept of the Roman lex perfecta to Greek law as laws including both a sanction and the nullity of anything contrary to a particular clause of the law as well as the interdiction of future amendments of the statute The earliest occurrences date from the early fourth century BC in an honorary decree from Athens for Sthorys the Thasian (dated 3943) where invalidity combined with penalties is threatened against anyone ldquonullifyingrdquo these honors66 Regarding the penalties combined with invalidity in some decrees concerning matters of particular importance for the city the collection procedure of the fines was also defined ad hoc as in a fourth century BC citizenship decree from Thasos67 in a decree of Miletus68 (2054 BC) instituting a public eisphora for the citizens in order to cover public deficit69 The penalties associated to the invalidity clause may also be escalating by analogy to the importance of the matter regulated or of the person honored by the decree A decree by the Nasiotai bestowing honors to Thersippos (ca 315 BC) for his benefactions in connection to Alexanderrsquos campaigns invalidates all future amendments in combination to severe penalties such as fines threats of atimia and treason charges for acting against the democracy plus a curse against anyone proposing their abolition70

Invalidity clauses may also be included in decisions issued by private associations forbidding that any of the honors bestowed upon their benefactors may be postponed or cancelled71 and this as it

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 62 SEG 50766 back face1 lines 20-24 τὸ δὲ χρῆmicroα τοῦ|το ὑπαρχέτω ἐς κατασκευάσmicroατα ἅ κα δόξῃ τᾶι ἐκλησίαι καὶ ἐς ἐπισ|κευὰν τοῦ ἱεροῦmiddot αἰ δέ κά τις ψαφίξηται ὥστε ἐς ἄλλο τι καταχρη[σ]θῆmicroεν| τὰ ἐκ τῶν θησαυρῶν ἢ προστάτας προθῆι ἀποτισάτω τῶν αἰτίων ἕκασ|τος δραχmicroὰς χειλίας ἱερὰς τᾶς Ἀφροδίτας καὶ ἁ γνώmicroα ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 63 SEG 511066 frg ab lines 31-35 microὴ ἐξέστωι δὲ microήτε]|ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδιώιται [microηδενὶ ἐς ἄλλο καταχρήσασθαι τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ χρήmicroατα]| ἢ microετάγεν τὰς ἀπrsquo αὐτῶ[ιν ποθόδους mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αὐτῶι ἔστωι περὶ πᾶν ὅτι [κα γράψηι ἢ ἐπιψαφίξηι καὶ ἀποτινέτωι (δραχmicroὰς) mdashʹ]| καὶ ἁ γνώιmicroαι ἄκυρος ἤτ[ω 64 On blabe initially limited in cases of damages included in the law see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993191 65 On the notion ἀδικεῖν τὴν πόλιν see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 199391-94 66 IG IIsup2 17 lines 31-33 ἐὰν δέ τις τα[ῦτ]α ἄκυρ[α ποῆι ὀφελέ]|τω χιλίας [δ]ραχmicroὰς ἱερ[ὰς τῆ]ι Ἀθηνα[ίαι καὶ τῶι Ἀπό]|λλωνι τῶ[ι] Πυθίωι ἑτέρα[ς] 67 IG XII 8 267 lines 11-16 microὴ [ἐξεῖ]|ναι δὲ ὑπὲρ τούτων microηδενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτrsquo ἐπε[λθεῖ]ν ὑπὲρ λύσιος microήτrsquo ἐπιψηφίσαι ἀκρατέα εἶνα[ι ταῦ]|τα τὰ ἐψηφισmicroένα ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ ταῦτα εἴπηι ἢ ἐπέλθηι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι τά τε δόξαντα ἄκυρα ἔστω κα[ὶ χι]|λίους στατῆρας ὀφειλέτω ἱεροὺς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίωι χιλίους δὲ τῆι πόλει δικασάσθων δὲ ο[ἱ ἀπό]|λογοιmiddot ἂν δὲ microὴ δικάσωνται αὐτοὶ ὀφειλόντων δικασάσθων δὲ ἀπόλογοι οἱ microετὰ τούτους αἱρεθέντε[ς]middot|δικασάσθω δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὁ ἐθέλων καὶ ἂν ὁ ἰδιώτης νικήσηι microετεῖναι αὐτῶι τὸ ἥmicroυσυ τὴς καταδί[κης] On this inscription see Fournier J 2012 360-361 Cf also the invalidity clause in IG XII8 264 from Thassos (beginning 4th century BC) 68 See Migeotte L 1984 no97 69 Miletos 41 Lines 24- 29 ἐὰν δέ τις εἴπηι| ἢ προθῇ ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι τά τε γραφθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ ὀφείλειν ἕκαστον τῶν αἰτίων| στατῆρας χιλίους καὶ εἶναι ἄτιmicroον ἕως ἂν ἐκτείσηι καὶ microηθὲν ἧσ|σον ἐξαιρεῖσθαι τὸ τεταγmicroένον ὑπὸ τῶν microετὰ ταῦτα γινοmicroένων| ἀνατακτῶν 70 IG XII2 645 b1 lines 32-58 κα|[ὶ microὴ ἔ]micromicroεναι [π]|[ὰρ τ]αῦτα microήτε| [ἄ]ρχοντι προθ|[έ]microεναι microήτε ῥ|[ή]τορι εἶπαι micro|[ή]τε ἐπιmicroηνί[ω]| [ἐ]σένικαιmiddot αἰ δ|[έ] κέ τις ἢ ῥήτω|[ρ] εἴπη ἢ ἄρχων| [ἐσ]αγάγη [ἢ]| [ἐπ]ιmicroήνιος ἐσ[εν]ίκη ἄκυρά τ|[ε] ἔστω καὶ ὀφε|[λ]λέτω ἔκαστο|[ς] στάτηρας τρ|[ ια]κοσίοις ἴρ|[οι]ς τῶ Ἀσκλαπ|[ίω] καὶ ἐπάρατ|[ος] ἔστω καὶ ἄτι|[microος] καὶ γένος| [ε]ἰς τὸν πάντα| [χρ]όνον καὶ ἐν| ἔστω τῶ νόmicro|[ω π]ερὶ τῶ καλλ|[ύο]ντος τὸν δᾶ|[microον] 71 Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros IG XII1 155 face

13 13

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is stated in one decree in view of the importance of making an example of the benefaction72 Invalidity in entrenchment clauses in relation to endowments is aiming to prevent any different use of the funds or of the property donated by the benefactor73 as in the testament of Epicteta (dated around 210-195 BC)74 It also guarantees that no alteration of the exact terms of use of the donation75 will take place and nullifies any transaction that may jeopardize the capital donated76 The invalidity clause striking future different decree propositions was aiming to preserve the benefactorrsquos instructions and will (κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν) as it is clearly stated in an honorary decree from Eretria (ca 100 BC)77

The practice of sanctioning entrenchment clauses with invalidity reinforced by fines continued into Roman times Invalidity of future decrees or deliberations was sometimes mentioned as having

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 III85 lines 95-100 τ[ὸ]| δὲ ψάφισmicroα τόδ[ε κ]ύριον ἔστω εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρό|νον καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδι|ώται microήτε κινεῖν microήτε γνώmicroαν γράψασθαι|microήτε τοῖς ἄρχουσι προτιθέmicroειν ὡς δεῖ τὰς δ[ε]|δοmicroένας τιmicroὰς Διονυσοδώρωι ἀκύρους εἴmicro|microειν middot ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἀποτεισάτω τὸ γε|γραmicromicroένον ἐπιτίmicroιον δραχmicroὰς ἑκατόν καὶ ἁ γνώmicro[α]|[α]ὐτοῦ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἔνοχος ἔστω τῶι νό|microωι τῶι ἀκινήτωι 72 Honorary decree (dated after 1532 BC found in Delos) of the koinon of the Βηρυτίων Ποσ[ειδω|νιαστῶν ἐmicroπόρω]ν καὶ ναυκλήρων [καὶ ἐ]γδοχέων for their Roman benefactor the banker Marcus Minatius Sextus ID 1520 lines 57-61 ὅπως ἂν ἀΐδιοι διαmicroένωσι τοῖς εὐεργέταις αἱ δοθεῖσαι τι|[micro]αί microηθενὶ ἐξέστωι microήτε ἰδιώτηι microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτ[ε]| [γ]ράψαι ὡς δεῖ τῶν δεδοmicroένων τιmicroῶν microεταθεῖναι ἢ ἀφελεῖν ἢ ἀκυρ[όν]| [τ] ι ποιῆσαι παρὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ εἴπας ἢ ὁ ἀναγνοὺς| [ἢ] ὁ προθεὶς ἢ ὁ ἐπιχειροτονήσας ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἐξώλης εἴη| [α]ὐτὸς καὶ τὰ τέ[κν]α αὐτοῦ τοῖς δὲ ταῦτα ἐπιτηροῦσι εἴη καὶ βίου καὶ| τέκνων καὶ ὑπαρχόντων ὄνησις καὶ εἴη αὐτοῖς σώιζεσθαι καὶ κατ[ὰ]| [γ]ῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν καὶ ὁ παρὰ ταῦτα ποιήσας ἀποτινέτω| δραχmicroὰς στεφανηφόρους ἑξακισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ποσειδῶ|νος καὶ ὑπόδικος ἔστω τῶι ἀδικουmicroένωιmiddot 73 A decree from Eresos in Lesbos (dating from the middle of the third century BC) regarding the donation by Agemortos of some source of income to be used for sacrifices forbids and invalidates any encumberance or any other use of the income and any such proposition before the council or the assembly IG ΧΙΙ2 529 lines 3- 9 microηδὲ ὐποθέ|[microεναι microηδrsquo ἐγγύ]ασθαι microήδενι microηδὲ ὐπό|θεσθα[ι] microηδrsquo εἴπην ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω microήδενα ὡς δεῖ περιβάλεσθαι| τὰν θυσίαν microηδὲ τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς ἄλλο| κατάταξαι microῆδενmiddot αἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρα ἔmicromicroεναι| τὰ πράχθεντα middot 74 In the inscription recording the legacy she left to her daughter Epiteleia Epicteta was founding a sanctuary to the Muses and her own deceased ancestors and providing for the establishment of an association dedicated to the worship of the Muses her will including an invalidity clause for future amendments by third parties IG XII 3 330 B1 lines 263-267 middot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἢ εἴπει ἢ γράψει | τό τε ῥηθὲν ἢ γραφὲν ἄκυρον ἔστω καὶ ὁ| εἴπας ἢ γράψας στερέσθω τοῦ κοινοῦ καὶ ὁ|φειλ[έ]τω αὐτῶι δραχmicroὰς πεντακοσίας| καὶ πρακτὸς ἔστω καὶ ἀπὸ ἐνεχυρασίας| κατὰ τὸς νόmicroος ὑπὸ τοῦ χρῄζοντος τῶν| συγγενῶν 75 Decree of Didyma establishing annual distribution of food on the occasion of the birthday of Eumenes II (dated 1598 BC) Didyma 13 lines 41-49 microὴ εἶναι microη|θενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτε ἀναγνῶναι microήτε προθεῖ|ναι microήτε προγράψαι microήτε ἐπιψηφίσαι ὡς δεῖ microε|τατεθῆναι τὰ χρήmicroατα εἰς ἄλλο τι καὶ microὴ ὑπάρχει[ν]|εἰς τὰ ἐν τῶι ψηφίσmicro[ατι] κατακεχωρισmicroένα ἐὰν δ[έ]|τις παρὰ ταῦτα π[ράξηι] τρόπωι ltὁτωιgtοῦν τό τε γρ[α]|φὲν ἄκυρον ἔσ[τω ὁ δὲ π]ράξας τι τῶν ἀπειρη|microένων [ἀποτεισάτω στατῆρας] δισχιλίους ἱεροὺς|το[ῦ Ἀπόλλωνος τοῦ Διδυmicro]έωςmiddot 76 The decree of Delphi of 16059 BC regulating the usage of a donation by king Attalos of an important amount of money to the city to be used for the childrenrsquos education and for sacrifices invalidates and punishes by fine any proposition or decision for a different use than the one prescribed by the decree Syllsup3 672 lines 15-19 εἰ δέ τις τούτων τι ποιή|σαι ἢ ἄρχων ἢ ἰδιώτας κατάmicroαστρος ἔστω ἱερῶν χρηmicroάτων φω|ρᾶς καὶ οἱ microαστροὶ καταγραφόντω κατrsquo αὐτοῦ κατὰ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ ἄλ|λως microετενεγχθὲν ἀργύριον ὀκταπλοῦν καὶ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ διαινε|θὲν ἄκυρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστω 77 IG XII9 236 lines 51-61 ὅπως δὲ microένῃ τὸ ἀνακείmicroενον ἀσφα|λῶς κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν καὶ εἰς ἄλλο| microηθὲν ἦι καταχρήσασθαι microηθενὶ ἐξουσίαν εἶναι ἀπὸ| τούτου τοῦ διαφόρου microηδὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ πίπτοντος ἀπrsquo|αὐτοῦ τόκου microήτε καταχρήσασθαι εἰς ἄλλο microηθὲν| microήτε ἐπιψηφίσασθαι microήτε ἐπερωτῆσαιmiddot εἰ δὲ microή ὅ τε γρά|ψας ἢ ἐπερωτήσας | ὀφειλέτω ἱερὰς τῆς Ἀρτέmicroιδος|δραχmicroὰς ἑξακισmicroυρίας καὶ ἔστω ἀπαγωγὴ κατrsquo αὐ|τοῦ τῷ βουλοmicroένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ τρίτῳ microέρει πρὸς τοὺς| ἄρχοντας καὶ τὰ γραφέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

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immediate effect78 The expression οὐδὲν ἔλασσον (no less) preceding in some decrees the invalidity clause shows it was considered the last but not least necessary complement of entrenchment clauses79 In view of the change of political settings invalidity is now sometimes aiming the archonsrsquos orders or the cityrsquos ekdikos propositions (or anybody elsersquos) and the fines are collected by the Roman fiscus80 In a decree from Miletus concerning the cityrsquos and the imperial cults any different use of the funds and any act contravening the purpose secured by this statute (τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]) would be invalid and the archon introducing such a proposition would be guilty of impiety against the gods and guilty ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης of the payment of a fine81 Three documents from Ephesus dating from AD 104 show how invalidity had become a standard term aiming to secure the proper execution of the will of the benefactor which was ratified both by the Roman officialrsquos and by the cityrsquos decisions The invalidity clause of future amendments is first mentioned in the letter of Caius Vibius Salutaris offering several benefactions to the boule and demos of Ephesus in form of a legal document82 second the proconsul Gaius Aquillius Proculus in his letter to the archontes boule and demos of Ephesus approves the benefaction of Gaius Vibius Salutaris and ratifies the invalidity

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 78 SE 241 frg hcol 21 lines 7-8 [mdash]ασmicroένων καὶ τὰς ltσgtυνεγmicroεmicroισθωmicroένας αὐτοῖς προσόδους ἀνεξαλλ[άκτας mdash]| [mdash] ψηφισθὲν χρηmicroατισθὲν ἔστω παραχρῆmicroα ἄκυρον κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ποιησαmicro[ένου mdash] 79 In one instance in a decree of Mytilene instituting celebrations in the context of the emperial cult the city threatens with invalidity all actions or propositions of private citizens or magistrates contravening the celebrations and relevant procedures these being considered synonymous with the safeguard of the citys liberty and democracy and sympoliteia since the city had recently seen its status as an ally of Rome confirmed by Augustus IG XII2 59 lines 6-12 ἢ οἰ ἐξ αὔτων γράψωσι ἢ συν[κλήτω δόγmicroα mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αἰ δέ κέ τις ἢ ἰδίωτας ἢ ἄρχων παρ[άβαις τι τῶν ἐν mdash mdash mdash γεγραmicromicroέ]|[νω]ν καὶ ἐν τῶ ψαφίσmicroατι τούτω microὴ πέmicroψη [mdash mdash mdash mdash καττὸν ἐψαφίσθη]| τρόπον ἢ microὴ φυλάξη τὰν τάξιν τᾶς ἀναγράφα[ς mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἄκυ]|ρον ἔστω καὶ ὐπεύθυνος ἔστω ὁ παράβαις [mdash mdash mdash ὠς καταλύων ταὶς τῶν]| Σεβάστων καὶ τῶ οἴκω αὔτων τείmicroαις καὶ ἀναίρεις [mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἐλευ]|θερίας καὶ δαmicroοκρατίας καὶ συmicroπολειτίας 80 In an honorary decree of the boule and demos for Gaius Caninius Synallasson found at Iasos regulating the foundation he established for the gymnasium of the neoi (ca 117-138 AD) Iasos 21 lines 54-67 ἐφrsquo ᾧ οὐ|δενὶ ἐξέσται ἄρχοντι οὐδὲ ἑτέρῳ οὐδενὶ microε|ταδιατάξαι ἕτερόν τι περὶ τούτων τῶν πεντα|κισχειλίων δηναρίων ἢ τῆς προσόδου αὐτῶν| ἐκτὸς ἐὰν microὴ χωρίων ἀγορασθησοmicroένων τοῖς| νέοις δεήσῃ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς τὴν τει|microὴν τῶν ἀγορασθησοmicroένων ἀγρῶν χωρῆσαι| ἐφrsquo ᾧ καὶ οὕτως microενεῖ ἡ πρόσοδος αἰεὶ εἰς τὸ ἄλιmicroα| τῶν νέων καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot ἐπεὶ ὁ ὑπεναντί|ον τούτοις ποιήσας τι ἀποδώσει εἰς τὸν τοῦ κυ|ρίου Καίσαρος φίσκον δηνάρια πεντακισχείλια| καὶ οὐδὲν ἔλασσον ἔσται τὸ microεταδιαταγὲν ἄκυρον| καὶ microενεῖ τὰ πεντακισχείλια δηνάρια καὶ ἡ πρόσοδος| αὐτῶν τοῖς νέοις καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot 81 Miletos 15 lines 18-33 microηδενὶ δὲ ἐξεῖναι microήτε| ἄρχοντι microήτε ἑτέρῳ τινὶ microεταγαγεῖν εἰς| ἀργυρικὸν πόρον τὰς λειτουργίας ταύτα[ς]| τρόπῳ microηδενὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσει microηδεmicro[ι]|ᾷmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις ὑπεναντίον τι πράξῃ τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]| τὸ microὲν γενόmicroενον ᾥτινιοῦν τρόπῳ ὑ|πάρχειν ἄκυρον τὸν δὲ ψηφισάmicroενον ἄρ|χοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον ὑπάρχειν τῶν προ|γεγραmicromicroένων θεῶν καὶ ὀφείλειν αὐτὸν| ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης στατῆρας φʹ ἱερούς| καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον τὸν microὴ ἐπιτελέσαντα| προφήτην τοὺς κόσmicroους ἢ τὸν microὴ ποή|σαντα στεφανηφόρον τοὺς microολποὺς εἰσ|πράσσεσθαι ἐπάναγκες τὰς προδεδηλωmicroέ|νας εὐωχίαςmiddot 82 Ephesos 212 lines 315- 325 microηδὲν δὲ ἐξέστω ἄρχοντι ἢ ἐκδίκῳ ἢ ἰδιώ|τῃ πεσαί τι ἀλλάξαι ἢ microεταθεῖναι ἢ microετοικονοmicroῆσαι ἢ microετα|ψηφίασθα τῶν καθιερωmicroένων ἀπεικονισmicroάτων ἢ τοῦ| ἀργυρίου ἢ τῆς ροσόδου αὐτοῦ ἢ microεταθεῖναι εἰς ἕτερον πόρον| ἢ ἀνάωmicroα ἢ ἄλο τι ποῆσαι παρὰ τὰ προγεγραmicromicroένα καὶ δια|τετmicroένα ἐπεὶ τὸ γενόmicroενον παρὰ ταῦτα ἔστω ἄκυρον middot| ὁ δὲ περάσας ποιῆσαί τι ὑπεναντίον τῇ διατάξει ἢ τοῖς| ὑπὸ τς βουῆς καὶ τοῦ δήmicroου ἐψηφισmicroένοις καὶ ἐπικεκυ|ρωmicroέν ταύτης τῆς διατάξεως ἀποτεισάτω εἰς| προσκῆς microεης θεᾶς Ἀρτέmicroιδος δη(νάρια) δισmicroύρια| εταβαστοῦ φίσκον ἄλλα δη(νάρια) βʹ Μ ͵ε

13 13

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clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

13 13

1513

60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

213

uniform Greek legal theory but also that legal invalidity remained largely unspecified even by Roman law posing several terminological and conceptual problems for the Roman jurists as well12

In Greek inscriptions statutory prohibitions invested with the sanction of invalidity concern a wide variety of cases throughout periods and geographical areas13 Occurrences of the ἄκυρον clause can be broadly distinguished in three categories a) judicial (or similar) decisions and rights b) legal statutes (international agreements laws decrees decree propositions entrenchment clauses) c) private legal acts (bilateral contracts testaments manumissions) In absence of a clear doctrine on legal invalidity the epigraphic instances of ἄκυρον may offer some indications on the concept and on the operation of legal invalidity in ancient Greek legal thought and praxis

1 Nullity and nullification of judicial decisions and related rights

Trials and sentences

During trials the casting of valid votes14 in a copper urn led to a (valid) judicial sentence15 The rule of majority16 was considered an expression of the democratic principle applied in a court of law In absence also of the right of appeal in ancient procedure invalidating judicial decisions was viewed as something highly irregular17 As Demosthenes (in a graphe nomon me epitideion theinai) states ldquoI take it that everybody will agree that to invalidate judicial decisions is monstrous impious and subversive of popular governmentrdquo18 The nullification of trials and sentences ex post should though be possible according to Plato19 in case of a verdict obtained after obstructing by force the other party or his

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 See Zimmermann R 1990 679 according to whom about 30 different terms survive in Roman sources to describe invalidity such as nullum nullius momenti non esse invalidum nihil agere inutile inane irritum imperfectum vitiosum See p 680 All that one may perhaps say by way of generalization is that the label ldquoinvalidityrdquo usually implied that a transaction was denied its natural (or typical) consequences As a rule this type of ldquocivilianrdquo invalidity could be invoked by anybody and at any time But there were exceptions On the evolution of the quasi nullus concept see Quadrato R 1983 79-107 13 This attempt is far from being exhaustive not covering other terms and expressions that may be denoting invalidity or with invalidity of contracts as a result of violence mistake duress influene or fraud On these see Biscardi A 1991226-230 Velissaropoulos J 2011220-222 14 Sentences at the Athenian courts are obtained through the casting of all valid votes in an urn made of copper the invalid ones in an urn made of wood according to the procedure described in the Athenaion Politeia The valid votes are the ones in favor of the plaintiff or the defendant thrown in the first urn the sum of which brings the condemnation or acquittal Invalid in this sense is the vote the judge chose to have no effect which was practically guaranteing his anonymity Arist AthPol 683-691 ἐmicroβάλλει τὴν microὲν κυ[ρία]ν εἰς τὸν χαλ]κοῦν ἀmicroφορέα τὴν δὲ ἄκυρο[ν] εἰς τὸν ξύλ]ινον 15 On the use of κύριος and ἄκυρος regarding a dikasterion see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001 107-108 16 On the majority principle see Maffi A 2012 21-31 and on judicial votes Todd SC 2012 33-48 17 The nullification of trials by citizens is considered by Plato as a sign of corruption of the city Plato Crit 50b4 ldquoΕἰπέ microοι ὦ Σώκρατες τί ἐν νῷ ἔχεις ποιεῖν ἄλλο τι ἢ τούτῳ τῷ ἔργῳ ᾧ ἐπιχειρεῖς διανοῇ τούς τε νόmicroους ἡmicroᾶς ἀπολέσαι καὶ σύmicroπασαν τὴν πόλιν τὸ σὸν microέρος ἢ δοκεῖ σοι οἷόν τε ἔτι ἐκείνην τὴν πόλιν εἶναι καὶ microὴ ἀνατετράφθαι ἐν ᾗ ἂν αἱ γενόmicroεναι δίκαι microηδὲν ἰσχύωσιν ἀλλὰ ὑπὸ ἰδιωτῶν ἄκυροί τε γίγνωνται καὶ διαφθείρωνταιrdquo τί ἐροῦmicroεν ὦ Κρίτων πρὸς ταῦτα καὶ ἄλλα τοιαῦτα πολλὰ γὰρ ἄν τις ἔχοι ἄλλως τε καὶ ῥήτωρ εἰπεῖν ὑπὲρ τούτου τοῦ νόmicroου ἀπολλυmicroένου ὃς τὰς δίκας τὰς δικασθείσας προστάττει κυρίας εἶναι 18 Dem 24152 ὡς δὲ τὰ δεδικασmicroέν᾽ ἄκυρα ποιεῖν καὶ δεινὸν καὶ ἀνόσιόν ἐστι καὶ δήmicroου κατάλυσις πάντας ἂν οἶmicroαι ὁmicroολογῆσαι 19 Plato Leg 954b6 Ἐάν τίς τινα δίκῃ παραγενέσθαι κωλύσῃ βίᾳ εἴτε αὐτὸν εἴτε microάρτυρας ἐὰν microὲν δοῦλον εἴτε αὑτοῦ εἴτε ἀλλότριον ἀτελῆ καὶ ἄκυρον γίγνεσθαι τὴν δίκην ἐὰν δὲ ἐλεύθερον πρὸς τῷ ἀτελῆ δεθῆναι microὲν ἐνιαυτόν ὑπόδικον δὲ ἀνδραποδισmicroοῦ τῷ ἐθέλοντι γίγνεσθαι

13 13

313

witnesses from attending the trial Verdicts could also be overturned in case of change of the political regime20

The invalidity of irregularly obtained sentences was a term included in the symbolon agreements by which two cities agreed upon the dispute resolution procedures among their citizens The earliest epigraphic occurrence of an invalidity clause comes from the symbolon of Athens with Phaselis (dating from 469-450 BC) where it is stated that in case a trial is brought against any citizen of Phaselis his conviction contrary to the terms of the jurisdiction agreement shall be invalid21

IG Isup3 10 (SEG 352) [ἔδο]ξεν τῆι βολῆι καὶ τῶι δ[ή]- [microωιmiddot Ἀ]καmicroαντὶς [ἐ]πρυτάνευε []νάσιππος ἐγραmicromicroάτευε Νε- []δης ἐπεστάτει Λέω[ν ε]ἶ-

5 [πεmiddot τοῖ]ς Φασηλίταις τὸ ψ[ήφ]ι- [σmicroα ἀν]αγράψαιmiddot ὅ τι ἂmicro microὲ[ν] Ἀθ- [ήνησι ξ]υ[microβ]όλαιον γένηται [πρὸς Φ]ασηλιτ[ῶ]ν τινα Ἀθή[ν]η- [σι τὰς δ]ίκας γίγνεσθαι παρ-

10 [ὰ τῶι πο]λεmicroάρχωι καθάπερ Χ- [ίοις καὶ] ἄλλοθι microηδὲ ἁmicroο τῶ- [ν δὲ ἄλλω]ν ἀπὸ ξυmicroβολῶν κατ- [ὰ τὰς ὄσας] ξυmicroβολὰς πρὸς Φα- [σηλίτας] τὰς δίκας εν[α]ιmiddot τὰς

15 [7]το[ς] ἀφελεν ἐὰν δέ τ- [ις ἄλλη τῶ]ν ἀρχῶν δέξηται δ- [ίκην κατὰ] Φασηλιτῶν τινος [8 ε] ἰ microὲν καταδικάσ- [θέντι ℎε δίκ]η ἄκυρος ἔστω

20 [ἄν δέ τις παραβ]α[ί]νηι τὰ ἐψη- [φισmicroένα ὀφ]ε[λέτ]ω microυρίας δ[ρ]- [αχmicroὰς ἱερ]ὰς τῆι Ἀθηναίαιmiddot τ-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 20 Andocides states that in the Reconciliation Agreement of 4032 BC the legal decisions and arbitrations obtained under democracy were considered valid official decisions under the Thirty invalid Andoc 187 Νόmicroος

τὰς δὲ δίκας καὶ τὰς διαίτας κυρίας εἶναι ὁπόσαι ἐν δηmicroοκρατουmicroένῃ τῇ πόλει ἐγένοντο τοῖς δὲ νόmicroοις χρῆσθαι ἀπ᾽ Εὐκλείδου ἄρχοντος 188 τὰς microὲν δίκας ὦ ἄνδρες καὶ τὰς διαίτας ἐποιήσατε κυρίας εἶναι ὁπόσαι ἐν δηmicroοκρατουmicroένῃ τῇ πόλει ἐγένοντο ὅπως microήτε χρεῶν ἀποκοπαὶ εἶεν microήτε δίκαι ἀνάδικοι γίγνοιντο ἀλλὰ τῶν ἰδίων συmicroβολαίων αἱ πράξεις εἶεν τῶν δὲ δηmicroοσίων ἐφ᾽ ὁπόσοις ἢ γραφαί εἰσιν ἢ φάσεις ἢ ἐνδείξεις ἢ ἀπαγωγαί τούτων ἕνεκα τοῖς νόmicroοις ἐψηφίσασθε χρῆσθαι ἀπ᾽ Εὐκλείδου ἄρχοντος 21 How such an annulment of a trial or sentence would take place is not clear An (unorthodox) nullification of the Amphictyonic decisions by Philomelus is recorded by Diodorus he simply erased the convictions he considered unjust from the stellae Destroying the publicly displayed sentences equaled to having them nullified by force since without such record the decisions were practically nonexistent DS 1624 πρῶτον microὲν γὰρ παρελθὼν εἰς τὴν Σπάρτην ἐν ἀπορρήτοις διελέχθη τῷ βασιλεῖ τῶν Λακεδαιmicroονίων Ἀρχιδάmicroῳ ὅτι κοινὸς ὁ ἀγών ἐστιν αὐτῷ περὶ τοῦ ποιῆσαι τὰς κρίσεις τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἀκύρους εἶναι γὰρ καὶ κατὰ τῶνΛακεδαιmicroονίων microεγάλας καὶ ἀδίκους ἀποφάσεις τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἐδήλωσεν οὖν αὐτῷ διότι τοὺς Δελφοὺς καταλαβέσθαι διέγνωκε καὶτῆς προστασίας ἐὰν ἐγκρατὴς γένηται τὰ δόγmicroατα τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἀκυρώσει hellip ὁ δὲ Φιλόmicroηλος ἐπαρθεὶς τῇ νίκῃ τὰς τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἀποφάσεις ἔκτε τῶν στηλῶν ἐξέκοψε καὶ τὰ περὶ τῶν καταδικῶν γράmicromicroατα κατέλυσεν αὐτὸς δὲ διέδωκε λόγον ὡς οὔτε συλᾶν τὸ microαντεῖον διέγνωκεν οὔτ᾽ ἄλλην οὐδεmicroίαν παράνοmicroον πρᾶξιν συντελεῖν βεβούλευται τῆς δὲ προγονικῆς προστασίας ἀmicroφισβητῶν καὶ τὰς τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἀδίκους ἀποφάσεις ἀκυρῶσαι βουλόmicroενος βοηθεῖν τοῖς πατρίοις νόmicroοις τῶν Φωκέων

13 13

413

[ὸ δὲ ψήφισ]microα τό[δε] ἀναγραψά- [τω ὁ γραmicromicro]ατεὺς ὁ τῆς βολῆς

25 [ἐστήληι λιθί]νηι καὶ καταθ- [έτω ἐmicro πόλει τ]έλεσι τοῖς τῶ- [ν Φασηλιτῶν] In a decree of Miletos (dating from 2287 BC) accepting the judgment of synedroi concerning

the sharing of citizenship with Cretans in view of the reconciliation that took place it is forbidden for anyone to be brought to trial regarding past events ([πε]ρὶ τῶν προγεγονότων) and if so the trial shall be invalid (καὶ ἡ δίκη ἄκυρος [ἔστω])22

Invalidating an otherwise binding judicial or arbitrary decision could come in two ways de iure if a different decision was reached on the same dispute and de facto if one of the parties was allowed not to comply with the prior decision In 164 BC after Sparta refused to comply with a decision regarding a territorial dispute with Megalopolis and appealed to the Achaean League the latter imposed a fine on Sparta which still refused to give up the contested territory and offered to submit to Roman arbitration23 In the following decision the arbitrators stress that their aim is not to render previous judgments ἄκυρα confirming thus the principle of res iudicata Invalidity is also mentioned as a de facto result the arbitrators wish to avoid by not allowing the Spartans to invalidate previous decisions by committing new crimes

IvO 47

ἐπε[ὶ] δὲ ἀναγκαῖόν [τε] καὶ ἀκόλουθ[ον τῷ ὅρ]κωι ὃν ltὠgtmicro[όσα]microεν καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς τῶν Ἀ-

15 χαιῶν σ[υ]ντελε[ῖ]ν τὰν κρίσιν [ltὣστrsquogt εἰς] τὰ γράmicromicroατα τὰ δαmicroόσια ἀπενεγχθῆ- microεν ἕνεκεν τοῦ microήτε τὰ ποτιδε[ό]microενα κρίσιος ἄκριτα γίνεσθαι microή- τε τὰ κεκριmicroένα ἄκυρα ὅπως δα[micro]οκρατούmicroενοι καὶ τὰ ποθrsquo αὑτοὺς ὁmicroονοοῦντες οἱ Ἀχαιοὶ διατε[λ]ῶντι εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ὄντες ἐν εἰ- ράναι καὶ εὐνοmicroίαι αἵ τ rsquo ἐν τοῖς Ἕλλασιν καὶ συmicromicroάχοις γεγενηmicroέ-

20 ναι πρότερον κρ[ ί]σεις βέβαια[ ι] καὶ ἀκήρατοι δ[ ι]αmicroένωντι εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον κα[ὶ] αἱ στᾶλαι καὶ τ[ὰ ὅρι]α τὰ τεθέ[ντα] ὑπὲρ τᾶν κρισ[ί]- ωmicro microένῃ κύρια διrsquo ὅλου καὶ microηθὲ[ν αὐτῶν ᾖ] ἰσχυ[ρότ]ερον γεγεν[ηmicroέ]- νας καὶ πρότε[ρ]ον κρίσιος Μεγ[αλοπολίταις καὶ Λακεδ]αιmicroον[ίοις] [ὑπὲ]ρ ταύτα[ς τᾶ]ς χώρας ὑπὲρ ἇς [νῦν διαφέρονται mdash mdash][mdash mdash]

κρίνοντες

[οὖν ο]ὕτω κα microάλιστα microένειν [τὰ ποθrsquo] αὑτοὺς τοὺς Ἀχαιοὺς ὁmicroονοοῦν- 40 [τας εἰ] τὰ κριθέντα παρ rsquo αὐτοῖς microηκέτι γίνοιτο ἄκυρα δι rsquo ἑτέρων ἐγ-

[κληmicroά]των ἀλλrsquo ὅρον ἔχοι τᾶς ποθrsquo αὑτοὺς διαφορᾶς κρίσιν δικ[αστ]η- [ρίου ἐ]γνωκότες δὲ ἐκ τ[ῶ]ν παρατεθέντων ἁmicroῖν παρrsquo ἀmicroφοτέρ[ων γραmicro]- [microάτων] καὶ Ῥωmicroαίους τοὺς προεστακότας τᾶς τῶν Ἑλλάν[ων εὐνοmicroί]- [ας καὶ ὁmicroο]νοίας ὅκ[α π]αρεγενήθησαν ποθrsquo αὑτοὺς Μεγ[αλοπολῖται]

45 [καὶ Λακεδαιmicroόνιοι ὑ]πὲρ ταύτας τᾶς χώρας διαφε[ρόmicroενοι ταύταν] [ἀποφάνασθαι τὰν γνώmicroα]ν διότι δεῖ τὰ [κεκριmicroένα εἶmicroεν κύρια mdash mdash]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 22 Miletos 54 c1 lines 5-13 εἶναι δὲ Μιλησίους τοὺ]ς microετασχόντας τῆς πολιτείας| [τῶγ Κρητῶν ἀφrsquo ἧς ἂν ἡmicroέρας τ]ὸ ψήφισ[micro]α τόδε κυρωθῆιmiddot microὴ ἐξεῖναι δὲ| [δικάζεσθαι κατὰ microηθενὸς αὐτῶν] microηθενὶ [πε]ρὶ τῶν προγεγονότων ἕως| [εἰς στεφανηφόρον τὸν θεὸν τὸν δεύ]τερον τὸmicro microετὰ Ἀθηναγόραν καὶ microῆνα| [c11-13microηδὲ ἐκεί]νοις κατὰ microηθενὸς Μιλησίων microηδὲ τῶν| [Μίλητον οἰκούντων ἀλλὰ] ἀφεῖσθαι πάντας ἀπὸ πάντων] ἐὰν δέ τις| [παρὰ τὸ ψήφισmicroα δικάζητ]αι microὴ γραφέ[τω]σαν αὐτῶι τὴν δίκην οἱ ἄρ|[χοντες microηδὲ βοηθείτωσαν τῶι ἀδ]ικουmicroένωι καὶ ἡ δίκη ἄκυρος|[ἔστω 23 Ager S 1996 no 137

13 13

513

In another arbitration between the cities of Melitaia and Narthakion (ca 140 BC) regarding a long territorial dispute (which is uncommon as Ager points out24 in being conducted by the Roman Senate itself) the senatorial decree regarding this conflict underlines that invalidating previous rulings decided according to the law is something that must not be done lightly

IG IX 2 89 περί τε τούτων τῶν πραγmicroά-

20 [τω]ν ἔτει ἀνώτερον τρίτῳ ἐπὶ τριῶν δικασ- [τη]ρίων νενικηκέναι ἐπὶ Σαmicroίων Κολοφων[ί]- [ων] Μαγνήτων κεκ[ρι]microένα εἶναι κατὰ νόmicroου[ς] ὅπως ταῦτα κύρια ᾖ οὕτω καθὼς καὶ ἄλλοις γεγονός ἐστινmiddot περὶ τούτου τοῦ πράγmicroατος

25 οὕτως ἔδοξενmiddot χάριτα φιλίαν συmicromicroαχίαν [ἀ]νανεώσασθαι τούτοις τε φιλανθρώπως ἀ- ποκριθῆναιmiddot ἄνδρας καλοὺς κἀγαθοὺς προσ- αγορεῦσαιmiddot ὅσα κεκριmicroένα ἐστὶν κατὰ νόmicroους οὓς Τίτος Κοΐγκτιος ὕπατος ἔδωκεν ταῦτα κα-

30 θὼς κεκριmicroένα ἐστίν οὕτω δοκεῖ κύρια εἶναι δεῖν τοῦτό τε microὴ εὐχερὲς εἶναι ὅσα κατὰ νόmicroους κε- κριmicroένα ἐστὶν ἄκυρα ποιεῖν middot A different kind of annulment concerning a Roman sentence is mentioned in an honorary decree

from Kolophon (ca 130-110 BC) for Πτολεmicroαῖον Πανταγνώτου Κνηmicroάδη The city is grateful among many other reasons because when one of its citizens was condemned in a Roman court in the province (of Asia) the benefactor undertook an embassy to the (Roman) general and managed to have the condemnation annulled25 saving thus both the citizen and the cityrsquos laws

Annulment of decisions and accusations as well a debts is also an extraordinary measure corresponding to times of crisis and imminent danger for the polis In a law the city of Ephesos voted in preparation of an expected invasion by Mithridates (8685 BC) after the Ephesias pledge allegiance to the Romans in order to rally the population they decide in what constitutes a complicated amnesty arrangement26 to cancel all debts of those registered by the sacred or public treasurers as debtors and atimoi to waive accusations and penalties of those registred as accused for religious or public offences or any kind of debt to proclaim void any execution against them and furthermore to cancell and render void all religious and public prosecutions unless concerning boundary and inheritance disputes

IEph 8 τοὺς microὲν ἐκγεγραmicromicroένους ἢ παρα[γεγραmicro]microένους ὑπὸ λογιστῶν ἱερῶν ἢ δ[η]- microοσίων ὡιτινιοῦν τρόπωι πά[λιν εἶ]ναι ἐντίmicroους καὶ ἠκυρῶσθαι τὰς κα- 30 [τ rsquo ] αὐτῶν ἐκγραφὰς καὶ ὀφειλήmicro[ατα] τοὺς δὲ παραγεγραmicromicroένους πρὸς [ἱε]- [ρ]ὰς καταδίκας ἢ δηmicroοσίας ἢ ἐπίτειmicroα ἱερὰ ἢ δηmicroόσια ἢ ἄλλα ὀφειλήmicroατ[α] ὡιτινιοῦν τρόπωι παρεῖσθαι πάντας καὶ εἶναι ἀκύρους τὰς κατ rsquo αὐτῶν

πράξεις middot

41 λελύσθαι δὲ καὶ εἶναι ἀκύρο[υς] τάς τε ἱερὰς καὶ δηmicroοσίας δίκας εἰ microή τινές εἰσιν ὑπὲρ παρορισmicroῶν χώρας ἢ διrsquo

ἀmicroφ[ισ]- βητήσεως κληρονοmicroίας ἐζευγmicroέναιmiddot

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 24 Ager S 1996 no 157 25 SEG 391243 II1 lines 51-58 ἑνὸς δὲ τῶν| πολιτῶν κατακρίτου γενοmicroέ|νου Ῥωmicroltαgtϊκῷ κριτηρίωι ἐν τῆι ἐ|παρχείᾳ πρεσβεύσας πρὸς τὸν| στρατηγὸν τὸν γενόmicroενον ἄκυ|ρον ἐποίησεν καὶ τὰ κρίmicroατα| καὶ τὸν πολείτην καὶ τοὺς νό|microους ἀβλαβεῖς ἐτήρησενmiddot 2613 Arnaoutoglou I 1998105-107 Harter-Uibopuu K 2014 forthcoming13

13 13

613

Legal prescription

Ἄκυρον ἔστω in international treaties sometimes refers to a limitation of the right to bring suit27 and to the legal prescription of such right which may be either absolute or occur after a set period of time In the treaty of sympoliteia between Smyrna and Magnesia Sip (dated around 245-243 BC) the citizens of both of cities would give an oath to abide by the treaty terms The parties seal their peace by also declaring invalid any accusation among their citizens regarding war crimes28 In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe (included in a letter of Thraseas to this city dated after 238 BC) all trials among citizens of both cities must take place within the year following the crime a period after the lapse of which they are declared invalid

SEG 391426 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ὅσα δrsquo ἂν ἀδικῆmicroατα ἴδια γένηται ἑκάστοις ἐὰν microὲν ὁ [Ἀρσιν]οεὺς ἐν Ναγίδωι τινὰ ἀδικήσηι ἢ ἀδικηθῆι λαmicroβανέτω τὸ δίκαιον καὶ [διδότ]ω κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους τοὺς Ναγιδέων ἐὰν δὲ ὁ Ναγιδεὺς ἐν Ἀρσινόηι [τινὰ] ἀδικήσηι ἢ ἀδικηθῆι λαmicroβανέτω τὸ δίκαιον καὶ διδότω κατὰ τοὺς [νόmicroου]ς τοὺς Ἀρσινοέων ἔστω δὲ αὐτοῖς πάντων τῶν ἀδικηmicroάτων

50 [ἐξ οὗ ἂ]ν χρόνου γένηται τὸ ἀδίκηmicroα προθεσmicroία ἐνιαυτός ἐὰν δέ τις [διελθ]όντος τοῦ χρόνου γράψηται δίκην ἢ ἐγκαλέσηι ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐ- [τῶι ἡ δίκη] middot Equal to legal prescription is also the sense of ἄκυρον in the treaty between Delphi and Pellana

where (according to the proposed reconstitution of the missing lines) the right of reference of a claimant to a third party (anagoge) is invalid if not exercised within the time limit set by the treaty29

2 Legal statutes and invalidity clauses The second broad category of ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions concerns legal statutes in the form

of international treaties laws decrees and decree propositions International treaties

In general international treaties remained valid as long as they were respected by all parties involved in spite of the usual clauses aiming to secure the parties abidance to their terms forever30 Their annulment was rarely decided in legal terms31 but came as a consequence either of the lack of commitment of the contracting parties or of their straightforward violation or by concluding a new or

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 On limitations of actions see Jones J W 1956 233-234 28 Smyrna 14 lines 41-43 συντελεσθέντων δὲ τῶν ὅρκων τὰ microὲν ἐγκλήmicroατα αὐ|τοῖς τὰ γεγενηmicroένα κατὰ τὸmicro πόλεmicroον ἤρθω πάντα καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω [microηδὲ] ἑτέροις ἐγκαλέσαι περὶ τῶγ κατὰ τὸν πόλεmicroον γεγενηmicroένων microή[τε]| διὰ δίκης microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόποmicro microηθέναmiddot εἰ δὲ microή πᾶν τὸ ἐπιφερόmicroε[ν]ον ἔγκληmicroα ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 29 FD III 1486 (Staatsvertraumlge III 558) IIA1 lines 14-19[αἰ δ]έ κα ἔξοθεν [κλέψηι ἢ Δελφὸς παρὰ Πελλα|νεῖ ἢ Πελλανεὺς παρὰ Δ]ελφῶι ὁ ἔχων ἀναγέτω τῶι ἐφαπτοmicroέν[ωι] ἔγγυον καταστάσ[ας ποὶ τὰν ἀρχὰν τὰν εἰσ|άγουσαν τὰν δίκαν ἔ]νδικον καὶ ἄνδρα ἀξιόχρεοltνgt ἃ microὲν ἐν [Δ]ελφοῖς ἢ Πελλανε[ῦσιν ἔχει δικαίως πεπάσθαι κατὰ|τοὺς νόmicroους τᾶς πόλιοςmiddot ἐξέ]στω δὲ τῶι microὲν microὴ δέξασθαι τὰν [ἀν]αγωγὰν εἰπόντι καθrsquo [ὅ τι δικαίως ἐφάπτοιτο]|[τῶι δὲ ἀποδείξασθαι ὅτ]ι ἀνάγοι καθότι πέπαται mdashmdash αἰ δέ [κ]α microὴ ἀνάγηι ἐν τῶι χρόνω [ ι τῶι γεγραmicromicroένωι ὁ ἔχων]|[ἁ ἀναγωγὰ ἀτελὴς καὶ ἄκυρ]ος ἔστω 3013 On entrenched provisions regarding alliances and treaties see Schwartzberg M 2004315-318 322-323 31 On the (different) question of annulment of older decrees as a result of treaties of alliance or other positive relationships see Rubinstein L 2008 116

13 13

713

conflicting treaty with a third party32 One rare example of annulment is included in the isopoliteia agreement between Messene and Phigaleia (dating from 240 BC) where in case of non-abidance of the citizens of Phigaleia to the pre-existing agreements between Messene and the Aitolians the current agreement shall also be invalidated33

IPArk 28 (= IG V2 419)

[ὅσα δέ κα ἄλλ]α ὁmicroολογήσωmicroες ποτrsquo ἀλλάλως ὁmicroό- [σαι ἀνφοτέρ]ως καὶ στάλας καταθέσθαι ἐν τοῖς [ἱεροῖς ὁπεῖ κ]α δοκεῖ ἀνφοτέραις ταῖς πολέο- [ις εἰ δέ κα microὴ ἐν]microένωντι οἱ Φιαλέες ἐν τᾶι φιλ-

20 [ίαι τᾶι πὸτ τὼς Μ]εσανίως καὶ Αἰτωλώς ἄκυρος ἔ- [σστω ἅδε ἁ ὁmicroολο]γία

Invalidity of an organrsquos decisions and of city laws

An invalidity clause (although not using the word akyros) appears already in what is considered to be the earliest legal inscription from Greece the law of Dreros34 limiting the iteration of the office of the Kosmos All actions of the Kosmos taken under the illegal tenure will be annulled (microηδὲν ἤmicroην) and he will also be subject to a fine35 This invalidity of official acts seems to have had an immediate effect Invalidity thus aims early on to safeguard citizens from illegal decisions of public officials Later on the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) forbids any manipulation of the cityrsquos legislation (κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους) in a simulacrum of democracy The decisions obtained in this way even if the cityrsquos highest authorities and the boule are involved are declared a priori invalid and the person responsible for this shall be punished as the instigator of an oligarchy IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1

ἐάν τις ἐν ὀλι- γαρχίαι κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους vacat vacat βουλὴν αἱρῆται ἢ τὰς ἄλλας ἀρχάς ὡς ἐν δηmicroοκρατίαι θέλων διαπράσσεσθαι τ[ε]-

115 χνάζων ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ τὸν τεχνάζοντα πάσ- χειν ὡς ἡγεmicroόνα ὀλιγαρχίαςmiddot Disregarding the law

Laws if not properly applied where in fact rendered invalid as it is already maintained by Cleon in the debate over the Mytileneans36 Later the verb ἀκυρόω in connection to a law in the meaning of (not) to be disregarded is to be found in the Greek transcription of the lex romana de

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 32 Lys Περὶ τῆς δηmicroεύσεως τῶν τοῦ Νικίου ἀδελφοῦ ἐπίλογος 154 οὐκ οὖν αἰσχρόν εἰ ἃ microὲν Λακεδαιmicroονίοις συνέθεσθε βεβαιώσετε ἃ δὲ αὑτοῖς ἐψηφίσασθε οὕτω ῥᾳδίως διαλύσετε καὶ τὰς microὲν πρὸς ἐκείνους συνθήκας κυρίας ποιήσετε τὰς δὲ πρὸς αὑτοὺς ἀκύρους 33 In this instance ἄκυρος ἔστω holds the sense of nullification of the agreement operating ex nunc and concerns all contracting parties 34 Nomima I80 ἇδrsquo ἔϝαδε | πόλιmiddot | ἐπεί κα κοσmicroήσει | δέκα ϝετίον τὸν ἀ|ϝτὸν | microὴ κόσmicroεν | αἰ δὲ κοσmicroησιε | ὀ(π)ε δικακσιε | ἀϝτὸν ὀπῆλεν | διπλεῖ | κᾱϝτὸν ἄκρηστον | ἦmicroεν | ἆς δοοι | κὄτι κοσmicroησιε | microηδὲν ἤmicroην ὀmicroόται δὲ | κόσmicroος | κοἰ δάmicroιοι | κοἰ | ἴκατι | οἰ τᾶς πόλ[ιο]ς 35 Youni M 2010152-153 36 Th 337 πάντων δὲ δεινότατον εἰ βέβαιον ἡmicroῖν microηδὲν καθεστήξει ὧν ἂν δόξῃ πέρι microηδὲ γνωσόmicroεθα ὅτι χείροσι νόmicroοις ἀκινήτοις χρωmicroένη πόλις κρείσσων ἐστὶν ἢ καλῶς ἔχουσιν ἀκύροις On citations regarding the laws rendered valid (κυρίους) only if applied by the courts see Harris E M 2013 99 On the reasons proposed on why the Athenians did not repeal unenforced laws see Wallace RW 2012 117-123

13 13

813

piratis persequendis37 found in Delphi (ca 101-100 BC)38 ordering the Roman Governors of the Provinces of Macedonia and Asia to take measures against pirates and to insure the collection of public revenues

Conflicts of laws

Direct abolition of enactments referred to as νόmicroοι or θεσmicroοί are rare39 One such example is a law of Kyme (Aeol) dating from the third century BC regarding a serious crime and judgments rendered by the dikasopoi40 If any other law included any clause contrary to this one it is declared invalid41 This term did not aim at a particular statute but resolved the matter of potential conflicts of laws by stating the supremacy of this legal rule over any conflicting one

Nullification regarding decrees and petitions

Nullification of a cityrsquos decree42 could derive from a clause contained in a subsequent decree New legislation sometimes incorporated provisions that nullified previous or inconsistent statutes43 but most often this was done by giving instructions to physically remove the older stones44 The simplest method for having a cityrsquos decision de facto abolished being the destruction of the inscription preserving it in an honorary decree of Priene for Euandros Sabyllou from Larisa in Thessaly (ca 300290 BC)45

the invalidity clause not only strikes any proposition against the current decree but also guarantees the physical integrity of the stele containing it which had been just re-erected

In general in decrees akyron is used in the sense of an act46 not having the legal effects it would normally have47 It is not ldquonon-existentrdquo but no commitment or valid obligation can derive from

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 37 Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 33-47 38 FD III 437 C lines 15-16 ὑπεναντίον τούτῳ τῷ νόmicroῳ microή τις ποείτω ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ ὅσα τέ τινας κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον δεῖ ποεῖν ποεῖτε microήτε τις ποείτω ᾧ ο[ὗ]|[τ]ος ὁ νόmicroος κατὰ παρεύρεσιν ἀκυρωθῇ ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ microήτε τις ποείτω microήτε| ἐπικρινάτω ὧι ἔλασσον ὅσα δεῖ κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον γέν[η]ταιmiddot 39 On this matter see Rubinstein L 2008 115 40 The law allowed the person guilty of the crime to be declared atimos and killed by anyone 41 IK Kyme 11 lines 10-13 αἰ δ[ὲ (microὴ) mdash mdash mdash]| [ἄτιmicroος θνασ]κέτω κτεινέτω δὲ αὐτὸν ὁ θέλωνmiddot ὁ δὲ ἀ[ποκτείναις]| [εὐάγης ἔστω κ]αὶ καθαρόςmiddot αἰ δέ ποι ἐν νόmicroῳ τινὶ ἄλ[λο τι γράφηται]|[ἐνάντιον τῷ ν]όmicroῳ τούτῳ ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 42 Provided the decrees were not superseding the law Hyp Ath 322 καὶ ὁ microὲν Σόλων οὐδ᾽ ὃ δικαίως ἔγραφεν ψήφισmicroά τις τοῦ νόmicroου οἴεται δεῖν κυριώτερον εἶναι σὺ δὲ καὶ τὰς ἀδίκους συνθήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων τῶν νόmicroων Such a law was in fact passed under the archonship of Euclides in 403|2 MacDowell 1962 128 43 In Athens the decree of Isotimides which barred anyone who had confessed to an act of impiety from entering the temples and the agora cancelled a former decree guaranteeing indemnity for disclosures This decree was at the origin of Andocidersquos conviction and exile from Athens When the Amnesty of 403 BC finally allowed Andocides to return home and in 400 he was put on trial for violating the Isotimides decree he won an acquittal with his defense speech On the Mysteries proving that the latter decree had been annulled And 18 ἢ περὶ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος τοῦ Ἰσοτιmicroίδου ὡς ἄκυρόν ἐστιν 44 On examples see Sickinger J P 2008103 n 21 22 45 Priene 46 lines 7-10 [ἐὰν δέ τις περὶ τ]ού[το]υ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἢ τῆς στή|[λης τῆς νῦν ἀ]πο[κα]θισταmicroένης ἢ| ἄρχων προτιθῆι|[ἢ ἰδιώτης συ]γ[κα]ταλύειν βουλόmicroενος τὴν δωρε|[ὰν τοῦ δή]microου ἄ[κ]υρα ἔστω middot 46 Invalidity concerned actions A judicial verdict could allthough indirectly annul a previous refusal to act as it illustrated in the speech by Lys 919 microήτε τοὺς βέλτιον καὶ δικαίως βουλευσαmicroένους ἀκύρους καταστήσητε The speaker (Polyaeunus) had been fined by the generals for slander a fine which was subsequently reported to the treasurers to collect as unpaid debt the latter refusing to do so on the grounds (if we are to believe the speaker) that it had been irregularly and maliciously imposed The speaker is asking the jury not to invalidate the decision of those who have acted on a better and on a just consideration 47 This is also the meaning of akyron used by Aristotle when he explains the supremacy of men over women children and slaves in order to define the invalidity of the womenrsquos willpower Arist Pol 1260a ἄλλον γὰρ

13 13

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such an act for being opposite to a prior interdiction and its effects can be immediately revoked without further decision In one occasion invalidity strikes a simple petition leading to the dedication of a statue in a public space in a decree concerning the temenos of Asklepeios in Rhodes (datation unknown) it is forbidden to anyone to submit a petition to erect a statue or other dedication at a certain area of the temenos in order not to obstruct the walks and policemen are instructed to remove to another place any dedication erected in spite of the interdiction48 Sometimes a specific action or proposal that may diminish the impact of a donorrsquos benefaction may also be declared ldquoinvalidrdquo In a dedication inscription from Cos (dated from the end of the first or beginning of the second century AD) a donator prescribes that no other statue may be erected on the same platform and that any attempt to contravene this shall be immediately null and void49

Entrenchment clauses

The most frequent occurrence of the ἄκυρον term in decrees concerns entrenchment clauses provisions that make decisions unamendable50 which as Rubinstein51 has correctly noted can be read as ldquoa guarantee issued to a particular individual group of individuals or to another communityrdquo regarding decisions that directly affect them52 Invalidity may be guaranteeing that a particular right bestowed upon a group of individuals would not be revoked In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe already mentioned an invalidity clause strikes any proposition by an archon or a rhetor introducing a contestation of the land given to the Nagidians53 In Thasos of early imperial times the same clause guarantees measures regarding the donation of lands and their subsequent possession by their owners54

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τρόπον τὸ ἐλεύθερον τοῦ δούλου ἄρχει καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν τοῦ θήλεος καὶ ἀνὴρ παιδός καὶ πᾶσιν ἐνυπάρχει microὲν τὰ microόρια τῆς ψυχῆς ἀλλrsquo ἐνυπάρχει διαφερόντως ὁ microὲν γὰρ δοῦλος ὅλως οὐκ ἔχει τὸ βουλευτικόν τὸ δὲ θῆλυ ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἄκυρον ὁ δὲ παῖς ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἀτελές 48 Suppl Epig Rodio 1 lines 10-22 microὴ ἐξέστω microηθενὶ αἰτήσασ|[θαι ἀνά]θεσιν ἀνδριάντος microηδὲ ἄλλου| [ἀναθ]ήmicroατος microηδενὸς ἐς τὸ κάτω microέρος| [τοῦ τ]εmicroένευς ἀπό τε τοῦ προπύλου| [ἐπrsquo ε]ὐθείας ἔστε ποτὶ τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα| [ὧ]ν ἐντι ταὶ αἰτήσιες πρότερον γεγενη|[micro]έναι ἢ ἐς ἄλλον τινα τόπον ἐν ὧι στα|θέντα τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα κωλύσει τοὺς περι|πάτουςmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἐν τούτωι τῶι τόπωι| αἰτήσηται ἀνάθεσιν ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐτ|[ῶ ] ι ἁ αἴτησις καὶ τοὶ ἀστυνόmicroοι εἴ κά τις| [ἀνα]θῆι microεθελόντω τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα ἐς ἄλ|[λον τ]όπονmiddot 49 Iscr di Cos ED 257 frg bcd1 lines 3-30 [κ]αὶ microηδενὶ ἄλλ[ῳ ἐ]ξῆ|microεν microήτε ἰδιώ[τᾳ micro]ήτε ἄρ|χοντι microήτε γυmicro[να]σιάρχῳ| ἢ ἐπιmicroελητᾷ τᾶς [γε]ρουσί|ας καθόλου microήτε εἰκόνα| microήτε ἄγαλmicroα microήτε ἀνδρι|άντα ἀναθέmicroεν ἐν ταύ|τᾳ τᾷ ἐξέδρᾳ τρόπῳ microηδε|νὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσι microηδε|micro ιᾷ microήτε τινὰ γνώmicroαν ἀ|γορεῦσαι περὶ τοῦ τειmicroαὶ| ἄλλου τινὸς ἀνασταθῆ|microεν ἢ ἀνατεθῆmicroεν ἐν αὐτᾶι | αἰ δέ κά τίς ποτε ἐπ[ι]χιρήσῃ ἢ εἰπεῖν ἢ γνώmicroαν ε[ἰ]σαγῆσ|θαι ἢ ἄλλως τι παρὰ τ[αῦ]τα πρ[ᾶ]|ξαι θελήσῃ τὸ microὲν ἐ[πιχ]ειρ ι[σ]|θὲν ἢ καὶ πιρασθὲν [ῥηθῆναι]|ἢ πραχθῆναι παραχρῆ[microα ἄκυ]|ρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστ[ω καὶ microη]|δὲν ἦσσον τὰ διατε[ταγmicroένα]|ὑπrsquo ἐmicroοῦ κύρια καὶ ἀmicro[ετακίνη]|τα ὑπαρχέτω καὶ ὁ [αἴτιος εἴ]|τε ἰδιώτας εἴτε ἄρ[χων εἴτε]|γυmicroνασίαρχος ἢ [ἐπιmicroε]|λητὰς εἴη τᾶς γ[ερουσίας ἀ]|ποτισάτω πα[ραχρῆmicroα δη]|νάρια χίλια 50 On entrenchment clauses in Athens see Schwartzberg M 2004 311-25 who maintains that the Athenians used entrenchment in highly restrictive contexts in certain financial decrees and in alliances and treaties exclusively for narrow strategic purposes in both the international and the domestic contexts and did not extend them to laws regulating the democracy 51 See Rubinstein L 2008117-118 identifying and categorizing a total of 80 examples of entrenchment clauses 52 IC II v 35 53 SEG 391426 lines 39- 45 microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ microηκέτι |[Ν]αγιδεῦσι παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶι περὶ τῆς χώρας τῆς δοθείσης| [α]ὐτοῖς κατὰ ψήφισmicroα τοῦτο ἀmicroφισβητῆσαι ἐὰν δέ τις ἄρχων προθῆι| [τι] δόγmicroα τltοιgtοῦτο ἢ ῥῆτωρ εἴπηι ὁ microὲν ἄρχων ἀποτεισάτω δραχmicroὰς microυρίας |[ἱερ]ὰς Ἀρσινόηι ἀπαραιτήτους ὁ δὲ ῥήτωρ δραχmicroὰς χιλίας καὶ ἡ γνώmicroη αὐ|[τῶ ]ν ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 54 IG XII Suppl 364 lines 7- 20 τὴν δὲ τῶν [ἀγρῶν κτῆσιν διατη]|ρεῖν ἀθάνατον ἡmicroᾶς καὶ microήτε [καταθεῖναί ποτε τοὺς]| ἀγροὺς ἡmicroᾶς microήτε ἀποδόσθαι [microηδενὶ microήτε συνόλους]| microήτε microέρη microήτε περι[ιδ]εῖν ἀπ[αλλοτριωθέντας αὐτοὺς]| κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τ[ις τῶν Θασίων περί τι]|νος τούτων ἢ γράψῃ ἢ ἐπιψ[ηφίσῃ ἢ ἀναγράψῃ εἰς τὸ]| τής πόλεως γραmicromicroατοφυλα[κεῖον τὴν γνώmicroην τὰ γραφέντα]| καὶ τὰ ψηφισθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι [καὶ ἀκρατῆ τὸν δὲ ἢ]| γράψαντα ἢ ἐπιψηφίσαντα ἢ ἀναγ[ράψαντα τὴν γνώ]|microην εἰς τὸ τῆς πόλεως | γραmicromicroατοφ[υλακεῖον ὀφεί]|λειν τοῖς τῶν Σεβαστῶν ναοῖς στατῆ[ρας

13 13

1013

When a future decree proposition (γνώmicroη) is declared invalid this invalidates in fact the whole decree voting procedure55 Detailed terms in entrenchment clauses56 often mention both private persons (ἰδιώτης) and city officials (ἄρχοντες ῥήτορες ἐπιmicroήνιοι) that may be involved the organs before which such propositions may take place (ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω) as well as all the steps leading to the adoption of new decisions (εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι) oraly or in writing (ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι) sometimes adding for the sake of exhaustivity the annulment of decisions ldquoin any other possible wayrdquo (τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν) The legislation process being an expression of the sovereignty of the demos the invalidity clause acts as a kind of limitation for future times of the operation of the majority principle57 in order to secure that no valid decision shall be reached in the future regulating the same matter in a different way Examples of rules that include a detailed enumeration of all possible ways of obtaining amendments declared a priori invalid include the law of Teos regulating the salaries of instructors for the youth58 and a decree of Chios forbidding the use of funds for other purposes than the ones prescribed

Chios 27 11 [mdash]ΙΑ καὶ micro[ὴ] ἐξεῖν[αι τ]οῖς [χρήmicroασι]

[τοῖς συναγ]οmicroένοις ἐκ τῆς [ὑ]ποσχέσεω[ς] [εἰς ἄλλο κ]αταχρῆσθαι microη[δ]ὲν ἢ εἰς τὰ [διατεταγ]micro ένα κατὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα

5 [ἐὰν δέ τις γ]ράψηι ἢ πρύτανις προ[θ]ῆι [ταῦτα εἰς ἄλ]λο τι microετενεγκεῖν ἢ κατα- [χρήσασθαι] ἢ ποιήσηι τίς τι παρὰ τόδε τὸ [ψήφισmicroα τό] τε γραφὲν ἢ πραχθὲν ἄκυρον [ἔστω καὶ ὀφε]ιλέτω τῆι πόλει δραχmicroὰς ΧΧΧ

10 [ὁ τούτων αἴτιο]ς καὶ ἔστω πρὸς τοῦτο [ὑποδικὸς κ]αθάπερ καὶ οἱ ἐξ ὠνῆς ὀφεί- [λοντες χρήmicro]ατα τῆι πόλειmiddot

In entrenchment clauses invalidity is either explicit or may be implied if (only) penalties or curses are directed against anyone who tries to annul the current provisions59 In order to invest an entrenchment clause with effectiveness invalidity apparently not being considered always sufficient in order to deter citizens from introducing changes in the future the provision of penalties60 added a financial risk to the challenge Combined sanctions (invalidity plus fine) are included in sacred laws61 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τετρα]|[κ]ισmicroυρίους καὶ ἄτιmicroον εἶναι καὶ αὐτὸν κ[αὶ γένος]middot [ἐνέχ]εσθαι δὲ αὐτοὺς καὶ τῆι εἰς τοὺς Σε[βαστοὺς ἀσε]|[βείαιmiddot 55 Cf the use of ἄκυρον in the Athenaion Politeia on the lack of sovereignety of the Boule to decide by itself Arist AthPol 454 τούτων microὲν οὖν ἄκυρός ἐστιν ἡ βουλήmiddot προβουλεύει δrsquoεἰς τὸν δῆmicroον καὶ οὐκ ἔξεστιν οὐδὲν ἀπροβούλευτον οὐδrsquo ὅ τι ἂν microὴ προγράψωσιν οἱ πρυτάνεις ψηφίσασθαι τῷ δήmicroῳ κατrsquo αὐτὰ γὰρ ταῦτα ἔνοχός ἐστιν ὁ νικήσας γραφῇ παρανόmicroων 5613 On entrenchment clauses and different measures aiming to preserve important resources and to guarantee compliance with relevant rules in late Hellenistic and imperial times see Harter-Uibopuu K 2013 (forthcoming)13 57 The interdiction and nullity clause for future decree propositions may have constituted in Athens grounds for a graphe paranomon 58 Teos 41 lines 40-46 ἢν δὲ οἱ ἐνεστηκότες ταmicroίαι ἢ οἱ ἑκάστοτε γινόmicroενοι| microὴ παραδῶσιν τὸ ἀργύριον τοῦτο κατὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα v3 ἢ ἄλλος τις ἄρχων| ἢ ἰδιώτης εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι ἐναντίον τού| τωι ἢ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον ἄρηι τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν ὡς δεῖ τὸ ἀργύρι| ον κινηθῆναι ἢ microὴ ἀναλίσκεσθαι ἀπrsquo αὐτοῦ εἰς ἃ ὁ νόmicroος συντάσσει ἢ ἄλλ[ηι που]| καταχωρισθῆναι καὶ microὴ εἰς ἃ ἐν τῶιδε τῶι νόmicroωι διατέτακται τά τε πραχθέν|τα ἄκυρα ἔστω 59 On examples of such inscriptions see Sickinger J P 2008 104 n 24 25 60 See Rubinstein L 2012329-354 61 IK Kalchedon 10 lines 10-13 [ὃς δέ] κα εἴπῃ ἢ προαισιmicroνάσηι ἢ ἐν [β]ουλᾶι ἢ ἐν δάmicroωι ὀ|[φειλέτω] δραχmicroὰς Μ ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἡρακλεῖος καὶ τὰ| [προαισ]ιmicroναθέντα ἢ ῥηθέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

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from the Asklepieion of Kos (dated from the end of the first century BC) concerning the sale of the priesthoods of Aphrodite Pandamos and Pontia62 and of Asklepios63 invalidating any decree proposing a different use of the thesauros of the sanctuary The penalties are not linked to any concrete damage (βλάβη) that may be incurred by any party64 to any demand of restitution to any unjust enrichment or transfer of property but rely upon the (implied) public interest and the collective (moral) damage of the community or of the sanctuary in case the current regulations are changed65 The combination of legal invalidity to penalties introduce thus avant la lettre the concept of the Roman lex perfecta to Greek law as laws including both a sanction and the nullity of anything contrary to a particular clause of the law as well as the interdiction of future amendments of the statute The earliest occurrences date from the early fourth century BC in an honorary decree from Athens for Sthorys the Thasian (dated 3943) where invalidity combined with penalties is threatened against anyone ldquonullifyingrdquo these honors66 Regarding the penalties combined with invalidity in some decrees concerning matters of particular importance for the city the collection procedure of the fines was also defined ad hoc as in a fourth century BC citizenship decree from Thasos67 in a decree of Miletus68 (2054 BC) instituting a public eisphora for the citizens in order to cover public deficit69 The penalties associated to the invalidity clause may also be escalating by analogy to the importance of the matter regulated or of the person honored by the decree A decree by the Nasiotai bestowing honors to Thersippos (ca 315 BC) for his benefactions in connection to Alexanderrsquos campaigns invalidates all future amendments in combination to severe penalties such as fines threats of atimia and treason charges for acting against the democracy plus a curse against anyone proposing their abolition70

Invalidity clauses may also be included in decisions issued by private associations forbidding that any of the honors bestowed upon their benefactors may be postponed or cancelled71 and this as it

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 62 SEG 50766 back face1 lines 20-24 τὸ δὲ χρῆmicroα τοῦ|το ὑπαρχέτω ἐς κατασκευάσmicroατα ἅ κα δόξῃ τᾶι ἐκλησίαι καὶ ἐς ἐπισ|κευὰν τοῦ ἱεροῦmiddot αἰ δέ κά τις ψαφίξηται ὥστε ἐς ἄλλο τι καταχρη[σ]θῆmicroεν| τὰ ἐκ τῶν θησαυρῶν ἢ προστάτας προθῆι ἀποτισάτω τῶν αἰτίων ἕκασ|τος δραχmicroὰς χειλίας ἱερὰς τᾶς Ἀφροδίτας καὶ ἁ γνώmicroα ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 63 SEG 511066 frg ab lines 31-35 microὴ ἐξέστωι δὲ microήτε]|ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδιώιται [microηδενὶ ἐς ἄλλο καταχρήσασθαι τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ χρήmicroατα]| ἢ microετάγεν τὰς ἀπrsquo αὐτῶ[ιν ποθόδους mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αὐτῶι ἔστωι περὶ πᾶν ὅτι [κα γράψηι ἢ ἐπιψαφίξηι καὶ ἀποτινέτωι (δραχmicroὰς) mdashʹ]| καὶ ἁ γνώιmicroαι ἄκυρος ἤτ[ω 64 On blabe initially limited in cases of damages included in the law see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993191 65 On the notion ἀδικεῖν τὴν πόλιν see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 199391-94 66 IG IIsup2 17 lines 31-33 ἐὰν δέ τις τα[ῦτ]α ἄκυρ[α ποῆι ὀφελέ]|τω χιλίας [δ]ραχmicroὰς ἱερ[ὰς τῆ]ι Ἀθηνα[ίαι καὶ τῶι Ἀπό]|λλωνι τῶ[ι] Πυθίωι ἑτέρα[ς] 67 IG XII 8 267 lines 11-16 microὴ [ἐξεῖ]|ναι δὲ ὑπὲρ τούτων microηδενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτrsquo ἐπε[λθεῖ]ν ὑπὲρ λύσιος microήτrsquo ἐπιψηφίσαι ἀκρατέα εἶνα[ι ταῦ]|τα τὰ ἐψηφισmicroένα ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ ταῦτα εἴπηι ἢ ἐπέλθηι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι τά τε δόξαντα ἄκυρα ἔστω κα[ὶ χι]|λίους στατῆρας ὀφειλέτω ἱεροὺς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίωι χιλίους δὲ τῆι πόλει δικασάσθων δὲ ο[ἱ ἀπό]|λογοιmiddot ἂν δὲ microὴ δικάσωνται αὐτοὶ ὀφειλόντων δικασάσθων δὲ ἀπόλογοι οἱ microετὰ τούτους αἱρεθέντε[ς]middot|δικασάσθω δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὁ ἐθέλων καὶ ἂν ὁ ἰδιώτης νικήσηι microετεῖναι αὐτῶι τὸ ἥmicroυσυ τὴς καταδί[κης] On this inscription see Fournier J 2012 360-361 Cf also the invalidity clause in IG XII8 264 from Thassos (beginning 4th century BC) 68 See Migeotte L 1984 no97 69 Miletos 41 Lines 24- 29 ἐὰν δέ τις εἴπηι| ἢ προθῇ ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι τά τε γραφθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ ὀφείλειν ἕκαστον τῶν αἰτίων| στατῆρας χιλίους καὶ εἶναι ἄτιmicroον ἕως ἂν ἐκτείσηι καὶ microηθὲν ἧσ|σον ἐξαιρεῖσθαι τὸ τεταγmicroένον ὑπὸ τῶν microετὰ ταῦτα γινοmicroένων| ἀνατακτῶν 70 IG XII2 645 b1 lines 32-58 κα|[ὶ microὴ ἔ]micromicroεναι [π]|[ὰρ τ]αῦτα microήτε| [ἄ]ρχοντι προθ|[έ]microεναι microήτε ῥ|[ή]τορι εἶπαι micro|[ή]τε ἐπιmicroηνί[ω]| [ἐ]σένικαιmiddot αἰ δ|[έ] κέ τις ἢ ῥήτω|[ρ] εἴπη ἢ ἄρχων| [ἐσ]αγάγη [ἢ]| [ἐπ]ιmicroήνιος ἐσ[εν]ίκη ἄκυρά τ|[ε] ἔστω καὶ ὀφε|[λ]λέτω ἔκαστο|[ς] στάτηρας τρ|[ ια]κοσίοις ἴρ|[οι]ς τῶ Ἀσκλαπ|[ίω] καὶ ἐπάρατ|[ος] ἔστω καὶ ἄτι|[microος] καὶ γένος| [ε]ἰς τὸν πάντα| [χρ]όνον καὶ ἐν| ἔστω τῶ νόmicro|[ω π]ερὶ τῶ καλλ|[ύο]ντος τὸν δᾶ|[microον] 71 Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros IG XII1 155 face

13 13

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is stated in one decree in view of the importance of making an example of the benefaction72 Invalidity in entrenchment clauses in relation to endowments is aiming to prevent any different use of the funds or of the property donated by the benefactor73 as in the testament of Epicteta (dated around 210-195 BC)74 It also guarantees that no alteration of the exact terms of use of the donation75 will take place and nullifies any transaction that may jeopardize the capital donated76 The invalidity clause striking future different decree propositions was aiming to preserve the benefactorrsquos instructions and will (κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν) as it is clearly stated in an honorary decree from Eretria (ca 100 BC)77

The practice of sanctioning entrenchment clauses with invalidity reinforced by fines continued into Roman times Invalidity of future decrees or deliberations was sometimes mentioned as having

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 III85 lines 95-100 τ[ὸ]| δὲ ψάφισmicroα τόδ[ε κ]ύριον ἔστω εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρό|νον καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδι|ώται microήτε κινεῖν microήτε γνώmicroαν γράψασθαι|microήτε τοῖς ἄρχουσι προτιθέmicroειν ὡς δεῖ τὰς δ[ε]|δοmicroένας τιmicroὰς Διονυσοδώρωι ἀκύρους εἴmicro|microειν middot ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἀποτεισάτω τὸ γε|γραmicromicroένον ἐπιτίmicroιον δραχmicroὰς ἑκατόν καὶ ἁ γνώmicro[α]|[α]ὐτοῦ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἔνοχος ἔστω τῶι νό|microωι τῶι ἀκινήτωι 72 Honorary decree (dated after 1532 BC found in Delos) of the koinon of the Βηρυτίων Ποσ[ειδω|νιαστῶν ἐmicroπόρω]ν καὶ ναυκλήρων [καὶ ἐ]γδοχέων for their Roman benefactor the banker Marcus Minatius Sextus ID 1520 lines 57-61 ὅπως ἂν ἀΐδιοι διαmicroένωσι τοῖς εὐεργέταις αἱ δοθεῖσαι τι|[micro]αί microηθενὶ ἐξέστωι microήτε ἰδιώτηι microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτ[ε]| [γ]ράψαι ὡς δεῖ τῶν δεδοmicroένων τιmicroῶν microεταθεῖναι ἢ ἀφελεῖν ἢ ἀκυρ[όν]| [τ] ι ποιῆσαι παρὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ εἴπας ἢ ὁ ἀναγνοὺς| [ἢ] ὁ προθεὶς ἢ ὁ ἐπιχειροτονήσας ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἐξώλης εἴη| [α]ὐτὸς καὶ τὰ τέ[κν]α αὐτοῦ τοῖς δὲ ταῦτα ἐπιτηροῦσι εἴη καὶ βίου καὶ| τέκνων καὶ ὑπαρχόντων ὄνησις καὶ εἴη αὐτοῖς σώιζεσθαι καὶ κατ[ὰ]| [γ]ῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν καὶ ὁ παρὰ ταῦτα ποιήσας ἀποτινέτω| δραχmicroὰς στεφανηφόρους ἑξακισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ποσειδῶ|νος καὶ ὑπόδικος ἔστω τῶι ἀδικουmicroένωιmiddot 73 A decree from Eresos in Lesbos (dating from the middle of the third century BC) regarding the donation by Agemortos of some source of income to be used for sacrifices forbids and invalidates any encumberance or any other use of the income and any such proposition before the council or the assembly IG ΧΙΙ2 529 lines 3- 9 microηδὲ ὐποθέ|[microεναι microηδrsquo ἐγγύ]ασθαι microήδενι microηδὲ ὐπό|θεσθα[ι] microηδrsquo εἴπην ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω microήδενα ὡς δεῖ περιβάλεσθαι| τὰν θυσίαν microηδὲ τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς ἄλλο| κατάταξαι microῆδενmiddot αἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρα ἔmicromicroεναι| τὰ πράχθεντα middot 74 In the inscription recording the legacy she left to her daughter Epiteleia Epicteta was founding a sanctuary to the Muses and her own deceased ancestors and providing for the establishment of an association dedicated to the worship of the Muses her will including an invalidity clause for future amendments by third parties IG XII 3 330 B1 lines 263-267 middot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἢ εἴπει ἢ γράψει | τό τε ῥηθὲν ἢ γραφὲν ἄκυρον ἔστω καὶ ὁ| εἴπας ἢ γράψας στερέσθω τοῦ κοινοῦ καὶ ὁ|φειλ[έ]τω αὐτῶι δραχmicroὰς πεντακοσίας| καὶ πρακτὸς ἔστω καὶ ἀπὸ ἐνεχυρασίας| κατὰ τὸς νόmicroος ὑπὸ τοῦ χρῄζοντος τῶν| συγγενῶν 75 Decree of Didyma establishing annual distribution of food on the occasion of the birthday of Eumenes II (dated 1598 BC) Didyma 13 lines 41-49 microὴ εἶναι microη|θενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτε ἀναγνῶναι microήτε προθεῖ|ναι microήτε προγράψαι microήτε ἐπιψηφίσαι ὡς δεῖ microε|τατεθῆναι τὰ χρήmicroατα εἰς ἄλλο τι καὶ microὴ ὑπάρχει[ν]|εἰς τὰ ἐν τῶι ψηφίσmicro[ατι] κατακεχωρισmicroένα ἐὰν δ[έ]|τις παρὰ ταῦτα π[ράξηι] τρόπωι ltὁτωιgtοῦν τό τε γρ[α]|φὲν ἄκυρον ἔσ[τω ὁ δὲ π]ράξας τι τῶν ἀπειρη|microένων [ἀποτεισάτω στατῆρας] δισχιλίους ἱεροὺς|το[ῦ Ἀπόλλωνος τοῦ Διδυmicro]έωςmiddot 76 The decree of Delphi of 16059 BC regulating the usage of a donation by king Attalos of an important amount of money to the city to be used for the childrenrsquos education and for sacrifices invalidates and punishes by fine any proposition or decision for a different use than the one prescribed by the decree Syllsup3 672 lines 15-19 εἰ δέ τις τούτων τι ποιή|σαι ἢ ἄρχων ἢ ἰδιώτας κατάmicroαστρος ἔστω ἱερῶν χρηmicroάτων φω|ρᾶς καὶ οἱ microαστροὶ καταγραφόντω κατrsquo αὐτοῦ κατὰ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ ἄλ|λως microετενεγχθὲν ἀργύριον ὀκταπλοῦν καὶ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ διαινε|θὲν ἄκυρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστω 77 IG XII9 236 lines 51-61 ὅπως δὲ microένῃ τὸ ἀνακείmicroενον ἀσφα|λῶς κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν καὶ εἰς ἄλλο| microηθὲν ἦι καταχρήσασθαι microηθενὶ ἐξουσίαν εἶναι ἀπὸ| τούτου τοῦ διαφόρου microηδὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ πίπτοντος ἀπrsquo|αὐτοῦ τόκου microήτε καταχρήσασθαι εἰς ἄλλο microηθὲν| microήτε ἐπιψηφίσασθαι microήτε ἐπερωτῆσαιmiddot εἰ δὲ microή ὅ τε γρά|ψας ἢ ἐπερωτήσας | ὀφειλέτω ἱερὰς τῆς Ἀρτέmicroιδος|δραχmicroὰς ἑξακισmicroυρίας καὶ ἔστω ἀπαγωγὴ κατrsquo αὐ|τοῦ τῷ βουλοmicroένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ τρίτῳ microέρει πρὸς τοὺς| ἄρχοντας καὶ τὰ γραφέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

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immediate effect78 The expression οὐδὲν ἔλασσον (no less) preceding in some decrees the invalidity clause shows it was considered the last but not least necessary complement of entrenchment clauses79 In view of the change of political settings invalidity is now sometimes aiming the archonsrsquos orders or the cityrsquos ekdikos propositions (or anybody elsersquos) and the fines are collected by the Roman fiscus80 In a decree from Miletus concerning the cityrsquos and the imperial cults any different use of the funds and any act contravening the purpose secured by this statute (τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]) would be invalid and the archon introducing such a proposition would be guilty of impiety against the gods and guilty ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης of the payment of a fine81 Three documents from Ephesus dating from AD 104 show how invalidity had become a standard term aiming to secure the proper execution of the will of the benefactor which was ratified both by the Roman officialrsquos and by the cityrsquos decisions The invalidity clause of future amendments is first mentioned in the letter of Caius Vibius Salutaris offering several benefactions to the boule and demos of Ephesus in form of a legal document82 second the proconsul Gaius Aquillius Proculus in his letter to the archontes boule and demos of Ephesus approves the benefaction of Gaius Vibius Salutaris and ratifies the invalidity

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 78 SE 241 frg hcol 21 lines 7-8 [mdash]ασmicroένων καὶ τὰς ltσgtυνεγmicroεmicroισθωmicroένας αὐτοῖς προσόδους ἀνεξαλλ[άκτας mdash]| [mdash] ψηφισθὲν χρηmicroατισθὲν ἔστω παραχρῆmicroα ἄκυρον κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ποιησαmicro[ένου mdash] 79 In one instance in a decree of Mytilene instituting celebrations in the context of the emperial cult the city threatens with invalidity all actions or propositions of private citizens or magistrates contravening the celebrations and relevant procedures these being considered synonymous with the safeguard of the citys liberty and democracy and sympoliteia since the city had recently seen its status as an ally of Rome confirmed by Augustus IG XII2 59 lines 6-12 ἢ οἰ ἐξ αὔτων γράψωσι ἢ συν[κλήτω δόγmicroα mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αἰ δέ κέ τις ἢ ἰδίωτας ἢ ἄρχων παρ[άβαις τι τῶν ἐν mdash mdash mdash γεγραmicromicroέ]|[νω]ν καὶ ἐν τῶ ψαφίσmicroατι τούτω microὴ πέmicroψη [mdash mdash mdash mdash καττὸν ἐψαφίσθη]| τρόπον ἢ microὴ φυλάξη τὰν τάξιν τᾶς ἀναγράφα[ς mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἄκυ]|ρον ἔστω καὶ ὐπεύθυνος ἔστω ὁ παράβαις [mdash mdash mdash ὠς καταλύων ταὶς τῶν]| Σεβάστων καὶ τῶ οἴκω αὔτων τείmicroαις καὶ ἀναίρεις [mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἐλευ]|θερίας καὶ δαmicroοκρατίας καὶ συmicroπολειτίας 80 In an honorary decree of the boule and demos for Gaius Caninius Synallasson found at Iasos regulating the foundation he established for the gymnasium of the neoi (ca 117-138 AD) Iasos 21 lines 54-67 ἐφrsquo ᾧ οὐ|δενὶ ἐξέσται ἄρχοντι οὐδὲ ἑτέρῳ οὐδενὶ microε|ταδιατάξαι ἕτερόν τι περὶ τούτων τῶν πεντα|κισχειλίων δηναρίων ἢ τῆς προσόδου αὐτῶν| ἐκτὸς ἐὰν microὴ χωρίων ἀγορασθησοmicroένων τοῖς| νέοις δεήσῃ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς τὴν τει|microὴν τῶν ἀγορασθησοmicroένων ἀγρῶν χωρῆσαι| ἐφrsquo ᾧ καὶ οὕτως microενεῖ ἡ πρόσοδος αἰεὶ εἰς τὸ ἄλιmicroα| τῶν νέων καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot ἐπεὶ ὁ ὑπεναντί|ον τούτοις ποιήσας τι ἀποδώσει εἰς τὸν τοῦ κυ|ρίου Καίσαρος φίσκον δηνάρια πεντακισχείλια| καὶ οὐδὲν ἔλασσον ἔσται τὸ microεταδιαταγὲν ἄκυρον| καὶ microενεῖ τὰ πεντακισχείλια δηνάρια καὶ ἡ πρόσοδος| αὐτῶν τοῖς νέοις καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot 81 Miletos 15 lines 18-33 microηδενὶ δὲ ἐξεῖναι microήτε| ἄρχοντι microήτε ἑτέρῳ τινὶ microεταγαγεῖν εἰς| ἀργυρικὸν πόρον τὰς λειτουργίας ταύτα[ς]| τρόπῳ microηδενὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσει microηδεmicro[ι]|ᾷmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις ὑπεναντίον τι πράξῃ τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]| τὸ microὲν γενόmicroενον ᾥτινιοῦν τρόπῳ ὑ|πάρχειν ἄκυρον τὸν δὲ ψηφισάmicroενον ἄρ|χοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον ὑπάρχειν τῶν προ|γεγραmicromicroένων θεῶν καὶ ὀφείλειν αὐτὸν| ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης στατῆρας φʹ ἱερούς| καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον τὸν microὴ ἐπιτελέσαντα| προφήτην τοὺς κόσmicroους ἢ τὸν microὴ ποή|σαντα στεφανηφόρον τοὺς microολποὺς εἰσ|πράσσεσθαι ἐπάναγκες τὰς προδεδηλωmicroέ|νας εὐωχίαςmiddot 82 Ephesos 212 lines 315- 325 microηδὲν δὲ ἐξέστω ἄρχοντι ἢ ἐκδίκῳ ἢ ἰδιώ|τῃ πεσαί τι ἀλλάξαι ἢ microεταθεῖναι ἢ microετοικονοmicroῆσαι ἢ microετα|ψηφίασθα τῶν καθιερωmicroένων ἀπεικονισmicroάτων ἢ τοῦ| ἀργυρίου ἢ τῆς ροσόδου αὐτοῦ ἢ microεταθεῖναι εἰς ἕτερον πόρον| ἢ ἀνάωmicroα ἢ ἄλο τι ποῆσαι παρὰ τὰ προγεγραmicromicroένα καὶ δια|τετmicroένα ἐπεὶ τὸ γενόmicroενον παρὰ ταῦτα ἔστω ἄκυρον middot| ὁ δὲ περάσας ποιῆσαί τι ὑπεναντίον τῇ διατάξει ἢ τοῖς| ὑπὸ τς βουῆς καὶ τοῦ δήmicroου ἐψηφισmicroένοις καὶ ἐπικεκυ|ρωmicroέν ταύτης τῆς διατάξεως ἀποτεισάτω εἰς| προσκῆς microεης θεᾶς Ἀρτέmicroιδος δη(νάρια) δισmicroύρια| εταβαστοῦ φίσκον ἄλλα δη(νάρια) βʹ Μ ͵ε

13 13

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clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

13 13

1513

60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

313

witnesses from attending the trial Verdicts could also be overturned in case of change of the political regime20

The invalidity of irregularly obtained sentences was a term included in the symbolon agreements by which two cities agreed upon the dispute resolution procedures among their citizens The earliest epigraphic occurrence of an invalidity clause comes from the symbolon of Athens with Phaselis (dating from 469-450 BC) where it is stated that in case a trial is brought against any citizen of Phaselis his conviction contrary to the terms of the jurisdiction agreement shall be invalid21

IG Isup3 10 (SEG 352) [ἔδο]ξεν τῆι βολῆι καὶ τῶι δ[ή]- [microωιmiddot Ἀ]καmicroαντὶς [ἐ]πρυτάνευε []νάσιππος ἐγραmicromicroάτευε Νε- []δης ἐπεστάτει Λέω[ν ε]ἶ-

5 [πεmiddot τοῖ]ς Φασηλίταις τὸ ψ[ήφ]ι- [σmicroα ἀν]αγράψαιmiddot ὅ τι ἂmicro microὲ[ν] Ἀθ- [ήνησι ξ]υ[microβ]όλαιον γένηται [πρὸς Φ]ασηλιτ[ῶ]ν τινα Ἀθή[ν]η- [σι τὰς δ]ίκας γίγνεσθαι παρ-

10 [ὰ τῶι πο]λεmicroάρχωι καθάπερ Χ- [ίοις καὶ] ἄλλοθι microηδὲ ἁmicroο τῶ- [ν δὲ ἄλλω]ν ἀπὸ ξυmicroβολῶν κατ- [ὰ τὰς ὄσας] ξυmicroβολὰς πρὸς Φα- [σηλίτας] τὰς δίκας εν[α]ιmiddot τὰς

15 [7]το[ς] ἀφελεν ἐὰν δέ τ- [ις ἄλλη τῶ]ν ἀρχῶν δέξηται δ- [ίκην κατὰ] Φασηλιτῶν τινος [8 ε] ἰ microὲν καταδικάσ- [θέντι ℎε δίκ]η ἄκυρος ἔστω

20 [ἄν δέ τις παραβ]α[ί]νηι τὰ ἐψη- [φισmicroένα ὀφ]ε[λέτ]ω microυρίας δ[ρ]- [αχmicroὰς ἱερ]ὰς τῆι Ἀθηναίαιmiddot τ-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 20 Andocides states that in the Reconciliation Agreement of 4032 BC the legal decisions and arbitrations obtained under democracy were considered valid official decisions under the Thirty invalid Andoc 187 Νόmicroος

τὰς δὲ δίκας καὶ τὰς διαίτας κυρίας εἶναι ὁπόσαι ἐν δηmicroοκρατουmicroένῃ τῇ πόλει ἐγένοντο τοῖς δὲ νόmicroοις χρῆσθαι ἀπ᾽ Εὐκλείδου ἄρχοντος 188 τὰς microὲν δίκας ὦ ἄνδρες καὶ τὰς διαίτας ἐποιήσατε κυρίας εἶναι ὁπόσαι ἐν δηmicroοκρατουmicroένῃ τῇ πόλει ἐγένοντο ὅπως microήτε χρεῶν ἀποκοπαὶ εἶεν microήτε δίκαι ἀνάδικοι γίγνοιντο ἀλλὰ τῶν ἰδίων συmicroβολαίων αἱ πράξεις εἶεν τῶν δὲ δηmicroοσίων ἐφ᾽ ὁπόσοις ἢ γραφαί εἰσιν ἢ φάσεις ἢ ἐνδείξεις ἢ ἀπαγωγαί τούτων ἕνεκα τοῖς νόmicroοις ἐψηφίσασθε χρῆσθαι ἀπ᾽ Εὐκλείδου ἄρχοντος 21 How such an annulment of a trial or sentence would take place is not clear An (unorthodox) nullification of the Amphictyonic decisions by Philomelus is recorded by Diodorus he simply erased the convictions he considered unjust from the stellae Destroying the publicly displayed sentences equaled to having them nullified by force since without such record the decisions were practically nonexistent DS 1624 πρῶτον microὲν γὰρ παρελθὼν εἰς τὴν Σπάρτην ἐν ἀπορρήτοις διελέχθη τῷ βασιλεῖ τῶν Λακεδαιmicroονίων Ἀρχιδάmicroῳ ὅτι κοινὸς ὁ ἀγών ἐστιν αὐτῷ περὶ τοῦ ποιῆσαι τὰς κρίσεις τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἀκύρους εἶναι γὰρ καὶ κατὰ τῶνΛακεδαιmicroονίων microεγάλας καὶ ἀδίκους ἀποφάσεις τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἐδήλωσεν οὖν αὐτῷ διότι τοὺς Δελφοὺς καταλαβέσθαι διέγνωκε καὶτῆς προστασίας ἐὰν ἐγκρατὴς γένηται τὰ δόγmicroατα τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἀκυρώσει hellip ὁ δὲ Φιλόmicroηλος ἐπαρθεὶς τῇ νίκῃ τὰς τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἀποφάσεις ἔκτε τῶν στηλῶν ἐξέκοψε καὶ τὰ περὶ τῶν καταδικῶν γράmicromicroατα κατέλυσεν αὐτὸς δὲ διέδωκε λόγον ὡς οὔτε συλᾶν τὸ microαντεῖον διέγνωκεν οὔτ᾽ ἄλλην οὐδεmicroίαν παράνοmicroον πρᾶξιν συντελεῖν βεβούλευται τῆς δὲ προγονικῆς προστασίας ἀmicroφισβητῶν καὶ τὰς τῶν Ἀmicroφικτυόνων ἀδίκους ἀποφάσεις ἀκυρῶσαι βουλόmicroενος βοηθεῖν τοῖς πατρίοις νόmicroοις τῶν Φωκέων

13 13

413

[ὸ δὲ ψήφισ]microα τό[δε] ἀναγραψά- [τω ὁ γραmicromicro]ατεὺς ὁ τῆς βολῆς

25 [ἐστήληι λιθί]νηι καὶ καταθ- [έτω ἐmicro πόλει τ]έλεσι τοῖς τῶ- [ν Φασηλιτῶν] In a decree of Miletos (dating from 2287 BC) accepting the judgment of synedroi concerning

the sharing of citizenship with Cretans in view of the reconciliation that took place it is forbidden for anyone to be brought to trial regarding past events ([πε]ρὶ τῶν προγεγονότων) and if so the trial shall be invalid (καὶ ἡ δίκη ἄκυρος [ἔστω])22

Invalidating an otherwise binding judicial or arbitrary decision could come in two ways de iure if a different decision was reached on the same dispute and de facto if one of the parties was allowed not to comply with the prior decision In 164 BC after Sparta refused to comply with a decision regarding a territorial dispute with Megalopolis and appealed to the Achaean League the latter imposed a fine on Sparta which still refused to give up the contested territory and offered to submit to Roman arbitration23 In the following decision the arbitrators stress that their aim is not to render previous judgments ἄκυρα confirming thus the principle of res iudicata Invalidity is also mentioned as a de facto result the arbitrators wish to avoid by not allowing the Spartans to invalidate previous decisions by committing new crimes

IvO 47

ἐπε[ὶ] δὲ ἀναγκαῖόν [τε] καὶ ἀκόλουθ[ον τῷ ὅρ]κωι ὃν ltὠgtmicro[όσα]microεν καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς τῶν Ἀ-

15 χαιῶν σ[υ]ντελε[ῖ]ν τὰν κρίσιν [ltὣστrsquogt εἰς] τὰ γράmicromicroατα τὰ δαmicroόσια ἀπενεγχθῆ- microεν ἕνεκεν τοῦ microήτε τὰ ποτιδε[ό]microενα κρίσιος ἄκριτα γίνεσθαι microή- τε τὰ κεκριmicroένα ἄκυρα ὅπως δα[micro]οκρατούmicroενοι καὶ τὰ ποθrsquo αὑτοὺς ὁmicroονοοῦντες οἱ Ἀχαιοὶ διατε[λ]ῶντι εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ὄντες ἐν εἰ- ράναι καὶ εὐνοmicroίαι αἵ τ rsquo ἐν τοῖς Ἕλλασιν καὶ συmicromicroάχοις γεγενηmicroέ-

20 ναι πρότερον κρ[ ί]σεις βέβαια[ ι] καὶ ἀκήρατοι δ[ ι]αmicroένωντι εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον κα[ὶ] αἱ στᾶλαι καὶ τ[ὰ ὅρι]α τὰ τεθέ[ντα] ὑπὲρ τᾶν κρισ[ί]- ωmicro microένῃ κύρια διrsquo ὅλου καὶ microηθὲ[ν αὐτῶν ᾖ] ἰσχυ[ρότ]ερον γεγεν[ηmicroέ]- νας καὶ πρότε[ρ]ον κρίσιος Μεγ[αλοπολίταις καὶ Λακεδ]αιmicroον[ίοις] [ὑπὲ]ρ ταύτα[ς τᾶ]ς χώρας ὑπὲρ ἇς [νῦν διαφέρονται mdash mdash][mdash mdash]

κρίνοντες

[οὖν ο]ὕτω κα microάλιστα microένειν [τὰ ποθrsquo] αὑτοὺς τοὺς Ἀχαιοὺς ὁmicroονοοῦν- 40 [τας εἰ] τὰ κριθέντα παρ rsquo αὐτοῖς microηκέτι γίνοιτο ἄκυρα δι rsquo ἑτέρων ἐγ-

[κληmicroά]των ἀλλrsquo ὅρον ἔχοι τᾶς ποθrsquo αὑτοὺς διαφορᾶς κρίσιν δικ[αστ]η- [ρίου ἐ]γνωκότες δὲ ἐκ τ[ῶ]ν παρατεθέντων ἁmicroῖν παρrsquo ἀmicroφοτέρ[ων γραmicro]- [microάτων] καὶ Ῥωmicroαίους τοὺς προεστακότας τᾶς τῶν Ἑλλάν[ων εὐνοmicroί]- [ας καὶ ὁmicroο]νοίας ὅκ[α π]αρεγενήθησαν ποθrsquo αὑτοὺς Μεγ[αλοπολῖται]

45 [καὶ Λακεδαιmicroόνιοι ὑ]πὲρ ταύτας τᾶς χώρας διαφε[ρόmicroενοι ταύταν] [ἀποφάνασθαι τὰν γνώmicroα]ν διότι δεῖ τὰ [κεκριmicroένα εἶmicroεν κύρια mdash mdash]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 22 Miletos 54 c1 lines 5-13 εἶναι δὲ Μιλησίους τοὺ]ς microετασχόντας τῆς πολιτείας| [τῶγ Κρητῶν ἀφrsquo ἧς ἂν ἡmicroέρας τ]ὸ ψήφισ[micro]α τόδε κυρωθῆιmiddot microὴ ἐξεῖναι δὲ| [δικάζεσθαι κατὰ microηθενὸς αὐτῶν] microηθενὶ [πε]ρὶ τῶν προγεγονότων ἕως| [εἰς στεφανηφόρον τὸν θεὸν τὸν δεύ]τερον τὸmicro microετὰ Ἀθηναγόραν καὶ microῆνα| [c11-13microηδὲ ἐκεί]νοις κατὰ microηθενὸς Μιλησίων microηδὲ τῶν| [Μίλητον οἰκούντων ἀλλὰ] ἀφεῖσθαι πάντας ἀπὸ πάντων] ἐὰν δέ τις| [παρὰ τὸ ψήφισmicroα δικάζητ]αι microὴ γραφέ[τω]σαν αὐτῶι τὴν δίκην οἱ ἄρ|[χοντες microηδὲ βοηθείτωσαν τῶι ἀδ]ικουmicroένωι καὶ ἡ δίκη ἄκυρος|[ἔστω 23 Ager S 1996 no 137

13 13

513

In another arbitration between the cities of Melitaia and Narthakion (ca 140 BC) regarding a long territorial dispute (which is uncommon as Ager points out24 in being conducted by the Roman Senate itself) the senatorial decree regarding this conflict underlines that invalidating previous rulings decided according to the law is something that must not be done lightly

IG IX 2 89 περί τε τούτων τῶν πραγmicroά-

20 [τω]ν ἔτει ἀνώτερον τρίτῳ ἐπὶ τριῶν δικασ- [τη]ρίων νενικηκέναι ἐπὶ Σαmicroίων Κολοφων[ί]- [ων] Μαγνήτων κεκ[ρι]microένα εἶναι κατὰ νόmicroου[ς] ὅπως ταῦτα κύρια ᾖ οὕτω καθὼς καὶ ἄλλοις γεγονός ἐστινmiddot περὶ τούτου τοῦ πράγmicroατος

25 οὕτως ἔδοξενmiddot χάριτα φιλίαν συmicromicroαχίαν [ἀ]νανεώσασθαι τούτοις τε φιλανθρώπως ἀ- ποκριθῆναιmiddot ἄνδρας καλοὺς κἀγαθοὺς προσ- αγορεῦσαιmiddot ὅσα κεκριmicroένα ἐστὶν κατὰ νόmicroους οὓς Τίτος Κοΐγκτιος ὕπατος ἔδωκεν ταῦτα κα-

30 θὼς κεκριmicroένα ἐστίν οὕτω δοκεῖ κύρια εἶναι δεῖν τοῦτό τε microὴ εὐχερὲς εἶναι ὅσα κατὰ νόmicroους κε- κριmicroένα ἐστὶν ἄκυρα ποιεῖν middot A different kind of annulment concerning a Roman sentence is mentioned in an honorary decree

from Kolophon (ca 130-110 BC) for Πτολεmicroαῖον Πανταγνώτου Κνηmicroάδη The city is grateful among many other reasons because when one of its citizens was condemned in a Roman court in the province (of Asia) the benefactor undertook an embassy to the (Roman) general and managed to have the condemnation annulled25 saving thus both the citizen and the cityrsquos laws

Annulment of decisions and accusations as well a debts is also an extraordinary measure corresponding to times of crisis and imminent danger for the polis In a law the city of Ephesos voted in preparation of an expected invasion by Mithridates (8685 BC) after the Ephesias pledge allegiance to the Romans in order to rally the population they decide in what constitutes a complicated amnesty arrangement26 to cancel all debts of those registered by the sacred or public treasurers as debtors and atimoi to waive accusations and penalties of those registred as accused for religious or public offences or any kind of debt to proclaim void any execution against them and furthermore to cancell and render void all religious and public prosecutions unless concerning boundary and inheritance disputes

IEph 8 τοὺς microὲν ἐκγεγραmicromicroένους ἢ παρα[γεγραmicro]microένους ὑπὸ λογιστῶν ἱερῶν ἢ δ[η]- microοσίων ὡιτινιοῦν τρόπωι πά[λιν εἶ]ναι ἐντίmicroους καὶ ἠκυρῶσθαι τὰς κα- 30 [τ rsquo ] αὐτῶν ἐκγραφὰς καὶ ὀφειλήmicro[ατα] τοὺς δὲ παραγεγραmicromicroένους πρὸς [ἱε]- [ρ]ὰς καταδίκας ἢ δηmicroοσίας ἢ ἐπίτειmicroα ἱερὰ ἢ δηmicroόσια ἢ ἄλλα ὀφειλήmicroατ[α] ὡιτινιοῦν τρόπωι παρεῖσθαι πάντας καὶ εἶναι ἀκύρους τὰς κατ rsquo αὐτῶν

πράξεις middot

41 λελύσθαι δὲ καὶ εἶναι ἀκύρο[υς] τάς τε ἱερὰς καὶ δηmicroοσίας δίκας εἰ microή τινές εἰσιν ὑπὲρ παρορισmicroῶν χώρας ἢ διrsquo

ἀmicroφ[ισ]- βητήσεως κληρονοmicroίας ἐζευγmicroέναιmiddot

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 24 Ager S 1996 no 157 25 SEG 391243 II1 lines 51-58 ἑνὸς δὲ τῶν| πολιτῶν κατακρίτου γενοmicroέ|νου Ῥωmicroltαgtϊκῷ κριτηρίωι ἐν τῆι ἐ|παρχείᾳ πρεσβεύσας πρὸς τὸν| στρατηγὸν τὸν γενόmicroενον ἄκυ|ρον ἐποίησεν καὶ τὰ κρίmicroατα| καὶ τὸν πολείτην καὶ τοὺς νό|microους ἀβλαβεῖς ἐτήρησενmiddot 2613 Arnaoutoglou I 1998105-107 Harter-Uibopuu K 2014 forthcoming13

13 13

613

Legal prescription

Ἄκυρον ἔστω in international treaties sometimes refers to a limitation of the right to bring suit27 and to the legal prescription of such right which may be either absolute or occur after a set period of time In the treaty of sympoliteia between Smyrna and Magnesia Sip (dated around 245-243 BC) the citizens of both of cities would give an oath to abide by the treaty terms The parties seal their peace by also declaring invalid any accusation among their citizens regarding war crimes28 In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe (included in a letter of Thraseas to this city dated after 238 BC) all trials among citizens of both cities must take place within the year following the crime a period after the lapse of which they are declared invalid

SEG 391426 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ὅσα δrsquo ἂν ἀδικῆmicroατα ἴδια γένηται ἑκάστοις ἐὰν microὲν ὁ [Ἀρσιν]οεὺς ἐν Ναγίδωι τινὰ ἀδικήσηι ἢ ἀδικηθῆι λαmicroβανέτω τὸ δίκαιον καὶ [διδότ]ω κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους τοὺς Ναγιδέων ἐὰν δὲ ὁ Ναγιδεὺς ἐν Ἀρσινόηι [τινὰ] ἀδικήσηι ἢ ἀδικηθῆι λαmicroβανέτω τὸ δίκαιον καὶ διδότω κατὰ τοὺς [νόmicroου]ς τοὺς Ἀρσινοέων ἔστω δὲ αὐτοῖς πάντων τῶν ἀδικηmicroάτων

50 [ἐξ οὗ ἂ]ν χρόνου γένηται τὸ ἀδίκηmicroα προθεσmicroία ἐνιαυτός ἐὰν δέ τις [διελθ]όντος τοῦ χρόνου γράψηται δίκην ἢ ἐγκαλέσηι ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐ- [τῶι ἡ δίκη] middot Equal to legal prescription is also the sense of ἄκυρον in the treaty between Delphi and Pellana

where (according to the proposed reconstitution of the missing lines) the right of reference of a claimant to a third party (anagoge) is invalid if not exercised within the time limit set by the treaty29

2 Legal statutes and invalidity clauses The second broad category of ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions concerns legal statutes in the form

of international treaties laws decrees and decree propositions International treaties

In general international treaties remained valid as long as they were respected by all parties involved in spite of the usual clauses aiming to secure the parties abidance to their terms forever30 Their annulment was rarely decided in legal terms31 but came as a consequence either of the lack of commitment of the contracting parties or of their straightforward violation or by concluding a new or

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 On limitations of actions see Jones J W 1956 233-234 28 Smyrna 14 lines 41-43 συντελεσθέντων δὲ τῶν ὅρκων τὰ microὲν ἐγκλήmicroατα αὐ|τοῖς τὰ γεγενηmicroένα κατὰ τὸmicro πόλεmicroον ἤρθω πάντα καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω [microηδὲ] ἑτέροις ἐγκαλέσαι περὶ τῶγ κατὰ τὸν πόλεmicroον γεγενηmicroένων microή[τε]| διὰ δίκης microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόποmicro microηθέναmiddot εἰ δὲ microή πᾶν τὸ ἐπιφερόmicroε[ν]ον ἔγκληmicroα ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 29 FD III 1486 (Staatsvertraumlge III 558) IIA1 lines 14-19[αἰ δ]έ κα ἔξοθεν [κλέψηι ἢ Δελφὸς παρὰ Πελλα|νεῖ ἢ Πελλανεὺς παρὰ Δ]ελφῶι ὁ ἔχων ἀναγέτω τῶι ἐφαπτοmicroέν[ωι] ἔγγυον καταστάσ[ας ποὶ τὰν ἀρχὰν τὰν εἰσ|άγουσαν τὰν δίκαν ἔ]νδικον καὶ ἄνδρα ἀξιόχρεοltνgt ἃ microὲν ἐν [Δ]ελφοῖς ἢ Πελλανε[ῦσιν ἔχει δικαίως πεπάσθαι κατὰ|τοὺς νόmicroους τᾶς πόλιοςmiddot ἐξέ]στω δὲ τῶι microὲν microὴ δέξασθαι τὰν [ἀν]αγωγὰν εἰπόντι καθrsquo [ὅ τι δικαίως ἐφάπτοιτο]|[τῶι δὲ ἀποδείξασθαι ὅτ]ι ἀνάγοι καθότι πέπαται mdashmdash αἰ δέ [κ]α microὴ ἀνάγηι ἐν τῶι χρόνω [ ι τῶι γεγραmicromicroένωι ὁ ἔχων]|[ἁ ἀναγωγὰ ἀτελὴς καὶ ἄκυρ]ος ἔστω 3013 On entrenched provisions regarding alliances and treaties see Schwartzberg M 2004315-318 322-323 31 On the (different) question of annulment of older decrees as a result of treaties of alliance or other positive relationships see Rubinstein L 2008 116

13 13

713

conflicting treaty with a third party32 One rare example of annulment is included in the isopoliteia agreement between Messene and Phigaleia (dating from 240 BC) where in case of non-abidance of the citizens of Phigaleia to the pre-existing agreements between Messene and the Aitolians the current agreement shall also be invalidated33

IPArk 28 (= IG V2 419)

[ὅσα δέ κα ἄλλ]α ὁmicroολογήσωmicroες ποτrsquo ἀλλάλως ὁmicroό- [σαι ἀνφοτέρ]ως καὶ στάλας καταθέσθαι ἐν τοῖς [ἱεροῖς ὁπεῖ κ]α δοκεῖ ἀνφοτέραις ταῖς πολέο- [ις εἰ δέ κα microὴ ἐν]microένωντι οἱ Φιαλέες ἐν τᾶι φιλ-

20 [ίαι τᾶι πὸτ τὼς Μ]εσανίως καὶ Αἰτωλώς ἄκυρος ἔ- [σστω ἅδε ἁ ὁmicroολο]γία

Invalidity of an organrsquos decisions and of city laws

An invalidity clause (although not using the word akyros) appears already in what is considered to be the earliest legal inscription from Greece the law of Dreros34 limiting the iteration of the office of the Kosmos All actions of the Kosmos taken under the illegal tenure will be annulled (microηδὲν ἤmicroην) and he will also be subject to a fine35 This invalidity of official acts seems to have had an immediate effect Invalidity thus aims early on to safeguard citizens from illegal decisions of public officials Later on the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) forbids any manipulation of the cityrsquos legislation (κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους) in a simulacrum of democracy The decisions obtained in this way even if the cityrsquos highest authorities and the boule are involved are declared a priori invalid and the person responsible for this shall be punished as the instigator of an oligarchy IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1

ἐάν τις ἐν ὀλι- γαρχίαι κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους vacat vacat βουλὴν αἱρῆται ἢ τὰς ἄλλας ἀρχάς ὡς ἐν δηmicroοκρατίαι θέλων διαπράσσεσθαι τ[ε]-

115 χνάζων ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ τὸν τεχνάζοντα πάσ- χειν ὡς ἡγεmicroόνα ὀλιγαρχίαςmiddot Disregarding the law

Laws if not properly applied where in fact rendered invalid as it is already maintained by Cleon in the debate over the Mytileneans36 Later the verb ἀκυρόω in connection to a law in the meaning of (not) to be disregarded is to be found in the Greek transcription of the lex romana de

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 32 Lys Περὶ τῆς δηmicroεύσεως τῶν τοῦ Νικίου ἀδελφοῦ ἐπίλογος 154 οὐκ οὖν αἰσχρόν εἰ ἃ microὲν Λακεδαιmicroονίοις συνέθεσθε βεβαιώσετε ἃ δὲ αὑτοῖς ἐψηφίσασθε οὕτω ῥᾳδίως διαλύσετε καὶ τὰς microὲν πρὸς ἐκείνους συνθήκας κυρίας ποιήσετε τὰς δὲ πρὸς αὑτοὺς ἀκύρους 33 In this instance ἄκυρος ἔστω holds the sense of nullification of the agreement operating ex nunc and concerns all contracting parties 34 Nomima I80 ἇδrsquo ἔϝαδε | πόλιmiddot | ἐπεί κα κοσmicroήσει | δέκα ϝετίον τὸν ἀ|ϝτὸν | microὴ κόσmicroεν | αἰ δὲ κοσmicroησιε | ὀ(π)ε δικακσιε | ἀϝτὸν ὀπῆλεν | διπλεῖ | κᾱϝτὸν ἄκρηστον | ἦmicroεν | ἆς δοοι | κὄτι κοσmicroησιε | microηδὲν ἤmicroην ὀmicroόται δὲ | κόσmicroος | κοἰ δάmicroιοι | κοἰ | ἴκατι | οἰ τᾶς πόλ[ιο]ς 35 Youni M 2010152-153 36 Th 337 πάντων δὲ δεινότατον εἰ βέβαιον ἡmicroῖν microηδὲν καθεστήξει ὧν ἂν δόξῃ πέρι microηδὲ γνωσόmicroεθα ὅτι χείροσι νόmicroοις ἀκινήτοις χρωmicroένη πόλις κρείσσων ἐστὶν ἢ καλῶς ἔχουσιν ἀκύροις On citations regarding the laws rendered valid (κυρίους) only if applied by the courts see Harris E M 2013 99 On the reasons proposed on why the Athenians did not repeal unenforced laws see Wallace RW 2012 117-123

13 13

813

piratis persequendis37 found in Delphi (ca 101-100 BC)38 ordering the Roman Governors of the Provinces of Macedonia and Asia to take measures against pirates and to insure the collection of public revenues

Conflicts of laws

Direct abolition of enactments referred to as νόmicroοι or θεσmicroοί are rare39 One such example is a law of Kyme (Aeol) dating from the third century BC regarding a serious crime and judgments rendered by the dikasopoi40 If any other law included any clause contrary to this one it is declared invalid41 This term did not aim at a particular statute but resolved the matter of potential conflicts of laws by stating the supremacy of this legal rule over any conflicting one

Nullification regarding decrees and petitions

Nullification of a cityrsquos decree42 could derive from a clause contained in a subsequent decree New legislation sometimes incorporated provisions that nullified previous or inconsistent statutes43 but most often this was done by giving instructions to physically remove the older stones44 The simplest method for having a cityrsquos decision de facto abolished being the destruction of the inscription preserving it in an honorary decree of Priene for Euandros Sabyllou from Larisa in Thessaly (ca 300290 BC)45

the invalidity clause not only strikes any proposition against the current decree but also guarantees the physical integrity of the stele containing it which had been just re-erected

In general in decrees akyron is used in the sense of an act46 not having the legal effects it would normally have47 It is not ldquonon-existentrdquo but no commitment or valid obligation can derive from

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 37 Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 33-47 38 FD III 437 C lines 15-16 ὑπεναντίον τούτῳ τῷ νόmicroῳ microή τις ποείτω ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ ὅσα τέ τινας κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον δεῖ ποεῖν ποεῖτε microήτε τις ποείτω ᾧ ο[ὗ]|[τ]ος ὁ νόmicroος κατὰ παρεύρεσιν ἀκυρωθῇ ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ microήτε τις ποείτω microήτε| ἐπικρινάτω ὧι ἔλασσον ὅσα δεῖ κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον γέν[η]ταιmiddot 39 On this matter see Rubinstein L 2008 115 40 The law allowed the person guilty of the crime to be declared atimos and killed by anyone 41 IK Kyme 11 lines 10-13 αἰ δ[ὲ (microὴ) mdash mdash mdash]| [ἄτιmicroος θνασ]κέτω κτεινέτω δὲ αὐτὸν ὁ θέλωνmiddot ὁ δὲ ἀ[ποκτείναις]| [εὐάγης ἔστω κ]αὶ καθαρόςmiddot αἰ δέ ποι ἐν νόmicroῳ τινὶ ἄλ[λο τι γράφηται]|[ἐνάντιον τῷ ν]όmicroῳ τούτῳ ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 42 Provided the decrees were not superseding the law Hyp Ath 322 καὶ ὁ microὲν Σόλων οὐδ᾽ ὃ δικαίως ἔγραφεν ψήφισmicroά τις τοῦ νόmicroου οἴεται δεῖν κυριώτερον εἶναι σὺ δὲ καὶ τὰς ἀδίκους συνθήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων τῶν νόmicroων Such a law was in fact passed under the archonship of Euclides in 403|2 MacDowell 1962 128 43 In Athens the decree of Isotimides which barred anyone who had confessed to an act of impiety from entering the temples and the agora cancelled a former decree guaranteeing indemnity for disclosures This decree was at the origin of Andocidersquos conviction and exile from Athens When the Amnesty of 403 BC finally allowed Andocides to return home and in 400 he was put on trial for violating the Isotimides decree he won an acquittal with his defense speech On the Mysteries proving that the latter decree had been annulled And 18 ἢ περὶ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος τοῦ Ἰσοτιmicroίδου ὡς ἄκυρόν ἐστιν 44 On examples see Sickinger J P 2008103 n 21 22 45 Priene 46 lines 7-10 [ἐὰν δέ τις περὶ τ]ού[το]υ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἢ τῆς στή|[λης τῆς νῦν ἀ]πο[κα]θισταmicroένης ἢ| ἄρχων προτιθῆι|[ἢ ἰδιώτης συ]γ[κα]ταλύειν βουλόmicroενος τὴν δωρε|[ὰν τοῦ δή]microου ἄ[κ]υρα ἔστω middot 46 Invalidity concerned actions A judicial verdict could allthough indirectly annul a previous refusal to act as it illustrated in the speech by Lys 919 microήτε τοὺς βέλτιον καὶ δικαίως βουλευσαmicroένους ἀκύρους καταστήσητε The speaker (Polyaeunus) had been fined by the generals for slander a fine which was subsequently reported to the treasurers to collect as unpaid debt the latter refusing to do so on the grounds (if we are to believe the speaker) that it had been irregularly and maliciously imposed The speaker is asking the jury not to invalidate the decision of those who have acted on a better and on a just consideration 47 This is also the meaning of akyron used by Aristotle when he explains the supremacy of men over women children and slaves in order to define the invalidity of the womenrsquos willpower Arist Pol 1260a ἄλλον γὰρ

13 13

913

such an act for being opposite to a prior interdiction and its effects can be immediately revoked without further decision In one occasion invalidity strikes a simple petition leading to the dedication of a statue in a public space in a decree concerning the temenos of Asklepeios in Rhodes (datation unknown) it is forbidden to anyone to submit a petition to erect a statue or other dedication at a certain area of the temenos in order not to obstruct the walks and policemen are instructed to remove to another place any dedication erected in spite of the interdiction48 Sometimes a specific action or proposal that may diminish the impact of a donorrsquos benefaction may also be declared ldquoinvalidrdquo In a dedication inscription from Cos (dated from the end of the first or beginning of the second century AD) a donator prescribes that no other statue may be erected on the same platform and that any attempt to contravene this shall be immediately null and void49

Entrenchment clauses

The most frequent occurrence of the ἄκυρον term in decrees concerns entrenchment clauses provisions that make decisions unamendable50 which as Rubinstein51 has correctly noted can be read as ldquoa guarantee issued to a particular individual group of individuals or to another communityrdquo regarding decisions that directly affect them52 Invalidity may be guaranteeing that a particular right bestowed upon a group of individuals would not be revoked In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe already mentioned an invalidity clause strikes any proposition by an archon or a rhetor introducing a contestation of the land given to the Nagidians53 In Thasos of early imperial times the same clause guarantees measures regarding the donation of lands and their subsequent possession by their owners54

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τρόπον τὸ ἐλεύθερον τοῦ δούλου ἄρχει καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν τοῦ θήλεος καὶ ἀνὴρ παιδός καὶ πᾶσιν ἐνυπάρχει microὲν τὰ microόρια τῆς ψυχῆς ἀλλrsquo ἐνυπάρχει διαφερόντως ὁ microὲν γὰρ δοῦλος ὅλως οὐκ ἔχει τὸ βουλευτικόν τὸ δὲ θῆλυ ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἄκυρον ὁ δὲ παῖς ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἀτελές 48 Suppl Epig Rodio 1 lines 10-22 microὴ ἐξέστω microηθενὶ αἰτήσασ|[θαι ἀνά]θεσιν ἀνδριάντος microηδὲ ἄλλου| [ἀναθ]ήmicroατος microηδενὸς ἐς τὸ κάτω microέρος| [τοῦ τ]εmicroένευς ἀπό τε τοῦ προπύλου| [ἐπrsquo ε]ὐθείας ἔστε ποτὶ τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα| [ὧ]ν ἐντι ταὶ αἰτήσιες πρότερον γεγενη|[micro]έναι ἢ ἐς ἄλλον τινα τόπον ἐν ὧι στα|θέντα τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα κωλύσει τοὺς περι|πάτουςmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἐν τούτωι τῶι τόπωι| αἰτήσηται ἀνάθεσιν ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐτ|[ῶ ] ι ἁ αἴτησις καὶ τοὶ ἀστυνόmicroοι εἴ κά τις| [ἀνα]θῆι microεθελόντω τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα ἐς ἄλ|[λον τ]όπονmiddot 49 Iscr di Cos ED 257 frg bcd1 lines 3-30 [κ]αὶ microηδενὶ ἄλλ[ῳ ἐ]ξῆ|microεν microήτε ἰδιώ[τᾳ micro]ήτε ἄρ|χοντι microήτε γυmicro[να]σιάρχῳ| ἢ ἐπιmicroελητᾷ τᾶς [γε]ρουσί|ας καθόλου microήτε εἰκόνα| microήτε ἄγαλmicroα microήτε ἀνδρι|άντα ἀναθέmicroεν ἐν ταύ|τᾳ τᾷ ἐξέδρᾳ τρόπῳ microηδε|νὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσι microηδε|micro ιᾷ microήτε τινὰ γνώmicroαν ἀ|γορεῦσαι περὶ τοῦ τειmicroαὶ| ἄλλου τινὸς ἀνασταθῆ|microεν ἢ ἀνατεθῆmicroεν ἐν αὐτᾶι | αἰ δέ κά τίς ποτε ἐπ[ι]χιρήσῃ ἢ εἰπεῖν ἢ γνώmicroαν ε[ἰ]σαγῆσ|θαι ἢ ἄλλως τι παρὰ τ[αῦ]τα πρ[ᾶ]|ξαι θελήσῃ τὸ microὲν ἐ[πιχ]ειρ ι[σ]|θὲν ἢ καὶ πιρασθὲν [ῥηθῆναι]|ἢ πραχθῆναι παραχρῆ[microα ἄκυ]|ρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστ[ω καὶ microη]|δὲν ἦσσον τὰ διατε[ταγmicroένα]|ὑπrsquo ἐmicroοῦ κύρια καὶ ἀmicro[ετακίνη]|τα ὑπαρχέτω καὶ ὁ [αἴτιος εἴ]|τε ἰδιώτας εἴτε ἄρ[χων εἴτε]|γυmicroνασίαρχος ἢ [ἐπιmicroε]|λητὰς εἴη τᾶς γ[ερουσίας ἀ]|ποτισάτω πα[ραχρῆmicroα δη]|νάρια χίλια 50 On entrenchment clauses in Athens see Schwartzberg M 2004 311-25 who maintains that the Athenians used entrenchment in highly restrictive contexts in certain financial decrees and in alliances and treaties exclusively for narrow strategic purposes in both the international and the domestic contexts and did not extend them to laws regulating the democracy 51 See Rubinstein L 2008117-118 identifying and categorizing a total of 80 examples of entrenchment clauses 52 IC II v 35 53 SEG 391426 lines 39- 45 microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ microηκέτι |[Ν]αγιδεῦσι παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶι περὶ τῆς χώρας τῆς δοθείσης| [α]ὐτοῖς κατὰ ψήφισmicroα τοῦτο ἀmicroφισβητῆσαι ἐὰν δέ τις ἄρχων προθῆι| [τι] δόγmicroα τltοιgtοῦτο ἢ ῥῆτωρ εἴπηι ὁ microὲν ἄρχων ἀποτεισάτω δραχmicroὰς microυρίας |[ἱερ]ὰς Ἀρσινόηι ἀπαραιτήτους ὁ δὲ ῥήτωρ δραχmicroὰς χιλίας καὶ ἡ γνώmicroη αὐ|[τῶ ]ν ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 54 IG XII Suppl 364 lines 7- 20 τὴν δὲ τῶν [ἀγρῶν κτῆσιν διατη]|ρεῖν ἀθάνατον ἡmicroᾶς καὶ microήτε [καταθεῖναί ποτε τοὺς]| ἀγροὺς ἡmicroᾶς microήτε ἀποδόσθαι [microηδενὶ microήτε συνόλους]| microήτε microέρη microήτε περι[ιδ]εῖν ἀπ[αλλοτριωθέντας αὐτοὺς]| κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τ[ις τῶν Θασίων περί τι]|νος τούτων ἢ γράψῃ ἢ ἐπιψ[ηφίσῃ ἢ ἀναγράψῃ εἰς τὸ]| τής πόλεως γραmicromicroατοφυλα[κεῖον τὴν γνώmicroην τὰ γραφέντα]| καὶ τὰ ψηφισθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι [καὶ ἀκρατῆ τὸν δὲ ἢ]| γράψαντα ἢ ἐπιψηφίσαντα ἢ ἀναγ[ράψαντα τὴν γνώ]|microην εἰς τὸ τῆς πόλεως | γραmicromicroατοφ[υλακεῖον ὀφεί]|λειν τοῖς τῶν Σεβαστῶν ναοῖς στατῆ[ρας

13 13

1013

When a future decree proposition (γνώmicroη) is declared invalid this invalidates in fact the whole decree voting procedure55 Detailed terms in entrenchment clauses56 often mention both private persons (ἰδιώτης) and city officials (ἄρχοντες ῥήτορες ἐπιmicroήνιοι) that may be involved the organs before which such propositions may take place (ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω) as well as all the steps leading to the adoption of new decisions (εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι) oraly or in writing (ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι) sometimes adding for the sake of exhaustivity the annulment of decisions ldquoin any other possible wayrdquo (τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν) The legislation process being an expression of the sovereignty of the demos the invalidity clause acts as a kind of limitation for future times of the operation of the majority principle57 in order to secure that no valid decision shall be reached in the future regulating the same matter in a different way Examples of rules that include a detailed enumeration of all possible ways of obtaining amendments declared a priori invalid include the law of Teos regulating the salaries of instructors for the youth58 and a decree of Chios forbidding the use of funds for other purposes than the ones prescribed

Chios 27 11 [mdash]ΙΑ καὶ micro[ὴ] ἐξεῖν[αι τ]οῖς [χρήmicroασι]

[τοῖς συναγ]οmicroένοις ἐκ τῆς [ὑ]ποσχέσεω[ς] [εἰς ἄλλο κ]αταχρῆσθαι microη[δ]ὲν ἢ εἰς τὰ [διατεταγ]micro ένα κατὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα

5 [ἐὰν δέ τις γ]ράψηι ἢ πρύτανις προ[θ]ῆι [ταῦτα εἰς ἄλ]λο τι microετενεγκεῖν ἢ κατα- [χρήσασθαι] ἢ ποιήσηι τίς τι παρὰ τόδε τὸ [ψήφισmicroα τό] τε γραφὲν ἢ πραχθὲν ἄκυρον [ἔστω καὶ ὀφε]ιλέτω τῆι πόλει δραχmicroὰς ΧΧΧ

10 [ὁ τούτων αἴτιο]ς καὶ ἔστω πρὸς τοῦτο [ὑποδικὸς κ]αθάπερ καὶ οἱ ἐξ ὠνῆς ὀφεί- [λοντες χρήmicro]ατα τῆι πόλειmiddot

In entrenchment clauses invalidity is either explicit or may be implied if (only) penalties or curses are directed against anyone who tries to annul the current provisions59 In order to invest an entrenchment clause with effectiveness invalidity apparently not being considered always sufficient in order to deter citizens from introducing changes in the future the provision of penalties60 added a financial risk to the challenge Combined sanctions (invalidity plus fine) are included in sacred laws61 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τετρα]|[κ]ισmicroυρίους καὶ ἄτιmicroον εἶναι καὶ αὐτὸν κ[αὶ γένος]middot [ἐνέχ]εσθαι δὲ αὐτοὺς καὶ τῆι εἰς τοὺς Σε[βαστοὺς ἀσε]|[βείαιmiddot 55 Cf the use of ἄκυρον in the Athenaion Politeia on the lack of sovereignety of the Boule to decide by itself Arist AthPol 454 τούτων microὲν οὖν ἄκυρός ἐστιν ἡ βουλήmiddot προβουλεύει δrsquoεἰς τὸν δῆmicroον καὶ οὐκ ἔξεστιν οὐδὲν ἀπροβούλευτον οὐδrsquo ὅ τι ἂν microὴ προγράψωσιν οἱ πρυτάνεις ψηφίσασθαι τῷ δήmicroῳ κατrsquo αὐτὰ γὰρ ταῦτα ἔνοχός ἐστιν ὁ νικήσας γραφῇ παρανόmicroων 5613 On entrenchment clauses and different measures aiming to preserve important resources and to guarantee compliance with relevant rules in late Hellenistic and imperial times see Harter-Uibopuu K 2013 (forthcoming)13 57 The interdiction and nullity clause for future decree propositions may have constituted in Athens grounds for a graphe paranomon 58 Teos 41 lines 40-46 ἢν δὲ οἱ ἐνεστηκότες ταmicroίαι ἢ οἱ ἑκάστοτε γινόmicroενοι| microὴ παραδῶσιν τὸ ἀργύριον τοῦτο κατὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα v3 ἢ ἄλλος τις ἄρχων| ἢ ἰδιώτης εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι ἐναντίον τού| τωι ἢ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον ἄρηι τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν ὡς δεῖ τὸ ἀργύρι| ον κινηθῆναι ἢ microὴ ἀναλίσκεσθαι ἀπrsquo αὐτοῦ εἰς ἃ ὁ νόmicroος συντάσσει ἢ ἄλλ[ηι που]| καταχωρισθῆναι καὶ microὴ εἰς ἃ ἐν τῶιδε τῶι νόmicroωι διατέτακται τά τε πραχθέν|τα ἄκυρα ἔστω 59 On examples of such inscriptions see Sickinger J P 2008 104 n 24 25 60 See Rubinstein L 2012329-354 61 IK Kalchedon 10 lines 10-13 [ὃς δέ] κα εἴπῃ ἢ προαισιmicroνάσηι ἢ ἐν [β]ουλᾶι ἢ ἐν δάmicroωι ὀ|[φειλέτω] δραχmicroὰς Μ ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἡρακλεῖος καὶ τὰ| [προαισ]ιmicroναθέντα ἢ ῥηθέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

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from the Asklepieion of Kos (dated from the end of the first century BC) concerning the sale of the priesthoods of Aphrodite Pandamos and Pontia62 and of Asklepios63 invalidating any decree proposing a different use of the thesauros of the sanctuary The penalties are not linked to any concrete damage (βλάβη) that may be incurred by any party64 to any demand of restitution to any unjust enrichment or transfer of property but rely upon the (implied) public interest and the collective (moral) damage of the community or of the sanctuary in case the current regulations are changed65 The combination of legal invalidity to penalties introduce thus avant la lettre the concept of the Roman lex perfecta to Greek law as laws including both a sanction and the nullity of anything contrary to a particular clause of the law as well as the interdiction of future amendments of the statute The earliest occurrences date from the early fourth century BC in an honorary decree from Athens for Sthorys the Thasian (dated 3943) where invalidity combined with penalties is threatened against anyone ldquonullifyingrdquo these honors66 Regarding the penalties combined with invalidity in some decrees concerning matters of particular importance for the city the collection procedure of the fines was also defined ad hoc as in a fourth century BC citizenship decree from Thasos67 in a decree of Miletus68 (2054 BC) instituting a public eisphora for the citizens in order to cover public deficit69 The penalties associated to the invalidity clause may also be escalating by analogy to the importance of the matter regulated or of the person honored by the decree A decree by the Nasiotai bestowing honors to Thersippos (ca 315 BC) for his benefactions in connection to Alexanderrsquos campaigns invalidates all future amendments in combination to severe penalties such as fines threats of atimia and treason charges for acting against the democracy plus a curse against anyone proposing their abolition70

Invalidity clauses may also be included in decisions issued by private associations forbidding that any of the honors bestowed upon their benefactors may be postponed or cancelled71 and this as it

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 62 SEG 50766 back face1 lines 20-24 τὸ δὲ χρῆmicroα τοῦ|το ὑπαρχέτω ἐς κατασκευάσmicroατα ἅ κα δόξῃ τᾶι ἐκλησίαι καὶ ἐς ἐπισ|κευὰν τοῦ ἱεροῦmiddot αἰ δέ κά τις ψαφίξηται ὥστε ἐς ἄλλο τι καταχρη[σ]θῆmicroεν| τὰ ἐκ τῶν θησαυρῶν ἢ προστάτας προθῆι ἀποτισάτω τῶν αἰτίων ἕκασ|τος δραχmicroὰς χειλίας ἱερὰς τᾶς Ἀφροδίτας καὶ ἁ γνώmicroα ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 63 SEG 511066 frg ab lines 31-35 microὴ ἐξέστωι δὲ microήτε]|ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδιώιται [microηδενὶ ἐς ἄλλο καταχρήσασθαι τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ χρήmicroατα]| ἢ microετάγεν τὰς ἀπrsquo αὐτῶ[ιν ποθόδους mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αὐτῶι ἔστωι περὶ πᾶν ὅτι [κα γράψηι ἢ ἐπιψαφίξηι καὶ ἀποτινέτωι (δραχmicroὰς) mdashʹ]| καὶ ἁ γνώιmicroαι ἄκυρος ἤτ[ω 64 On blabe initially limited in cases of damages included in the law see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993191 65 On the notion ἀδικεῖν τὴν πόλιν see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 199391-94 66 IG IIsup2 17 lines 31-33 ἐὰν δέ τις τα[ῦτ]α ἄκυρ[α ποῆι ὀφελέ]|τω χιλίας [δ]ραχmicroὰς ἱερ[ὰς τῆ]ι Ἀθηνα[ίαι καὶ τῶι Ἀπό]|λλωνι τῶ[ι] Πυθίωι ἑτέρα[ς] 67 IG XII 8 267 lines 11-16 microὴ [ἐξεῖ]|ναι δὲ ὑπὲρ τούτων microηδενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτrsquo ἐπε[λθεῖ]ν ὑπὲρ λύσιος microήτrsquo ἐπιψηφίσαι ἀκρατέα εἶνα[ι ταῦ]|τα τὰ ἐψηφισmicroένα ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ ταῦτα εἴπηι ἢ ἐπέλθηι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι τά τε δόξαντα ἄκυρα ἔστω κα[ὶ χι]|λίους στατῆρας ὀφειλέτω ἱεροὺς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίωι χιλίους δὲ τῆι πόλει δικασάσθων δὲ ο[ἱ ἀπό]|λογοιmiddot ἂν δὲ microὴ δικάσωνται αὐτοὶ ὀφειλόντων δικασάσθων δὲ ἀπόλογοι οἱ microετὰ τούτους αἱρεθέντε[ς]middot|δικασάσθω δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὁ ἐθέλων καὶ ἂν ὁ ἰδιώτης νικήσηι microετεῖναι αὐτῶι τὸ ἥmicroυσυ τὴς καταδί[κης] On this inscription see Fournier J 2012 360-361 Cf also the invalidity clause in IG XII8 264 from Thassos (beginning 4th century BC) 68 See Migeotte L 1984 no97 69 Miletos 41 Lines 24- 29 ἐὰν δέ τις εἴπηι| ἢ προθῇ ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι τά τε γραφθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ ὀφείλειν ἕκαστον τῶν αἰτίων| στατῆρας χιλίους καὶ εἶναι ἄτιmicroον ἕως ἂν ἐκτείσηι καὶ microηθὲν ἧσ|σον ἐξαιρεῖσθαι τὸ τεταγmicroένον ὑπὸ τῶν microετὰ ταῦτα γινοmicroένων| ἀνατακτῶν 70 IG XII2 645 b1 lines 32-58 κα|[ὶ microὴ ἔ]micromicroεναι [π]|[ὰρ τ]αῦτα microήτε| [ἄ]ρχοντι προθ|[έ]microεναι microήτε ῥ|[ή]τορι εἶπαι micro|[ή]τε ἐπιmicroηνί[ω]| [ἐ]σένικαιmiddot αἰ δ|[έ] κέ τις ἢ ῥήτω|[ρ] εἴπη ἢ ἄρχων| [ἐσ]αγάγη [ἢ]| [ἐπ]ιmicroήνιος ἐσ[εν]ίκη ἄκυρά τ|[ε] ἔστω καὶ ὀφε|[λ]λέτω ἔκαστο|[ς] στάτηρας τρ|[ ια]κοσίοις ἴρ|[οι]ς τῶ Ἀσκλαπ|[ίω] καὶ ἐπάρατ|[ος] ἔστω καὶ ἄτι|[microος] καὶ γένος| [ε]ἰς τὸν πάντα| [χρ]όνον καὶ ἐν| ἔστω τῶ νόmicro|[ω π]ερὶ τῶ καλλ|[ύο]ντος τὸν δᾶ|[microον] 71 Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros IG XII1 155 face

13 13

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is stated in one decree in view of the importance of making an example of the benefaction72 Invalidity in entrenchment clauses in relation to endowments is aiming to prevent any different use of the funds or of the property donated by the benefactor73 as in the testament of Epicteta (dated around 210-195 BC)74 It also guarantees that no alteration of the exact terms of use of the donation75 will take place and nullifies any transaction that may jeopardize the capital donated76 The invalidity clause striking future different decree propositions was aiming to preserve the benefactorrsquos instructions and will (κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν) as it is clearly stated in an honorary decree from Eretria (ca 100 BC)77

The practice of sanctioning entrenchment clauses with invalidity reinforced by fines continued into Roman times Invalidity of future decrees or deliberations was sometimes mentioned as having

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 III85 lines 95-100 τ[ὸ]| δὲ ψάφισmicroα τόδ[ε κ]ύριον ἔστω εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρό|νον καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδι|ώται microήτε κινεῖν microήτε γνώmicroαν γράψασθαι|microήτε τοῖς ἄρχουσι προτιθέmicroειν ὡς δεῖ τὰς δ[ε]|δοmicroένας τιmicroὰς Διονυσοδώρωι ἀκύρους εἴmicro|microειν middot ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἀποτεισάτω τὸ γε|γραmicromicroένον ἐπιτίmicroιον δραχmicroὰς ἑκατόν καὶ ἁ γνώmicro[α]|[α]ὐτοῦ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἔνοχος ἔστω τῶι νό|microωι τῶι ἀκινήτωι 72 Honorary decree (dated after 1532 BC found in Delos) of the koinon of the Βηρυτίων Ποσ[ειδω|νιαστῶν ἐmicroπόρω]ν καὶ ναυκλήρων [καὶ ἐ]γδοχέων for their Roman benefactor the banker Marcus Minatius Sextus ID 1520 lines 57-61 ὅπως ἂν ἀΐδιοι διαmicroένωσι τοῖς εὐεργέταις αἱ δοθεῖσαι τι|[micro]αί microηθενὶ ἐξέστωι microήτε ἰδιώτηι microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτ[ε]| [γ]ράψαι ὡς δεῖ τῶν δεδοmicroένων τιmicroῶν microεταθεῖναι ἢ ἀφελεῖν ἢ ἀκυρ[όν]| [τ] ι ποιῆσαι παρὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ εἴπας ἢ ὁ ἀναγνοὺς| [ἢ] ὁ προθεὶς ἢ ὁ ἐπιχειροτονήσας ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἐξώλης εἴη| [α]ὐτὸς καὶ τὰ τέ[κν]α αὐτοῦ τοῖς δὲ ταῦτα ἐπιτηροῦσι εἴη καὶ βίου καὶ| τέκνων καὶ ὑπαρχόντων ὄνησις καὶ εἴη αὐτοῖς σώιζεσθαι καὶ κατ[ὰ]| [γ]ῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν καὶ ὁ παρὰ ταῦτα ποιήσας ἀποτινέτω| δραχmicroὰς στεφανηφόρους ἑξακισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ποσειδῶ|νος καὶ ὑπόδικος ἔστω τῶι ἀδικουmicroένωιmiddot 73 A decree from Eresos in Lesbos (dating from the middle of the third century BC) regarding the donation by Agemortos of some source of income to be used for sacrifices forbids and invalidates any encumberance or any other use of the income and any such proposition before the council or the assembly IG ΧΙΙ2 529 lines 3- 9 microηδὲ ὐποθέ|[microεναι microηδrsquo ἐγγύ]ασθαι microήδενι microηδὲ ὐπό|θεσθα[ι] microηδrsquo εἴπην ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω microήδενα ὡς δεῖ περιβάλεσθαι| τὰν θυσίαν microηδὲ τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς ἄλλο| κατάταξαι microῆδενmiddot αἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρα ἔmicromicroεναι| τὰ πράχθεντα middot 74 In the inscription recording the legacy she left to her daughter Epiteleia Epicteta was founding a sanctuary to the Muses and her own deceased ancestors and providing for the establishment of an association dedicated to the worship of the Muses her will including an invalidity clause for future amendments by third parties IG XII 3 330 B1 lines 263-267 middot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἢ εἴπει ἢ γράψει | τό τε ῥηθὲν ἢ γραφὲν ἄκυρον ἔστω καὶ ὁ| εἴπας ἢ γράψας στερέσθω τοῦ κοινοῦ καὶ ὁ|φειλ[έ]τω αὐτῶι δραχmicroὰς πεντακοσίας| καὶ πρακτὸς ἔστω καὶ ἀπὸ ἐνεχυρασίας| κατὰ τὸς νόmicroος ὑπὸ τοῦ χρῄζοντος τῶν| συγγενῶν 75 Decree of Didyma establishing annual distribution of food on the occasion of the birthday of Eumenes II (dated 1598 BC) Didyma 13 lines 41-49 microὴ εἶναι microη|θενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτε ἀναγνῶναι microήτε προθεῖ|ναι microήτε προγράψαι microήτε ἐπιψηφίσαι ὡς δεῖ microε|τατεθῆναι τὰ χρήmicroατα εἰς ἄλλο τι καὶ microὴ ὑπάρχει[ν]|εἰς τὰ ἐν τῶι ψηφίσmicro[ατι] κατακεχωρισmicroένα ἐὰν δ[έ]|τις παρὰ ταῦτα π[ράξηι] τρόπωι ltὁτωιgtοῦν τό τε γρ[α]|φὲν ἄκυρον ἔσ[τω ὁ δὲ π]ράξας τι τῶν ἀπειρη|microένων [ἀποτεισάτω στατῆρας] δισχιλίους ἱεροὺς|το[ῦ Ἀπόλλωνος τοῦ Διδυmicro]έωςmiddot 76 The decree of Delphi of 16059 BC regulating the usage of a donation by king Attalos of an important amount of money to the city to be used for the childrenrsquos education and for sacrifices invalidates and punishes by fine any proposition or decision for a different use than the one prescribed by the decree Syllsup3 672 lines 15-19 εἰ δέ τις τούτων τι ποιή|σαι ἢ ἄρχων ἢ ἰδιώτας κατάmicroαστρος ἔστω ἱερῶν χρηmicroάτων φω|ρᾶς καὶ οἱ microαστροὶ καταγραφόντω κατrsquo αὐτοῦ κατὰ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ ἄλ|λως microετενεγχθὲν ἀργύριον ὀκταπλοῦν καὶ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ διαινε|θὲν ἄκυρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστω 77 IG XII9 236 lines 51-61 ὅπως δὲ microένῃ τὸ ἀνακείmicroενον ἀσφα|λῶς κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν καὶ εἰς ἄλλο| microηθὲν ἦι καταχρήσασθαι microηθενὶ ἐξουσίαν εἶναι ἀπὸ| τούτου τοῦ διαφόρου microηδὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ πίπτοντος ἀπrsquo|αὐτοῦ τόκου microήτε καταχρήσασθαι εἰς ἄλλο microηθὲν| microήτε ἐπιψηφίσασθαι microήτε ἐπερωτῆσαιmiddot εἰ δὲ microή ὅ τε γρά|ψας ἢ ἐπερωτήσας | ὀφειλέτω ἱερὰς τῆς Ἀρτέmicroιδος|δραχmicroὰς ἑξακισmicroυρίας καὶ ἔστω ἀπαγωγὴ κατrsquo αὐ|τοῦ τῷ βουλοmicroένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ τρίτῳ microέρει πρὸς τοὺς| ἄρχοντας καὶ τὰ γραφέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

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immediate effect78 The expression οὐδὲν ἔλασσον (no less) preceding in some decrees the invalidity clause shows it was considered the last but not least necessary complement of entrenchment clauses79 In view of the change of political settings invalidity is now sometimes aiming the archonsrsquos orders or the cityrsquos ekdikos propositions (or anybody elsersquos) and the fines are collected by the Roman fiscus80 In a decree from Miletus concerning the cityrsquos and the imperial cults any different use of the funds and any act contravening the purpose secured by this statute (τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]) would be invalid and the archon introducing such a proposition would be guilty of impiety against the gods and guilty ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης of the payment of a fine81 Three documents from Ephesus dating from AD 104 show how invalidity had become a standard term aiming to secure the proper execution of the will of the benefactor which was ratified both by the Roman officialrsquos and by the cityrsquos decisions The invalidity clause of future amendments is first mentioned in the letter of Caius Vibius Salutaris offering several benefactions to the boule and demos of Ephesus in form of a legal document82 second the proconsul Gaius Aquillius Proculus in his letter to the archontes boule and demos of Ephesus approves the benefaction of Gaius Vibius Salutaris and ratifies the invalidity

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 78 SE 241 frg hcol 21 lines 7-8 [mdash]ασmicroένων καὶ τὰς ltσgtυνεγmicroεmicroισθωmicroένας αὐτοῖς προσόδους ἀνεξαλλ[άκτας mdash]| [mdash] ψηφισθὲν χρηmicroατισθὲν ἔστω παραχρῆmicroα ἄκυρον κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ποιησαmicro[ένου mdash] 79 In one instance in a decree of Mytilene instituting celebrations in the context of the emperial cult the city threatens with invalidity all actions or propositions of private citizens or magistrates contravening the celebrations and relevant procedures these being considered synonymous with the safeguard of the citys liberty and democracy and sympoliteia since the city had recently seen its status as an ally of Rome confirmed by Augustus IG XII2 59 lines 6-12 ἢ οἰ ἐξ αὔτων γράψωσι ἢ συν[κλήτω δόγmicroα mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αἰ δέ κέ τις ἢ ἰδίωτας ἢ ἄρχων παρ[άβαις τι τῶν ἐν mdash mdash mdash γεγραmicromicroέ]|[νω]ν καὶ ἐν τῶ ψαφίσmicroατι τούτω microὴ πέmicroψη [mdash mdash mdash mdash καττὸν ἐψαφίσθη]| τρόπον ἢ microὴ φυλάξη τὰν τάξιν τᾶς ἀναγράφα[ς mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἄκυ]|ρον ἔστω καὶ ὐπεύθυνος ἔστω ὁ παράβαις [mdash mdash mdash ὠς καταλύων ταὶς τῶν]| Σεβάστων καὶ τῶ οἴκω αὔτων τείmicroαις καὶ ἀναίρεις [mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἐλευ]|θερίας καὶ δαmicroοκρατίας καὶ συmicroπολειτίας 80 In an honorary decree of the boule and demos for Gaius Caninius Synallasson found at Iasos regulating the foundation he established for the gymnasium of the neoi (ca 117-138 AD) Iasos 21 lines 54-67 ἐφrsquo ᾧ οὐ|δενὶ ἐξέσται ἄρχοντι οὐδὲ ἑτέρῳ οὐδενὶ microε|ταδιατάξαι ἕτερόν τι περὶ τούτων τῶν πεντα|κισχειλίων δηναρίων ἢ τῆς προσόδου αὐτῶν| ἐκτὸς ἐὰν microὴ χωρίων ἀγορασθησοmicroένων τοῖς| νέοις δεήσῃ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς τὴν τει|microὴν τῶν ἀγορασθησοmicroένων ἀγρῶν χωρῆσαι| ἐφrsquo ᾧ καὶ οὕτως microενεῖ ἡ πρόσοδος αἰεὶ εἰς τὸ ἄλιmicroα| τῶν νέων καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot ἐπεὶ ὁ ὑπεναντί|ον τούτοις ποιήσας τι ἀποδώσει εἰς τὸν τοῦ κυ|ρίου Καίσαρος φίσκον δηνάρια πεντακισχείλια| καὶ οὐδὲν ἔλασσον ἔσται τὸ microεταδιαταγὲν ἄκυρον| καὶ microενεῖ τὰ πεντακισχείλια δηνάρια καὶ ἡ πρόσοδος| αὐτῶν τοῖς νέοις καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot 81 Miletos 15 lines 18-33 microηδενὶ δὲ ἐξεῖναι microήτε| ἄρχοντι microήτε ἑτέρῳ τινὶ microεταγαγεῖν εἰς| ἀργυρικὸν πόρον τὰς λειτουργίας ταύτα[ς]| τρόπῳ microηδενὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσει microηδεmicro[ι]|ᾷmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις ὑπεναντίον τι πράξῃ τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]| τὸ microὲν γενόmicroενον ᾥτινιοῦν τρόπῳ ὑ|πάρχειν ἄκυρον τὸν δὲ ψηφισάmicroενον ἄρ|χοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον ὑπάρχειν τῶν προ|γεγραmicromicroένων θεῶν καὶ ὀφείλειν αὐτὸν| ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης στατῆρας φʹ ἱερούς| καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον τὸν microὴ ἐπιτελέσαντα| προφήτην τοὺς κόσmicroους ἢ τὸν microὴ ποή|σαντα στεφανηφόρον τοὺς microολποὺς εἰσ|πράσσεσθαι ἐπάναγκες τὰς προδεδηλωmicroέ|νας εὐωχίαςmiddot 82 Ephesos 212 lines 315- 325 microηδὲν δὲ ἐξέστω ἄρχοντι ἢ ἐκδίκῳ ἢ ἰδιώ|τῃ πεσαί τι ἀλλάξαι ἢ microεταθεῖναι ἢ microετοικονοmicroῆσαι ἢ microετα|ψηφίασθα τῶν καθιερωmicroένων ἀπεικονισmicroάτων ἢ τοῦ| ἀργυρίου ἢ τῆς ροσόδου αὐτοῦ ἢ microεταθεῖναι εἰς ἕτερον πόρον| ἢ ἀνάωmicroα ἢ ἄλο τι ποῆσαι παρὰ τὰ προγεγραmicromicroένα καὶ δια|τετmicroένα ἐπεὶ τὸ γενόmicroενον παρὰ ταῦτα ἔστω ἄκυρον middot| ὁ δὲ περάσας ποιῆσαί τι ὑπεναντίον τῇ διατάξει ἢ τοῖς| ὑπὸ τς βουῆς καὶ τοῦ δήmicroου ἐψηφισmicroένοις καὶ ἐπικεκυ|ρωmicroέν ταύτης τῆς διατάξεως ἀποτεισάτω εἰς| προσκῆς microεης θεᾶς Ἀρτέmicroιδος δη(νάρια) δισmicroύρια| εταβαστοῦ φίσκον ἄλλα δη(νάρια) βʹ Μ ͵ε

13 13

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clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

13 13

1513

60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

413

[ὸ δὲ ψήφισ]microα τό[δε] ἀναγραψά- [τω ὁ γραmicromicro]ατεὺς ὁ τῆς βολῆς

25 [ἐστήληι λιθί]νηι καὶ καταθ- [έτω ἐmicro πόλει τ]έλεσι τοῖς τῶ- [ν Φασηλιτῶν] In a decree of Miletos (dating from 2287 BC) accepting the judgment of synedroi concerning

the sharing of citizenship with Cretans in view of the reconciliation that took place it is forbidden for anyone to be brought to trial regarding past events ([πε]ρὶ τῶν προγεγονότων) and if so the trial shall be invalid (καὶ ἡ δίκη ἄκυρος [ἔστω])22

Invalidating an otherwise binding judicial or arbitrary decision could come in two ways de iure if a different decision was reached on the same dispute and de facto if one of the parties was allowed not to comply with the prior decision In 164 BC after Sparta refused to comply with a decision regarding a territorial dispute with Megalopolis and appealed to the Achaean League the latter imposed a fine on Sparta which still refused to give up the contested territory and offered to submit to Roman arbitration23 In the following decision the arbitrators stress that their aim is not to render previous judgments ἄκυρα confirming thus the principle of res iudicata Invalidity is also mentioned as a de facto result the arbitrators wish to avoid by not allowing the Spartans to invalidate previous decisions by committing new crimes

IvO 47

ἐπε[ὶ] δὲ ἀναγκαῖόν [τε] καὶ ἀκόλουθ[ον τῷ ὅρ]κωι ὃν ltὠgtmicro[όσα]microεν καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς τῶν Ἀ-

15 χαιῶν σ[υ]ντελε[ῖ]ν τὰν κρίσιν [ltὣστrsquogt εἰς] τὰ γράmicromicroατα τὰ δαmicroόσια ἀπενεγχθῆ- microεν ἕνεκεν τοῦ microήτε τὰ ποτιδε[ό]microενα κρίσιος ἄκριτα γίνεσθαι microή- τε τὰ κεκριmicroένα ἄκυρα ὅπως δα[micro]οκρατούmicroενοι καὶ τὰ ποθrsquo αὑτοὺς ὁmicroονοοῦντες οἱ Ἀχαιοὶ διατε[λ]ῶντι εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ὄντες ἐν εἰ- ράναι καὶ εὐνοmicroίαι αἵ τ rsquo ἐν τοῖς Ἕλλασιν καὶ συmicromicroάχοις γεγενηmicroέ-

20 ναι πρότερον κρ[ ί]σεις βέβαια[ ι] καὶ ἀκήρατοι δ[ ι]αmicroένωντι εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον κα[ὶ] αἱ στᾶλαι καὶ τ[ὰ ὅρι]α τὰ τεθέ[ντα] ὑπὲρ τᾶν κρισ[ί]- ωmicro microένῃ κύρια διrsquo ὅλου καὶ microηθὲ[ν αὐτῶν ᾖ] ἰσχυ[ρότ]ερον γεγεν[ηmicroέ]- νας καὶ πρότε[ρ]ον κρίσιος Μεγ[αλοπολίταις καὶ Λακεδ]αιmicroον[ίοις] [ὑπὲ]ρ ταύτα[ς τᾶ]ς χώρας ὑπὲρ ἇς [νῦν διαφέρονται mdash mdash][mdash mdash]

κρίνοντες

[οὖν ο]ὕτω κα microάλιστα microένειν [τὰ ποθrsquo] αὑτοὺς τοὺς Ἀχαιοὺς ὁmicroονοοῦν- 40 [τας εἰ] τὰ κριθέντα παρ rsquo αὐτοῖς microηκέτι γίνοιτο ἄκυρα δι rsquo ἑτέρων ἐγ-

[κληmicroά]των ἀλλrsquo ὅρον ἔχοι τᾶς ποθrsquo αὑτοὺς διαφορᾶς κρίσιν δικ[αστ]η- [ρίου ἐ]γνωκότες δὲ ἐκ τ[ῶ]ν παρατεθέντων ἁmicroῖν παρrsquo ἀmicroφοτέρ[ων γραmicro]- [microάτων] καὶ Ῥωmicroαίους τοὺς προεστακότας τᾶς τῶν Ἑλλάν[ων εὐνοmicroί]- [ας καὶ ὁmicroο]νοίας ὅκ[α π]αρεγενήθησαν ποθrsquo αὑτοὺς Μεγ[αλοπολῖται]

45 [καὶ Λακεδαιmicroόνιοι ὑ]πὲρ ταύτας τᾶς χώρας διαφε[ρόmicroενοι ταύταν] [ἀποφάνασθαι τὰν γνώmicroα]ν διότι δεῖ τὰ [κεκριmicroένα εἶmicroεν κύρια mdash mdash]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 22 Miletos 54 c1 lines 5-13 εἶναι δὲ Μιλησίους τοὺ]ς microετασχόντας τῆς πολιτείας| [τῶγ Κρητῶν ἀφrsquo ἧς ἂν ἡmicroέρας τ]ὸ ψήφισ[micro]α τόδε κυρωθῆιmiddot microὴ ἐξεῖναι δὲ| [δικάζεσθαι κατὰ microηθενὸς αὐτῶν] microηθενὶ [πε]ρὶ τῶν προγεγονότων ἕως| [εἰς στεφανηφόρον τὸν θεὸν τὸν δεύ]τερον τὸmicro microετὰ Ἀθηναγόραν καὶ microῆνα| [c11-13microηδὲ ἐκεί]νοις κατὰ microηθενὸς Μιλησίων microηδὲ τῶν| [Μίλητον οἰκούντων ἀλλὰ] ἀφεῖσθαι πάντας ἀπὸ πάντων] ἐὰν δέ τις| [παρὰ τὸ ψήφισmicroα δικάζητ]αι microὴ γραφέ[τω]σαν αὐτῶι τὴν δίκην οἱ ἄρ|[χοντες microηδὲ βοηθείτωσαν τῶι ἀδ]ικουmicroένωι καὶ ἡ δίκη ἄκυρος|[ἔστω 23 Ager S 1996 no 137

13 13

513

In another arbitration between the cities of Melitaia and Narthakion (ca 140 BC) regarding a long territorial dispute (which is uncommon as Ager points out24 in being conducted by the Roman Senate itself) the senatorial decree regarding this conflict underlines that invalidating previous rulings decided according to the law is something that must not be done lightly

IG IX 2 89 περί τε τούτων τῶν πραγmicroά-

20 [τω]ν ἔτει ἀνώτερον τρίτῳ ἐπὶ τριῶν δικασ- [τη]ρίων νενικηκέναι ἐπὶ Σαmicroίων Κολοφων[ί]- [ων] Μαγνήτων κεκ[ρι]microένα εἶναι κατὰ νόmicroου[ς] ὅπως ταῦτα κύρια ᾖ οὕτω καθὼς καὶ ἄλλοις γεγονός ἐστινmiddot περὶ τούτου τοῦ πράγmicroατος

25 οὕτως ἔδοξενmiddot χάριτα φιλίαν συmicromicroαχίαν [ἀ]νανεώσασθαι τούτοις τε φιλανθρώπως ἀ- ποκριθῆναιmiddot ἄνδρας καλοὺς κἀγαθοὺς προσ- αγορεῦσαιmiddot ὅσα κεκριmicroένα ἐστὶν κατὰ νόmicroους οὓς Τίτος Κοΐγκτιος ὕπατος ἔδωκεν ταῦτα κα-

30 θὼς κεκριmicroένα ἐστίν οὕτω δοκεῖ κύρια εἶναι δεῖν τοῦτό τε microὴ εὐχερὲς εἶναι ὅσα κατὰ νόmicroους κε- κριmicroένα ἐστὶν ἄκυρα ποιεῖν middot A different kind of annulment concerning a Roman sentence is mentioned in an honorary decree

from Kolophon (ca 130-110 BC) for Πτολεmicroαῖον Πανταγνώτου Κνηmicroάδη The city is grateful among many other reasons because when one of its citizens was condemned in a Roman court in the province (of Asia) the benefactor undertook an embassy to the (Roman) general and managed to have the condemnation annulled25 saving thus both the citizen and the cityrsquos laws

Annulment of decisions and accusations as well a debts is also an extraordinary measure corresponding to times of crisis and imminent danger for the polis In a law the city of Ephesos voted in preparation of an expected invasion by Mithridates (8685 BC) after the Ephesias pledge allegiance to the Romans in order to rally the population they decide in what constitutes a complicated amnesty arrangement26 to cancel all debts of those registered by the sacred or public treasurers as debtors and atimoi to waive accusations and penalties of those registred as accused for religious or public offences or any kind of debt to proclaim void any execution against them and furthermore to cancell and render void all religious and public prosecutions unless concerning boundary and inheritance disputes

IEph 8 τοὺς microὲν ἐκγεγραmicromicroένους ἢ παρα[γεγραmicro]microένους ὑπὸ λογιστῶν ἱερῶν ἢ δ[η]- microοσίων ὡιτινιοῦν τρόπωι πά[λιν εἶ]ναι ἐντίmicroους καὶ ἠκυρῶσθαι τὰς κα- 30 [τ rsquo ] αὐτῶν ἐκγραφὰς καὶ ὀφειλήmicro[ατα] τοὺς δὲ παραγεγραmicromicroένους πρὸς [ἱε]- [ρ]ὰς καταδίκας ἢ δηmicroοσίας ἢ ἐπίτειmicroα ἱερὰ ἢ δηmicroόσια ἢ ἄλλα ὀφειλήmicroατ[α] ὡιτινιοῦν τρόπωι παρεῖσθαι πάντας καὶ εἶναι ἀκύρους τὰς κατ rsquo αὐτῶν

πράξεις middot

41 λελύσθαι δὲ καὶ εἶναι ἀκύρο[υς] τάς τε ἱερὰς καὶ δηmicroοσίας δίκας εἰ microή τινές εἰσιν ὑπὲρ παρορισmicroῶν χώρας ἢ διrsquo

ἀmicroφ[ισ]- βητήσεως κληρονοmicroίας ἐζευγmicroέναιmiddot

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 24 Ager S 1996 no 157 25 SEG 391243 II1 lines 51-58 ἑνὸς δὲ τῶν| πολιτῶν κατακρίτου γενοmicroέ|νου Ῥωmicroltαgtϊκῷ κριτηρίωι ἐν τῆι ἐ|παρχείᾳ πρεσβεύσας πρὸς τὸν| στρατηγὸν τὸν γενόmicroενον ἄκυ|ρον ἐποίησεν καὶ τὰ κρίmicroατα| καὶ τὸν πολείτην καὶ τοὺς νό|microους ἀβλαβεῖς ἐτήρησενmiddot 2613 Arnaoutoglou I 1998105-107 Harter-Uibopuu K 2014 forthcoming13

13 13

613

Legal prescription

Ἄκυρον ἔστω in international treaties sometimes refers to a limitation of the right to bring suit27 and to the legal prescription of such right which may be either absolute or occur after a set period of time In the treaty of sympoliteia between Smyrna and Magnesia Sip (dated around 245-243 BC) the citizens of both of cities would give an oath to abide by the treaty terms The parties seal their peace by also declaring invalid any accusation among their citizens regarding war crimes28 In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe (included in a letter of Thraseas to this city dated after 238 BC) all trials among citizens of both cities must take place within the year following the crime a period after the lapse of which they are declared invalid

SEG 391426 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ὅσα δrsquo ἂν ἀδικῆmicroατα ἴδια γένηται ἑκάστοις ἐὰν microὲν ὁ [Ἀρσιν]οεὺς ἐν Ναγίδωι τινὰ ἀδικήσηι ἢ ἀδικηθῆι λαmicroβανέτω τὸ δίκαιον καὶ [διδότ]ω κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους τοὺς Ναγιδέων ἐὰν δὲ ὁ Ναγιδεὺς ἐν Ἀρσινόηι [τινὰ] ἀδικήσηι ἢ ἀδικηθῆι λαmicroβανέτω τὸ δίκαιον καὶ διδότω κατὰ τοὺς [νόmicroου]ς τοὺς Ἀρσινοέων ἔστω δὲ αὐτοῖς πάντων τῶν ἀδικηmicroάτων

50 [ἐξ οὗ ἂ]ν χρόνου γένηται τὸ ἀδίκηmicroα προθεσmicroία ἐνιαυτός ἐὰν δέ τις [διελθ]όντος τοῦ χρόνου γράψηται δίκην ἢ ἐγκαλέσηι ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐ- [τῶι ἡ δίκη] middot Equal to legal prescription is also the sense of ἄκυρον in the treaty between Delphi and Pellana

where (according to the proposed reconstitution of the missing lines) the right of reference of a claimant to a third party (anagoge) is invalid if not exercised within the time limit set by the treaty29

2 Legal statutes and invalidity clauses The second broad category of ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions concerns legal statutes in the form

of international treaties laws decrees and decree propositions International treaties

In general international treaties remained valid as long as they were respected by all parties involved in spite of the usual clauses aiming to secure the parties abidance to their terms forever30 Their annulment was rarely decided in legal terms31 but came as a consequence either of the lack of commitment of the contracting parties or of their straightforward violation or by concluding a new or

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 On limitations of actions see Jones J W 1956 233-234 28 Smyrna 14 lines 41-43 συντελεσθέντων δὲ τῶν ὅρκων τὰ microὲν ἐγκλήmicroατα αὐ|τοῖς τὰ γεγενηmicroένα κατὰ τὸmicro πόλεmicroον ἤρθω πάντα καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω [microηδὲ] ἑτέροις ἐγκαλέσαι περὶ τῶγ κατὰ τὸν πόλεmicroον γεγενηmicroένων microή[τε]| διὰ δίκης microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόποmicro microηθέναmiddot εἰ δὲ microή πᾶν τὸ ἐπιφερόmicroε[ν]ον ἔγκληmicroα ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 29 FD III 1486 (Staatsvertraumlge III 558) IIA1 lines 14-19[αἰ δ]έ κα ἔξοθεν [κλέψηι ἢ Δελφὸς παρὰ Πελλα|νεῖ ἢ Πελλανεὺς παρὰ Δ]ελφῶι ὁ ἔχων ἀναγέτω τῶι ἐφαπτοmicroέν[ωι] ἔγγυον καταστάσ[ας ποὶ τὰν ἀρχὰν τὰν εἰσ|άγουσαν τὰν δίκαν ἔ]νδικον καὶ ἄνδρα ἀξιόχρεοltνgt ἃ microὲν ἐν [Δ]ελφοῖς ἢ Πελλανε[ῦσιν ἔχει δικαίως πεπάσθαι κατὰ|τοὺς νόmicroους τᾶς πόλιοςmiddot ἐξέ]στω δὲ τῶι microὲν microὴ δέξασθαι τὰν [ἀν]αγωγὰν εἰπόντι καθrsquo [ὅ τι δικαίως ἐφάπτοιτο]|[τῶι δὲ ἀποδείξασθαι ὅτ]ι ἀνάγοι καθότι πέπαται mdashmdash αἰ δέ [κ]α microὴ ἀνάγηι ἐν τῶι χρόνω [ ι τῶι γεγραmicromicroένωι ὁ ἔχων]|[ἁ ἀναγωγὰ ἀτελὴς καὶ ἄκυρ]ος ἔστω 3013 On entrenched provisions regarding alliances and treaties see Schwartzberg M 2004315-318 322-323 31 On the (different) question of annulment of older decrees as a result of treaties of alliance or other positive relationships see Rubinstein L 2008 116

13 13

713

conflicting treaty with a third party32 One rare example of annulment is included in the isopoliteia agreement between Messene and Phigaleia (dating from 240 BC) where in case of non-abidance of the citizens of Phigaleia to the pre-existing agreements between Messene and the Aitolians the current agreement shall also be invalidated33

IPArk 28 (= IG V2 419)

[ὅσα δέ κα ἄλλ]α ὁmicroολογήσωmicroες ποτrsquo ἀλλάλως ὁmicroό- [σαι ἀνφοτέρ]ως καὶ στάλας καταθέσθαι ἐν τοῖς [ἱεροῖς ὁπεῖ κ]α δοκεῖ ἀνφοτέραις ταῖς πολέο- [ις εἰ δέ κα microὴ ἐν]microένωντι οἱ Φιαλέες ἐν τᾶι φιλ-

20 [ίαι τᾶι πὸτ τὼς Μ]εσανίως καὶ Αἰτωλώς ἄκυρος ἔ- [σστω ἅδε ἁ ὁmicroολο]γία

Invalidity of an organrsquos decisions and of city laws

An invalidity clause (although not using the word akyros) appears already in what is considered to be the earliest legal inscription from Greece the law of Dreros34 limiting the iteration of the office of the Kosmos All actions of the Kosmos taken under the illegal tenure will be annulled (microηδὲν ἤmicroην) and he will also be subject to a fine35 This invalidity of official acts seems to have had an immediate effect Invalidity thus aims early on to safeguard citizens from illegal decisions of public officials Later on the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) forbids any manipulation of the cityrsquos legislation (κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους) in a simulacrum of democracy The decisions obtained in this way even if the cityrsquos highest authorities and the boule are involved are declared a priori invalid and the person responsible for this shall be punished as the instigator of an oligarchy IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1

ἐάν τις ἐν ὀλι- γαρχίαι κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους vacat vacat βουλὴν αἱρῆται ἢ τὰς ἄλλας ἀρχάς ὡς ἐν δηmicroοκρατίαι θέλων διαπράσσεσθαι τ[ε]-

115 χνάζων ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ τὸν τεχνάζοντα πάσ- χειν ὡς ἡγεmicroόνα ὀλιγαρχίαςmiddot Disregarding the law

Laws if not properly applied where in fact rendered invalid as it is already maintained by Cleon in the debate over the Mytileneans36 Later the verb ἀκυρόω in connection to a law in the meaning of (not) to be disregarded is to be found in the Greek transcription of the lex romana de

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 32 Lys Περὶ τῆς δηmicroεύσεως τῶν τοῦ Νικίου ἀδελφοῦ ἐπίλογος 154 οὐκ οὖν αἰσχρόν εἰ ἃ microὲν Λακεδαιmicroονίοις συνέθεσθε βεβαιώσετε ἃ δὲ αὑτοῖς ἐψηφίσασθε οὕτω ῥᾳδίως διαλύσετε καὶ τὰς microὲν πρὸς ἐκείνους συνθήκας κυρίας ποιήσετε τὰς δὲ πρὸς αὑτοὺς ἀκύρους 33 In this instance ἄκυρος ἔστω holds the sense of nullification of the agreement operating ex nunc and concerns all contracting parties 34 Nomima I80 ἇδrsquo ἔϝαδε | πόλιmiddot | ἐπεί κα κοσmicroήσει | δέκα ϝετίον τὸν ἀ|ϝτὸν | microὴ κόσmicroεν | αἰ δὲ κοσmicroησιε | ὀ(π)ε δικακσιε | ἀϝτὸν ὀπῆλεν | διπλεῖ | κᾱϝτὸν ἄκρηστον | ἦmicroεν | ἆς δοοι | κὄτι κοσmicroησιε | microηδὲν ἤmicroην ὀmicroόται δὲ | κόσmicroος | κοἰ δάmicroιοι | κοἰ | ἴκατι | οἰ τᾶς πόλ[ιο]ς 35 Youni M 2010152-153 36 Th 337 πάντων δὲ δεινότατον εἰ βέβαιον ἡmicroῖν microηδὲν καθεστήξει ὧν ἂν δόξῃ πέρι microηδὲ γνωσόmicroεθα ὅτι χείροσι νόmicroοις ἀκινήτοις χρωmicroένη πόλις κρείσσων ἐστὶν ἢ καλῶς ἔχουσιν ἀκύροις On citations regarding the laws rendered valid (κυρίους) only if applied by the courts see Harris E M 2013 99 On the reasons proposed on why the Athenians did not repeal unenforced laws see Wallace RW 2012 117-123

13 13

813

piratis persequendis37 found in Delphi (ca 101-100 BC)38 ordering the Roman Governors of the Provinces of Macedonia and Asia to take measures against pirates and to insure the collection of public revenues

Conflicts of laws

Direct abolition of enactments referred to as νόmicroοι or θεσmicroοί are rare39 One such example is a law of Kyme (Aeol) dating from the third century BC regarding a serious crime and judgments rendered by the dikasopoi40 If any other law included any clause contrary to this one it is declared invalid41 This term did not aim at a particular statute but resolved the matter of potential conflicts of laws by stating the supremacy of this legal rule over any conflicting one

Nullification regarding decrees and petitions

Nullification of a cityrsquos decree42 could derive from a clause contained in a subsequent decree New legislation sometimes incorporated provisions that nullified previous or inconsistent statutes43 but most often this was done by giving instructions to physically remove the older stones44 The simplest method for having a cityrsquos decision de facto abolished being the destruction of the inscription preserving it in an honorary decree of Priene for Euandros Sabyllou from Larisa in Thessaly (ca 300290 BC)45

the invalidity clause not only strikes any proposition against the current decree but also guarantees the physical integrity of the stele containing it which had been just re-erected

In general in decrees akyron is used in the sense of an act46 not having the legal effects it would normally have47 It is not ldquonon-existentrdquo but no commitment or valid obligation can derive from

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 37 Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 33-47 38 FD III 437 C lines 15-16 ὑπεναντίον τούτῳ τῷ νόmicroῳ microή τις ποείτω ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ ὅσα τέ τινας κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον δεῖ ποεῖν ποεῖτε microήτε τις ποείτω ᾧ ο[ὗ]|[τ]ος ὁ νόmicroος κατὰ παρεύρεσιν ἀκυρωθῇ ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ microήτε τις ποείτω microήτε| ἐπικρινάτω ὧι ἔλασσον ὅσα δεῖ κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον γέν[η]ταιmiddot 39 On this matter see Rubinstein L 2008 115 40 The law allowed the person guilty of the crime to be declared atimos and killed by anyone 41 IK Kyme 11 lines 10-13 αἰ δ[ὲ (microὴ) mdash mdash mdash]| [ἄτιmicroος θνασ]κέτω κτεινέτω δὲ αὐτὸν ὁ θέλωνmiddot ὁ δὲ ἀ[ποκτείναις]| [εὐάγης ἔστω κ]αὶ καθαρόςmiddot αἰ δέ ποι ἐν νόmicroῳ τινὶ ἄλ[λο τι γράφηται]|[ἐνάντιον τῷ ν]όmicroῳ τούτῳ ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 42 Provided the decrees were not superseding the law Hyp Ath 322 καὶ ὁ microὲν Σόλων οὐδ᾽ ὃ δικαίως ἔγραφεν ψήφισmicroά τις τοῦ νόmicroου οἴεται δεῖν κυριώτερον εἶναι σὺ δὲ καὶ τὰς ἀδίκους συνθήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων τῶν νόmicroων Such a law was in fact passed under the archonship of Euclides in 403|2 MacDowell 1962 128 43 In Athens the decree of Isotimides which barred anyone who had confessed to an act of impiety from entering the temples and the agora cancelled a former decree guaranteeing indemnity for disclosures This decree was at the origin of Andocidersquos conviction and exile from Athens When the Amnesty of 403 BC finally allowed Andocides to return home and in 400 he was put on trial for violating the Isotimides decree he won an acquittal with his defense speech On the Mysteries proving that the latter decree had been annulled And 18 ἢ περὶ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος τοῦ Ἰσοτιmicroίδου ὡς ἄκυρόν ἐστιν 44 On examples see Sickinger J P 2008103 n 21 22 45 Priene 46 lines 7-10 [ἐὰν δέ τις περὶ τ]ού[το]υ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἢ τῆς στή|[λης τῆς νῦν ἀ]πο[κα]θισταmicroένης ἢ| ἄρχων προτιθῆι|[ἢ ἰδιώτης συ]γ[κα]ταλύειν βουλόmicroενος τὴν δωρε|[ὰν τοῦ δή]microου ἄ[κ]υρα ἔστω middot 46 Invalidity concerned actions A judicial verdict could allthough indirectly annul a previous refusal to act as it illustrated in the speech by Lys 919 microήτε τοὺς βέλτιον καὶ δικαίως βουλευσαmicroένους ἀκύρους καταστήσητε The speaker (Polyaeunus) had been fined by the generals for slander a fine which was subsequently reported to the treasurers to collect as unpaid debt the latter refusing to do so on the grounds (if we are to believe the speaker) that it had been irregularly and maliciously imposed The speaker is asking the jury not to invalidate the decision of those who have acted on a better and on a just consideration 47 This is also the meaning of akyron used by Aristotle when he explains the supremacy of men over women children and slaves in order to define the invalidity of the womenrsquos willpower Arist Pol 1260a ἄλλον γὰρ

13 13

913

such an act for being opposite to a prior interdiction and its effects can be immediately revoked without further decision In one occasion invalidity strikes a simple petition leading to the dedication of a statue in a public space in a decree concerning the temenos of Asklepeios in Rhodes (datation unknown) it is forbidden to anyone to submit a petition to erect a statue or other dedication at a certain area of the temenos in order not to obstruct the walks and policemen are instructed to remove to another place any dedication erected in spite of the interdiction48 Sometimes a specific action or proposal that may diminish the impact of a donorrsquos benefaction may also be declared ldquoinvalidrdquo In a dedication inscription from Cos (dated from the end of the first or beginning of the second century AD) a donator prescribes that no other statue may be erected on the same platform and that any attempt to contravene this shall be immediately null and void49

Entrenchment clauses

The most frequent occurrence of the ἄκυρον term in decrees concerns entrenchment clauses provisions that make decisions unamendable50 which as Rubinstein51 has correctly noted can be read as ldquoa guarantee issued to a particular individual group of individuals or to another communityrdquo regarding decisions that directly affect them52 Invalidity may be guaranteeing that a particular right bestowed upon a group of individuals would not be revoked In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe already mentioned an invalidity clause strikes any proposition by an archon or a rhetor introducing a contestation of the land given to the Nagidians53 In Thasos of early imperial times the same clause guarantees measures regarding the donation of lands and their subsequent possession by their owners54

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τρόπον τὸ ἐλεύθερον τοῦ δούλου ἄρχει καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν τοῦ θήλεος καὶ ἀνὴρ παιδός καὶ πᾶσιν ἐνυπάρχει microὲν τὰ microόρια τῆς ψυχῆς ἀλλrsquo ἐνυπάρχει διαφερόντως ὁ microὲν γὰρ δοῦλος ὅλως οὐκ ἔχει τὸ βουλευτικόν τὸ δὲ θῆλυ ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἄκυρον ὁ δὲ παῖς ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἀτελές 48 Suppl Epig Rodio 1 lines 10-22 microὴ ἐξέστω microηθενὶ αἰτήσασ|[θαι ἀνά]θεσιν ἀνδριάντος microηδὲ ἄλλου| [ἀναθ]ήmicroατος microηδενὸς ἐς τὸ κάτω microέρος| [τοῦ τ]εmicroένευς ἀπό τε τοῦ προπύλου| [ἐπrsquo ε]ὐθείας ἔστε ποτὶ τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα| [ὧ]ν ἐντι ταὶ αἰτήσιες πρότερον γεγενη|[micro]έναι ἢ ἐς ἄλλον τινα τόπον ἐν ὧι στα|θέντα τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα κωλύσει τοὺς περι|πάτουςmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἐν τούτωι τῶι τόπωι| αἰτήσηται ἀνάθεσιν ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐτ|[ῶ ] ι ἁ αἴτησις καὶ τοὶ ἀστυνόmicroοι εἴ κά τις| [ἀνα]θῆι microεθελόντω τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα ἐς ἄλ|[λον τ]όπονmiddot 49 Iscr di Cos ED 257 frg bcd1 lines 3-30 [κ]αὶ microηδενὶ ἄλλ[ῳ ἐ]ξῆ|microεν microήτε ἰδιώ[τᾳ micro]ήτε ἄρ|χοντι microήτε γυmicro[να]σιάρχῳ| ἢ ἐπιmicroελητᾷ τᾶς [γε]ρουσί|ας καθόλου microήτε εἰκόνα| microήτε ἄγαλmicroα microήτε ἀνδρι|άντα ἀναθέmicroεν ἐν ταύ|τᾳ τᾷ ἐξέδρᾳ τρόπῳ microηδε|νὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσι microηδε|micro ιᾷ microήτε τινὰ γνώmicroαν ἀ|γορεῦσαι περὶ τοῦ τειmicroαὶ| ἄλλου τινὸς ἀνασταθῆ|microεν ἢ ἀνατεθῆmicroεν ἐν αὐτᾶι | αἰ δέ κά τίς ποτε ἐπ[ι]χιρήσῃ ἢ εἰπεῖν ἢ γνώmicroαν ε[ἰ]σαγῆσ|θαι ἢ ἄλλως τι παρὰ τ[αῦ]τα πρ[ᾶ]|ξαι θελήσῃ τὸ microὲν ἐ[πιχ]ειρ ι[σ]|θὲν ἢ καὶ πιρασθὲν [ῥηθῆναι]|ἢ πραχθῆναι παραχρῆ[microα ἄκυ]|ρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστ[ω καὶ microη]|δὲν ἦσσον τὰ διατε[ταγmicroένα]|ὑπrsquo ἐmicroοῦ κύρια καὶ ἀmicro[ετακίνη]|τα ὑπαρχέτω καὶ ὁ [αἴτιος εἴ]|τε ἰδιώτας εἴτε ἄρ[χων εἴτε]|γυmicroνασίαρχος ἢ [ἐπιmicroε]|λητὰς εἴη τᾶς γ[ερουσίας ἀ]|ποτισάτω πα[ραχρῆmicroα δη]|νάρια χίλια 50 On entrenchment clauses in Athens see Schwartzberg M 2004 311-25 who maintains that the Athenians used entrenchment in highly restrictive contexts in certain financial decrees and in alliances and treaties exclusively for narrow strategic purposes in both the international and the domestic contexts and did not extend them to laws regulating the democracy 51 See Rubinstein L 2008117-118 identifying and categorizing a total of 80 examples of entrenchment clauses 52 IC II v 35 53 SEG 391426 lines 39- 45 microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ microηκέτι |[Ν]αγιδεῦσι παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶι περὶ τῆς χώρας τῆς δοθείσης| [α]ὐτοῖς κατὰ ψήφισmicroα τοῦτο ἀmicroφισβητῆσαι ἐὰν δέ τις ἄρχων προθῆι| [τι] δόγmicroα τltοιgtοῦτο ἢ ῥῆτωρ εἴπηι ὁ microὲν ἄρχων ἀποτεισάτω δραχmicroὰς microυρίας |[ἱερ]ὰς Ἀρσινόηι ἀπαραιτήτους ὁ δὲ ῥήτωρ δραχmicroὰς χιλίας καὶ ἡ γνώmicroη αὐ|[τῶ ]ν ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 54 IG XII Suppl 364 lines 7- 20 τὴν δὲ τῶν [ἀγρῶν κτῆσιν διατη]|ρεῖν ἀθάνατον ἡmicroᾶς καὶ microήτε [καταθεῖναί ποτε τοὺς]| ἀγροὺς ἡmicroᾶς microήτε ἀποδόσθαι [microηδενὶ microήτε συνόλους]| microήτε microέρη microήτε περι[ιδ]εῖν ἀπ[αλλοτριωθέντας αὐτοὺς]| κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τ[ις τῶν Θασίων περί τι]|νος τούτων ἢ γράψῃ ἢ ἐπιψ[ηφίσῃ ἢ ἀναγράψῃ εἰς τὸ]| τής πόλεως γραmicromicroατοφυλα[κεῖον τὴν γνώmicroην τὰ γραφέντα]| καὶ τὰ ψηφισθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι [καὶ ἀκρατῆ τὸν δὲ ἢ]| γράψαντα ἢ ἐπιψηφίσαντα ἢ ἀναγ[ράψαντα τὴν γνώ]|microην εἰς τὸ τῆς πόλεως | γραmicromicroατοφ[υλακεῖον ὀφεί]|λειν τοῖς τῶν Σεβαστῶν ναοῖς στατῆ[ρας

13 13

1013

When a future decree proposition (γνώmicroη) is declared invalid this invalidates in fact the whole decree voting procedure55 Detailed terms in entrenchment clauses56 often mention both private persons (ἰδιώτης) and city officials (ἄρχοντες ῥήτορες ἐπιmicroήνιοι) that may be involved the organs before which such propositions may take place (ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω) as well as all the steps leading to the adoption of new decisions (εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι) oraly or in writing (ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι) sometimes adding for the sake of exhaustivity the annulment of decisions ldquoin any other possible wayrdquo (τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν) The legislation process being an expression of the sovereignty of the demos the invalidity clause acts as a kind of limitation for future times of the operation of the majority principle57 in order to secure that no valid decision shall be reached in the future regulating the same matter in a different way Examples of rules that include a detailed enumeration of all possible ways of obtaining amendments declared a priori invalid include the law of Teos regulating the salaries of instructors for the youth58 and a decree of Chios forbidding the use of funds for other purposes than the ones prescribed

Chios 27 11 [mdash]ΙΑ καὶ micro[ὴ] ἐξεῖν[αι τ]οῖς [χρήmicroασι]

[τοῖς συναγ]οmicroένοις ἐκ τῆς [ὑ]ποσχέσεω[ς] [εἰς ἄλλο κ]αταχρῆσθαι microη[δ]ὲν ἢ εἰς τὰ [διατεταγ]micro ένα κατὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα

5 [ἐὰν δέ τις γ]ράψηι ἢ πρύτανις προ[θ]ῆι [ταῦτα εἰς ἄλ]λο τι microετενεγκεῖν ἢ κατα- [χρήσασθαι] ἢ ποιήσηι τίς τι παρὰ τόδε τὸ [ψήφισmicroα τό] τε γραφὲν ἢ πραχθὲν ἄκυρον [ἔστω καὶ ὀφε]ιλέτω τῆι πόλει δραχmicroὰς ΧΧΧ

10 [ὁ τούτων αἴτιο]ς καὶ ἔστω πρὸς τοῦτο [ὑποδικὸς κ]αθάπερ καὶ οἱ ἐξ ὠνῆς ὀφεί- [λοντες χρήmicro]ατα τῆι πόλειmiddot

In entrenchment clauses invalidity is either explicit or may be implied if (only) penalties or curses are directed against anyone who tries to annul the current provisions59 In order to invest an entrenchment clause with effectiveness invalidity apparently not being considered always sufficient in order to deter citizens from introducing changes in the future the provision of penalties60 added a financial risk to the challenge Combined sanctions (invalidity plus fine) are included in sacred laws61 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τετρα]|[κ]ισmicroυρίους καὶ ἄτιmicroον εἶναι καὶ αὐτὸν κ[αὶ γένος]middot [ἐνέχ]εσθαι δὲ αὐτοὺς καὶ τῆι εἰς τοὺς Σε[βαστοὺς ἀσε]|[βείαιmiddot 55 Cf the use of ἄκυρον in the Athenaion Politeia on the lack of sovereignety of the Boule to decide by itself Arist AthPol 454 τούτων microὲν οὖν ἄκυρός ἐστιν ἡ βουλήmiddot προβουλεύει δrsquoεἰς τὸν δῆmicroον καὶ οὐκ ἔξεστιν οὐδὲν ἀπροβούλευτον οὐδrsquo ὅ τι ἂν microὴ προγράψωσιν οἱ πρυτάνεις ψηφίσασθαι τῷ δήmicroῳ κατrsquo αὐτὰ γὰρ ταῦτα ἔνοχός ἐστιν ὁ νικήσας γραφῇ παρανόmicroων 5613 On entrenchment clauses and different measures aiming to preserve important resources and to guarantee compliance with relevant rules in late Hellenistic and imperial times see Harter-Uibopuu K 2013 (forthcoming)13 57 The interdiction and nullity clause for future decree propositions may have constituted in Athens grounds for a graphe paranomon 58 Teos 41 lines 40-46 ἢν δὲ οἱ ἐνεστηκότες ταmicroίαι ἢ οἱ ἑκάστοτε γινόmicroενοι| microὴ παραδῶσιν τὸ ἀργύριον τοῦτο κατὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα v3 ἢ ἄλλος τις ἄρχων| ἢ ἰδιώτης εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι ἐναντίον τού| τωι ἢ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον ἄρηι τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν ὡς δεῖ τὸ ἀργύρι| ον κινηθῆναι ἢ microὴ ἀναλίσκεσθαι ἀπrsquo αὐτοῦ εἰς ἃ ὁ νόmicroος συντάσσει ἢ ἄλλ[ηι που]| καταχωρισθῆναι καὶ microὴ εἰς ἃ ἐν τῶιδε τῶι νόmicroωι διατέτακται τά τε πραχθέν|τα ἄκυρα ἔστω 59 On examples of such inscriptions see Sickinger J P 2008 104 n 24 25 60 See Rubinstein L 2012329-354 61 IK Kalchedon 10 lines 10-13 [ὃς δέ] κα εἴπῃ ἢ προαισιmicroνάσηι ἢ ἐν [β]ουλᾶι ἢ ἐν δάmicroωι ὀ|[φειλέτω] δραχmicroὰς Μ ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἡρακλεῖος καὶ τὰ| [προαισ]ιmicroναθέντα ἢ ῥηθέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

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from the Asklepieion of Kos (dated from the end of the first century BC) concerning the sale of the priesthoods of Aphrodite Pandamos and Pontia62 and of Asklepios63 invalidating any decree proposing a different use of the thesauros of the sanctuary The penalties are not linked to any concrete damage (βλάβη) that may be incurred by any party64 to any demand of restitution to any unjust enrichment or transfer of property but rely upon the (implied) public interest and the collective (moral) damage of the community or of the sanctuary in case the current regulations are changed65 The combination of legal invalidity to penalties introduce thus avant la lettre the concept of the Roman lex perfecta to Greek law as laws including both a sanction and the nullity of anything contrary to a particular clause of the law as well as the interdiction of future amendments of the statute The earliest occurrences date from the early fourth century BC in an honorary decree from Athens for Sthorys the Thasian (dated 3943) where invalidity combined with penalties is threatened against anyone ldquonullifyingrdquo these honors66 Regarding the penalties combined with invalidity in some decrees concerning matters of particular importance for the city the collection procedure of the fines was also defined ad hoc as in a fourth century BC citizenship decree from Thasos67 in a decree of Miletus68 (2054 BC) instituting a public eisphora for the citizens in order to cover public deficit69 The penalties associated to the invalidity clause may also be escalating by analogy to the importance of the matter regulated or of the person honored by the decree A decree by the Nasiotai bestowing honors to Thersippos (ca 315 BC) for his benefactions in connection to Alexanderrsquos campaigns invalidates all future amendments in combination to severe penalties such as fines threats of atimia and treason charges for acting against the democracy plus a curse against anyone proposing their abolition70

Invalidity clauses may also be included in decisions issued by private associations forbidding that any of the honors bestowed upon their benefactors may be postponed or cancelled71 and this as it

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 62 SEG 50766 back face1 lines 20-24 τὸ δὲ χρῆmicroα τοῦ|το ὑπαρχέτω ἐς κατασκευάσmicroατα ἅ κα δόξῃ τᾶι ἐκλησίαι καὶ ἐς ἐπισ|κευὰν τοῦ ἱεροῦmiddot αἰ δέ κά τις ψαφίξηται ὥστε ἐς ἄλλο τι καταχρη[σ]θῆmicroεν| τὰ ἐκ τῶν θησαυρῶν ἢ προστάτας προθῆι ἀποτισάτω τῶν αἰτίων ἕκασ|τος δραχmicroὰς χειλίας ἱερὰς τᾶς Ἀφροδίτας καὶ ἁ γνώmicroα ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 63 SEG 511066 frg ab lines 31-35 microὴ ἐξέστωι δὲ microήτε]|ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδιώιται [microηδενὶ ἐς ἄλλο καταχρήσασθαι τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ χρήmicroατα]| ἢ microετάγεν τὰς ἀπrsquo αὐτῶ[ιν ποθόδους mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αὐτῶι ἔστωι περὶ πᾶν ὅτι [κα γράψηι ἢ ἐπιψαφίξηι καὶ ἀποτινέτωι (δραχmicroὰς) mdashʹ]| καὶ ἁ γνώιmicroαι ἄκυρος ἤτ[ω 64 On blabe initially limited in cases of damages included in the law see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993191 65 On the notion ἀδικεῖν τὴν πόλιν see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 199391-94 66 IG IIsup2 17 lines 31-33 ἐὰν δέ τις τα[ῦτ]α ἄκυρ[α ποῆι ὀφελέ]|τω χιλίας [δ]ραχmicroὰς ἱερ[ὰς τῆ]ι Ἀθηνα[ίαι καὶ τῶι Ἀπό]|λλωνι τῶ[ι] Πυθίωι ἑτέρα[ς] 67 IG XII 8 267 lines 11-16 microὴ [ἐξεῖ]|ναι δὲ ὑπὲρ τούτων microηδενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτrsquo ἐπε[λθεῖ]ν ὑπὲρ λύσιος microήτrsquo ἐπιψηφίσαι ἀκρατέα εἶνα[ι ταῦ]|τα τὰ ἐψηφισmicroένα ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ ταῦτα εἴπηι ἢ ἐπέλθηι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι τά τε δόξαντα ἄκυρα ἔστω κα[ὶ χι]|λίους στατῆρας ὀφειλέτω ἱεροὺς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίωι χιλίους δὲ τῆι πόλει δικασάσθων δὲ ο[ἱ ἀπό]|λογοιmiddot ἂν δὲ microὴ δικάσωνται αὐτοὶ ὀφειλόντων δικασάσθων δὲ ἀπόλογοι οἱ microετὰ τούτους αἱρεθέντε[ς]middot|δικασάσθω δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὁ ἐθέλων καὶ ἂν ὁ ἰδιώτης νικήσηι microετεῖναι αὐτῶι τὸ ἥmicroυσυ τὴς καταδί[κης] On this inscription see Fournier J 2012 360-361 Cf also the invalidity clause in IG XII8 264 from Thassos (beginning 4th century BC) 68 See Migeotte L 1984 no97 69 Miletos 41 Lines 24- 29 ἐὰν δέ τις εἴπηι| ἢ προθῇ ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι τά τε γραφθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ ὀφείλειν ἕκαστον τῶν αἰτίων| στατῆρας χιλίους καὶ εἶναι ἄτιmicroον ἕως ἂν ἐκτείσηι καὶ microηθὲν ἧσ|σον ἐξαιρεῖσθαι τὸ τεταγmicroένον ὑπὸ τῶν microετὰ ταῦτα γινοmicroένων| ἀνατακτῶν 70 IG XII2 645 b1 lines 32-58 κα|[ὶ microὴ ἔ]micromicroεναι [π]|[ὰρ τ]αῦτα microήτε| [ἄ]ρχοντι προθ|[έ]microεναι microήτε ῥ|[ή]τορι εἶπαι micro|[ή]τε ἐπιmicroηνί[ω]| [ἐ]σένικαιmiddot αἰ δ|[έ] κέ τις ἢ ῥήτω|[ρ] εἴπη ἢ ἄρχων| [ἐσ]αγάγη [ἢ]| [ἐπ]ιmicroήνιος ἐσ[εν]ίκη ἄκυρά τ|[ε] ἔστω καὶ ὀφε|[λ]λέτω ἔκαστο|[ς] στάτηρας τρ|[ ια]κοσίοις ἴρ|[οι]ς τῶ Ἀσκλαπ|[ίω] καὶ ἐπάρατ|[ος] ἔστω καὶ ἄτι|[microος] καὶ γένος| [ε]ἰς τὸν πάντα| [χρ]όνον καὶ ἐν| ἔστω τῶ νόmicro|[ω π]ερὶ τῶ καλλ|[ύο]ντος τὸν δᾶ|[microον] 71 Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros IG XII1 155 face

13 13

1213

is stated in one decree in view of the importance of making an example of the benefaction72 Invalidity in entrenchment clauses in relation to endowments is aiming to prevent any different use of the funds or of the property donated by the benefactor73 as in the testament of Epicteta (dated around 210-195 BC)74 It also guarantees that no alteration of the exact terms of use of the donation75 will take place and nullifies any transaction that may jeopardize the capital donated76 The invalidity clause striking future different decree propositions was aiming to preserve the benefactorrsquos instructions and will (κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν) as it is clearly stated in an honorary decree from Eretria (ca 100 BC)77

The practice of sanctioning entrenchment clauses with invalidity reinforced by fines continued into Roman times Invalidity of future decrees or deliberations was sometimes mentioned as having

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 III85 lines 95-100 τ[ὸ]| δὲ ψάφισmicroα τόδ[ε κ]ύριον ἔστω εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρό|νον καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδι|ώται microήτε κινεῖν microήτε γνώmicroαν γράψασθαι|microήτε τοῖς ἄρχουσι προτιθέmicroειν ὡς δεῖ τὰς δ[ε]|δοmicroένας τιmicroὰς Διονυσοδώρωι ἀκύρους εἴmicro|microειν middot ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἀποτεισάτω τὸ γε|γραmicromicroένον ἐπιτίmicroιον δραχmicroὰς ἑκατόν καὶ ἁ γνώmicro[α]|[α]ὐτοῦ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἔνοχος ἔστω τῶι νό|microωι τῶι ἀκινήτωι 72 Honorary decree (dated after 1532 BC found in Delos) of the koinon of the Βηρυτίων Ποσ[ειδω|νιαστῶν ἐmicroπόρω]ν καὶ ναυκλήρων [καὶ ἐ]γδοχέων for their Roman benefactor the banker Marcus Minatius Sextus ID 1520 lines 57-61 ὅπως ἂν ἀΐδιοι διαmicroένωσι τοῖς εὐεργέταις αἱ δοθεῖσαι τι|[micro]αί microηθενὶ ἐξέστωι microήτε ἰδιώτηι microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτ[ε]| [γ]ράψαι ὡς δεῖ τῶν δεδοmicroένων τιmicroῶν microεταθεῖναι ἢ ἀφελεῖν ἢ ἀκυρ[όν]| [τ] ι ποιῆσαι παρὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ εἴπας ἢ ὁ ἀναγνοὺς| [ἢ] ὁ προθεὶς ἢ ὁ ἐπιχειροτονήσας ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἐξώλης εἴη| [α]ὐτὸς καὶ τὰ τέ[κν]α αὐτοῦ τοῖς δὲ ταῦτα ἐπιτηροῦσι εἴη καὶ βίου καὶ| τέκνων καὶ ὑπαρχόντων ὄνησις καὶ εἴη αὐτοῖς σώιζεσθαι καὶ κατ[ὰ]| [γ]ῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν καὶ ὁ παρὰ ταῦτα ποιήσας ἀποτινέτω| δραχmicroὰς στεφανηφόρους ἑξακισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ποσειδῶ|νος καὶ ὑπόδικος ἔστω τῶι ἀδικουmicroένωιmiddot 73 A decree from Eresos in Lesbos (dating from the middle of the third century BC) regarding the donation by Agemortos of some source of income to be used for sacrifices forbids and invalidates any encumberance or any other use of the income and any such proposition before the council or the assembly IG ΧΙΙ2 529 lines 3- 9 microηδὲ ὐποθέ|[microεναι microηδrsquo ἐγγύ]ασθαι microήδενι microηδὲ ὐπό|θεσθα[ι] microηδrsquo εἴπην ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω microήδενα ὡς δεῖ περιβάλεσθαι| τὰν θυσίαν microηδὲ τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς ἄλλο| κατάταξαι microῆδενmiddot αἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρα ἔmicromicroεναι| τὰ πράχθεντα middot 74 In the inscription recording the legacy she left to her daughter Epiteleia Epicteta was founding a sanctuary to the Muses and her own deceased ancestors and providing for the establishment of an association dedicated to the worship of the Muses her will including an invalidity clause for future amendments by third parties IG XII 3 330 B1 lines 263-267 middot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἢ εἴπει ἢ γράψει | τό τε ῥηθὲν ἢ γραφὲν ἄκυρον ἔστω καὶ ὁ| εἴπας ἢ γράψας στερέσθω τοῦ κοινοῦ καὶ ὁ|φειλ[έ]τω αὐτῶι δραχmicroὰς πεντακοσίας| καὶ πρακτὸς ἔστω καὶ ἀπὸ ἐνεχυρασίας| κατὰ τὸς νόmicroος ὑπὸ τοῦ χρῄζοντος τῶν| συγγενῶν 75 Decree of Didyma establishing annual distribution of food on the occasion of the birthday of Eumenes II (dated 1598 BC) Didyma 13 lines 41-49 microὴ εἶναι microη|θενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτε ἀναγνῶναι microήτε προθεῖ|ναι microήτε προγράψαι microήτε ἐπιψηφίσαι ὡς δεῖ microε|τατεθῆναι τὰ χρήmicroατα εἰς ἄλλο τι καὶ microὴ ὑπάρχει[ν]|εἰς τὰ ἐν τῶι ψηφίσmicro[ατι] κατακεχωρισmicroένα ἐὰν δ[έ]|τις παρὰ ταῦτα π[ράξηι] τρόπωι ltὁτωιgtοῦν τό τε γρ[α]|φὲν ἄκυρον ἔσ[τω ὁ δὲ π]ράξας τι τῶν ἀπειρη|microένων [ἀποτεισάτω στατῆρας] δισχιλίους ἱεροὺς|το[ῦ Ἀπόλλωνος τοῦ Διδυmicro]έωςmiddot 76 The decree of Delphi of 16059 BC regulating the usage of a donation by king Attalos of an important amount of money to the city to be used for the childrenrsquos education and for sacrifices invalidates and punishes by fine any proposition or decision for a different use than the one prescribed by the decree Syllsup3 672 lines 15-19 εἰ δέ τις τούτων τι ποιή|σαι ἢ ἄρχων ἢ ἰδιώτας κατάmicroαστρος ἔστω ἱερῶν χρηmicroάτων φω|ρᾶς καὶ οἱ microαστροὶ καταγραφόντω κατrsquo αὐτοῦ κατὰ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ ἄλ|λως microετενεγχθὲν ἀργύριον ὀκταπλοῦν καὶ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ διαινε|θὲν ἄκυρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστω 77 IG XII9 236 lines 51-61 ὅπως δὲ microένῃ τὸ ἀνακείmicroενον ἀσφα|λῶς κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν καὶ εἰς ἄλλο| microηθὲν ἦι καταχρήσασθαι microηθενὶ ἐξουσίαν εἶναι ἀπὸ| τούτου τοῦ διαφόρου microηδὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ πίπτοντος ἀπrsquo|αὐτοῦ τόκου microήτε καταχρήσασθαι εἰς ἄλλο microηθὲν| microήτε ἐπιψηφίσασθαι microήτε ἐπερωτῆσαιmiddot εἰ δὲ microή ὅ τε γρά|ψας ἢ ἐπερωτήσας | ὀφειλέτω ἱερὰς τῆς Ἀρτέmicroιδος|δραχmicroὰς ἑξακισmicroυρίας καὶ ἔστω ἀπαγωγὴ κατrsquo αὐ|τοῦ τῷ βουλοmicroένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ τρίτῳ microέρει πρὸς τοὺς| ἄρχοντας καὶ τὰ γραφέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

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immediate effect78 The expression οὐδὲν ἔλασσον (no less) preceding in some decrees the invalidity clause shows it was considered the last but not least necessary complement of entrenchment clauses79 In view of the change of political settings invalidity is now sometimes aiming the archonsrsquos orders or the cityrsquos ekdikos propositions (or anybody elsersquos) and the fines are collected by the Roman fiscus80 In a decree from Miletus concerning the cityrsquos and the imperial cults any different use of the funds and any act contravening the purpose secured by this statute (τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]) would be invalid and the archon introducing such a proposition would be guilty of impiety against the gods and guilty ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης of the payment of a fine81 Three documents from Ephesus dating from AD 104 show how invalidity had become a standard term aiming to secure the proper execution of the will of the benefactor which was ratified both by the Roman officialrsquos and by the cityrsquos decisions The invalidity clause of future amendments is first mentioned in the letter of Caius Vibius Salutaris offering several benefactions to the boule and demos of Ephesus in form of a legal document82 second the proconsul Gaius Aquillius Proculus in his letter to the archontes boule and demos of Ephesus approves the benefaction of Gaius Vibius Salutaris and ratifies the invalidity

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 78 SE 241 frg hcol 21 lines 7-8 [mdash]ασmicroένων καὶ τὰς ltσgtυνεγmicroεmicroισθωmicroένας αὐτοῖς προσόδους ἀνεξαλλ[άκτας mdash]| [mdash] ψηφισθὲν χρηmicroατισθὲν ἔστω παραχρῆmicroα ἄκυρον κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ποιησαmicro[ένου mdash] 79 In one instance in a decree of Mytilene instituting celebrations in the context of the emperial cult the city threatens with invalidity all actions or propositions of private citizens or magistrates contravening the celebrations and relevant procedures these being considered synonymous with the safeguard of the citys liberty and democracy and sympoliteia since the city had recently seen its status as an ally of Rome confirmed by Augustus IG XII2 59 lines 6-12 ἢ οἰ ἐξ αὔτων γράψωσι ἢ συν[κλήτω δόγmicroα mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αἰ δέ κέ τις ἢ ἰδίωτας ἢ ἄρχων παρ[άβαις τι τῶν ἐν mdash mdash mdash γεγραmicromicroέ]|[νω]ν καὶ ἐν τῶ ψαφίσmicroατι τούτω microὴ πέmicroψη [mdash mdash mdash mdash καττὸν ἐψαφίσθη]| τρόπον ἢ microὴ φυλάξη τὰν τάξιν τᾶς ἀναγράφα[ς mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἄκυ]|ρον ἔστω καὶ ὐπεύθυνος ἔστω ὁ παράβαις [mdash mdash mdash ὠς καταλύων ταὶς τῶν]| Σεβάστων καὶ τῶ οἴκω αὔτων τείmicroαις καὶ ἀναίρεις [mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἐλευ]|θερίας καὶ δαmicroοκρατίας καὶ συmicroπολειτίας 80 In an honorary decree of the boule and demos for Gaius Caninius Synallasson found at Iasos regulating the foundation he established for the gymnasium of the neoi (ca 117-138 AD) Iasos 21 lines 54-67 ἐφrsquo ᾧ οὐ|δενὶ ἐξέσται ἄρχοντι οὐδὲ ἑτέρῳ οὐδενὶ microε|ταδιατάξαι ἕτερόν τι περὶ τούτων τῶν πεντα|κισχειλίων δηναρίων ἢ τῆς προσόδου αὐτῶν| ἐκτὸς ἐὰν microὴ χωρίων ἀγορασθησοmicroένων τοῖς| νέοις δεήσῃ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς τὴν τει|microὴν τῶν ἀγορασθησοmicroένων ἀγρῶν χωρῆσαι| ἐφrsquo ᾧ καὶ οὕτως microενεῖ ἡ πρόσοδος αἰεὶ εἰς τὸ ἄλιmicroα| τῶν νέων καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot ἐπεὶ ὁ ὑπεναντί|ον τούτοις ποιήσας τι ἀποδώσει εἰς τὸν τοῦ κυ|ρίου Καίσαρος φίσκον δηνάρια πεντακισχείλια| καὶ οὐδὲν ἔλασσον ἔσται τὸ microεταδιαταγὲν ἄκυρον| καὶ microενεῖ τὰ πεντακισχείλια δηνάρια καὶ ἡ πρόσοδος| αὐτῶν τοῖς νέοις καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot 81 Miletos 15 lines 18-33 microηδενὶ δὲ ἐξεῖναι microήτε| ἄρχοντι microήτε ἑτέρῳ τινὶ microεταγαγεῖν εἰς| ἀργυρικὸν πόρον τὰς λειτουργίας ταύτα[ς]| τρόπῳ microηδενὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσει microηδεmicro[ι]|ᾷmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις ὑπεναντίον τι πράξῃ τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]| τὸ microὲν γενόmicroενον ᾥτινιοῦν τρόπῳ ὑ|πάρχειν ἄκυρον τὸν δὲ ψηφισάmicroενον ἄρ|χοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον ὑπάρχειν τῶν προ|γεγραmicromicroένων θεῶν καὶ ὀφείλειν αὐτὸν| ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης στατῆρας φʹ ἱερούς| καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον τὸν microὴ ἐπιτελέσαντα| προφήτην τοὺς κόσmicroους ἢ τὸν microὴ ποή|σαντα στεφανηφόρον τοὺς microολποὺς εἰσ|πράσσεσθαι ἐπάναγκες τὰς προδεδηλωmicroέ|νας εὐωχίαςmiddot 82 Ephesos 212 lines 315- 325 microηδὲν δὲ ἐξέστω ἄρχοντι ἢ ἐκδίκῳ ἢ ἰδιώ|τῃ πεσαί τι ἀλλάξαι ἢ microεταθεῖναι ἢ microετοικονοmicroῆσαι ἢ microετα|ψηφίασθα τῶν καθιερωmicroένων ἀπεικονισmicroάτων ἢ τοῦ| ἀργυρίου ἢ τῆς ροσόδου αὐτοῦ ἢ microεταθεῖναι εἰς ἕτερον πόρον| ἢ ἀνάωmicroα ἢ ἄλο τι ποῆσαι παρὰ τὰ προγεγραmicromicroένα καὶ δια|τετmicroένα ἐπεὶ τὸ γενόmicroενον παρὰ ταῦτα ἔστω ἄκυρον middot| ὁ δὲ περάσας ποιῆσαί τι ὑπεναντίον τῇ διατάξει ἢ τοῖς| ὑπὸ τς βουῆς καὶ τοῦ δήmicroου ἐψηφισmicroένοις καὶ ἐπικεκυ|ρωmicroέν ταύτης τῆς διατάξεως ἀποτεισάτω εἰς| προσκῆς microεης θεᾶς Ἀρτέmicroιδος δη(νάρια) δισmicroύρια| εταβαστοῦ φίσκον ἄλλα δη(νάρια) βʹ Μ ͵ε

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clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

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60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

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δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

513

In another arbitration between the cities of Melitaia and Narthakion (ca 140 BC) regarding a long territorial dispute (which is uncommon as Ager points out24 in being conducted by the Roman Senate itself) the senatorial decree regarding this conflict underlines that invalidating previous rulings decided according to the law is something that must not be done lightly

IG IX 2 89 περί τε τούτων τῶν πραγmicroά-

20 [τω]ν ἔτει ἀνώτερον τρίτῳ ἐπὶ τριῶν δικασ- [τη]ρίων νενικηκέναι ἐπὶ Σαmicroίων Κολοφων[ί]- [ων] Μαγνήτων κεκ[ρι]microένα εἶναι κατὰ νόmicroου[ς] ὅπως ταῦτα κύρια ᾖ οὕτω καθὼς καὶ ἄλλοις γεγονός ἐστινmiddot περὶ τούτου τοῦ πράγmicroατος

25 οὕτως ἔδοξενmiddot χάριτα φιλίαν συmicromicroαχίαν [ἀ]νανεώσασθαι τούτοις τε φιλανθρώπως ἀ- ποκριθῆναιmiddot ἄνδρας καλοὺς κἀγαθοὺς προσ- αγορεῦσαιmiddot ὅσα κεκριmicroένα ἐστὶν κατὰ νόmicroους οὓς Τίτος Κοΐγκτιος ὕπατος ἔδωκεν ταῦτα κα-

30 θὼς κεκριmicroένα ἐστίν οὕτω δοκεῖ κύρια εἶναι δεῖν τοῦτό τε microὴ εὐχερὲς εἶναι ὅσα κατὰ νόmicroους κε- κριmicroένα ἐστὶν ἄκυρα ποιεῖν middot A different kind of annulment concerning a Roman sentence is mentioned in an honorary decree

from Kolophon (ca 130-110 BC) for Πτολεmicroαῖον Πανταγνώτου Κνηmicroάδη The city is grateful among many other reasons because when one of its citizens was condemned in a Roman court in the province (of Asia) the benefactor undertook an embassy to the (Roman) general and managed to have the condemnation annulled25 saving thus both the citizen and the cityrsquos laws

Annulment of decisions and accusations as well a debts is also an extraordinary measure corresponding to times of crisis and imminent danger for the polis In a law the city of Ephesos voted in preparation of an expected invasion by Mithridates (8685 BC) after the Ephesias pledge allegiance to the Romans in order to rally the population they decide in what constitutes a complicated amnesty arrangement26 to cancel all debts of those registered by the sacred or public treasurers as debtors and atimoi to waive accusations and penalties of those registred as accused for religious or public offences or any kind of debt to proclaim void any execution against them and furthermore to cancell and render void all religious and public prosecutions unless concerning boundary and inheritance disputes

IEph 8 τοὺς microὲν ἐκγεγραmicromicroένους ἢ παρα[γεγραmicro]microένους ὑπὸ λογιστῶν ἱερῶν ἢ δ[η]- microοσίων ὡιτινιοῦν τρόπωι πά[λιν εἶ]ναι ἐντίmicroους καὶ ἠκυρῶσθαι τὰς κα- 30 [τ rsquo ] αὐτῶν ἐκγραφὰς καὶ ὀφειλήmicro[ατα] τοὺς δὲ παραγεγραmicromicroένους πρὸς [ἱε]- [ρ]ὰς καταδίκας ἢ δηmicroοσίας ἢ ἐπίτειmicroα ἱερὰ ἢ δηmicroόσια ἢ ἄλλα ὀφειλήmicroατ[α] ὡιτινιοῦν τρόπωι παρεῖσθαι πάντας καὶ εἶναι ἀκύρους τὰς κατ rsquo αὐτῶν

πράξεις middot

41 λελύσθαι δὲ καὶ εἶναι ἀκύρο[υς] τάς τε ἱερὰς καὶ δηmicroοσίας δίκας εἰ microή τινές εἰσιν ὑπὲρ παρορισmicroῶν χώρας ἢ διrsquo

ἀmicroφ[ισ]- βητήσεως κληρονοmicroίας ἐζευγmicroέναιmiddot

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 24 Ager S 1996 no 157 25 SEG 391243 II1 lines 51-58 ἑνὸς δὲ τῶν| πολιτῶν κατακρίτου γενοmicroέ|νου Ῥωmicroltαgtϊκῷ κριτηρίωι ἐν τῆι ἐ|παρχείᾳ πρεσβεύσας πρὸς τὸν| στρατηγὸν τὸν γενόmicroενον ἄκυ|ρον ἐποίησεν καὶ τὰ κρίmicroατα| καὶ τὸν πολείτην καὶ τοὺς νό|microους ἀβλαβεῖς ἐτήρησενmiddot 2613 Arnaoutoglou I 1998105-107 Harter-Uibopuu K 2014 forthcoming13

13 13

613

Legal prescription

Ἄκυρον ἔστω in international treaties sometimes refers to a limitation of the right to bring suit27 and to the legal prescription of such right which may be either absolute or occur after a set period of time In the treaty of sympoliteia between Smyrna and Magnesia Sip (dated around 245-243 BC) the citizens of both of cities would give an oath to abide by the treaty terms The parties seal their peace by also declaring invalid any accusation among their citizens regarding war crimes28 In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe (included in a letter of Thraseas to this city dated after 238 BC) all trials among citizens of both cities must take place within the year following the crime a period after the lapse of which they are declared invalid

SEG 391426 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ὅσα δrsquo ἂν ἀδικῆmicroατα ἴδια γένηται ἑκάστοις ἐὰν microὲν ὁ [Ἀρσιν]οεὺς ἐν Ναγίδωι τινὰ ἀδικήσηι ἢ ἀδικηθῆι λαmicroβανέτω τὸ δίκαιον καὶ [διδότ]ω κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους τοὺς Ναγιδέων ἐὰν δὲ ὁ Ναγιδεὺς ἐν Ἀρσινόηι [τινὰ] ἀδικήσηι ἢ ἀδικηθῆι λαmicroβανέτω τὸ δίκαιον καὶ διδότω κατὰ τοὺς [νόmicroου]ς τοὺς Ἀρσινοέων ἔστω δὲ αὐτοῖς πάντων τῶν ἀδικηmicroάτων

50 [ἐξ οὗ ἂ]ν χρόνου γένηται τὸ ἀδίκηmicroα προθεσmicroία ἐνιαυτός ἐὰν δέ τις [διελθ]όντος τοῦ χρόνου γράψηται δίκην ἢ ἐγκαλέσηι ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐ- [τῶι ἡ δίκη] middot Equal to legal prescription is also the sense of ἄκυρον in the treaty between Delphi and Pellana

where (according to the proposed reconstitution of the missing lines) the right of reference of a claimant to a third party (anagoge) is invalid if not exercised within the time limit set by the treaty29

2 Legal statutes and invalidity clauses The second broad category of ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions concerns legal statutes in the form

of international treaties laws decrees and decree propositions International treaties

In general international treaties remained valid as long as they were respected by all parties involved in spite of the usual clauses aiming to secure the parties abidance to their terms forever30 Their annulment was rarely decided in legal terms31 but came as a consequence either of the lack of commitment of the contracting parties or of their straightforward violation or by concluding a new or

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 On limitations of actions see Jones J W 1956 233-234 28 Smyrna 14 lines 41-43 συντελεσθέντων δὲ τῶν ὅρκων τὰ microὲν ἐγκλήmicroατα αὐ|τοῖς τὰ γεγενηmicroένα κατὰ τὸmicro πόλεmicroον ἤρθω πάντα καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω [microηδὲ] ἑτέροις ἐγκαλέσαι περὶ τῶγ κατὰ τὸν πόλεmicroον γεγενηmicroένων microή[τε]| διὰ δίκης microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόποmicro microηθέναmiddot εἰ δὲ microή πᾶν τὸ ἐπιφερόmicroε[ν]ον ἔγκληmicroα ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 29 FD III 1486 (Staatsvertraumlge III 558) IIA1 lines 14-19[αἰ δ]έ κα ἔξοθεν [κλέψηι ἢ Δελφὸς παρὰ Πελλα|νεῖ ἢ Πελλανεὺς παρὰ Δ]ελφῶι ὁ ἔχων ἀναγέτω τῶι ἐφαπτοmicroέν[ωι] ἔγγυον καταστάσ[ας ποὶ τὰν ἀρχὰν τὰν εἰσ|άγουσαν τὰν δίκαν ἔ]νδικον καὶ ἄνδρα ἀξιόχρεοltνgt ἃ microὲν ἐν [Δ]ελφοῖς ἢ Πελλανε[ῦσιν ἔχει δικαίως πεπάσθαι κατὰ|τοὺς νόmicroους τᾶς πόλιοςmiddot ἐξέ]στω δὲ τῶι microὲν microὴ δέξασθαι τὰν [ἀν]αγωγὰν εἰπόντι καθrsquo [ὅ τι δικαίως ἐφάπτοιτο]|[τῶι δὲ ἀποδείξασθαι ὅτ]ι ἀνάγοι καθότι πέπαται mdashmdash αἰ δέ [κ]α microὴ ἀνάγηι ἐν τῶι χρόνω [ ι τῶι γεγραmicromicroένωι ὁ ἔχων]|[ἁ ἀναγωγὰ ἀτελὴς καὶ ἄκυρ]ος ἔστω 3013 On entrenched provisions regarding alliances and treaties see Schwartzberg M 2004315-318 322-323 31 On the (different) question of annulment of older decrees as a result of treaties of alliance or other positive relationships see Rubinstein L 2008 116

13 13

713

conflicting treaty with a third party32 One rare example of annulment is included in the isopoliteia agreement between Messene and Phigaleia (dating from 240 BC) where in case of non-abidance of the citizens of Phigaleia to the pre-existing agreements between Messene and the Aitolians the current agreement shall also be invalidated33

IPArk 28 (= IG V2 419)

[ὅσα δέ κα ἄλλ]α ὁmicroολογήσωmicroες ποτrsquo ἀλλάλως ὁmicroό- [σαι ἀνφοτέρ]ως καὶ στάλας καταθέσθαι ἐν τοῖς [ἱεροῖς ὁπεῖ κ]α δοκεῖ ἀνφοτέραις ταῖς πολέο- [ις εἰ δέ κα microὴ ἐν]microένωντι οἱ Φιαλέες ἐν τᾶι φιλ-

20 [ίαι τᾶι πὸτ τὼς Μ]εσανίως καὶ Αἰτωλώς ἄκυρος ἔ- [σστω ἅδε ἁ ὁmicroολο]γία

Invalidity of an organrsquos decisions and of city laws

An invalidity clause (although not using the word akyros) appears already in what is considered to be the earliest legal inscription from Greece the law of Dreros34 limiting the iteration of the office of the Kosmos All actions of the Kosmos taken under the illegal tenure will be annulled (microηδὲν ἤmicroην) and he will also be subject to a fine35 This invalidity of official acts seems to have had an immediate effect Invalidity thus aims early on to safeguard citizens from illegal decisions of public officials Later on the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) forbids any manipulation of the cityrsquos legislation (κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους) in a simulacrum of democracy The decisions obtained in this way even if the cityrsquos highest authorities and the boule are involved are declared a priori invalid and the person responsible for this shall be punished as the instigator of an oligarchy IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1

ἐάν τις ἐν ὀλι- γαρχίαι κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους vacat vacat βουλὴν αἱρῆται ἢ τὰς ἄλλας ἀρχάς ὡς ἐν δηmicroοκρατίαι θέλων διαπράσσεσθαι τ[ε]-

115 χνάζων ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ τὸν τεχνάζοντα πάσ- χειν ὡς ἡγεmicroόνα ὀλιγαρχίαςmiddot Disregarding the law

Laws if not properly applied where in fact rendered invalid as it is already maintained by Cleon in the debate over the Mytileneans36 Later the verb ἀκυρόω in connection to a law in the meaning of (not) to be disregarded is to be found in the Greek transcription of the lex romana de

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 32 Lys Περὶ τῆς δηmicroεύσεως τῶν τοῦ Νικίου ἀδελφοῦ ἐπίλογος 154 οὐκ οὖν αἰσχρόν εἰ ἃ microὲν Λακεδαιmicroονίοις συνέθεσθε βεβαιώσετε ἃ δὲ αὑτοῖς ἐψηφίσασθε οὕτω ῥᾳδίως διαλύσετε καὶ τὰς microὲν πρὸς ἐκείνους συνθήκας κυρίας ποιήσετε τὰς δὲ πρὸς αὑτοὺς ἀκύρους 33 In this instance ἄκυρος ἔστω holds the sense of nullification of the agreement operating ex nunc and concerns all contracting parties 34 Nomima I80 ἇδrsquo ἔϝαδε | πόλιmiddot | ἐπεί κα κοσmicroήσει | δέκα ϝετίον τὸν ἀ|ϝτὸν | microὴ κόσmicroεν | αἰ δὲ κοσmicroησιε | ὀ(π)ε δικακσιε | ἀϝτὸν ὀπῆλεν | διπλεῖ | κᾱϝτὸν ἄκρηστον | ἦmicroεν | ἆς δοοι | κὄτι κοσmicroησιε | microηδὲν ἤmicroην ὀmicroόται δὲ | κόσmicroος | κοἰ δάmicroιοι | κοἰ | ἴκατι | οἰ τᾶς πόλ[ιο]ς 35 Youni M 2010152-153 36 Th 337 πάντων δὲ δεινότατον εἰ βέβαιον ἡmicroῖν microηδὲν καθεστήξει ὧν ἂν δόξῃ πέρι microηδὲ γνωσόmicroεθα ὅτι χείροσι νόmicroοις ἀκινήτοις χρωmicroένη πόλις κρείσσων ἐστὶν ἢ καλῶς ἔχουσιν ἀκύροις On citations regarding the laws rendered valid (κυρίους) only if applied by the courts see Harris E M 2013 99 On the reasons proposed on why the Athenians did not repeal unenforced laws see Wallace RW 2012 117-123

13 13

813

piratis persequendis37 found in Delphi (ca 101-100 BC)38 ordering the Roman Governors of the Provinces of Macedonia and Asia to take measures against pirates and to insure the collection of public revenues

Conflicts of laws

Direct abolition of enactments referred to as νόmicroοι or θεσmicroοί are rare39 One such example is a law of Kyme (Aeol) dating from the third century BC regarding a serious crime and judgments rendered by the dikasopoi40 If any other law included any clause contrary to this one it is declared invalid41 This term did not aim at a particular statute but resolved the matter of potential conflicts of laws by stating the supremacy of this legal rule over any conflicting one

Nullification regarding decrees and petitions

Nullification of a cityrsquos decree42 could derive from a clause contained in a subsequent decree New legislation sometimes incorporated provisions that nullified previous or inconsistent statutes43 but most often this was done by giving instructions to physically remove the older stones44 The simplest method for having a cityrsquos decision de facto abolished being the destruction of the inscription preserving it in an honorary decree of Priene for Euandros Sabyllou from Larisa in Thessaly (ca 300290 BC)45

the invalidity clause not only strikes any proposition against the current decree but also guarantees the physical integrity of the stele containing it which had been just re-erected

In general in decrees akyron is used in the sense of an act46 not having the legal effects it would normally have47 It is not ldquonon-existentrdquo but no commitment or valid obligation can derive from

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 37 Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 33-47 38 FD III 437 C lines 15-16 ὑπεναντίον τούτῳ τῷ νόmicroῳ microή τις ποείτω ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ ὅσα τέ τινας κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον δεῖ ποεῖν ποεῖτε microήτε τις ποείτω ᾧ ο[ὗ]|[τ]ος ὁ νόmicroος κατὰ παρεύρεσιν ἀκυρωθῇ ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ microήτε τις ποείτω microήτε| ἐπικρινάτω ὧι ἔλασσον ὅσα δεῖ κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον γέν[η]ταιmiddot 39 On this matter see Rubinstein L 2008 115 40 The law allowed the person guilty of the crime to be declared atimos and killed by anyone 41 IK Kyme 11 lines 10-13 αἰ δ[ὲ (microὴ) mdash mdash mdash]| [ἄτιmicroος θνασ]κέτω κτεινέτω δὲ αὐτὸν ὁ θέλωνmiddot ὁ δὲ ἀ[ποκτείναις]| [εὐάγης ἔστω κ]αὶ καθαρόςmiddot αἰ δέ ποι ἐν νόmicroῳ τινὶ ἄλ[λο τι γράφηται]|[ἐνάντιον τῷ ν]όmicroῳ τούτῳ ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 42 Provided the decrees were not superseding the law Hyp Ath 322 καὶ ὁ microὲν Σόλων οὐδ᾽ ὃ δικαίως ἔγραφεν ψήφισmicroά τις τοῦ νόmicroου οἴεται δεῖν κυριώτερον εἶναι σὺ δὲ καὶ τὰς ἀδίκους συνθήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων τῶν νόmicroων Such a law was in fact passed under the archonship of Euclides in 403|2 MacDowell 1962 128 43 In Athens the decree of Isotimides which barred anyone who had confessed to an act of impiety from entering the temples and the agora cancelled a former decree guaranteeing indemnity for disclosures This decree was at the origin of Andocidersquos conviction and exile from Athens When the Amnesty of 403 BC finally allowed Andocides to return home and in 400 he was put on trial for violating the Isotimides decree he won an acquittal with his defense speech On the Mysteries proving that the latter decree had been annulled And 18 ἢ περὶ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος τοῦ Ἰσοτιmicroίδου ὡς ἄκυρόν ἐστιν 44 On examples see Sickinger J P 2008103 n 21 22 45 Priene 46 lines 7-10 [ἐὰν δέ τις περὶ τ]ού[το]υ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἢ τῆς στή|[λης τῆς νῦν ἀ]πο[κα]θισταmicroένης ἢ| ἄρχων προτιθῆι|[ἢ ἰδιώτης συ]γ[κα]ταλύειν βουλόmicroενος τὴν δωρε|[ὰν τοῦ δή]microου ἄ[κ]υρα ἔστω middot 46 Invalidity concerned actions A judicial verdict could allthough indirectly annul a previous refusal to act as it illustrated in the speech by Lys 919 microήτε τοὺς βέλτιον καὶ δικαίως βουλευσαmicroένους ἀκύρους καταστήσητε The speaker (Polyaeunus) had been fined by the generals for slander a fine which was subsequently reported to the treasurers to collect as unpaid debt the latter refusing to do so on the grounds (if we are to believe the speaker) that it had been irregularly and maliciously imposed The speaker is asking the jury not to invalidate the decision of those who have acted on a better and on a just consideration 47 This is also the meaning of akyron used by Aristotle when he explains the supremacy of men over women children and slaves in order to define the invalidity of the womenrsquos willpower Arist Pol 1260a ἄλλον γὰρ

13 13

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such an act for being opposite to a prior interdiction and its effects can be immediately revoked without further decision In one occasion invalidity strikes a simple petition leading to the dedication of a statue in a public space in a decree concerning the temenos of Asklepeios in Rhodes (datation unknown) it is forbidden to anyone to submit a petition to erect a statue or other dedication at a certain area of the temenos in order not to obstruct the walks and policemen are instructed to remove to another place any dedication erected in spite of the interdiction48 Sometimes a specific action or proposal that may diminish the impact of a donorrsquos benefaction may also be declared ldquoinvalidrdquo In a dedication inscription from Cos (dated from the end of the first or beginning of the second century AD) a donator prescribes that no other statue may be erected on the same platform and that any attempt to contravene this shall be immediately null and void49

Entrenchment clauses

The most frequent occurrence of the ἄκυρον term in decrees concerns entrenchment clauses provisions that make decisions unamendable50 which as Rubinstein51 has correctly noted can be read as ldquoa guarantee issued to a particular individual group of individuals or to another communityrdquo regarding decisions that directly affect them52 Invalidity may be guaranteeing that a particular right bestowed upon a group of individuals would not be revoked In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe already mentioned an invalidity clause strikes any proposition by an archon or a rhetor introducing a contestation of the land given to the Nagidians53 In Thasos of early imperial times the same clause guarantees measures regarding the donation of lands and their subsequent possession by their owners54

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τρόπον τὸ ἐλεύθερον τοῦ δούλου ἄρχει καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν τοῦ θήλεος καὶ ἀνὴρ παιδός καὶ πᾶσιν ἐνυπάρχει microὲν τὰ microόρια τῆς ψυχῆς ἀλλrsquo ἐνυπάρχει διαφερόντως ὁ microὲν γὰρ δοῦλος ὅλως οὐκ ἔχει τὸ βουλευτικόν τὸ δὲ θῆλυ ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἄκυρον ὁ δὲ παῖς ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἀτελές 48 Suppl Epig Rodio 1 lines 10-22 microὴ ἐξέστω microηθενὶ αἰτήσασ|[θαι ἀνά]θεσιν ἀνδριάντος microηδὲ ἄλλου| [ἀναθ]ήmicroατος microηδενὸς ἐς τὸ κάτω microέρος| [τοῦ τ]εmicroένευς ἀπό τε τοῦ προπύλου| [ἐπrsquo ε]ὐθείας ἔστε ποτὶ τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα| [ὧ]ν ἐντι ταὶ αἰτήσιες πρότερον γεγενη|[micro]έναι ἢ ἐς ἄλλον τινα τόπον ἐν ὧι στα|θέντα τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα κωλύσει τοὺς περι|πάτουςmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἐν τούτωι τῶι τόπωι| αἰτήσηται ἀνάθεσιν ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐτ|[ῶ ] ι ἁ αἴτησις καὶ τοὶ ἀστυνόmicroοι εἴ κά τις| [ἀνα]θῆι microεθελόντω τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα ἐς ἄλ|[λον τ]όπονmiddot 49 Iscr di Cos ED 257 frg bcd1 lines 3-30 [κ]αὶ microηδενὶ ἄλλ[ῳ ἐ]ξῆ|microεν microήτε ἰδιώ[τᾳ micro]ήτε ἄρ|χοντι microήτε γυmicro[να]σιάρχῳ| ἢ ἐπιmicroελητᾷ τᾶς [γε]ρουσί|ας καθόλου microήτε εἰκόνα| microήτε ἄγαλmicroα microήτε ἀνδρι|άντα ἀναθέmicroεν ἐν ταύ|τᾳ τᾷ ἐξέδρᾳ τρόπῳ microηδε|νὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσι microηδε|micro ιᾷ microήτε τινὰ γνώmicroαν ἀ|γορεῦσαι περὶ τοῦ τειmicroαὶ| ἄλλου τινὸς ἀνασταθῆ|microεν ἢ ἀνατεθῆmicroεν ἐν αὐτᾶι | αἰ δέ κά τίς ποτε ἐπ[ι]χιρήσῃ ἢ εἰπεῖν ἢ γνώmicroαν ε[ἰ]σαγῆσ|θαι ἢ ἄλλως τι παρὰ τ[αῦ]τα πρ[ᾶ]|ξαι θελήσῃ τὸ microὲν ἐ[πιχ]ειρ ι[σ]|θὲν ἢ καὶ πιρασθὲν [ῥηθῆναι]|ἢ πραχθῆναι παραχρῆ[microα ἄκυ]|ρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστ[ω καὶ microη]|δὲν ἦσσον τὰ διατε[ταγmicroένα]|ὑπrsquo ἐmicroοῦ κύρια καὶ ἀmicro[ετακίνη]|τα ὑπαρχέτω καὶ ὁ [αἴτιος εἴ]|τε ἰδιώτας εἴτε ἄρ[χων εἴτε]|γυmicroνασίαρχος ἢ [ἐπιmicroε]|λητὰς εἴη τᾶς γ[ερουσίας ἀ]|ποτισάτω πα[ραχρῆmicroα δη]|νάρια χίλια 50 On entrenchment clauses in Athens see Schwartzberg M 2004 311-25 who maintains that the Athenians used entrenchment in highly restrictive contexts in certain financial decrees and in alliances and treaties exclusively for narrow strategic purposes in both the international and the domestic contexts and did not extend them to laws regulating the democracy 51 See Rubinstein L 2008117-118 identifying and categorizing a total of 80 examples of entrenchment clauses 52 IC II v 35 53 SEG 391426 lines 39- 45 microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ microηκέτι |[Ν]αγιδεῦσι παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶι περὶ τῆς χώρας τῆς δοθείσης| [α]ὐτοῖς κατὰ ψήφισmicroα τοῦτο ἀmicroφισβητῆσαι ἐὰν δέ τις ἄρχων προθῆι| [τι] δόγmicroα τltοιgtοῦτο ἢ ῥῆτωρ εἴπηι ὁ microὲν ἄρχων ἀποτεισάτω δραχmicroὰς microυρίας |[ἱερ]ὰς Ἀρσινόηι ἀπαραιτήτους ὁ δὲ ῥήτωρ δραχmicroὰς χιλίας καὶ ἡ γνώmicroη αὐ|[τῶ ]ν ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 54 IG XII Suppl 364 lines 7- 20 τὴν δὲ τῶν [ἀγρῶν κτῆσιν διατη]|ρεῖν ἀθάνατον ἡmicroᾶς καὶ microήτε [καταθεῖναί ποτε τοὺς]| ἀγροὺς ἡmicroᾶς microήτε ἀποδόσθαι [microηδενὶ microήτε συνόλους]| microήτε microέρη microήτε περι[ιδ]εῖν ἀπ[αλλοτριωθέντας αὐτοὺς]| κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τ[ις τῶν Θασίων περί τι]|νος τούτων ἢ γράψῃ ἢ ἐπιψ[ηφίσῃ ἢ ἀναγράψῃ εἰς τὸ]| τής πόλεως γραmicromicroατοφυλα[κεῖον τὴν γνώmicroην τὰ γραφέντα]| καὶ τὰ ψηφισθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι [καὶ ἀκρατῆ τὸν δὲ ἢ]| γράψαντα ἢ ἐπιψηφίσαντα ἢ ἀναγ[ράψαντα τὴν γνώ]|microην εἰς τὸ τῆς πόλεως | γραmicromicroατοφ[υλακεῖον ὀφεί]|λειν τοῖς τῶν Σεβαστῶν ναοῖς στατῆ[ρας

13 13

1013

When a future decree proposition (γνώmicroη) is declared invalid this invalidates in fact the whole decree voting procedure55 Detailed terms in entrenchment clauses56 often mention both private persons (ἰδιώτης) and city officials (ἄρχοντες ῥήτορες ἐπιmicroήνιοι) that may be involved the organs before which such propositions may take place (ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω) as well as all the steps leading to the adoption of new decisions (εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι) oraly or in writing (ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι) sometimes adding for the sake of exhaustivity the annulment of decisions ldquoin any other possible wayrdquo (τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν) The legislation process being an expression of the sovereignty of the demos the invalidity clause acts as a kind of limitation for future times of the operation of the majority principle57 in order to secure that no valid decision shall be reached in the future regulating the same matter in a different way Examples of rules that include a detailed enumeration of all possible ways of obtaining amendments declared a priori invalid include the law of Teos regulating the salaries of instructors for the youth58 and a decree of Chios forbidding the use of funds for other purposes than the ones prescribed

Chios 27 11 [mdash]ΙΑ καὶ micro[ὴ] ἐξεῖν[αι τ]οῖς [χρήmicroασι]

[τοῖς συναγ]οmicroένοις ἐκ τῆς [ὑ]ποσχέσεω[ς] [εἰς ἄλλο κ]αταχρῆσθαι microη[δ]ὲν ἢ εἰς τὰ [διατεταγ]micro ένα κατὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα

5 [ἐὰν δέ τις γ]ράψηι ἢ πρύτανις προ[θ]ῆι [ταῦτα εἰς ἄλ]λο τι microετενεγκεῖν ἢ κατα- [χρήσασθαι] ἢ ποιήσηι τίς τι παρὰ τόδε τὸ [ψήφισmicroα τό] τε γραφὲν ἢ πραχθὲν ἄκυρον [ἔστω καὶ ὀφε]ιλέτω τῆι πόλει δραχmicroὰς ΧΧΧ

10 [ὁ τούτων αἴτιο]ς καὶ ἔστω πρὸς τοῦτο [ὑποδικὸς κ]αθάπερ καὶ οἱ ἐξ ὠνῆς ὀφεί- [λοντες χρήmicro]ατα τῆι πόλειmiddot

In entrenchment clauses invalidity is either explicit or may be implied if (only) penalties or curses are directed against anyone who tries to annul the current provisions59 In order to invest an entrenchment clause with effectiveness invalidity apparently not being considered always sufficient in order to deter citizens from introducing changes in the future the provision of penalties60 added a financial risk to the challenge Combined sanctions (invalidity plus fine) are included in sacred laws61 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τετρα]|[κ]ισmicroυρίους καὶ ἄτιmicroον εἶναι καὶ αὐτὸν κ[αὶ γένος]middot [ἐνέχ]εσθαι δὲ αὐτοὺς καὶ τῆι εἰς τοὺς Σε[βαστοὺς ἀσε]|[βείαιmiddot 55 Cf the use of ἄκυρον in the Athenaion Politeia on the lack of sovereignety of the Boule to decide by itself Arist AthPol 454 τούτων microὲν οὖν ἄκυρός ἐστιν ἡ βουλήmiddot προβουλεύει δrsquoεἰς τὸν δῆmicroον καὶ οὐκ ἔξεστιν οὐδὲν ἀπροβούλευτον οὐδrsquo ὅ τι ἂν microὴ προγράψωσιν οἱ πρυτάνεις ψηφίσασθαι τῷ δήmicroῳ κατrsquo αὐτὰ γὰρ ταῦτα ἔνοχός ἐστιν ὁ νικήσας γραφῇ παρανόmicroων 5613 On entrenchment clauses and different measures aiming to preserve important resources and to guarantee compliance with relevant rules in late Hellenistic and imperial times see Harter-Uibopuu K 2013 (forthcoming)13 57 The interdiction and nullity clause for future decree propositions may have constituted in Athens grounds for a graphe paranomon 58 Teos 41 lines 40-46 ἢν δὲ οἱ ἐνεστηκότες ταmicroίαι ἢ οἱ ἑκάστοτε γινόmicroενοι| microὴ παραδῶσιν τὸ ἀργύριον τοῦτο κατὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα v3 ἢ ἄλλος τις ἄρχων| ἢ ἰδιώτης εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι ἐναντίον τού| τωι ἢ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον ἄρηι τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν ὡς δεῖ τὸ ἀργύρι| ον κινηθῆναι ἢ microὴ ἀναλίσκεσθαι ἀπrsquo αὐτοῦ εἰς ἃ ὁ νόmicroος συντάσσει ἢ ἄλλ[ηι που]| καταχωρισθῆναι καὶ microὴ εἰς ἃ ἐν τῶιδε τῶι νόmicroωι διατέτακται τά τε πραχθέν|τα ἄκυρα ἔστω 59 On examples of such inscriptions see Sickinger J P 2008 104 n 24 25 60 See Rubinstein L 2012329-354 61 IK Kalchedon 10 lines 10-13 [ὃς δέ] κα εἴπῃ ἢ προαισιmicroνάσηι ἢ ἐν [β]ουλᾶι ἢ ἐν δάmicroωι ὀ|[φειλέτω] δραχmicroὰς Μ ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἡρακλεῖος καὶ τὰ| [προαισ]ιmicroναθέντα ἢ ῥηθέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

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from the Asklepieion of Kos (dated from the end of the first century BC) concerning the sale of the priesthoods of Aphrodite Pandamos and Pontia62 and of Asklepios63 invalidating any decree proposing a different use of the thesauros of the sanctuary The penalties are not linked to any concrete damage (βλάβη) that may be incurred by any party64 to any demand of restitution to any unjust enrichment or transfer of property but rely upon the (implied) public interest and the collective (moral) damage of the community or of the sanctuary in case the current regulations are changed65 The combination of legal invalidity to penalties introduce thus avant la lettre the concept of the Roman lex perfecta to Greek law as laws including both a sanction and the nullity of anything contrary to a particular clause of the law as well as the interdiction of future amendments of the statute The earliest occurrences date from the early fourth century BC in an honorary decree from Athens for Sthorys the Thasian (dated 3943) where invalidity combined with penalties is threatened against anyone ldquonullifyingrdquo these honors66 Regarding the penalties combined with invalidity in some decrees concerning matters of particular importance for the city the collection procedure of the fines was also defined ad hoc as in a fourth century BC citizenship decree from Thasos67 in a decree of Miletus68 (2054 BC) instituting a public eisphora for the citizens in order to cover public deficit69 The penalties associated to the invalidity clause may also be escalating by analogy to the importance of the matter regulated or of the person honored by the decree A decree by the Nasiotai bestowing honors to Thersippos (ca 315 BC) for his benefactions in connection to Alexanderrsquos campaigns invalidates all future amendments in combination to severe penalties such as fines threats of atimia and treason charges for acting against the democracy plus a curse against anyone proposing their abolition70

Invalidity clauses may also be included in decisions issued by private associations forbidding that any of the honors bestowed upon their benefactors may be postponed or cancelled71 and this as it

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 62 SEG 50766 back face1 lines 20-24 τὸ δὲ χρῆmicroα τοῦ|το ὑπαρχέτω ἐς κατασκευάσmicroατα ἅ κα δόξῃ τᾶι ἐκλησίαι καὶ ἐς ἐπισ|κευὰν τοῦ ἱεροῦmiddot αἰ δέ κά τις ψαφίξηται ὥστε ἐς ἄλλο τι καταχρη[σ]θῆmicroεν| τὰ ἐκ τῶν θησαυρῶν ἢ προστάτας προθῆι ἀποτισάτω τῶν αἰτίων ἕκασ|τος δραχmicroὰς χειλίας ἱερὰς τᾶς Ἀφροδίτας καὶ ἁ γνώmicroα ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 63 SEG 511066 frg ab lines 31-35 microὴ ἐξέστωι δὲ microήτε]|ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδιώιται [microηδενὶ ἐς ἄλλο καταχρήσασθαι τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ χρήmicroατα]| ἢ microετάγεν τὰς ἀπrsquo αὐτῶ[ιν ποθόδους mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αὐτῶι ἔστωι περὶ πᾶν ὅτι [κα γράψηι ἢ ἐπιψαφίξηι καὶ ἀποτινέτωι (δραχmicroὰς) mdashʹ]| καὶ ἁ γνώιmicroαι ἄκυρος ἤτ[ω 64 On blabe initially limited in cases of damages included in the law see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993191 65 On the notion ἀδικεῖν τὴν πόλιν see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 199391-94 66 IG IIsup2 17 lines 31-33 ἐὰν δέ τις τα[ῦτ]α ἄκυρ[α ποῆι ὀφελέ]|τω χιλίας [δ]ραχmicroὰς ἱερ[ὰς τῆ]ι Ἀθηνα[ίαι καὶ τῶι Ἀπό]|λλωνι τῶ[ι] Πυθίωι ἑτέρα[ς] 67 IG XII 8 267 lines 11-16 microὴ [ἐξεῖ]|ναι δὲ ὑπὲρ τούτων microηδενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτrsquo ἐπε[λθεῖ]ν ὑπὲρ λύσιος microήτrsquo ἐπιψηφίσαι ἀκρατέα εἶνα[ι ταῦ]|τα τὰ ἐψηφισmicroένα ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ ταῦτα εἴπηι ἢ ἐπέλθηι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι τά τε δόξαντα ἄκυρα ἔστω κα[ὶ χι]|λίους στατῆρας ὀφειλέτω ἱεροὺς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίωι χιλίους δὲ τῆι πόλει δικασάσθων δὲ ο[ἱ ἀπό]|λογοιmiddot ἂν δὲ microὴ δικάσωνται αὐτοὶ ὀφειλόντων δικασάσθων δὲ ἀπόλογοι οἱ microετὰ τούτους αἱρεθέντε[ς]middot|δικασάσθω δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὁ ἐθέλων καὶ ἂν ὁ ἰδιώτης νικήσηι microετεῖναι αὐτῶι τὸ ἥmicroυσυ τὴς καταδί[κης] On this inscription see Fournier J 2012 360-361 Cf also the invalidity clause in IG XII8 264 from Thassos (beginning 4th century BC) 68 See Migeotte L 1984 no97 69 Miletos 41 Lines 24- 29 ἐὰν δέ τις εἴπηι| ἢ προθῇ ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι τά τε γραφθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ ὀφείλειν ἕκαστον τῶν αἰτίων| στατῆρας χιλίους καὶ εἶναι ἄτιmicroον ἕως ἂν ἐκτείσηι καὶ microηθὲν ἧσ|σον ἐξαιρεῖσθαι τὸ τεταγmicroένον ὑπὸ τῶν microετὰ ταῦτα γινοmicroένων| ἀνατακτῶν 70 IG XII2 645 b1 lines 32-58 κα|[ὶ microὴ ἔ]micromicroεναι [π]|[ὰρ τ]αῦτα microήτε| [ἄ]ρχοντι προθ|[έ]microεναι microήτε ῥ|[ή]τορι εἶπαι micro|[ή]τε ἐπιmicroηνί[ω]| [ἐ]σένικαιmiddot αἰ δ|[έ] κέ τις ἢ ῥήτω|[ρ] εἴπη ἢ ἄρχων| [ἐσ]αγάγη [ἢ]| [ἐπ]ιmicroήνιος ἐσ[εν]ίκη ἄκυρά τ|[ε] ἔστω καὶ ὀφε|[λ]λέτω ἔκαστο|[ς] στάτηρας τρ|[ ια]κοσίοις ἴρ|[οι]ς τῶ Ἀσκλαπ|[ίω] καὶ ἐπάρατ|[ος] ἔστω καὶ ἄτι|[microος] καὶ γένος| [ε]ἰς τὸν πάντα| [χρ]όνον καὶ ἐν| ἔστω τῶ νόmicro|[ω π]ερὶ τῶ καλλ|[ύο]ντος τὸν δᾶ|[microον] 71 Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros IG XII1 155 face

13 13

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is stated in one decree in view of the importance of making an example of the benefaction72 Invalidity in entrenchment clauses in relation to endowments is aiming to prevent any different use of the funds or of the property donated by the benefactor73 as in the testament of Epicteta (dated around 210-195 BC)74 It also guarantees that no alteration of the exact terms of use of the donation75 will take place and nullifies any transaction that may jeopardize the capital donated76 The invalidity clause striking future different decree propositions was aiming to preserve the benefactorrsquos instructions and will (κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν) as it is clearly stated in an honorary decree from Eretria (ca 100 BC)77

The practice of sanctioning entrenchment clauses with invalidity reinforced by fines continued into Roman times Invalidity of future decrees or deliberations was sometimes mentioned as having

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 III85 lines 95-100 τ[ὸ]| δὲ ψάφισmicroα τόδ[ε κ]ύριον ἔστω εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρό|νον καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδι|ώται microήτε κινεῖν microήτε γνώmicroαν γράψασθαι|microήτε τοῖς ἄρχουσι προτιθέmicroειν ὡς δεῖ τὰς δ[ε]|δοmicroένας τιmicroὰς Διονυσοδώρωι ἀκύρους εἴmicro|microειν middot ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἀποτεισάτω τὸ γε|γραmicromicroένον ἐπιτίmicroιον δραχmicroὰς ἑκατόν καὶ ἁ γνώmicro[α]|[α]ὐτοῦ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἔνοχος ἔστω τῶι νό|microωι τῶι ἀκινήτωι 72 Honorary decree (dated after 1532 BC found in Delos) of the koinon of the Βηρυτίων Ποσ[ειδω|νιαστῶν ἐmicroπόρω]ν καὶ ναυκλήρων [καὶ ἐ]γδοχέων for their Roman benefactor the banker Marcus Minatius Sextus ID 1520 lines 57-61 ὅπως ἂν ἀΐδιοι διαmicroένωσι τοῖς εὐεργέταις αἱ δοθεῖσαι τι|[micro]αί microηθενὶ ἐξέστωι microήτε ἰδιώτηι microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτ[ε]| [γ]ράψαι ὡς δεῖ τῶν δεδοmicroένων τιmicroῶν microεταθεῖναι ἢ ἀφελεῖν ἢ ἀκυρ[όν]| [τ] ι ποιῆσαι παρὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ εἴπας ἢ ὁ ἀναγνοὺς| [ἢ] ὁ προθεὶς ἢ ὁ ἐπιχειροτονήσας ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἐξώλης εἴη| [α]ὐτὸς καὶ τὰ τέ[κν]α αὐτοῦ τοῖς δὲ ταῦτα ἐπιτηροῦσι εἴη καὶ βίου καὶ| τέκνων καὶ ὑπαρχόντων ὄνησις καὶ εἴη αὐτοῖς σώιζεσθαι καὶ κατ[ὰ]| [γ]ῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν καὶ ὁ παρὰ ταῦτα ποιήσας ἀποτινέτω| δραχmicroὰς στεφανηφόρους ἑξακισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ποσειδῶ|νος καὶ ὑπόδικος ἔστω τῶι ἀδικουmicroένωιmiddot 73 A decree from Eresos in Lesbos (dating from the middle of the third century BC) regarding the donation by Agemortos of some source of income to be used for sacrifices forbids and invalidates any encumberance or any other use of the income and any such proposition before the council or the assembly IG ΧΙΙ2 529 lines 3- 9 microηδὲ ὐποθέ|[microεναι microηδrsquo ἐγγύ]ασθαι microήδενι microηδὲ ὐπό|θεσθα[ι] microηδrsquo εἴπην ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω microήδενα ὡς δεῖ περιβάλεσθαι| τὰν θυσίαν microηδὲ τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς ἄλλο| κατάταξαι microῆδενmiddot αἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρα ἔmicromicroεναι| τὰ πράχθεντα middot 74 In the inscription recording the legacy she left to her daughter Epiteleia Epicteta was founding a sanctuary to the Muses and her own deceased ancestors and providing for the establishment of an association dedicated to the worship of the Muses her will including an invalidity clause for future amendments by third parties IG XII 3 330 B1 lines 263-267 middot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἢ εἴπει ἢ γράψει | τό τε ῥηθὲν ἢ γραφὲν ἄκυρον ἔστω καὶ ὁ| εἴπας ἢ γράψας στερέσθω τοῦ κοινοῦ καὶ ὁ|φειλ[έ]τω αὐτῶι δραχmicroὰς πεντακοσίας| καὶ πρακτὸς ἔστω καὶ ἀπὸ ἐνεχυρασίας| κατὰ τὸς νόmicroος ὑπὸ τοῦ χρῄζοντος τῶν| συγγενῶν 75 Decree of Didyma establishing annual distribution of food on the occasion of the birthday of Eumenes II (dated 1598 BC) Didyma 13 lines 41-49 microὴ εἶναι microη|θενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτε ἀναγνῶναι microήτε προθεῖ|ναι microήτε προγράψαι microήτε ἐπιψηφίσαι ὡς δεῖ microε|τατεθῆναι τὰ χρήmicroατα εἰς ἄλλο τι καὶ microὴ ὑπάρχει[ν]|εἰς τὰ ἐν τῶι ψηφίσmicro[ατι] κατακεχωρισmicroένα ἐὰν δ[έ]|τις παρὰ ταῦτα π[ράξηι] τρόπωι ltὁτωιgtοῦν τό τε γρ[α]|φὲν ἄκυρον ἔσ[τω ὁ δὲ π]ράξας τι τῶν ἀπειρη|microένων [ἀποτεισάτω στατῆρας] δισχιλίους ἱεροὺς|το[ῦ Ἀπόλλωνος τοῦ Διδυmicro]έωςmiddot 76 The decree of Delphi of 16059 BC regulating the usage of a donation by king Attalos of an important amount of money to the city to be used for the childrenrsquos education and for sacrifices invalidates and punishes by fine any proposition or decision for a different use than the one prescribed by the decree Syllsup3 672 lines 15-19 εἰ δέ τις τούτων τι ποιή|σαι ἢ ἄρχων ἢ ἰδιώτας κατάmicroαστρος ἔστω ἱερῶν χρηmicroάτων φω|ρᾶς καὶ οἱ microαστροὶ καταγραφόντω κατrsquo αὐτοῦ κατὰ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ ἄλ|λως microετενεγχθὲν ἀργύριον ὀκταπλοῦν καὶ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ διαινε|θὲν ἄκυρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστω 77 IG XII9 236 lines 51-61 ὅπως δὲ microένῃ τὸ ἀνακείmicroενον ἀσφα|λῶς κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν καὶ εἰς ἄλλο| microηθὲν ἦι καταχρήσασθαι microηθενὶ ἐξουσίαν εἶναι ἀπὸ| τούτου τοῦ διαφόρου microηδὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ πίπτοντος ἀπrsquo|αὐτοῦ τόκου microήτε καταχρήσασθαι εἰς ἄλλο microηθὲν| microήτε ἐπιψηφίσασθαι microήτε ἐπερωτῆσαιmiddot εἰ δὲ microή ὅ τε γρά|ψας ἢ ἐπερωτήσας | ὀφειλέτω ἱερὰς τῆς Ἀρτέmicroιδος|δραχmicroὰς ἑξακισmicroυρίας καὶ ἔστω ἀπαγωγὴ κατrsquo αὐ|τοῦ τῷ βουλοmicroένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ τρίτῳ microέρει πρὸς τοὺς| ἄρχοντας καὶ τὰ γραφέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

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immediate effect78 The expression οὐδὲν ἔλασσον (no less) preceding in some decrees the invalidity clause shows it was considered the last but not least necessary complement of entrenchment clauses79 In view of the change of political settings invalidity is now sometimes aiming the archonsrsquos orders or the cityrsquos ekdikos propositions (or anybody elsersquos) and the fines are collected by the Roman fiscus80 In a decree from Miletus concerning the cityrsquos and the imperial cults any different use of the funds and any act contravening the purpose secured by this statute (τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]) would be invalid and the archon introducing such a proposition would be guilty of impiety against the gods and guilty ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης of the payment of a fine81 Three documents from Ephesus dating from AD 104 show how invalidity had become a standard term aiming to secure the proper execution of the will of the benefactor which was ratified both by the Roman officialrsquos and by the cityrsquos decisions The invalidity clause of future amendments is first mentioned in the letter of Caius Vibius Salutaris offering several benefactions to the boule and demos of Ephesus in form of a legal document82 second the proconsul Gaius Aquillius Proculus in his letter to the archontes boule and demos of Ephesus approves the benefaction of Gaius Vibius Salutaris and ratifies the invalidity

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 78 SE 241 frg hcol 21 lines 7-8 [mdash]ασmicroένων καὶ τὰς ltσgtυνεγmicroεmicroισθωmicroένας αὐτοῖς προσόδους ἀνεξαλλ[άκτας mdash]| [mdash] ψηφισθὲν χρηmicroατισθὲν ἔστω παραχρῆmicroα ἄκυρον κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ποιησαmicro[ένου mdash] 79 In one instance in a decree of Mytilene instituting celebrations in the context of the emperial cult the city threatens with invalidity all actions or propositions of private citizens or magistrates contravening the celebrations and relevant procedures these being considered synonymous with the safeguard of the citys liberty and democracy and sympoliteia since the city had recently seen its status as an ally of Rome confirmed by Augustus IG XII2 59 lines 6-12 ἢ οἰ ἐξ αὔτων γράψωσι ἢ συν[κλήτω δόγmicroα mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αἰ δέ κέ τις ἢ ἰδίωτας ἢ ἄρχων παρ[άβαις τι τῶν ἐν mdash mdash mdash γεγραmicromicroέ]|[νω]ν καὶ ἐν τῶ ψαφίσmicroατι τούτω microὴ πέmicroψη [mdash mdash mdash mdash καττὸν ἐψαφίσθη]| τρόπον ἢ microὴ φυλάξη τὰν τάξιν τᾶς ἀναγράφα[ς mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἄκυ]|ρον ἔστω καὶ ὐπεύθυνος ἔστω ὁ παράβαις [mdash mdash mdash ὠς καταλύων ταὶς τῶν]| Σεβάστων καὶ τῶ οἴκω αὔτων τείmicroαις καὶ ἀναίρεις [mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἐλευ]|θερίας καὶ δαmicroοκρατίας καὶ συmicroπολειτίας 80 In an honorary decree of the boule and demos for Gaius Caninius Synallasson found at Iasos regulating the foundation he established for the gymnasium of the neoi (ca 117-138 AD) Iasos 21 lines 54-67 ἐφrsquo ᾧ οὐ|δενὶ ἐξέσται ἄρχοντι οὐδὲ ἑτέρῳ οὐδενὶ microε|ταδιατάξαι ἕτερόν τι περὶ τούτων τῶν πεντα|κισχειλίων δηναρίων ἢ τῆς προσόδου αὐτῶν| ἐκτὸς ἐὰν microὴ χωρίων ἀγορασθησοmicroένων τοῖς| νέοις δεήσῃ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς τὴν τει|microὴν τῶν ἀγορασθησοmicroένων ἀγρῶν χωρῆσαι| ἐφrsquo ᾧ καὶ οὕτως microενεῖ ἡ πρόσοδος αἰεὶ εἰς τὸ ἄλιmicroα| τῶν νέων καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot ἐπεὶ ὁ ὑπεναντί|ον τούτοις ποιήσας τι ἀποδώσει εἰς τὸν τοῦ κυ|ρίου Καίσαρος φίσκον δηνάρια πεντακισχείλια| καὶ οὐδὲν ἔλασσον ἔσται τὸ microεταδιαταγὲν ἄκυρον| καὶ microενεῖ τὰ πεντακισχείλια δηνάρια καὶ ἡ πρόσοδος| αὐτῶν τοῖς νέοις καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot 81 Miletos 15 lines 18-33 microηδενὶ δὲ ἐξεῖναι microήτε| ἄρχοντι microήτε ἑτέρῳ τινὶ microεταγαγεῖν εἰς| ἀργυρικὸν πόρον τὰς λειτουργίας ταύτα[ς]| τρόπῳ microηδενὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσει microηδεmicro[ι]|ᾷmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις ὑπεναντίον τι πράξῃ τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]| τὸ microὲν γενόmicroενον ᾥτινιοῦν τρόπῳ ὑ|πάρχειν ἄκυρον τὸν δὲ ψηφισάmicroενον ἄρ|χοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον ὑπάρχειν τῶν προ|γεγραmicromicroένων θεῶν καὶ ὀφείλειν αὐτὸν| ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης στατῆρας φʹ ἱερούς| καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον τὸν microὴ ἐπιτελέσαντα| προφήτην τοὺς κόσmicroους ἢ τὸν microὴ ποή|σαντα στεφανηφόρον τοὺς microολποὺς εἰσ|πράσσεσθαι ἐπάναγκες τὰς προδεδηλωmicroέ|νας εὐωχίαςmiddot 82 Ephesos 212 lines 315- 325 microηδὲν δὲ ἐξέστω ἄρχοντι ἢ ἐκδίκῳ ἢ ἰδιώ|τῃ πεσαί τι ἀλλάξαι ἢ microεταθεῖναι ἢ microετοικονοmicroῆσαι ἢ microετα|ψηφίασθα τῶν καθιερωmicroένων ἀπεικονισmicroάτων ἢ τοῦ| ἀργυρίου ἢ τῆς ροσόδου αὐτοῦ ἢ microεταθεῖναι εἰς ἕτερον πόρον| ἢ ἀνάωmicroα ἢ ἄλο τι ποῆσαι παρὰ τὰ προγεγραmicromicroένα καὶ δια|τετmicroένα ἐπεὶ τὸ γενόmicroενον παρὰ ταῦτα ἔστω ἄκυρον middot| ὁ δὲ περάσας ποιῆσαί τι ὑπεναντίον τῇ διατάξει ἢ τοῖς| ὑπὸ τς βουῆς καὶ τοῦ δήmicroου ἐψηφισmicroένοις καὶ ἐπικεκυ|ρωmicroέν ταύτης τῆς διατάξεως ἀποτεισάτω εἰς| προσκῆς microεης θεᾶς Ἀρτέmicroιδος δη(νάρια) δισmicroύρια| εταβαστοῦ φίσκον ἄλλα δη(νάρια) βʹ Μ ͵ε

13 13

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clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

13 13

1513

60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

613

Legal prescription

Ἄκυρον ἔστω in international treaties sometimes refers to a limitation of the right to bring suit27 and to the legal prescription of such right which may be either absolute or occur after a set period of time In the treaty of sympoliteia between Smyrna and Magnesia Sip (dated around 245-243 BC) the citizens of both of cities would give an oath to abide by the treaty terms The parties seal their peace by also declaring invalid any accusation among their citizens regarding war crimes28 In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe (included in a letter of Thraseas to this city dated after 238 BC) all trials among citizens of both cities must take place within the year following the crime a period after the lapse of which they are declared invalid

SEG 391426 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ὅσα δrsquo ἂν ἀδικῆmicroατα ἴδια γένηται ἑκάστοις ἐὰν microὲν ὁ [Ἀρσιν]οεὺς ἐν Ναγίδωι τινὰ ἀδικήσηι ἢ ἀδικηθῆι λαmicroβανέτω τὸ δίκαιον καὶ [διδότ]ω κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους τοὺς Ναγιδέων ἐὰν δὲ ὁ Ναγιδεὺς ἐν Ἀρσινόηι [τινὰ] ἀδικήσηι ἢ ἀδικηθῆι λαmicroβανέτω τὸ δίκαιον καὶ διδότω κατὰ τοὺς [νόmicroου]ς τοὺς Ἀρσινοέων ἔστω δὲ αὐτοῖς πάντων τῶν ἀδικηmicroάτων

50 [ἐξ οὗ ἂ]ν χρόνου γένηται τὸ ἀδίκηmicroα προθεσmicroία ἐνιαυτός ἐὰν δέ τις [διελθ]όντος τοῦ χρόνου γράψηται δίκην ἢ ἐγκαλέσηι ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐ- [τῶι ἡ δίκη] middot Equal to legal prescription is also the sense of ἄκυρον in the treaty between Delphi and Pellana

where (according to the proposed reconstitution of the missing lines) the right of reference of a claimant to a third party (anagoge) is invalid if not exercised within the time limit set by the treaty29

2 Legal statutes and invalidity clauses The second broad category of ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions concerns legal statutes in the form

of international treaties laws decrees and decree propositions International treaties

In general international treaties remained valid as long as they were respected by all parties involved in spite of the usual clauses aiming to secure the parties abidance to their terms forever30 Their annulment was rarely decided in legal terms31 but came as a consequence either of the lack of commitment of the contracting parties or of their straightforward violation or by concluding a new or

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 On limitations of actions see Jones J W 1956 233-234 28 Smyrna 14 lines 41-43 συντελεσθέντων δὲ τῶν ὅρκων τὰ microὲν ἐγκλήmicroατα αὐ|τοῖς τὰ γεγενηmicroένα κατὰ τὸmicro πόλεmicroον ἤρθω πάντα καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω [microηδὲ] ἑτέροις ἐγκαλέσαι περὶ τῶγ κατὰ τὸν πόλεmicroον γεγενηmicroένων microή[τε]| διὰ δίκης microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόποmicro microηθέναmiddot εἰ δὲ microή πᾶν τὸ ἐπιφερόmicroε[ν]ον ἔγκληmicroα ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 29 FD III 1486 (Staatsvertraumlge III 558) IIA1 lines 14-19[αἰ δ]έ κα ἔξοθεν [κλέψηι ἢ Δελφὸς παρὰ Πελλα|νεῖ ἢ Πελλανεὺς παρὰ Δ]ελφῶι ὁ ἔχων ἀναγέτω τῶι ἐφαπτοmicroέν[ωι] ἔγγυον καταστάσ[ας ποὶ τὰν ἀρχὰν τὰν εἰσ|άγουσαν τὰν δίκαν ἔ]νδικον καὶ ἄνδρα ἀξιόχρεοltνgt ἃ microὲν ἐν [Δ]ελφοῖς ἢ Πελλανε[ῦσιν ἔχει δικαίως πεπάσθαι κατὰ|τοὺς νόmicroους τᾶς πόλιοςmiddot ἐξέ]στω δὲ τῶι microὲν microὴ δέξασθαι τὰν [ἀν]αγωγὰν εἰπόντι καθrsquo [ὅ τι δικαίως ἐφάπτοιτο]|[τῶι δὲ ἀποδείξασθαι ὅτ]ι ἀνάγοι καθότι πέπαται mdashmdash αἰ δέ [κ]α microὴ ἀνάγηι ἐν τῶι χρόνω [ ι τῶι γεγραmicromicroένωι ὁ ἔχων]|[ἁ ἀναγωγὰ ἀτελὴς καὶ ἄκυρ]ος ἔστω 3013 On entrenched provisions regarding alliances and treaties see Schwartzberg M 2004315-318 322-323 31 On the (different) question of annulment of older decrees as a result of treaties of alliance or other positive relationships see Rubinstein L 2008 116

13 13

713

conflicting treaty with a third party32 One rare example of annulment is included in the isopoliteia agreement between Messene and Phigaleia (dating from 240 BC) where in case of non-abidance of the citizens of Phigaleia to the pre-existing agreements between Messene and the Aitolians the current agreement shall also be invalidated33

IPArk 28 (= IG V2 419)

[ὅσα δέ κα ἄλλ]α ὁmicroολογήσωmicroες ποτrsquo ἀλλάλως ὁmicroό- [σαι ἀνφοτέρ]ως καὶ στάλας καταθέσθαι ἐν τοῖς [ἱεροῖς ὁπεῖ κ]α δοκεῖ ἀνφοτέραις ταῖς πολέο- [ις εἰ δέ κα microὴ ἐν]microένωντι οἱ Φιαλέες ἐν τᾶι φιλ-

20 [ίαι τᾶι πὸτ τὼς Μ]εσανίως καὶ Αἰτωλώς ἄκυρος ἔ- [σστω ἅδε ἁ ὁmicroολο]γία

Invalidity of an organrsquos decisions and of city laws

An invalidity clause (although not using the word akyros) appears already in what is considered to be the earliest legal inscription from Greece the law of Dreros34 limiting the iteration of the office of the Kosmos All actions of the Kosmos taken under the illegal tenure will be annulled (microηδὲν ἤmicroην) and he will also be subject to a fine35 This invalidity of official acts seems to have had an immediate effect Invalidity thus aims early on to safeguard citizens from illegal decisions of public officials Later on the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) forbids any manipulation of the cityrsquos legislation (κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους) in a simulacrum of democracy The decisions obtained in this way even if the cityrsquos highest authorities and the boule are involved are declared a priori invalid and the person responsible for this shall be punished as the instigator of an oligarchy IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1

ἐάν τις ἐν ὀλι- γαρχίαι κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους vacat vacat βουλὴν αἱρῆται ἢ τὰς ἄλλας ἀρχάς ὡς ἐν δηmicroοκρατίαι θέλων διαπράσσεσθαι τ[ε]-

115 χνάζων ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ τὸν τεχνάζοντα πάσ- χειν ὡς ἡγεmicroόνα ὀλιγαρχίαςmiddot Disregarding the law

Laws if not properly applied where in fact rendered invalid as it is already maintained by Cleon in the debate over the Mytileneans36 Later the verb ἀκυρόω in connection to a law in the meaning of (not) to be disregarded is to be found in the Greek transcription of the lex romana de

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 32 Lys Περὶ τῆς δηmicroεύσεως τῶν τοῦ Νικίου ἀδελφοῦ ἐπίλογος 154 οὐκ οὖν αἰσχρόν εἰ ἃ microὲν Λακεδαιmicroονίοις συνέθεσθε βεβαιώσετε ἃ δὲ αὑτοῖς ἐψηφίσασθε οὕτω ῥᾳδίως διαλύσετε καὶ τὰς microὲν πρὸς ἐκείνους συνθήκας κυρίας ποιήσετε τὰς δὲ πρὸς αὑτοὺς ἀκύρους 33 In this instance ἄκυρος ἔστω holds the sense of nullification of the agreement operating ex nunc and concerns all contracting parties 34 Nomima I80 ἇδrsquo ἔϝαδε | πόλιmiddot | ἐπεί κα κοσmicroήσει | δέκα ϝετίον τὸν ἀ|ϝτὸν | microὴ κόσmicroεν | αἰ δὲ κοσmicroησιε | ὀ(π)ε δικακσιε | ἀϝτὸν ὀπῆλεν | διπλεῖ | κᾱϝτὸν ἄκρηστον | ἦmicroεν | ἆς δοοι | κὄτι κοσmicroησιε | microηδὲν ἤmicroην ὀmicroόται δὲ | κόσmicroος | κοἰ δάmicroιοι | κοἰ | ἴκατι | οἰ τᾶς πόλ[ιο]ς 35 Youni M 2010152-153 36 Th 337 πάντων δὲ δεινότατον εἰ βέβαιον ἡmicroῖν microηδὲν καθεστήξει ὧν ἂν δόξῃ πέρι microηδὲ γνωσόmicroεθα ὅτι χείροσι νόmicroοις ἀκινήτοις χρωmicroένη πόλις κρείσσων ἐστὶν ἢ καλῶς ἔχουσιν ἀκύροις On citations regarding the laws rendered valid (κυρίους) only if applied by the courts see Harris E M 2013 99 On the reasons proposed on why the Athenians did not repeal unenforced laws see Wallace RW 2012 117-123

13 13

813

piratis persequendis37 found in Delphi (ca 101-100 BC)38 ordering the Roman Governors of the Provinces of Macedonia and Asia to take measures against pirates and to insure the collection of public revenues

Conflicts of laws

Direct abolition of enactments referred to as νόmicroοι or θεσmicroοί are rare39 One such example is a law of Kyme (Aeol) dating from the third century BC regarding a serious crime and judgments rendered by the dikasopoi40 If any other law included any clause contrary to this one it is declared invalid41 This term did not aim at a particular statute but resolved the matter of potential conflicts of laws by stating the supremacy of this legal rule over any conflicting one

Nullification regarding decrees and petitions

Nullification of a cityrsquos decree42 could derive from a clause contained in a subsequent decree New legislation sometimes incorporated provisions that nullified previous or inconsistent statutes43 but most often this was done by giving instructions to physically remove the older stones44 The simplest method for having a cityrsquos decision de facto abolished being the destruction of the inscription preserving it in an honorary decree of Priene for Euandros Sabyllou from Larisa in Thessaly (ca 300290 BC)45

the invalidity clause not only strikes any proposition against the current decree but also guarantees the physical integrity of the stele containing it which had been just re-erected

In general in decrees akyron is used in the sense of an act46 not having the legal effects it would normally have47 It is not ldquonon-existentrdquo but no commitment or valid obligation can derive from

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 37 Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 33-47 38 FD III 437 C lines 15-16 ὑπεναντίον τούτῳ τῷ νόmicroῳ microή τις ποείτω ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ ὅσα τέ τινας κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον δεῖ ποεῖν ποεῖτε microήτε τις ποείτω ᾧ ο[ὗ]|[τ]ος ὁ νόmicroος κατὰ παρεύρεσιν ἀκυρωθῇ ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ microήτε τις ποείτω microήτε| ἐπικρινάτω ὧι ἔλασσον ὅσα δεῖ κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον γέν[η]ταιmiddot 39 On this matter see Rubinstein L 2008 115 40 The law allowed the person guilty of the crime to be declared atimos and killed by anyone 41 IK Kyme 11 lines 10-13 αἰ δ[ὲ (microὴ) mdash mdash mdash]| [ἄτιmicroος θνασ]κέτω κτεινέτω δὲ αὐτὸν ὁ θέλωνmiddot ὁ δὲ ἀ[ποκτείναις]| [εὐάγης ἔστω κ]αὶ καθαρόςmiddot αἰ δέ ποι ἐν νόmicroῳ τινὶ ἄλ[λο τι γράφηται]|[ἐνάντιον τῷ ν]όmicroῳ τούτῳ ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 42 Provided the decrees were not superseding the law Hyp Ath 322 καὶ ὁ microὲν Σόλων οὐδ᾽ ὃ δικαίως ἔγραφεν ψήφισmicroά τις τοῦ νόmicroου οἴεται δεῖν κυριώτερον εἶναι σὺ δὲ καὶ τὰς ἀδίκους συνθήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων τῶν νόmicroων Such a law was in fact passed under the archonship of Euclides in 403|2 MacDowell 1962 128 43 In Athens the decree of Isotimides which barred anyone who had confessed to an act of impiety from entering the temples and the agora cancelled a former decree guaranteeing indemnity for disclosures This decree was at the origin of Andocidersquos conviction and exile from Athens When the Amnesty of 403 BC finally allowed Andocides to return home and in 400 he was put on trial for violating the Isotimides decree he won an acquittal with his defense speech On the Mysteries proving that the latter decree had been annulled And 18 ἢ περὶ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος τοῦ Ἰσοτιmicroίδου ὡς ἄκυρόν ἐστιν 44 On examples see Sickinger J P 2008103 n 21 22 45 Priene 46 lines 7-10 [ἐὰν δέ τις περὶ τ]ού[το]υ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἢ τῆς στή|[λης τῆς νῦν ἀ]πο[κα]θισταmicroένης ἢ| ἄρχων προτιθῆι|[ἢ ἰδιώτης συ]γ[κα]ταλύειν βουλόmicroενος τὴν δωρε|[ὰν τοῦ δή]microου ἄ[κ]υρα ἔστω middot 46 Invalidity concerned actions A judicial verdict could allthough indirectly annul a previous refusal to act as it illustrated in the speech by Lys 919 microήτε τοὺς βέλτιον καὶ δικαίως βουλευσαmicroένους ἀκύρους καταστήσητε The speaker (Polyaeunus) had been fined by the generals for slander a fine which was subsequently reported to the treasurers to collect as unpaid debt the latter refusing to do so on the grounds (if we are to believe the speaker) that it had been irregularly and maliciously imposed The speaker is asking the jury not to invalidate the decision of those who have acted on a better and on a just consideration 47 This is also the meaning of akyron used by Aristotle when he explains the supremacy of men over women children and slaves in order to define the invalidity of the womenrsquos willpower Arist Pol 1260a ἄλλον γὰρ

13 13

913

such an act for being opposite to a prior interdiction and its effects can be immediately revoked without further decision In one occasion invalidity strikes a simple petition leading to the dedication of a statue in a public space in a decree concerning the temenos of Asklepeios in Rhodes (datation unknown) it is forbidden to anyone to submit a petition to erect a statue or other dedication at a certain area of the temenos in order not to obstruct the walks and policemen are instructed to remove to another place any dedication erected in spite of the interdiction48 Sometimes a specific action or proposal that may diminish the impact of a donorrsquos benefaction may also be declared ldquoinvalidrdquo In a dedication inscription from Cos (dated from the end of the first or beginning of the second century AD) a donator prescribes that no other statue may be erected on the same platform and that any attempt to contravene this shall be immediately null and void49

Entrenchment clauses

The most frequent occurrence of the ἄκυρον term in decrees concerns entrenchment clauses provisions that make decisions unamendable50 which as Rubinstein51 has correctly noted can be read as ldquoa guarantee issued to a particular individual group of individuals or to another communityrdquo regarding decisions that directly affect them52 Invalidity may be guaranteeing that a particular right bestowed upon a group of individuals would not be revoked In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe already mentioned an invalidity clause strikes any proposition by an archon or a rhetor introducing a contestation of the land given to the Nagidians53 In Thasos of early imperial times the same clause guarantees measures regarding the donation of lands and their subsequent possession by their owners54

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τρόπον τὸ ἐλεύθερον τοῦ δούλου ἄρχει καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν τοῦ θήλεος καὶ ἀνὴρ παιδός καὶ πᾶσιν ἐνυπάρχει microὲν τὰ microόρια τῆς ψυχῆς ἀλλrsquo ἐνυπάρχει διαφερόντως ὁ microὲν γὰρ δοῦλος ὅλως οὐκ ἔχει τὸ βουλευτικόν τὸ δὲ θῆλυ ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἄκυρον ὁ δὲ παῖς ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἀτελές 48 Suppl Epig Rodio 1 lines 10-22 microὴ ἐξέστω microηθενὶ αἰτήσασ|[θαι ἀνά]θεσιν ἀνδριάντος microηδὲ ἄλλου| [ἀναθ]ήmicroατος microηδενὸς ἐς τὸ κάτω microέρος| [τοῦ τ]εmicroένευς ἀπό τε τοῦ προπύλου| [ἐπrsquo ε]ὐθείας ἔστε ποτὶ τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα| [ὧ]ν ἐντι ταὶ αἰτήσιες πρότερον γεγενη|[micro]έναι ἢ ἐς ἄλλον τινα τόπον ἐν ὧι στα|θέντα τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα κωλύσει τοὺς περι|πάτουςmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἐν τούτωι τῶι τόπωι| αἰτήσηται ἀνάθεσιν ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐτ|[ῶ ] ι ἁ αἴτησις καὶ τοὶ ἀστυνόmicroοι εἴ κά τις| [ἀνα]θῆι microεθελόντω τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα ἐς ἄλ|[λον τ]όπονmiddot 49 Iscr di Cos ED 257 frg bcd1 lines 3-30 [κ]αὶ microηδενὶ ἄλλ[ῳ ἐ]ξῆ|microεν microήτε ἰδιώ[τᾳ micro]ήτε ἄρ|χοντι microήτε γυmicro[να]σιάρχῳ| ἢ ἐπιmicroελητᾷ τᾶς [γε]ρουσί|ας καθόλου microήτε εἰκόνα| microήτε ἄγαλmicroα microήτε ἀνδρι|άντα ἀναθέmicroεν ἐν ταύ|τᾳ τᾷ ἐξέδρᾳ τρόπῳ microηδε|νὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσι microηδε|micro ιᾷ microήτε τινὰ γνώmicroαν ἀ|γορεῦσαι περὶ τοῦ τειmicroαὶ| ἄλλου τινὸς ἀνασταθῆ|microεν ἢ ἀνατεθῆmicroεν ἐν αὐτᾶι | αἰ δέ κά τίς ποτε ἐπ[ι]χιρήσῃ ἢ εἰπεῖν ἢ γνώmicroαν ε[ἰ]σαγῆσ|θαι ἢ ἄλλως τι παρὰ τ[αῦ]τα πρ[ᾶ]|ξαι θελήσῃ τὸ microὲν ἐ[πιχ]ειρ ι[σ]|θὲν ἢ καὶ πιρασθὲν [ῥηθῆναι]|ἢ πραχθῆναι παραχρῆ[microα ἄκυ]|ρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστ[ω καὶ microη]|δὲν ἦσσον τὰ διατε[ταγmicroένα]|ὑπrsquo ἐmicroοῦ κύρια καὶ ἀmicro[ετακίνη]|τα ὑπαρχέτω καὶ ὁ [αἴτιος εἴ]|τε ἰδιώτας εἴτε ἄρ[χων εἴτε]|γυmicroνασίαρχος ἢ [ἐπιmicroε]|λητὰς εἴη τᾶς γ[ερουσίας ἀ]|ποτισάτω πα[ραχρῆmicroα δη]|νάρια χίλια 50 On entrenchment clauses in Athens see Schwartzberg M 2004 311-25 who maintains that the Athenians used entrenchment in highly restrictive contexts in certain financial decrees and in alliances and treaties exclusively for narrow strategic purposes in both the international and the domestic contexts and did not extend them to laws regulating the democracy 51 See Rubinstein L 2008117-118 identifying and categorizing a total of 80 examples of entrenchment clauses 52 IC II v 35 53 SEG 391426 lines 39- 45 microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ microηκέτι |[Ν]αγιδεῦσι παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶι περὶ τῆς χώρας τῆς δοθείσης| [α]ὐτοῖς κατὰ ψήφισmicroα τοῦτο ἀmicroφισβητῆσαι ἐὰν δέ τις ἄρχων προθῆι| [τι] δόγmicroα τltοιgtοῦτο ἢ ῥῆτωρ εἴπηι ὁ microὲν ἄρχων ἀποτεισάτω δραχmicroὰς microυρίας |[ἱερ]ὰς Ἀρσινόηι ἀπαραιτήτους ὁ δὲ ῥήτωρ δραχmicroὰς χιλίας καὶ ἡ γνώmicroη αὐ|[τῶ ]ν ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 54 IG XII Suppl 364 lines 7- 20 τὴν δὲ τῶν [ἀγρῶν κτῆσιν διατη]|ρεῖν ἀθάνατον ἡmicroᾶς καὶ microήτε [καταθεῖναί ποτε τοὺς]| ἀγροὺς ἡmicroᾶς microήτε ἀποδόσθαι [microηδενὶ microήτε συνόλους]| microήτε microέρη microήτε περι[ιδ]εῖν ἀπ[αλλοτριωθέντας αὐτοὺς]| κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τ[ις τῶν Θασίων περί τι]|νος τούτων ἢ γράψῃ ἢ ἐπιψ[ηφίσῃ ἢ ἀναγράψῃ εἰς τὸ]| τής πόλεως γραmicromicroατοφυλα[κεῖον τὴν γνώmicroην τὰ γραφέντα]| καὶ τὰ ψηφισθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι [καὶ ἀκρατῆ τὸν δὲ ἢ]| γράψαντα ἢ ἐπιψηφίσαντα ἢ ἀναγ[ράψαντα τὴν γνώ]|microην εἰς τὸ τῆς πόλεως | γραmicromicroατοφ[υλακεῖον ὀφεί]|λειν τοῖς τῶν Σεβαστῶν ναοῖς στατῆ[ρας

13 13

1013

When a future decree proposition (γνώmicroη) is declared invalid this invalidates in fact the whole decree voting procedure55 Detailed terms in entrenchment clauses56 often mention both private persons (ἰδιώτης) and city officials (ἄρχοντες ῥήτορες ἐπιmicroήνιοι) that may be involved the organs before which such propositions may take place (ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω) as well as all the steps leading to the adoption of new decisions (εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι) oraly or in writing (ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι) sometimes adding for the sake of exhaustivity the annulment of decisions ldquoin any other possible wayrdquo (τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν) The legislation process being an expression of the sovereignty of the demos the invalidity clause acts as a kind of limitation for future times of the operation of the majority principle57 in order to secure that no valid decision shall be reached in the future regulating the same matter in a different way Examples of rules that include a detailed enumeration of all possible ways of obtaining amendments declared a priori invalid include the law of Teos regulating the salaries of instructors for the youth58 and a decree of Chios forbidding the use of funds for other purposes than the ones prescribed

Chios 27 11 [mdash]ΙΑ καὶ micro[ὴ] ἐξεῖν[αι τ]οῖς [χρήmicroασι]

[τοῖς συναγ]οmicroένοις ἐκ τῆς [ὑ]ποσχέσεω[ς] [εἰς ἄλλο κ]αταχρῆσθαι microη[δ]ὲν ἢ εἰς τὰ [διατεταγ]micro ένα κατὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα

5 [ἐὰν δέ τις γ]ράψηι ἢ πρύτανις προ[θ]ῆι [ταῦτα εἰς ἄλ]λο τι microετενεγκεῖν ἢ κατα- [χρήσασθαι] ἢ ποιήσηι τίς τι παρὰ τόδε τὸ [ψήφισmicroα τό] τε γραφὲν ἢ πραχθὲν ἄκυρον [ἔστω καὶ ὀφε]ιλέτω τῆι πόλει δραχmicroὰς ΧΧΧ

10 [ὁ τούτων αἴτιο]ς καὶ ἔστω πρὸς τοῦτο [ὑποδικὸς κ]αθάπερ καὶ οἱ ἐξ ὠνῆς ὀφεί- [λοντες χρήmicro]ατα τῆι πόλειmiddot

In entrenchment clauses invalidity is either explicit or may be implied if (only) penalties or curses are directed against anyone who tries to annul the current provisions59 In order to invest an entrenchment clause with effectiveness invalidity apparently not being considered always sufficient in order to deter citizens from introducing changes in the future the provision of penalties60 added a financial risk to the challenge Combined sanctions (invalidity plus fine) are included in sacred laws61 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τετρα]|[κ]ισmicroυρίους καὶ ἄτιmicroον εἶναι καὶ αὐτὸν κ[αὶ γένος]middot [ἐνέχ]εσθαι δὲ αὐτοὺς καὶ τῆι εἰς τοὺς Σε[βαστοὺς ἀσε]|[βείαιmiddot 55 Cf the use of ἄκυρον in the Athenaion Politeia on the lack of sovereignety of the Boule to decide by itself Arist AthPol 454 τούτων microὲν οὖν ἄκυρός ἐστιν ἡ βουλήmiddot προβουλεύει δrsquoεἰς τὸν δῆmicroον καὶ οὐκ ἔξεστιν οὐδὲν ἀπροβούλευτον οὐδrsquo ὅ τι ἂν microὴ προγράψωσιν οἱ πρυτάνεις ψηφίσασθαι τῷ δήmicroῳ κατrsquo αὐτὰ γὰρ ταῦτα ἔνοχός ἐστιν ὁ νικήσας γραφῇ παρανόmicroων 5613 On entrenchment clauses and different measures aiming to preserve important resources and to guarantee compliance with relevant rules in late Hellenistic and imperial times see Harter-Uibopuu K 2013 (forthcoming)13 57 The interdiction and nullity clause for future decree propositions may have constituted in Athens grounds for a graphe paranomon 58 Teos 41 lines 40-46 ἢν δὲ οἱ ἐνεστηκότες ταmicroίαι ἢ οἱ ἑκάστοτε γινόmicroενοι| microὴ παραδῶσιν τὸ ἀργύριον τοῦτο κατὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα v3 ἢ ἄλλος τις ἄρχων| ἢ ἰδιώτης εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι ἐναντίον τού| τωι ἢ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον ἄρηι τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν ὡς δεῖ τὸ ἀργύρι| ον κινηθῆναι ἢ microὴ ἀναλίσκεσθαι ἀπrsquo αὐτοῦ εἰς ἃ ὁ νόmicroος συντάσσει ἢ ἄλλ[ηι που]| καταχωρισθῆναι καὶ microὴ εἰς ἃ ἐν τῶιδε τῶι νόmicroωι διατέτακται τά τε πραχθέν|τα ἄκυρα ἔστω 59 On examples of such inscriptions see Sickinger J P 2008 104 n 24 25 60 See Rubinstein L 2012329-354 61 IK Kalchedon 10 lines 10-13 [ὃς δέ] κα εἴπῃ ἢ προαισιmicroνάσηι ἢ ἐν [β]ουλᾶι ἢ ἐν δάmicroωι ὀ|[φειλέτω] δραχmicroὰς Μ ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἡρακλεῖος καὶ τὰ| [προαισ]ιmicroναθέντα ἢ ῥηθέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

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from the Asklepieion of Kos (dated from the end of the first century BC) concerning the sale of the priesthoods of Aphrodite Pandamos and Pontia62 and of Asklepios63 invalidating any decree proposing a different use of the thesauros of the sanctuary The penalties are not linked to any concrete damage (βλάβη) that may be incurred by any party64 to any demand of restitution to any unjust enrichment or transfer of property but rely upon the (implied) public interest and the collective (moral) damage of the community or of the sanctuary in case the current regulations are changed65 The combination of legal invalidity to penalties introduce thus avant la lettre the concept of the Roman lex perfecta to Greek law as laws including both a sanction and the nullity of anything contrary to a particular clause of the law as well as the interdiction of future amendments of the statute The earliest occurrences date from the early fourth century BC in an honorary decree from Athens for Sthorys the Thasian (dated 3943) where invalidity combined with penalties is threatened against anyone ldquonullifyingrdquo these honors66 Regarding the penalties combined with invalidity in some decrees concerning matters of particular importance for the city the collection procedure of the fines was also defined ad hoc as in a fourth century BC citizenship decree from Thasos67 in a decree of Miletus68 (2054 BC) instituting a public eisphora for the citizens in order to cover public deficit69 The penalties associated to the invalidity clause may also be escalating by analogy to the importance of the matter regulated or of the person honored by the decree A decree by the Nasiotai bestowing honors to Thersippos (ca 315 BC) for his benefactions in connection to Alexanderrsquos campaigns invalidates all future amendments in combination to severe penalties such as fines threats of atimia and treason charges for acting against the democracy plus a curse against anyone proposing their abolition70

Invalidity clauses may also be included in decisions issued by private associations forbidding that any of the honors bestowed upon their benefactors may be postponed or cancelled71 and this as it

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 62 SEG 50766 back face1 lines 20-24 τὸ δὲ χρῆmicroα τοῦ|το ὑπαρχέτω ἐς κατασκευάσmicroατα ἅ κα δόξῃ τᾶι ἐκλησίαι καὶ ἐς ἐπισ|κευὰν τοῦ ἱεροῦmiddot αἰ δέ κά τις ψαφίξηται ὥστε ἐς ἄλλο τι καταχρη[σ]θῆmicroεν| τὰ ἐκ τῶν θησαυρῶν ἢ προστάτας προθῆι ἀποτισάτω τῶν αἰτίων ἕκασ|τος δραχmicroὰς χειλίας ἱερὰς τᾶς Ἀφροδίτας καὶ ἁ γνώmicroα ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 63 SEG 511066 frg ab lines 31-35 microὴ ἐξέστωι δὲ microήτε]|ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδιώιται [microηδενὶ ἐς ἄλλο καταχρήσασθαι τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ χρήmicroατα]| ἢ microετάγεν τὰς ἀπrsquo αὐτῶ[ιν ποθόδους mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αὐτῶι ἔστωι περὶ πᾶν ὅτι [κα γράψηι ἢ ἐπιψαφίξηι καὶ ἀποτινέτωι (δραχmicroὰς) mdashʹ]| καὶ ἁ γνώιmicroαι ἄκυρος ἤτ[ω 64 On blabe initially limited in cases of damages included in the law see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993191 65 On the notion ἀδικεῖν τὴν πόλιν see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 199391-94 66 IG IIsup2 17 lines 31-33 ἐὰν δέ τις τα[ῦτ]α ἄκυρ[α ποῆι ὀφελέ]|τω χιλίας [δ]ραχmicroὰς ἱερ[ὰς τῆ]ι Ἀθηνα[ίαι καὶ τῶι Ἀπό]|λλωνι τῶ[ι] Πυθίωι ἑτέρα[ς] 67 IG XII 8 267 lines 11-16 microὴ [ἐξεῖ]|ναι δὲ ὑπὲρ τούτων microηδενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτrsquo ἐπε[λθεῖ]ν ὑπὲρ λύσιος microήτrsquo ἐπιψηφίσαι ἀκρατέα εἶνα[ι ταῦ]|τα τὰ ἐψηφισmicroένα ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ ταῦτα εἴπηι ἢ ἐπέλθηι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι τά τε δόξαντα ἄκυρα ἔστω κα[ὶ χι]|λίους στατῆρας ὀφειλέτω ἱεροὺς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίωι χιλίους δὲ τῆι πόλει δικασάσθων δὲ ο[ἱ ἀπό]|λογοιmiddot ἂν δὲ microὴ δικάσωνται αὐτοὶ ὀφειλόντων δικασάσθων δὲ ἀπόλογοι οἱ microετὰ τούτους αἱρεθέντε[ς]middot|δικασάσθω δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὁ ἐθέλων καὶ ἂν ὁ ἰδιώτης νικήσηι microετεῖναι αὐτῶι τὸ ἥmicroυσυ τὴς καταδί[κης] On this inscription see Fournier J 2012 360-361 Cf also the invalidity clause in IG XII8 264 from Thassos (beginning 4th century BC) 68 See Migeotte L 1984 no97 69 Miletos 41 Lines 24- 29 ἐὰν δέ τις εἴπηι| ἢ προθῇ ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι τά τε γραφθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ ὀφείλειν ἕκαστον τῶν αἰτίων| στατῆρας χιλίους καὶ εἶναι ἄτιmicroον ἕως ἂν ἐκτείσηι καὶ microηθὲν ἧσ|σον ἐξαιρεῖσθαι τὸ τεταγmicroένον ὑπὸ τῶν microετὰ ταῦτα γινοmicroένων| ἀνατακτῶν 70 IG XII2 645 b1 lines 32-58 κα|[ὶ microὴ ἔ]micromicroεναι [π]|[ὰρ τ]αῦτα microήτε| [ἄ]ρχοντι προθ|[έ]microεναι microήτε ῥ|[ή]τορι εἶπαι micro|[ή]τε ἐπιmicroηνί[ω]| [ἐ]σένικαιmiddot αἰ δ|[έ] κέ τις ἢ ῥήτω|[ρ] εἴπη ἢ ἄρχων| [ἐσ]αγάγη [ἢ]| [ἐπ]ιmicroήνιος ἐσ[εν]ίκη ἄκυρά τ|[ε] ἔστω καὶ ὀφε|[λ]λέτω ἔκαστο|[ς] στάτηρας τρ|[ ια]κοσίοις ἴρ|[οι]ς τῶ Ἀσκλαπ|[ίω] καὶ ἐπάρατ|[ος] ἔστω καὶ ἄτι|[microος] καὶ γένος| [ε]ἰς τὸν πάντα| [χρ]όνον καὶ ἐν| ἔστω τῶ νόmicro|[ω π]ερὶ τῶ καλλ|[ύο]ντος τὸν δᾶ|[microον] 71 Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros IG XII1 155 face

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is stated in one decree in view of the importance of making an example of the benefaction72 Invalidity in entrenchment clauses in relation to endowments is aiming to prevent any different use of the funds or of the property donated by the benefactor73 as in the testament of Epicteta (dated around 210-195 BC)74 It also guarantees that no alteration of the exact terms of use of the donation75 will take place and nullifies any transaction that may jeopardize the capital donated76 The invalidity clause striking future different decree propositions was aiming to preserve the benefactorrsquos instructions and will (κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν) as it is clearly stated in an honorary decree from Eretria (ca 100 BC)77

The practice of sanctioning entrenchment clauses with invalidity reinforced by fines continued into Roman times Invalidity of future decrees or deliberations was sometimes mentioned as having

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 III85 lines 95-100 τ[ὸ]| δὲ ψάφισmicroα τόδ[ε κ]ύριον ἔστω εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρό|νον καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδι|ώται microήτε κινεῖν microήτε γνώmicroαν γράψασθαι|microήτε τοῖς ἄρχουσι προτιθέmicroειν ὡς δεῖ τὰς δ[ε]|δοmicroένας τιmicroὰς Διονυσοδώρωι ἀκύρους εἴmicro|microειν middot ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἀποτεισάτω τὸ γε|γραmicromicroένον ἐπιτίmicroιον δραχmicroὰς ἑκατόν καὶ ἁ γνώmicro[α]|[α]ὐτοῦ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἔνοχος ἔστω τῶι νό|microωι τῶι ἀκινήτωι 72 Honorary decree (dated after 1532 BC found in Delos) of the koinon of the Βηρυτίων Ποσ[ειδω|νιαστῶν ἐmicroπόρω]ν καὶ ναυκλήρων [καὶ ἐ]γδοχέων for their Roman benefactor the banker Marcus Minatius Sextus ID 1520 lines 57-61 ὅπως ἂν ἀΐδιοι διαmicroένωσι τοῖς εὐεργέταις αἱ δοθεῖσαι τι|[micro]αί microηθενὶ ἐξέστωι microήτε ἰδιώτηι microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτ[ε]| [γ]ράψαι ὡς δεῖ τῶν δεδοmicroένων τιmicroῶν microεταθεῖναι ἢ ἀφελεῖν ἢ ἀκυρ[όν]| [τ] ι ποιῆσαι παρὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ εἴπας ἢ ὁ ἀναγνοὺς| [ἢ] ὁ προθεὶς ἢ ὁ ἐπιχειροτονήσας ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἐξώλης εἴη| [α]ὐτὸς καὶ τὰ τέ[κν]α αὐτοῦ τοῖς δὲ ταῦτα ἐπιτηροῦσι εἴη καὶ βίου καὶ| τέκνων καὶ ὑπαρχόντων ὄνησις καὶ εἴη αὐτοῖς σώιζεσθαι καὶ κατ[ὰ]| [γ]ῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν καὶ ὁ παρὰ ταῦτα ποιήσας ἀποτινέτω| δραχmicroὰς στεφανηφόρους ἑξακισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ποσειδῶ|νος καὶ ὑπόδικος ἔστω τῶι ἀδικουmicroένωιmiddot 73 A decree from Eresos in Lesbos (dating from the middle of the third century BC) regarding the donation by Agemortos of some source of income to be used for sacrifices forbids and invalidates any encumberance or any other use of the income and any such proposition before the council or the assembly IG ΧΙΙ2 529 lines 3- 9 microηδὲ ὐποθέ|[microεναι microηδrsquo ἐγγύ]ασθαι microήδενι microηδὲ ὐπό|θεσθα[ι] microηδrsquo εἴπην ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω microήδενα ὡς δεῖ περιβάλεσθαι| τὰν θυσίαν microηδὲ τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς ἄλλο| κατάταξαι microῆδενmiddot αἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρα ἔmicromicroεναι| τὰ πράχθεντα middot 74 In the inscription recording the legacy she left to her daughter Epiteleia Epicteta was founding a sanctuary to the Muses and her own deceased ancestors and providing for the establishment of an association dedicated to the worship of the Muses her will including an invalidity clause for future amendments by third parties IG XII 3 330 B1 lines 263-267 middot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἢ εἴπει ἢ γράψει | τό τε ῥηθὲν ἢ γραφὲν ἄκυρον ἔστω καὶ ὁ| εἴπας ἢ γράψας στερέσθω τοῦ κοινοῦ καὶ ὁ|φειλ[έ]τω αὐτῶι δραχmicroὰς πεντακοσίας| καὶ πρακτὸς ἔστω καὶ ἀπὸ ἐνεχυρασίας| κατὰ τὸς νόmicroος ὑπὸ τοῦ χρῄζοντος τῶν| συγγενῶν 75 Decree of Didyma establishing annual distribution of food on the occasion of the birthday of Eumenes II (dated 1598 BC) Didyma 13 lines 41-49 microὴ εἶναι microη|θενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτε ἀναγνῶναι microήτε προθεῖ|ναι microήτε προγράψαι microήτε ἐπιψηφίσαι ὡς δεῖ microε|τατεθῆναι τὰ χρήmicroατα εἰς ἄλλο τι καὶ microὴ ὑπάρχει[ν]|εἰς τὰ ἐν τῶι ψηφίσmicro[ατι] κατακεχωρισmicroένα ἐὰν δ[έ]|τις παρὰ ταῦτα π[ράξηι] τρόπωι ltὁτωιgtοῦν τό τε γρ[α]|φὲν ἄκυρον ἔσ[τω ὁ δὲ π]ράξας τι τῶν ἀπειρη|microένων [ἀποτεισάτω στατῆρας] δισχιλίους ἱεροὺς|το[ῦ Ἀπόλλωνος τοῦ Διδυmicro]έωςmiddot 76 The decree of Delphi of 16059 BC regulating the usage of a donation by king Attalos of an important amount of money to the city to be used for the childrenrsquos education and for sacrifices invalidates and punishes by fine any proposition or decision for a different use than the one prescribed by the decree Syllsup3 672 lines 15-19 εἰ δέ τις τούτων τι ποιή|σαι ἢ ἄρχων ἢ ἰδιώτας κατάmicroαστρος ἔστω ἱερῶν χρηmicroάτων φω|ρᾶς καὶ οἱ microαστροὶ καταγραφόντω κατrsquo αὐτοῦ κατὰ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ ἄλ|λως microετενεγχθὲν ἀργύριον ὀκταπλοῦν καὶ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ διαινε|θὲν ἄκυρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστω 77 IG XII9 236 lines 51-61 ὅπως δὲ microένῃ τὸ ἀνακείmicroενον ἀσφα|λῶς κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν καὶ εἰς ἄλλο| microηθὲν ἦι καταχρήσασθαι microηθενὶ ἐξουσίαν εἶναι ἀπὸ| τούτου τοῦ διαφόρου microηδὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ πίπτοντος ἀπrsquo|αὐτοῦ τόκου microήτε καταχρήσασθαι εἰς ἄλλο microηθὲν| microήτε ἐπιψηφίσασθαι microήτε ἐπερωτῆσαιmiddot εἰ δὲ microή ὅ τε γρά|ψας ἢ ἐπερωτήσας | ὀφειλέτω ἱερὰς τῆς Ἀρτέmicroιδος|δραχmicroὰς ἑξακισmicroυρίας καὶ ἔστω ἀπαγωγὴ κατrsquo αὐ|τοῦ τῷ βουλοmicroένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ τρίτῳ microέρει πρὸς τοὺς| ἄρχοντας καὶ τὰ γραφέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

1313

immediate effect78 The expression οὐδὲν ἔλασσον (no less) preceding in some decrees the invalidity clause shows it was considered the last but not least necessary complement of entrenchment clauses79 In view of the change of political settings invalidity is now sometimes aiming the archonsrsquos orders or the cityrsquos ekdikos propositions (or anybody elsersquos) and the fines are collected by the Roman fiscus80 In a decree from Miletus concerning the cityrsquos and the imperial cults any different use of the funds and any act contravening the purpose secured by this statute (τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]) would be invalid and the archon introducing such a proposition would be guilty of impiety against the gods and guilty ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης of the payment of a fine81 Three documents from Ephesus dating from AD 104 show how invalidity had become a standard term aiming to secure the proper execution of the will of the benefactor which was ratified both by the Roman officialrsquos and by the cityrsquos decisions The invalidity clause of future amendments is first mentioned in the letter of Caius Vibius Salutaris offering several benefactions to the boule and demos of Ephesus in form of a legal document82 second the proconsul Gaius Aquillius Proculus in his letter to the archontes boule and demos of Ephesus approves the benefaction of Gaius Vibius Salutaris and ratifies the invalidity

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 78 SE 241 frg hcol 21 lines 7-8 [mdash]ασmicroένων καὶ τὰς ltσgtυνεγmicroεmicroισθωmicroένας αὐτοῖς προσόδους ἀνεξαλλ[άκτας mdash]| [mdash] ψηφισθὲν χρηmicroατισθὲν ἔστω παραχρῆmicroα ἄκυρον κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ποιησαmicro[ένου mdash] 79 In one instance in a decree of Mytilene instituting celebrations in the context of the emperial cult the city threatens with invalidity all actions or propositions of private citizens or magistrates contravening the celebrations and relevant procedures these being considered synonymous with the safeguard of the citys liberty and democracy and sympoliteia since the city had recently seen its status as an ally of Rome confirmed by Augustus IG XII2 59 lines 6-12 ἢ οἰ ἐξ αὔτων γράψωσι ἢ συν[κλήτω δόγmicroα mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αἰ δέ κέ τις ἢ ἰδίωτας ἢ ἄρχων παρ[άβαις τι τῶν ἐν mdash mdash mdash γεγραmicromicroέ]|[νω]ν καὶ ἐν τῶ ψαφίσmicroατι τούτω microὴ πέmicroψη [mdash mdash mdash mdash καττὸν ἐψαφίσθη]| τρόπον ἢ microὴ φυλάξη τὰν τάξιν τᾶς ἀναγράφα[ς mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἄκυ]|ρον ἔστω καὶ ὐπεύθυνος ἔστω ὁ παράβαις [mdash mdash mdash ὠς καταλύων ταὶς τῶν]| Σεβάστων καὶ τῶ οἴκω αὔτων τείmicroαις καὶ ἀναίρεις [mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἐλευ]|θερίας καὶ δαmicroοκρατίας καὶ συmicroπολειτίας 80 In an honorary decree of the boule and demos for Gaius Caninius Synallasson found at Iasos regulating the foundation he established for the gymnasium of the neoi (ca 117-138 AD) Iasos 21 lines 54-67 ἐφrsquo ᾧ οὐ|δενὶ ἐξέσται ἄρχοντι οὐδὲ ἑτέρῳ οὐδενὶ microε|ταδιατάξαι ἕτερόν τι περὶ τούτων τῶν πεντα|κισχειλίων δηναρίων ἢ τῆς προσόδου αὐτῶν| ἐκτὸς ἐὰν microὴ χωρίων ἀγορασθησοmicroένων τοῖς| νέοις δεήσῃ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς τὴν τει|microὴν τῶν ἀγορασθησοmicroένων ἀγρῶν χωρῆσαι| ἐφrsquo ᾧ καὶ οὕτως microενεῖ ἡ πρόσοδος αἰεὶ εἰς τὸ ἄλιmicroα| τῶν νέων καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot ἐπεὶ ὁ ὑπεναντί|ον τούτοις ποιήσας τι ἀποδώσει εἰς τὸν τοῦ κυ|ρίου Καίσαρος φίσκον δηνάρια πεντακισχείλια| καὶ οὐδὲν ἔλασσον ἔσται τὸ microεταδιαταγὲν ἄκυρον| καὶ microενεῖ τὰ πεντακισχείλια δηνάρια καὶ ἡ πρόσοδος| αὐτῶν τοῖς νέοις καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot 81 Miletos 15 lines 18-33 microηδενὶ δὲ ἐξεῖναι microήτε| ἄρχοντι microήτε ἑτέρῳ τινὶ microεταγαγεῖν εἰς| ἀργυρικὸν πόρον τὰς λειτουργίας ταύτα[ς]| τρόπῳ microηδενὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσει microηδεmicro[ι]|ᾷmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις ὑπεναντίον τι πράξῃ τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]| τὸ microὲν γενόmicroενον ᾥτινιοῦν τρόπῳ ὑ|πάρχειν ἄκυρον τὸν δὲ ψηφισάmicroενον ἄρ|χοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον ὑπάρχειν τῶν προ|γεγραmicromicroένων θεῶν καὶ ὀφείλειν αὐτὸν| ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης στατῆρας φʹ ἱερούς| καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον τὸν microὴ ἐπιτελέσαντα| προφήτην τοὺς κόσmicroους ἢ τὸν microὴ ποή|σαντα στεφανηφόρον τοὺς microολποὺς εἰσ|πράσσεσθαι ἐπάναγκες τὰς προδεδηλωmicroέ|νας εὐωχίαςmiddot 82 Ephesos 212 lines 315- 325 microηδὲν δὲ ἐξέστω ἄρχοντι ἢ ἐκδίκῳ ἢ ἰδιώ|τῃ πεσαί τι ἀλλάξαι ἢ microεταθεῖναι ἢ microετοικονοmicroῆσαι ἢ microετα|ψηφίασθα τῶν καθιερωmicroένων ἀπεικονισmicroάτων ἢ τοῦ| ἀργυρίου ἢ τῆς ροσόδου αὐτοῦ ἢ microεταθεῖναι εἰς ἕτερον πόρον| ἢ ἀνάωmicroα ἢ ἄλο τι ποῆσαι παρὰ τὰ προγεγραmicromicroένα καὶ δια|τετmicroένα ἐπεὶ τὸ γενόmicroενον παρὰ ταῦτα ἔστω ἄκυρον middot| ὁ δὲ περάσας ποιῆσαί τι ὑπεναντίον τῇ διατάξει ἢ τοῖς| ὑπὸ τς βουῆς καὶ τοῦ δήmicroου ἐψηφισmicroένοις καὶ ἐπικεκυ|ρωmicroέν ταύτης τῆς διατάξεως ἀποτεισάτω εἰς| προσκῆς microεης θεᾶς Ἀρτέmicroιδος δη(νάρια) δισmicroύρια| εταβαστοῦ φίσκον ἄλλα δη(νάρια) βʹ Μ ͵ε

13 13

1413

clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

13 13

1513

60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

713

conflicting treaty with a third party32 One rare example of annulment is included in the isopoliteia agreement between Messene and Phigaleia (dating from 240 BC) where in case of non-abidance of the citizens of Phigaleia to the pre-existing agreements between Messene and the Aitolians the current agreement shall also be invalidated33

IPArk 28 (= IG V2 419)

[ὅσα δέ κα ἄλλ]α ὁmicroολογήσωmicroες ποτrsquo ἀλλάλως ὁmicroό- [σαι ἀνφοτέρ]ως καὶ στάλας καταθέσθαι ἐν τοῖς [ἱεροῖς ὁπεῖ κ]α δοκεῖ ἀνφοτέραις ταῖς πολέο- [ις εἰ δέ κα microὴ ἐν]microένωντι οἱ Φιαλέες ἐν τᾶι φιλ-

20 [ίαι τᾶι πὸτ τὼς Μ]εσανίως καὶ Αἰτωλώς ἄκυρος ἔ- [σστω ἅδε ἁ ὁmicroολο]γία

Invalidity of an organrsquos decisions and of city laws

An invalidity clause (although not using the word akyros) appears already in what is considered to be the earliest legal inscription from Greece the law of Dreros34 limiting the iteration of the office of the Kosmos All actions of the Kosmos taken under the illegal tenure will be annulled (microηδὲν ἤmicroην) and he will also be subject to a fine35 This invalidity of official acts seems to have had an immediate effect Invalidity thus aims early on to safeguard citizens from illegal decisions of public officials Later on the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) forbids any manipulation of the cityrsquos legislation (κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους) in a simulacrum of democracy The decisions obtained in this way even if the cityrsquos highest authorities and the boule are involved are declared a priori invalid and the person responsible for this shall be punished as the instigator of an oligarchy IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1

ἐάν τις ἐν ὀλι- γαρχίαι κακοτεχνῶν περὶ τοὺς νόmicroους vacat vacat βουλὴν αἱρῆται ἢ τὰς ἄλλας ἀρχάς ὡς ἐν δηmicroοκρατίαι θέλων διαπράσσεσθαι τ[ε]-

115 χνάζων ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ τὸν τεχνάζοντα πάσ- χειν ὡς ἡγεmicroόνα ὀλιγαρχίαςmiddot Disregarding the law

Laws if not properly applied where in fact rendered invalid as it is already maintained by Cleon in the debate over the Mytileneans36 Later the verb ἀκυρόω in connection to a law in the meaning of (not) to be disregarded is to be found in the Greek transcription of the lex romana de

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 32 Lys Περὶ τῆς δηmicroεύσεως τῶν τοῦ Νικίου ἀδελφοῦ ἐπίλογος 154 οὐκ οὖν αἰσχρόν εἰ ἃ microὲν Λακεδαιmicroονίοις συνέθεσθε βεβαιώσετε ἃ δὲ αὑτοῖς ἐψηφίσασθε οὕτω ῥᾳδίως διαλύσετε καὶ τὰς microὲν πρὸς ἐκείνους συνθήκας κυρίας ποιήσετε τὰς δὲ πρὸς αὑτοὺς ἀκύρους 33 In this instance ἄκυρος ἔστω holds the sense of nullification of the agreement operating ex nunc and concerns all contracting parties 34 Nomima I80 ἇδrsquo ἔϝαδε | πόλιmiddot | ἐπεί κα κοσmicroήσει | δέκα ϝετίον τὸν ἀ|ϝτὸν | microὴ κόσmicroεν | αἰ δὲ κοσmicroησιε | ὀ(π)ε δικακσιε | ἀϝτὸν ὀπῆλεν | διπλεῖ | κᾱϝτὸν ἄκρηστον | ἦmicroεν | ἆς δοοι | κὄτι κοσmicroησιε | microηδὲν ἤmicroην ὀmicroόται δὲ | κόσmicroος | κοἰ δάmicroιοι | κοἰ | ἴκατι | οἰ τᾶς πόλ[ιο]ς 35 Youni M 2010152-153 36 Th 337 πάντων δὲ δεινότατον εἰ βέβαιον ἡmicroῖν microηδὲν καθεστήξει ὧν ἂν δόξῃ πέρι microηδὲ γνωσόmicroεθα ὅτι χείροσι νόmicroοις ἀκινήτοις χρωmicroένη πόλις κρείσσων ἐστὶν ἢ καλῶς ἔχουσιν ἀκύροις On citations regarding the laws rendered valid (κυρίους) only if applied by the courts see Harris E M 2013 99 On the reasons proposed on why the Athenians did not repeal unenforced laws see Wallace RW 2012 117-123

13 13

813

piratis persequendis37 found in Delphi (ca 101-100 BC)38 ordering the Roman Governors of the Provinces of Macedonia and Asia to take measures against pirates and to insure the collection of public revenues

Conflicts of laws

Direct abolition of enactments referred to as νόmicroοι or θεσmicroοί are rare39 One such example is a law of Kyme (Aeol) dating from the third century BC regarding a serious crime and judgments rendered by the dikasopoi40 If any other law included any clause contrary to this one it is declared invalid41 This term did not aim at a particular statute but resolved the matter of potential conflicts of laws by stating the supremacy of this legal rule over any conflicting one

Nullification regarding decrees and petitions

Nullification of a cityrsquos decree42 could derive from a clause contained in a subsequent decree New legislation sometimes incorporated provisions that nullified previous or inconsistent statutes43 but most often this was done by giving instructions to physically remove the older stones44 The simplest method for having a cityrsquos decision de facto abolished being the destruction of the inscription preserving it in an honorary decree of Priene for Euandros Sabyllou from Larisa in Thessaly (ca 300290 BC)45

the invalidity clause not only strikes any proposition against the current decree but also guarantees the physical integrity of the stele containing it which had been just re-erected

In general in decrees akyron is used in the sense of an act46 not having the legal effects it would normally have47 It is not ldquonon-existentrdquo but no commitment or valid obligation can derive from

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 37 Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 33-47 38 FD III 437 C lines 15-16 ὑπεναντίον τούτῳ τῷ νόmicroῳ microή τις ποείτω ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ ὅσα τέ τινας κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον δεῖ ποεῖν ποεῖτε microήτε τις ποείτω ᾧ ο[ὗ]|[τ]ος ὁ νόmicroος κατὰ παρεύρεσιν ἀκυρωθῇ ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ microήτε τις ποείτω microήτε| ἐπικρινάτω ὧι ἔλασσον ὅσα δεῖ κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον γέν[η]ταιmiddot 39 On this matter see Rubinstein L 2008 115 40 The law allowed the person guilty of the crime to be declared atimos and killed by anyone 41 IK Kyme 11 lines 10-13 αἰ δ[ὲ (microὴ) mdash mdash mdash]| [ἄτιmicroος θνασ]κέτω κτεινέτω δὲ αὐτὸν ὁ θέλωνmiddot ὁ δὲ ἀ[ποκτείναις]| [εὐάγης ἔστω κ]αὶ καθαρόςmiddot αἰ δέ ποι ἐν νόmicroῳ τινὶ ἄλ[λο τι γράφηται]|[ἐνάντιον τῷ ν]όmicroῳ τούτῳ ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 42 Provided the decrees were not superseding the law Hyp Ath 322 καὶ ὁ microὲν Σόλων οὐδ᾽ ὃ δικαίως ἔγραφεν ψήφισmicroά τις τοῦ νόmicroου οἴεται δεῖν κυριώτερον εἶναι σὺ δὲ καὶ τὰς ἀδίκους συνθήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων τῶν νόmicroων Such a law was in fact passed under the archonship of Euclides in 403|2 MacDowell 1962 128 43 In Athens the decree of Isotimides which barred anyone who had confessed to an act of impiety from entering the temples and the agora cancelled a former decree guaranteeing indemnity for disclosures This decree was at the origin of Andocidersquos conviction and exile from Athens When the Amnesty of 403 BC finally allowed Andocides to return home and in 400 he was put on trial for violating the Isotimides decree he won an acquittal with his defense speech On the Mysteries proving that the latter decree had been annulled And 18 ἢ περὶ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος τοῦ Ἰσοτιmicroίδου ὡς ἄκυρόν ἐστιν 44 On examples see Sickinger J P 2008103 n 21 22 45 Priene 46 lines 7-10 [ἐὰν δέ τις περὶ τ]ού[το]υ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἢ τῆς στή|[λης τῆς νῦν ἀ]πο[κα]θισταmicroένης ἢ| ἄρχων προτιθῆι|[ἢ ἰδιώτης συ]γ[κα]ταλύειν βουλόmicroενος τὴν δωρε|[ὰν τοῦ δή]microου ἄ[κ]υρα ἔστω middot 46 Invalidity concerned actions A judicial verdict could allthough indirectly annul a previous refusal to act as it illustrated in the speech by Lys 919 microήτε τοὺς βέλτιον καὶ δικαίως βουλευσαmicroένους ἀκύρους καταστήσητε The speaker (Polyaeunus) had been fined by the generals for slander a fine which was subsequently reported to the treasurers to collect as unpaid debt the latter refusing to do so on the grounds (if we are to believe the speaker) that it had been irregularly and maliciously imposed The speaker is asking the jury not to invalidate the decision of those who have acted on a better and on a just consideration 47 This is also the meaning of akyron used by Aristotle when he explains the supremacy of men over women children and slaves in order to define the invalidity of the womenrsquos willpower Arist Pol 1260a ἄλλον γὰρ

13 13

913

such an act for being opposite to a prior interdiction and its effects can be immediately revoked without further decision In one occasion invalidity strikes a simple petition leading to the dedication of a statue in a public space in a decree concerning the temenos of Asklepeios in Rhodes (datation unknown) it is forbidden to anyone to submit a petition to erect a statue or other dedication at a certain area of the temenos in order not to obstruct the walks and policemen are instructed to remove to another place any dedication erected in spite of the interdiction48 Sometimes a specific action or proposal that may diminish the impact of a donorrsquos benefaction may also be declared ldquoinvalidrdquo In a dedication inscription from Cos (dated from the end of the first or beginning of the second century AD) a donator prescribes that no other statue may be erected on the same platform and that any attempt to contravene this shall be immediately null and void49

Entrenchment clauses

The most frequent occurrence of the ἄκυρον term in decrees concerns entrenchment clauses provisions that make decisions unamendable50 which as Rubinstein51 has correctly noted can be read as ldquoa guarantee issued to a particular individual group of individuals or to another communityrdquo regarding decisions that directly affect them52 Invalidity may be guaranteeing that a particular right bestowed upon a group of individuals would not be revoked In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe already mentioned an invalidity clause strikes any proposition by an archon or a rhetor introducing a contestation of the land given to the Nagidians53 In Thasos of early imperial times the same clause guarantees measures regarding the donation of lands and their subsequent possession by their owners54

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τρόπον τὸ ἐλεύθερον τοῦ δούλου ἄρχει καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν τοῦ θήλεος καὶ ἀνὴρ παιδός καὶ πᾶσιν ἐνυπάρχει microὲν τὰ microόρια τῆς ψυχῆς ἀλλrsquo ἐνυπάρχει διαφερόντως ὁ microὲν γὰρ δοῦλος ὅλως οὐκ ἔχει τὸ βουλευτικόν τὸ δὲ θῆλυ ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἄκυρον ὁ δὲ παῖς ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἀτελές 48 Suppl Epig Rodio 1 lines 10-22 microὴ ἐξέστω microηθενὶ αἰτήσασ|[θαι ἀνά]θεσιν ἀνδριάντος microηδὲ ἄλλου| [ἀναθ]ήmicroατος microηδενὸς ἐς τὸ κάτω microέρος| [τοῦ τ]εmicroένευς ἀπό τε τοῦ προπύλου| [ἐπrsquo ε]ὐθείας ἔστε ποτὶ τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα| [ὧ]ν ἐντι ταὶ αἰτήσιες πρότερον γεγενη|[micro]έναι ἢ ἐς ἄλλον τινα τόπον ἐν ὧι στα|θέντα τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα κωλύσει τοὺς περι|πάτουςmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἐν τούτωι τῶι τόπωι| αἰτήσηται ἀνάθεσιν ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐτ|[ῶ ] ι ἁ αἴτησις καὶ τοὶ ἀστυνόmicroοι εἴ κά τις| [ἀνα]θῆι microεθελόντω τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα ἐς ἄλ|[λον τ]όπονmiddot 49 Iscr di Cos ED 257 frg bcd1 lines 3-30 [κ]αὶ microηδενὶ ἄλλ[ῳ ἐ]ξῆ|microεν microήτε ἰδιώ[τᾳ micro]ήτε ἄρ|χοντι microήτε γυmicro[να]σιάρχῳ| ἢ ἐπιmicroελητᾷ τᾶς [γε]ρουσί|ας καθόλου microήτε εἰκόνα| microήτε ἄγαλmicroα microήτε ἀνδρι|άντα ἀναθέmicroεν ἐν ταύ|τᾳ τᾷ ἐξέδρᾳ τρόπῳ microηδε|νὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσι microηδε|micro ιᾷ microήτε τινὰ γνώmicroαν ἀ|γορεῦσαι περὶ τοῦ τειmicroαὶ| ἄλλου τινὸς ἀνασταθῆ|microεν ἢ ἀνατεθῆmicroεν ἐν αὐτᾶι | αἰ δέ κά τίς ποτε ἐπ[ι]χιρήσῃ ἢ εἰπεῖν ἢ γνώmicroαν ε[ἰ]σαγῆσ|θαι ἢ ἄλλως τι παρὰ τ[αῦ]τα πρ[ᾶ]|ξαι θελήσῃ τὸ microὲν ἐ[πιχ]ειρ ι[σ]|θὲν ἢ καὶ πιρασθὲν [ῥηθῆναι]|ἢ πραχθῆναι παραχρῆ[microα ἄκυ]|ρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστ[ω καὶ microη]|δὲν ἦσσον τὰ διατε[ταγmicroένα]|ὑπrsquo ἐmicroοῦ κύρια καὶ ἀmicro[ετακίνη]|τα ὑπαρχέτω καὶ ὁ [αἴτιος εἴ]|τε ἰδιώτας εἴτε ἄρ[χων εἴτε]|γυmicroνασίαρχος ἢ [ἐπιmicroε]|λητὰς εἴη τᾶς γ[ερουσίας ἀ]|ποτισάτω πα[ραχρῆmicroα δη]|νάρια χίλια 50 On entrenchment clauses in Athens see Schwartzberg M 2004 311-25 who maintains that the Athenians used entrenchment in highly restrictive contexts in certain financial decrees and in alliances and treaties exclusively for narrow strategic purposes in both the international and the domestic contexts and did not extend them to laws regulating the democracy 51 See Rubinstein L 2008117-118 identifying and categorizing a total of 80 examples of entrenchment clauses 52 IC II v 35 53 SEG 391426 lines 39- 45 microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ microηκέτι |[Ν]αγιδεῦσι παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶι περὶ τῆς χώρας τῆς δοθείσης| [α]ὐτοῖς κατὰ ψήφισmicroα τοῦτο ἀmicroφισβητῆσαι ἐὰν δέ τις ἄρχων προθῆι| [τι] δόγmicroα τltοιgtοῦτο ἢ ῥῆτωρ εἴπηι ὁ microὲν ἄρχων ἀποτεισάτω δραχmicroὰς microυρίας |[ἱερ]ὰς Ἀρσινόηι ἀπαραιτήτους ὁ δὲ ῥήτωρ δραχmicroὰς χιλίας καὶ ἡ γνώmicroη αὐ|[τῶ ]ν ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 54 IG XII Suppl 364 lines 7- 20 τὴν δὲ τῶν [ἀγρῶν κτῆσιν διατη]|ρεῖν ἀθάνατον ἡmicroᾶς καὶ microήτε [καταθεῖναί ποτε τοὺς]| ἀγροὺς ἡmicroᾶς microήτε ἀποδόσθαι [microηδενὶ microήτε συνόλους]| microήτε microέρη microήτε περι[ιδ]εῖν ἀπ[αλλοτριωθέντας αὐτοὺς]| κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τ[ις τῶν Θασίων περί τι]|νος τούτων ἢ γράψῃ ἢ ἐπιψ[ηφίσῃ ἢ ἀναγράψῃ εἰς τὸ]| τής πόλεως γραmicromicroατοφυλα[κεῖον τὴν γνώmicroην τὰ γραφέντα]| καὶ τὰ ψηφισθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι [καὶ ἀκρατῆ τὸν δὲ ἢ]| γράψαντα ἢ ἐπιψηφίσαντα ἢ ἀναγ[ράψαντα τὴν γνώ]|microην εἰς τὸ τῆς πόλεως | γραmicromicroατοφ[υλακεῖον ὀφεί]|λειν τοῖς τῶν Σεβαστῶν ναοῖς στατῆ[ρας

13 13

1013

When a future decree proposition (γνώmicroη) is declared invalid this invalidates in fact the whole decree voting procedure55 Detailed terms in entrenchment clauses56 often mention both private persons (ἰδιώτης) and city officials (ἄρχοντες ῥήτορες ἐπιmicroήνιοι) that may be involved the organs before which such propositions may take place (ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω) as well as all the steps leading to the adoption of new decisions (εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι) oraly or in writing (ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι) sometimes adding for the sake of exhaustivity the annulment of decisions ldquoin any other possible wayrdquo (τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν) The legislation process being an expression of the sovereignty of the demos the invalidity clause acts as a kind of limitation for future times of the operation of the majority principle57 in order to secure that no valid decision shall be reached in the future regulating the same matter in a different way Examples of rules that include a detailed enumeration of all possible ways of obtaining amendments declared a priori invalid include the law of Teos regulating the salaries of instructors for the youth58 and a decree of Chios forbidding the use of funds for other purposes than the ones prescribed

Chios 27 11 [mdash]ΙΑ καὶ micro[ὴ] ἐξεῖν[αι τ]οῖς [χρήmicroασι]

[τοῖς συναγ]οmicroένοις ἐκ τῆς [ὑ]ποσχέσεω[ς] [εἰς ἄλλο κ]αταχρῆσθαι microη[δ]ὲν ἢ εἰς τὰ [διατεταγ]micro ένα κατὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα

5 [ἐὰν δέ τις γ]ράψηι ἢ πρύτανις προ[θ]ῆι [ταῦτα εἰς ἄλ]λο τι microετενεγκεῖν ἢ κατα- [χρήσασθαι] ἢ ποιήσηι τίς τι παρὰ τόδε τὸ [ψήφισmicroα τό] τε γραφὲν ἢ πραχθὲν ἄκυρον [ἔστω καὶ ὀφε]ιλέτω τῆι πόλει δραχmicroὰς ΧΧΧ

10 [ὁ τούτων αἴτιο]ς καὶ ἔστω πρὸς τοῦτο [ὑποδικὸς κ]αθάπερ καὶ οἱ ἐξ ὠνῆς ὀφεί- [λοντες χρήmicro]ατα τῆι πόλειmiddot

In entrenchment clauses invalidity is either explicit or may be implied if (only) penalties or curses are directed against anyone who tries to annul the current provisions59 In order to invest an entrenchment clause with effectiveness invalidity apparently not being considered always sufficient in order to deter citizens from introducing changes in the future the provision of penalties60 added a financial risk to the challenge Combined sanctions (invalidity plus fine) are included in sacred laws61 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τετρα]|[κ]ισmicroυρίους καὶ ἄτιmicroον εἶναι καὶ αὐτὸν κ[αὶ γένος]middot [ἐνέχ]εσθαι δὲ αὐτοὺς καὶ τῆι εἰς τοὺς Σε[βαστοὺς ἀσε]|[βείαιmiddot 55 Cf the use of ἄκυρον in the Athenaion Politeia on the lack of sovereignety of the Boule to decide by itself Arist AthPol 454 τούτων microὲν οὖν ἄκυρός ἐστιν ἡ βουλήmiddot προβουλεύει δrsquoεἰς τὸν δῆmicroον καὶ οὐκ ἔξεστιν οὐδὲν ἀπροβούλευτον οὐδrsquo ὅ τι ἂν microὴ προγράψωσιν οἱ πρυτάνεις ψηφίσασθαι τῷ δήmicroῳ κατrsquo αὐτὰ γὰρ ταῦτα ἔνοχός ἐστιν ὁ νικήσας γραφῇ παρανόmicroων 5613 On entrenchment clauses and different measures aiming to preserve important resources and to guarantee compliance with relevant rules in late Hellenistic and imperial times see Harter-Uibopuu K 2013 (forthcoming)13 57 The interdiction and nullity clause for future decree propositions may have constituted in Athens grounds for a graphe paranomon 58 Teos 41 lines 40-46 ἢν δὲ οἱ ἐνεστηκότες ταmicroίαι ἢ οἱ ἑκάστοτε γινόmicroενοι| microὴ παραδῶσιν τὸ ἀργύριον τοῦτο κατὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα v3 ἢ ἄλλος τις ἄρχων| ἢ ἰδιώτης εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι ἐναντίον τού| τωι ἢ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον ἄρηι τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν ὡς δεῖ τὸ ἀργύρι| ον κινηθῆναι ἢ microὴ ἀναλίσκεσθαι ἀπrsquo αὐτοῦ εἰς ἃ ὁ νόmicroος συντάσσει ἢ ἄλλ[ηι που]| καταχωρισθῆναι καὶ microὴ εἰς ἃ ἐν τῶιδε τῶι νόmicroωι διατέτακται τά τε πραχθέν|τα ἄκυρα ἔστω 59 On examples of such inscriptions see Sickinger J P 2008 104 n 24 25 60 See Rubinstein L 2012329-354 61 IK Kalchedon 10 lines 10-13 [ὃς δέ] κα εἴπῃ ἢ προαισιmicroνάσηι ἢ ἐν [β]ουλᾶι ἢ ἐν δάmicroωι ὀ|[φειλέτω] δραχmicroὰς Μ ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἡρακλεῖος καὶ τὰ| [προαισ]ιmicroναθέντα ἢ ῥηθέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

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from the Asklepieion of Kos (dated from the end of the first century BC) concerning the sale of the priesthoods of Aphrodite Pandamos and Pontia62 and of Asklepios63 invalidating any decree proposing a different use of the thesauros of the sanctuary The penalties are not linked to any concrete damage (βλάβη) that may be incurred by any party64 to any demand of restitution to any unjust enrichment or transfer of property but rely upon the (implied) public interest and the collective (moral) damage of the community or of the sanctuary in case the current regulations are changed65 The combination of legal invalidity to penalties introduce thus avant la lettre the concept of the Roman lex perfecta to Greek law as laws including both a sanction and the nullity of anything contrary to a particular clause of the law as well as the interdiction of future amendments of the statute The earliest occurrences date from the early fourth century BC in an honorary decree from Athens for Sthorys the Thasian (dated 3943) where invalidity combined with penalties is threatened against anyone ldquonullifyingrdquo these honors66 Regarding the penalties combined with invalidity in some decrees concerning matters of particular importance for the city the collection procedure of the fines was also defined ad hoc as in a fourth century BC citizenship decree from Thasos67 in a decree of Miletus68 (2054 BC) instituting a public eisphora for the citizens in order to cover public deficit69 The penalties associated to the invalidity clause may also be escalating by analogy to the importance of the matter regulated or of the person honored by the decree A decree by the Nasiotai bestowing honors to Thersippos (ca 315 BC) for his benefactions in connection to Alexanderrsquos campaigns invalidates all future amendments in combination to severe penalties such as fines threats of atimia and treason charges for acting against the democracy plus a curse against anyone proposing their abolition70

Invalidity clauses may also be included in decisions issued by private associations forbidding that any of the honors bestowed upon their benefactors may be postponed or cancelled71 and this as it

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 62 SEG 50766 back face1 lines 20-24 τὸ δὲ χρῆmicroα τοῦ|το ὑπαρχέτω ἐς κατασκευάσmicroατα ἅ κα δόξῃ τᾶι ἐκλησίαι καὶ ἐς ἐπισ|κευὰν τοῦ ἱεροῦmiddot αἰ δέ κά τις ψαφίξηται ὥστε ἐς ἄλλο τι καταχρη[σ]θῆmicroεν| τὰ ἐκ τῶν θησαυρῶν ἢ προστάτας προθῆι ἀποτισάτω τῶν αἰτίων ἕκασ|τος δραχmicroὰς χειλίας ἱερὰς τᾶς Ἀφροδίτας καὶ ἁ γνώmicroα ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 63 SEG 511066 frg ab lines 31-35 microὴ ἐξέστωι δὲ microήτε]|ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδιώιται [microηδενὶ ἐς ἄλλο καταχρήσασθαι τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ χρήmicroατα]| ἢ microετάγεν τὰς ἀπrsquo αὐτῶ[ιν ποθόδους mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αὐτῶι ἔστωι περὶ πᾶν ὅτι [κα γράψηι ἢ ἐπιψαφίξηι καὶ ἀποτινέτωι (δραχmicroὰς) mdashʹ]| καὶ ἁ γνώιmicroαι ἄκυρος ἤτ[ω 64 On blabe initially limited in cases of damages included in the law see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993191 65 On the notion ἀδικεῖν τὴν πόλιν see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 199391-94 66 IG IIsup2 17 lines 31-33 ἐὰν δέ τις τα[ῦτ]α ἄκυρ[α ποῆι ὀφελέ]|τω χιλίας [δ]ραχmicroὰς ἱερ[ὰς τῆ]ι Ἀθηνα[ίαι καὶ τῶι Ἀπό]|λλωνι τῶ[ι] Πυθίωι ἑτέρα[ς] 67 IG XII 8 267 lines 11-16 microὴ [ἐξεῖ]|ναι δὲ ὑπὲρ τούτων microηδενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτrsquo ἐπε[λθεῖ]ν ὑπὲρ λύσιος microήτrsquo ἐπιψηφίσαι ἀκρατέα εἶνα[ι ταῦ]|τα τὰ ἐψηφισmicroένα ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ ταῦτα εἴπηι ἢ ἐπέλθηι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι τά τε δόξαντα ἄκυρα ἔστω κα[ὶ χι]|λίους στατῆρας ὀφειλέτω ἱεροὺς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίωι χιλίους δὲ τῆι πόλει δικασάσθων δὲ ο[ἱ ἀπό]|λογοιmiddot ἂν δὲ microὴ δικάσωνται αὐτοὶ ὀφειλόντων δικασάσθων δὲ ἀπόλογοι οἱ microετὰ τούτους αἱρεθέντε[ς]middot|δικασάσθω δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὁ ἐθέλων καὶ ἂν ὁ ἰδιώτης νικήσηι microετεῖναι αὐτῶι τὸ ἥmicroυσυ τὴς καταδί[κης] On this inscription see Fournier J 2012 360-361 Cf also the invalidity clause in IG XII8 264 from Thassos (beginning 4th century BC) 68 See Migeotte L 1984 no97 69 Miletos 41 Lines 24- 29 ἐὰν δέ τις εἴπηι| ἢ προθῇ ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι τά τε γραφθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ ὀφείλειν ἕκαστον τῶν αἰτίων| στατῆρας χιλίους καὶ εἶναι ἄτιmicroον ἕως ἂν ἐκτείσηι καὶ microηθὲν ἧσ|σον ἐξαιρεῖσθαι τὸ τεταγmicroένον ὑπὸ τῶν microετὰ ταῦτα γινοmicroένων| ἀνατακτῶν 70 IG XII2 645 b1 lines 32-58 κα|[ὶ microὴ ἔ]micromicroεναι [π]|[ὰρ τ]αῦτα microήτε| [ἄ]ρχοντι προθ|[έ]microεναι microήτε ῥ|[ή]τορι εἶπαι micro|[ή]τε ἐπιmicroηνί[ω]| [ἐ]σένικαιmiddot αἰ δ|[έ] κέ τις ἢ ῥήτω|[ρ] εἴπη ἢ ἄρχων| [ἐσ]αγάγη [ἢ]| [ἐπ]ιmicroήνιος ἐσ[εν]ίκη ἄκυρά τ|[ε] ἔστω καὶ ὀφε|[λ]λέτω ἔκαστο|[ς] στάτηρας τρ|[ ια]κοσίοις ἴρ|[οι]ς τῶ Ἀσκλαπ|[ίω] καὶ ἐπάρατ|[ος] ἔστω καὶ ἄτι|[microος] καὶ γένος| [ε]ἰς τὸν πάντα| [χρ]όνον καὶ ἐν| ἔστω τῶ νόmicro|[ω π]ερὶ τῶ καλλ|[ύο]ντος τὸν δᾶ|[microον] 71 Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros IG XII1 155 face

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is stated in one decree in view of the importance of making an example of the benefaction72 Invalidity in entrenchment clauses in relation to endowments is aiming to prevent any different use of the funds or of the property donated by the benefactor73 as in the testament of Epicteta (dated around 210-195 BC)74 It also guarantees that no alteration of the exact terms of use of the donation75 will take place and nullifies any transaction that may jeopardize the capital donated76 The invalidity clause striking future different decree propositions was aiming to preserve the benefactorrsquos instructions and will (κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν) as it is clearly stated in an honorary decree from Eretria (ca 100 BC)77

The practice of sanctioning entrenchment clauses with invalidity reinforced by fines continued into Roman times Invalidity of future decrees or deliberations was sometimes mentioned as having

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 III85 lines 95-100 τ[ὸ]| δὲ ψάφισmicroα τόδ[ε κ]ύριον ἔστω εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρό|νον καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδι|ώται microήτε κινεῖν microήτε γνώmicroαν γράψασθαι|microήτε τοῖς ἄρχουσι προτιθέmicroειν ὡς δεῖ τὰς δ[ε]|δοmicroένας τιmicroὰς Διονυσοδώρωι ἀκύρους εἴmicro|microειν middot ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἀποτεισάτω τὸ γε|γραmicromicroένον ἐπιτίmicroιον δραχmicroὰς ἑκατόν καὶ ἁ γνώmicro[α]|[α]ὐτοῦ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἔνοχος ἔστω τῶι νό|microωι τῶι ἀκινήτωι 72 Honorary decree (dated after 1532 BC found in Delos) of the koinon of the Βηρυτίων Ποσ[ειδω|νιαστῶν ἐmicroπόρω]ν καὶ ναυκλήρων [καὶ ἐ]γδοχέων for their Roman benefactor the banker Marcus Minatius Sextus ID 1520 lines 57-61 ὅπως ἂν ἀΐδιοι διαmicroένωσι τοῖς εὐεργέταις αἱ δοθεῖσαι τι|[micro]αί microηθενὶ ἐξέστωι microήτε ἰδιώτηι microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτ[ε]| [γ]ράψαι ὡς δεῖ τῶν δεδοmicroένων τιmicroῶν microεταθεῖναι ἢ ἀφελεῖν ἢ ἀκυρ[όν]| [τ] ι ποιῆσαι παρὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ εἴπας ἢ ὁ ἀναγνοὺς| [ἢ] ὁ προθεὶς ἢ ὁ ἐπιχειροτονήσας ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἐξώλης εἴη| [α]ὐτὸς καὶ τὰ τέ[κν]α αὐτοῦ τοῖς δὲ ταῦτα ἐπιτηροῦσι εἴη καὶ βίου καὶ| τέκνων καὶ ὑπαρχόντων ὄνησις καὶ εἴη αὐτοῖς σώιζεσθαι καὶ κατ[ὰ]| [γ]ῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν καὶ ὁ παρὰ ταῦτα ποιήσας ἀποτινέτω| δραχmicroὰς στεφανηφόρους ἑξακισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ποσειδῶ|νος καὶ ὑπόδικος ἔστω τῶι ἀδικουmicroένωιmiddot 73 A decree from Eresos in Lesbos (dating from the middle of the third century BC) regarding the donation by Agemortos of some source of income to be used for sacrifices forbids and invalidates any encumberance or any other use of the income and any such proposition before the council or the assembly IG ΧΙΙ2 529 lines 3- 9 microηδὲ ὐποθέ|[microεναι microηδrsquo ἐγγύ]ασθαι microήδενι microηδὲ ὐπό|θεσθα[ι] microηδrsquo εἴπην ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω microήδενα ὡς δεῖ περιβάλεσθαι| τὰν θυσίαν microηδὲ τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς ἄλλο| κατάταξαι microῆδενmiddot αἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρα ἔmicromicroεναι| τὰ πράχθεντα middot 74 In the inscription recording the legacy she left to her daughter Epiteleia Epicteta was founding a sanctuary to the Muses and her own deceased ancestors and providing for the establishment of an association dedicated to the worship of the Muses her will including an invalidity clause for future amendments by third parties IG XII 3 330 B1 lines 263-267 middot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἢ εἴπει ἢ γράψει | τό τε ῥηθὲν ἢ γραφὲν ἄκυρον ἔστω καὶ ὁ| εἴπας ἢ γράψας στερέσθω τοῦ κοινοῦ καὶ ὁ|φειλ[έ]τω αὐτῶι δραχmicroὰς πεντακοσίας| καὶ πρακτὸς ἔστω καὶ ἀπὸ ἐνεχυρασίας| κατὰ τὸς νόmicroος ὑπὸ τοῦ χρῄζοντος τῶν| συγγενῶν 75 Decree of Didyma establishing annual distribution of food on the occasion of the birthday of Eumenes II (dated 1598 BC) Didyma 13 lines 41-49 microὴ εἶναι microη|θενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτε ἀναγνῶναι microήτε προθεῖ|ναι microήτε προγράψαι microήτε ἐπιψηφίσαι ὡς δεῖ microε|τατεθῆναι τὰ χρήmicroατα εἰς ἄλλο τι καὶ microὴ ὑπάρχει[ν]|εἰς τὰ ἐν τῶι ψηφίσmicro[ατι] κατακεχωρισmicroένα ἐὰν δ[έ]|τις παρὰ ταῦτα π[ράξηι] τρόπωι ltὁτωιgtοῦν τό τε γρ[α]|φὲν ἄκυρον ἔσ[τω ὁ δὲ π]ράξας τι τῶν ἀπειρη|microένων [ἀποτεισάτω στατῆρας] δισχιλίους ἱεροὺς|το[ῦ Ἀπόλλωνος τοῦ Διδυmicro]έωςmiddot 76 The decree of Delphi of 16059 BC regulating the usage of a donation by king Attalos of an important amount of money to the city to be used for the childrenrsquos education and for sacrifices invalidates and punishes by fine any proposition or decision for a different use than the one prescribed by the decree Syllsup3 672 lines 15-19 εἰ δέ τις τούτων τι ποιή|σαι ἢ ἄρχων ἢ ἰδιώτας κατάmicroαστρος ἔστω ἱερῶν χρηmicroάτων φω|ρᾶς καὶ οἱ microαστροὶ καταγραφόντω κατrsquo αὐτοῦ κατὰ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ ἄλ|λως microετενεγχθὲν ἀργύριον ὀκταπλοῦν καὶ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ διαινε|θὲν ἄκυρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστω 77 IG XII9 236 lines 51-61 ὅπως δὲ microένῃ τὸ ἀνακείmicroενον ἀσφα|λῶς κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν καὶ εἰς ἄλλο| microηθὲν ἦι καταχρήσασθαι microηθενὶ ἐξουσίαν εἶναι ἀπὸ| τούτου τοῦ διαφόρου microηδὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ πίπτοντος ἀπrsquo|αὐτοῦ τόκου microήτε καταχρήσασθαι εἰς ἄλλο microηθὲν| microήτε ἐπιψηφίσασθαι microήτε ἐπερωτῆσαιmiddot εἰ δὲ microή ὅ τε γρά|ψας ἢ ἐπερωτήσας | ὀφειλέτω ἱερὰς τῆς Ἀρτέmicroιδος|δραχmicroὰς ἑξακισmicroυρίας καὶ ἔστω ἀπαγωγὴ κατrsquo αὐ|τοῦ τῷ βουλοmicroένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ τρίτῳ microέρει πρὸς τοὺς| ἄρχοντας καὶ τὰ γραφέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

1313

immediate effect78 The expression οὐδὲν ἔλασσον (no less) preceding in some decrees the invalidity clause shows it was considered the last but not least necessary complement of entrenchment clauses79 In view of the change of political settings invalidity is now sometimes aiming the archonsrsquos orders or the cityrsquos ekdikos propositions (or anybody elsersquos) and the fines are collected by the Roman fiscus80 In a decree from Miletus concerning the cityrsquos and the imperial cults any different use of the funds and any act contravening the purpose secured by this statute (τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]) would be invalid and the archon introducing such a proposition would be guilty of impiety against the gods and guilty ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης of the payment of a fine81 Three documents from Ephesus dating from AD 104 show how invalidity had become a standard term aiming to secure the proper execution of the will of the benefactor which was ratified both by the Roman officialrsquos and by the cityrsquos decisions The invalidity clause of future amendments is first mentioned in the letter of Caius Vibius Salutaris offering several benefactions to the boule and demos of Ephesus in form of a legal document82 second the proconsul Gaius Aquillius Proculus in his letter to the archontes boule and demos of Ephesus approves the benefaction of Gaius Vibius Salutaris and ratifies the invalidity

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 78 SE 241 frg hcol 21 lines 7-8 [mdash]ασmicroένων καὶ τὰς ltσgtυνεγmicroεmicroισθωmicroένας αὐτοῖς προσόδους ἀνεξαλλ[άκτας mdash]| [mdash] ψηφισθὲν χρηmicroατισθὲν ἔστω παραχρῆmicroα ἄκυρον κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ποιησαmicro[ένου mdash] 79 In one instance in a decree of Mytilene instituting celebrations in the context of the emperial cult the city threatens with invalidity all actions or propositions of private citizens or magistrates contravening the celebrations and relevant procedures these being considered synonymous with the safeguard of the citys liberty and democracy and sympoliteia since the city had recently seen its status as an ally of Rome confirmed by Augustus IG XII2 59 lines 6-12 ἢ οἰ ἐξ αὔτων γράψωσι ἢ συν[κλήτω δόγmicroα mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αἰ δέ κέ τις ἢ ἰδίωτας ἢ ἄρχων παρ[άβαις τι τῶν ἐν mdash mdash mdash γεγραmicromicroέ]|[νω]ν καὶ ἐν τῶ ψαφίσmicroατι τούτω microὴ πέmicroψη [mdash mdash mdash mdash καττὸν ἐψαφίσθη]| τρόπον ἢ microὴ φυλάξη τὰν τάξιν τᾶς ἀναγράφα[ς mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἄκυ]|ρον ἔστω καὶ ὐπεύθυνος ἔστω ὁ παράβαις [mdash mdash mdash ὠς καταλύων ταὶς τῶν]| Σεβάστων καὶ τῶ οἴκω αὔτων τείmicroαις καὶ ἀναίρεις [mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἐλευ]|θερίας καὶ δαmicroοκρατίας καὶ συmicroπολειτίας 80 In an honorary decree of the boule and demos for Gaius Caninius Synallasson found at Iasos regulating the foundation he established for the gymnasium of the neoi (ca 117-138 AD) Iasos 21 lines 54-67 ἐφrsquo ᾧ οὐ|δενὶ ἐξέσται ἄρχοντι οὐδὲ ἑτέρῳ οὐδενὶ microε|ταδιατάξαι ἕτερόν τι περὶ τούτων τῶν πεντα|κισχειλίων δηναρίων ἢ τῆς προσόδου αὐτῶν| ἐκτὸς ἐὰν microὴ χωρίων ἀγορασθησοmicroένων τοῖς| νέοις δεήσῃ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς τὴν τει|microὴν τῶν ἀγορασθησοmicroένων ἀγρῶν χωρῆσαι| ἐφrsquo ᾧ καὶ οὕτως microενεῖ ἡ πρόσοδος αἰεὶ εἰς τὸ ἄλιmicroα| τῶν νέων καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot ἐπεὶ ὁ ὑπεναντί|ον τούτοις ποιήσας τι ἀποδώσει εἰς τὸν τοῦ κυ|ρίου Καίσαρος φίσκον δηνάρια πεντακισχείλια| καὶ οὐδὲν ἔλασσον ἔσται τὸ microεταδιαταγὲν ἄκυρον| καὶ microενεῖ τὰ πεντακισχείλια δηνάρια καὶ ἡ πρόσοδος| αὐτῶν τοῖς νέοις καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot 81 Miletos 15 lines 18-33 microηδενὶ δὲ ἐξεῖναι microήτε| ἄρχοντι microήτε ἑτέρῳ τινὶ microεταγαγεῖν εἰς| ἀργυρικὸν πόρον τὰς λειτουργίας ταύτα[ς]| τρόπῳ microηδενὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσει microηδεmicro[ι]|ᾷmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις ὑπεναντίον τι πράξῃ τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]| τὸ microὲν γενόmicroενον ᾥτινιοῦν τρόπῳ ὑ|πάρχειν ἄκυρον τὸν δὲ ψηφισάmicroενον ἄρ|χοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον ὑπάρχειν τῶν προ|γεγραmicromicroένων θεῶν καὶ ὀφείλειν αὐτὸν| ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης στατῆρας φʹ ἱερούς| καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον τὸν microὴ ἐπιτελέσαντα| προφήτην τοὺς κόσmicroους ἢ τὸν microὴ ποή|σαντα στεφανηφόρον τοὺς microολποὺς εἰσ|πράσσεσθαι ἐπάναγκες τὰς προδεδηλωmicroέ|νας εὐωχίαςmiddot 82 Ephesos 212 lines 315- 325 microηδὲν δὲ ἐξέστω ἄρχοντι ἢ ἐκδίκῳ ἢ ἰδιώ|τῃ πεσαί τι ἀλλάξαι ἢ microεταθεῖναι ἢ microετοικονοmicroῆσαι ἢ microετα|ψηφίασθα τῶν καθιερωmicroένων ἀπεικονισmicroάτων ἢ τοῦ| ἀργυρίου ἢ τῆς ροσόδου αὐτοῦ ἢ microεταθεῖναι εἰς ἕτερον πόρον| ἢ ἀνάωmicroα ἢ ἄλο τι ποῆσαι παρὰ τὰ προγεγραmicromicroένα καὶ δια|τετmicroένα ἐπεὶ τὸ γενόmicroενον παρὰ ταῦτα ἔστω ἄκυρον middot| ὁ δὲ περάσας ποιῆσαί τι ὑπεναντίον τῇ διατάξει ἢ τοῖς| ὑπὸ τς βουῆς καὶ τοῦ δήmicroου ἐψηφισmicroένοις καὶ ἐπικεκυ|ρωmicroέν ταύτης τῆς διατάξεως ἀποτεισάτω εἰς| προσκῆς microεης θεᾶς Ἀρτέmicroιδος δη(νάρια) δισmicroύρια| εταβαστοῦ φίσκον ἄλλα δη(νάρια) βʹ Μ ͵ε

13 13

1413

clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

13 13

1513

60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

813

piratis persequendis37 found in Delphi (ca 101-100 BC)38 ordering the Roman Governors of the Provinces of Macedonia and Asia to take measures against pirates and to insure the collection of public revenues

Conflicts of laws

Direct abolition of enactments referred to as νόmicroοι or θεσmicroοί are rare39 One such example is a law of Kyme (Aeol) dating from the third century BC regarding a serious crime and judgments rendered by the dikasopoi40 If any other law included any clause contrary to this one it is declared invalid41 This term did not aim at a particular statute but resolved the matter of potential conflicts of laws by stating the supremacy of this legal rule over any conflicting one

Nullification regarding decrees and petitions

Nullification of a cityrsquos decree42 could derive from a clause contained in a subsequent decree New legislation sometimes incorporated provisions that nullified previous or inconsistent statutes43 but most often this was done by giving instructions to physically remove the older stones44 The simplest method for having a cityrsquos decision de facto abolished being the destruction of the inscription preserving it in an honorary decree of Priene for Euandros Sabyllou from Larisa in Thessaly (ca 300290 BC)45

the invalidity clause not only strikes any proposition against the current decree but also guarantees the physical integrity of the stele containing it which had been just re-erected

In general in decrees akyron is used in the sense of an act46 not having the legal effects it would normally have47 It is not ldquonon-existentrdquo but no commitment or valid obligation can derive from

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 37 Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 33-47 38 FD III 437 C lines 15-16 ὑπεναντίον τούτῳ τῷ νόmicroῳ microή τις ποείτω ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ ὅσα τέ τινας κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον δεῖ ποεῖν ποεῖτε microήτε τις ποείτω ᾧ ο[ὗ]|[τ]ος ὁ νόmicroος κατὰ παρεύρεσιν ἀκυρωθῇ ἄνευ δόλου πονηροῦ microήτε τις ποείτω microήτε| ἐπικρινάτω ὧι ἔλασσον ὅσα δεῖ κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον γέν[η]ταιmiddot 39 On this matter see Rubinstein L 2008 115 40 The law allowed the person guilty of the crime to be declared atimos and killed by anyone 41 IK Kyme 11 lines 10-13 αἰ δ[ὲ (microὴ) mdash mdash mdash]| [ἄτιmicroος θνασ]κέτω κτεινέτω δὲ αὐτὸν ὁ θέλωνmiddot ὁ δὲ ἀ[ποκτείναις]| [εὐάγης ἔστω κ]αὶ καθαρόςmiddot αἰ δέ ποι ἐν νόmicroῳ τινὶ ἄλ[λο τι γράφηται]|[ἐνάντιον τῷ ν]όmicroῳ τούτῳ ἄκυρον ἔστω middot 42 Provided the decrees were not superseding the law Hyp Ath 322 καὶ ὁ microὲν Σόλων οὐδ᾽ ὃ δικαίως ἔγραφεν ψήφισmicroά τις τοῦ νόmicroου οἴεται δεῖν κυριώτερον εἶναι σὺ δὲ καὶ τὰς ἀδίκους συνθήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων τῶν νόmicroων Such a law was in fact passed under the archonship of Euclides in 403|2 MacDowell 1962 128 43 In Athens the decree of Isotimides which barred anyone who had confessed to an act of impiety from entering the temples and the agora cancelled a former decree guaranteeing indemnity for disclosures This decree was at the origin of Andocidersquos conviction and exile from Athens When the Amnesty of 403 BC finally allowed Andocides to return home and in 400 he was put on trial for violating the Isotimides decree he won an acquittal with his defense speech On the Mysteries proving that the latter decree had been annulled And 18 ἢ περὶ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος τοῦ Ἰσοτιmicroίδου ὡς ἄκυρόν ἐστιν 44 On examples see Sickinger J P 2008103 n 21 22 45 Priene 46 lines 7-10 [ἐὰν δέ τις περὶ τ]ού[το]υ τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἢ τῆς στή|[λης τῆς νῦν ἀ]πο[κα]θισταmicroένης ἢ| ἄρχων προτιθῆι|[ἢ ἰδιώτης συ]γ[κα]ταλύειν βουλόmicroενος τὴν δωρε|[ὰν τοῦ δή]microου ἄ[κ]υρα ἔστω middot 46 Invalidity concerned actions A judicial verdict could allthough indirectly annul a previous refusal to act as it illustrated in the speech by Lys 919 microήτε τοὺς βέλτιον καὶ δικαίως βουλευσαmicroένους ἀκύρους καταστήσητε The speaker (Polyaeunus) had been fined by the generals for slander a fine which was subsequently reported to the treasurers to collect as unpaid debt the latter refusing to do so on the grounds (if we are to believe the speaker) that it had been irregularly and maliciously imposed The speaker is asking the jury not to invalidate the decision of those who have acted on a better and on a just consideration 47 This is also the meaning of akyron used by Aristotle when he explains the supremacy of men over women children and slaves in order to define the invalidity of the womenrsquos willpower Arist Pol 1260a ἄλλον γὰρ

13 13

913

such an act for being opposite to a prior interdiction and its effects can be immediately revoked without further decision In one occasion invalidity strikes a simple petition leading to the dedication of a statue in a public space in a decree concerning the temenos of Asklepeios in Rhodes (datation unknown) it is forbidden to anyone to submit a petition to erect a statue or other dedication at a certain area of the temenos in order not to obstruct the walks and policemen are instructed to remove to another place any dedication erected in spite of the interdiction48 Sometimes a specific action or proposal that may diminish the impact of a donorrsquos benefaction may also be declared ldquoinvalidrdquo In a dedication inscription from Cos (dated from the end of the first or beginning of the second century AD) a donator prescribes that no other statue may be erected on the same platform and that any attempt to contravene this shall be immediately null and void49

Entrenchment clauses

The most frequent occurrence of the ἄκυρον term in decrees concerns entrenchment clauses provisions that make decisions unamendable50 which as Rubinstein51 has correctly noted can be read as ldquoa guarantee issued to a particular individual group of individuals or to another communityrdquo regarding decisions that directly affect them52 Invalidity may be guaranteeing that a particular right bestowed upon a group of individuals would not be revoked In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe already mentioned an invalidity clause strikes any proposition by an archon or a rhetor introducing a contestation of the land given to the Nagidians53 In Thasos of early imperial times the same clause guarantees measures regarding the donation of lands and their subsequent possession by their owners54

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τρόπον τὸ ἐλεύθερον τοῦ δούλου ἄρχει καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν τοῦ θήλεος καὶ ἀνὴρ παιδός καὶ πᾶσιν ἐνυπάρχει microὲν τὰ microόρια τῆς ψυχῆς ἀλλrsquo ἐνυπάρχει διαφερόντως ὁ microὲν γὰρ δοῦλος ὅλως οὐκ ἔχει τὸ βουλευτικόν τὸ δὲ θῆλυ ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἄκυρον ὁ δὲ παῖς ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἀτελές 48 Suppl Epig Rodio 1 lines 10-22 microὴ ἐξέστω microηθενὶ αἰτήσασ|[θαι ἀνά]θεσιν ἀνδριάντος microηδὲ ἄλλου| [ἀναθ]ήmicroατος microηδενὸς ἐς τὸ κάτω microέρος| [τοῦ τ]εmicroένευς ἀπό τε τοῦ προπύλου| [ἐπrsquo ε]ὐθείας ἔστε ποτὶ τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα| [ὧ]ν ἐντι ταὶ αἰτήσιες πρότερον γεγενη|[micro]έναι ἢ ἐς ἄλλον τινα τόπον ἐν ὧι στα|θέντα τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα κωλύσει τοὺς περι|πάτουςmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἐν τούτωι τῶι τόπωι| αἰτήσηται ἀνάθεσιν ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐτ|[ῶ ] ι ἁ αἴτησις καὶ τοὶ ἀστυνόmicroοι εἴ κά τις| [ἀνα]θῆι microεθελόντω τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα ἐς ἄλ|[λον τ]όπονmiddot 49 Iscr di Cos ED 257 frg bcd1 lines 3-30 [κ]αὶ microηδενὶ ἄλλ[ῳ ἐ]ξῆ|microεν microήτε ἰδιώ[τᾳ micro]ήτε ἄρ|χοντι microήτε γυmicro[να]σιάρχῳ| ἢ ἐπιmicroελητᾷ τᾶς [γε]ρουσί|ας καθόλου microήτε εἰκόνα| microήτε ἄγαλmicroα microήτε ἀνδρι|άντα ἀναθέmicroεν ἐν ταύ|τᾳ τᾷ ἐξέδρᾳ τρόπῳ microηδε|νὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσι microηδε|micro ιᾷ microήτε τινὰ γνώmicroαν ἀ|γορεῦσαι περὶ τοῦ τειmicroαὶ| ἄλλου τινὸς ἀνασταθῆ|microεν ἢ ἀνατεθῆmicroεν ἐν αὐτᾶι | αἰ δέ κά τίς ποτε ἐπ[ι]χιρήσῃ ἢ εἰπεῖν ἢ γνώmicroαν ε[ἰ]σαγῆσ|θαι ἢ ἄλλως τι παρὰ τ[αῦ]τα πρ[ᾶ]|ξαι θελήσῃ τὸ microὲν ἐ[πιχ]ειρ ι[σ]|θὲν ἢ καὶ πιρασθὲν [ῥηθῆναι]|ἢ πραχθῆναι παραχρῆ[microα ἄκυ]|ρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστ[ω καὶ microη]|δὲν ἦσσον τὰ διατε[ταγmicroένα]|ὑπrsquo ἐmicroοῦ κύρια καὶ ἀmicro[ετακίνη]|τα ὑπαρχέτω καὶ ὁ [αἴτιος εἴ]|τε ἰδιώτας εἴτε ἄρ[χων εἴτε]|γυmicroνασίαρχος ἢ [ἐπιmicroε]|λητὰς εἴη τᾶς γ[ερουσίας ἀ]|ποτισάτω πα[ραχρῆmicroα δη]|νάρια χίλια 50 On entrenchment clauses in Athens see Schwartzberg M 2004 311-25 who maintains that the Athenians used entrenchment in highly restrictive contexts in certain financial decrees and in alliances and treaties exclusively for narrow strategic purposes in both the international and the domestic contexts and did not extend them to laws regulating the democracy 51 See Rubinstein L 2008117-118 identifying and categorizing a total of 80 examples of entrenchment clauses 52 IC II v 35 53 SEG 391426 lines 39- 45 microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ microηκέτι |[Ν]αγιδεῦσι παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶι περὶ τῆς χώρας τῆς δοθείσης| [α]ὐτοῖς κατὰ ψήφισmicroα τοῦτο ἀmicroφισβητῆσαι ἐὰν δέ τις ἄρχων προθῆι| [τι] δόγmicroα τltοιgtοῦτο ἢ ῥῆτωρ εἴπηι ὁ microὲν ἄρχων ἀποτεισάτω δραχmicroὰς microυρίας |[ἱερ]ὰς Ἀρσινόηι ἀπαραιτήτους ὁ δὲ ῥήτωρ δραχmicroὰς χιλίας καὶ ἡ γνώmicroη αὐ|[τῶ ]ν ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 54 IG XII Suppl 364 lines 7- 20 τὴν δὲ τῶν [ἀγρῶν κτῆσιν διατη]|ρεῖν ἀθάνατον ἡmicroᾶς καὶ microήτε [καταθεῖναί ποτε τοὺς]| ἀγροὺς ἡmicroᾶς microήτε ἀποδόσθαι [microηδενὶ microήτε συνόλους]| microήτε microέρη microήτε περι[ιδ]εῖν ἀπ[αλλοτριωθέντας αὐτοὺς]| κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τ[ις τῶν Θασίων περί τι]|νος τούτων ἢ γράψῃ ἢ ἐπιψ[ηφίσῃ ἢ ἀναγράψῃ εἰς τὸ]| τής πόλεως γραmicromicroατοφυλα[κεῖον τὴν γνώmicroην τὰ γραφέντα]| καὶ τὰ ψηφισθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι [καὶ ἀκρατῆ τὸν δὲ ἢ]| γράψαντα ἢ ἐπιψηφίσαντα ἢ ἀναγ[ράψαντα τὴν γνώ]|microην εἰς τὸ τῆς πόλεως | γραmicromicroατοφ[υλακεῖον ὀφεί]|λειν τοῖς τῶν Σεβαστῶν ναοῖς στατῆ[ρας

13 13

1013

When a future decree proposition (γνώmicroη) is declared invalid this invalidates in fact the whole decree voting procedure55 Detailed terms in entrenchment clauses56 often mention both private persons (ἰδιώτης) and city officials (ἄρχοντες ῥήτορες ἐπιmicroήνιοι) that may be involved the organs before which such propositions may take place (ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω) as well as all the steps leading to the adoption of new decisions (εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι) oraly or in writing (ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι) sometimes adding for the sake of exhaustivity the annulment of decisions ldquoin any other possible wayrdquo (τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν) The legislation process being an expression of the sovereignty of the demos the invalidity clause acts as a kind of limitation for future times of the operation of the majority principle57 in order to secure that no valid decision shall be reached in the future regulating the same matter in a different way Examples of rules that include a detailed enumeration of all possible ways of obtaining amendments declared a priori invalid include the law of Teos regulating the salaries of instructors for the youth58 and a decree of Chios forbidding the use of funds for other purposes than the ones prescribed

Chios 27 11 [mdash]ΙΑ καὶ micro[ὴ] ἐξεῖν[αι τ]οῖς [χρήmicroασι]

[τοῖς συναγ]οmicroένοις ἐκ τῆς [ὑ]ποσχέσεω[ς] [εἰς ἄλλο κ]αταχρῆσθαι microη[δ]ὲν ἢ εἰς τὰ [διατεταγ]micro ένα κατὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα

5 [ἐὰν δέ τις γ]ράψηι ἢ πρύτανις προ[θ]ῆι [ταῦτα εἰς ἄλ]λο τι microετενεγκεῖν ἢ κατα- [χρήσασθαι] ἢ ποιήσηι τίς τι παρὰ τόδε τὸ [ψήφισmicroα τό] τε γραφὲν ἢ πραχθὲν ἄκυρον [ἔστω καὶ ὀφε]ιλέτω τῆι πόλει δραχmicroὰς ΧΧΧ

10 [ὁ τούτων αἴτιο]ς καὶ ἔστω πρὸς τοῦτο [ὑποδικὸς κ]αθάπερ καὶ οἱ ἐξ ὠνῆς ὀφεί- [λοντες χρήmicro]ατα τῆι πόλειmiddot

In entrenchment clauses invalidity is either explicit or may be implied if (only) penalties or curses are directed against anyone who tries to annul the current provisions59 In order to invest an entrenchment clause with effectiveness invalidity apparently not being considered always sufficient in order to deter citizens from introducing changes in the future the provision of penalties60 added a financial risk to the challenge Combined sanctions (invalidity plus fine) are included in sacred laws61 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τετρα]|[κ]ισmicroυρίους καὶ ἄτιmicroον εἶναι καὶ αὐτὸν κ[αὶ γένος]middot [ἐνέχ]εσθαι δὲ αὐτοὺς καὶ τῆι εἰς τοὺς Σε[βαστοὺς ἀσε]|[βείαιmiddot 55 Cf the use of ἄκυρον in the Athenaion Politeia on the lack of sovereignety of the Boule to decide by itself Arist AthPol 454 τούτων microὲν οὖν ἄκυρός ἐστιν ἡ βουλήmiddot προβουλεύει δrsquoεἰς τὸν δῆmicroον καὶ οὐκ ἔξεστιν οὐδὲν ἀπροβούλευτον οὐδrsquo ὅ τι ἂν microὴ προγράψωσιν οἱ πρυτάνεις ψηφίσασθαι τῷ δήmicroῳ κατrsquo αὐτὰ γὰρ ταῦτα ἔνοχός ἐστιν ὁ νικήσας γραφῇ παρανόmicroων 5613 On entrenchment clauses and different measures aiming to preserve important resources and to guarantee compliance with relevant rules in late Hellenistic and imperial times see Harter-Uibopuu K 2013 (forthcoming)13 57 The interdiction and nullity clause for future decree propositions may have constituted in Athens grounds for a graphe paranomon 58 Teos 41 lines 40-46 ἢν δὲ οἱ ἐνεστηκότες ταmicroίαι ἢ οἱ ἑκάστοτε γινόmicroενοι| microὴ παραδῶσιν τὸ ἀργύριον τοῦτο κατὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα v3 ἢ ἄλλος τις ἄρχων| ἢ ἰδιώτης εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι ἐναντίον τού| τωι ἢ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον ἄρηι τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν ὡς δεῖ τὸ ἀργύρι| ον κινηθῆναι ἢ microὴ ἀναλίσκεσθαι ἀπrsquo αὐτοῦ εἰς ἃ ὁ νόmicroος συντάσσει ἢ ἄλλ[ηι που]| καταχωρισθῆναι καὶ microὴ εἰς ἃ ἐν τῶιδε τῶι νόmicroωι διατέτακται τά τε πραχθέν|τα ἄκυρα ἔστω 59 On examples of such inscriptions see Sickinger J P 2008 104 n 24 25 60 See Rubinstein L 2012329-354 61 IK Kalchedon 10 lines 10-13 [ὃς δέ] κα εἴπῃ ἢ προαισιmicroνάσηι ἢ ἐν [β]ουλᾶι ἢ ἐν δάmicroωι ὀ|[φειλέτω] δραχmicroὰς Μ ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἡρακλεῖος καὶ τὰ| [προαισ]ιmicroναθέντα ἢ ῥηθέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

1113

from the Asklepieion of Kos (dated from the end of the first century BC) concerning the sale of the priesthoods of Aphrodite Pandamos and Pontia62 and of Asklepios63 invalidating any decree proposing a different use of the thesauros of the sanctuary The penalties are not linked to any concrete damage (βλάβη) that may be incurred by any party64 to any demand of restitution to any unjust enrichment or transfer of property but rely upon the (implied) public interest and the collective (moral) damage of the community or of the sanctuary in case the current regulations are changed65 The combination of legal invalidity to penalties introduce thus avant la lettre the concept of the Roman lex perfecta to Greek law as laws including both a sanction and the nullity of anything contrary to a particular clause of the law as well as the interdiction of future amendments of the statute The earliest occurrences date from the early fourth century BC in an honorary decree from Athens for Sthorys the Thasian (dated 3943) where invalidity combined with penalties is threatened against anyone ldquonullifyingrdquo these honors66 Regarding the penalties combined with invalidity in some decrees concerning matters of particular importance for the city the collection procedure of the fines was also defined ad hoc as in a fourth century BC citizenship decree from Thasos67 in a decree of Miletus68 (2054 BC) instituting a public eisphora for the citizens in order to cover public deficit69 The penalties associated to the invalidity clause may also be escalating by analogy to the importance of the matter regulated or of the person honored by the decree A decree by the Nasiotai bestowing honors to Thersippos (ca 315 BC) for his benefactions in connection to Alexanderrsquos campaigns invalidates all future amendments in combination to severe penalties such as fines threats of atimia and treason charges for acting against the democracy plus a curse against anyone proposing their abolition70

Invalidity clauses may also be included in decisions issued by private associations forbidding that any of the honors bestowed upon their benefactors may be postponed or cancelled71 and this as it

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 62 SEG 50766 back face1 lines 20-24 τὸ δὲ χρῆmicroα τοῦ|το ὑπαρχέτω ἐς κατασκευάσmicroατα ἅ κα δόξῃ τᾶι ἐκλησίαι καὶ ἐς ἐπισ|κευὰν τοῦ ἱεροῦmiddot αἰ δέ κά τις ψαφίξηται ὥστε ἐς ἄλλο τι καταχρη[σ]θῆmicroεν| τὰ ἐκ τῶν θησαυρῶν ἢ προστάτας προθῆι ἀποτισάτω τῶν αἰτίων ἕκασ|τος δραχmicroὰς χειλίας ἱερὰς τᾶς Ἀφροδίτας καὶ ἁ γνώmicroα ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 63 SEG 511066 frg ab lines 31-35 microὴ ἐξέστωι δὲ microήτε]|ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδιώιται [microηδενὶ ἐς ἄλλο καταχρήσασθαι τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ χρήmicroατα]| ἢ microετάγεν τὰς ἀπrsquo αὐτῶ[ιν ποθόδους mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αὐτῶι ἔστωι περὶ πᾶν ὅτι [κα γράψηι ἢ ἐπιψαφίξηι καὶ ἀποτινέτωι (δραχmicroὰς) mdashʹ]| καὶ ἁ γνώιmicroαι ἄκυρος ἤτ[ω 64 On blabe initially limited in cases of damages included in the law see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993191 65 On the notion ἀδικεῖν τὴν πόλιν see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 199391-94 66 IG IIsup2 17 lines 31-33 ἐὰν δέ τις τα[ῦτ]α ἄκυρ[α ποῆι ὀφελέ]|τω χιλίας [δ]ραχmicroὰς ἱερ[ὰς τῆ]ι Ἀθηνα[ίαι καὶ τῶι Ἀπό]|λλωνι τῶ[ι] Πυθίωι ἑτέρα[ς] 67 IG XII 8 267 lines 11-16 microὴ [ἐξεῖ]|ναι δὲ ὑπὲρ τούτων microηδενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτrsquo ἐπε[λθεῖ]ν ὑπὲρ λύσιος microήτrsquo ἐπιψηφίσαι ἀκρατέα εἶνα[ι ταῦ]|τα τὰ ἐψηφισmicroένα ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ ταῦτα εἴπηι ἢ ἐπέλθηι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι τά τε δόξαντα ἄκυρα ἔστω κα[ὶ χι]|λίους στατῆρας ὀφειλέτω ἱεροὺς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίωι χιλίους δὲ τῆι πόλει δικασάσθων δὲ ο[ἱ ἀπό]|λογοιmiddot ἂν δὲ microὴ δικάσωνται αὐτοὶ ὀφειλόντων δικασάσθων δὲ ἀπόλογοι οἱ microετὰ τούτους αἱρεθέντε[ς]middot|δικασάσθω δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὁ ἐθέλων καὶ ἂν ὁ ἰδιώτης νικήσηι microετεῖναι αὐτῶι τὸ ἥmicroυσυ τὴς καταδί[κης] On this inscription see Fournier J 2012 360-361 Cf also the invalidity clause in IG XII8 264 from Thassos (beginning 4th century BC) 68 See Migeotte L 1984 no97 69 Miletos 41 Lines 24- 29 ἐὰν δέ τις εἴπηι| ἢ προθῇ ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι τά τε γραφθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ ὀφείλειν ἕκαστον τῶν αἰτίων| στατῆρας χιλίους καὶ εἶναι ἄτιmicroον ἕως ἂν ἐκτείσηι καὶ microηθὲν ἧσ|σον ἐξαιρεῖσθαι τὸ τεταγmicroένον ὑπὸ τῶν microετὰ ταῦτα γινοmicroένων| ἀνατακτῶν 70 IG XII2 645 b1 lines 32-58 κα|[ὶ microὴ ἔ]micromicroεναι [π]|[ὰρ τ]αῦτα microήτε| [ἄ]ρχοντι προθ|[έ]microεναι microήτε ῥ|[ή]τορι εἶπαι micro|[ή]τε ἐπιmicroηνί[ω]| [ἐ]σένικαιmiddot αἰ δ|[έ] κέ τις ἢ ῥήτω|[ρ] εἴπη ἢ ἄρχων| [ἐσ]αγάγη [ἢ]| [ἐπ]ιmicroήνιος ἐσ[εν]ίκη ἄκυρά τ|[ε] ἔστω καὶ ὀφε|[λ]λέτω ἔκαστο|[ς] στάτηρας τρ|[ ια]κοσίοις ἴρ|[οι]ς τῶ Ἀσκλαπ|[ίω] καὶ ἐπάρατ|[ος] ἔστω καὶ ἄτι|[microος] καὶ γένος| [ε]ἰς τὸν πάντα| [χρ]όνον καὶ ἐν| ἔστω τῶ νόmicro|[ω π]ερὶ τῶ καλλ|[ύο]ντος τὸν δᾶ|[microον] 71 Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros IG XII1 155 face

13 13

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is stated in one decree in view of the importance of making an example of the benefaction72 Invalidity in entrenchment clauses in relation to endowments is aiming to prevent any different use of the funds or of the property donated by the benefactor73 as in the testament of Epicteta (dated around 210-195 BC)74 It also guarantees that no alteration of the exact terms of use of the donation75 will take place and nullifies any transaction that may jeopardize the capital donated76 The invalidity clause striking future different decree propositions was aiming to preserve the benefactorrsquos instructions and will (κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν) as it is clearly stated in an honorary decree from Eretria (ca 100 BC)77

The practice of sanctioning entrenchment clauses with invalidity reinforced by fines continued into Roman times Invalidity of future decrees or deliberations was sometimes mentioned as having

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 III85 lines 95-100 τ[ὸ]| δὲ ψάφισmicroα τόδ[ε κ]ύριον ἔστω εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρό|νον καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδι|ώται microήτε κινεῖν microήτε γνώmicroαν γράψασθαι|microήτε τοῖς ἄρχουσι προτιθέmicroειν ὡς δεῖ τὰς δ[ε]|δοmicroένας τιmicroὰς Διονυσοδώρωι ἀκύρους εἴmicro|microειν middot ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἀποτεισάτω τὸ γε|γραmicromicroένον ἐπιτίmicroιον δραχmicroὰς ἑκατόν καὶ ἁ γνώmicro[α]|[α]ὐτοῦ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἔνοχος ἔστω τῶι νό|microωι τῶι ἀκινήτωι 72 Honorary decree (dated after 1532 BC found in Delos) of the koinon of the Βηρυτίων Ποσ[ειδω|νιαστῶν ἐmicroπόρω]ν καὶ ναυκλήρων [καὶ ἐ]γδοχέων for their Roman benefactor the banker Marcus Minatius Sextus ID 1520 lines 57-61 ὅπως ἂν ἀΐδιοι διαmicroένωσι τοῖς εὐεργέταις αἱ δοθεῖσαι τι|[micro]αί microηθενὶ ἐξέστωι microήτε ἰδιώτηι microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτ[ε]| [γ]ράψαι ὡς δεῖ τῶν δεδοmicroένων τιmicroῶν microεταθεῖναι ἢ ἀφελεῖν ἢ ἀκυρ[όν]| [τ] ι ποιῆσαι παρὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ εἴπας ἢ ὁ ἀναγνοὺς| [ἢ] ὁ προθεὶς ἢ ὁ ἐπιχειροτονήσας ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἐξώλης εἴη| [α]ὐτὸς καὶ τὰ τέ[κν]α αὐτοῦ τοῖς δὲ ταῦτα ἐπιτηροῦσι εἴη καὶ βίου καὶ| τέκνων καὶ ὑπαρχόντων ὄνησις καὶ εἴη αὐτοῖς σώιζεσθαι καὶ κατ[ὰ]| [γ]ῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν καὶ ὁ παρὰ ταῦτα ποιήσας ἀποτινέτω| δραχmicroὰς στεφανηφόρους ἑξακισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ποσειδῶ|νος καὶ ὑπόδικος ἔστω τῶι ἀδικουmicroένωιmiddot 73 A decree from Eresos in Lesbos (dating from the middle of the third century BC) regarding the donation by Agemortos of some source of income to be used for sacrifices forbids and invalidates any encumberance or any other use of the income and any such proposition before the council or the assembly IG ΧΙΙ2 529 lines 3- 9 microηδὲ ὐποθέ|[microεναι microηδrsquo ἐγγύ]ασθαι microήδενι microηδὲ ὐπό|θεσθα[ι] microηδrsquo εἴπην ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω microήδενα ὡς δεῖ περιβάλεσθαι| τὰν θυσίαν microηδὲ τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς ἄλλο| κατάταξαι microῆδενmiddot αἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρα ἔmicromicroεναι| τὰ πράχθεντα middot 74 In the inscription recording the legacy she left to her daughter Epiteleia Epicteta was founding a sanctuary to the Muses and her own deceased ancestors and providing for the establishment of an association dedicated to the worship of the Muses her will including an invalidity clause for future amendments by third parties IG XII 3 330 B1 lines 263-267 middot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἢ εἴπει ἢ γράψει | τό τε ῥηθὲν ἢ γραφὲν ἄκυρον ἔστω καὶ ὁ| εἴπας ἢ γράψας στερέσθω τοῦ κοινοῦ καὶ ὁ|φειλ[έ]τω αὐτῶι δραχmicroὰς πεντακοσίας| καὶ πρακτὸς ἔστω καὶ ἀπὸ ἐνεχυρασίας| κατὰ τὸς νόmicroος ὑπὸ τοῦ χρῄζοντος τῶν| συγγενῶν 75 Decree of Didyma establishing annual distribution of food on the occasion of the birthday of Eumenes II (dated 1598 BC) Didyma 13 lines 41-49 microὴ εἶναι microη|θενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτε ἀναγνῶναι microήτε προθεῖ|ναι microήτε προγράψαι microήτε ἐπιψηφίσαι ὡς δεῖ microε|τατεθῆναι τὰ χρήmicroατα εἰς ἄλλο τι καὶ microὴ ὑπάρχει[ν]|εἰς τὰ ἐν τῶι ψηφίσmicro[ατι] κατακεχωρισmicroένα ἐὰν δ[έ]|τις παρὰ ταῦτα π[ράξηι] τρόπωι ltὁτωιgtοῦν τό τε γρ[α]|φὲν ἄκυρον ἔσ[τω ὁ δὲ π]ράξας τι τῶν ἀπειρη|microένων [ἀποτεισάτω στατῆρας] δισχιλίους ἱεροὺς|το[ῦ Ἀπόλλωνος τοῦ Διδυmicro]έωςmiddot 76 The decree of Delphi of 16059 BC regulating the usage of a donation by king Attalos of an important amount of money to the city to be used for the childrenrsquos education and for sacrifices invalidates and punishes by fine any proposition or decision for a different use than the one prescribed by the decree Syllsup3 672 lines 15-19 εἰ δέ τις τούτων τι ποιή|σαι ἢ ἄρχων ἢ ἰδιώτας κατάmicroαστρος ἔστω ἱερῶν χρηmicroάτων φω|ρᾶς καὶ οἱ microαστροὶ καταγραφόντω κατrsquo αὐτοῦ κατὰ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ ἄλ|λως microετενεγχθὲν ἀργύριον ὀκταπλοῦν καὶ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ διαινε|θὲν ἄκυρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστω 77 IG XII9 236 lines 51-61 ὅπως δὲ microένῃ τὸ ἀνακείmicroενον ἀσφα|λῶς κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν καὶ εἰς ἄλλο| microηθὲν ἦι καταχρήσασθαι microηθενὶ ἐξουσίαν εἶναι ἀπὸ| τούτου τοῦ διαφόρου microηδὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ πίπτοντος ἀπrsquo|αὐτοῦ τόκου microήτε καταχρήσασθαι εἰς ἄλλο microηθὲν| microήτε ἐπιψηφίσασθαι microήτε ἐπερωτῆσαιmiddot εἰ δὲ microή ὅ τε γρά|ψας ἢ ἐπερωτήσας | ὀφειλέτω ἱερὰς τῆς Ἀρτέmicroιδος|δραχmicroὰς ἑξακισmicroυρίας καὶ ἔστω ἀπαγωγὴ κατrsquo αὐ|τοῦ τῷ βουλοmicroένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ τρίτῳ microέρει πρὸς τοὺς| ἄρχοντας καὶ τὰ γραφέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

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immediate effect78 The expression οὐδὲν ἔλασσον (no less) preceding in some decrees the invalidity clause shows it was considered the last but not least necessary complement of entrenchment clauses79 In view of the change of political settings invalidity is now sometimes aiming the archonsrsquos orders or the cityrsquos ekdikos propositions (or anybody elsersquos) and the fines are collected by the Roman fiscus80 In a decree from Miletus concerning the cityrsquos and the imperial cults any different use of the funds and any act contravening the purpose secured by this statute (τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]) would be invalid and the archon introducing such a proposition would be guilty of impiety against the gods and guilty ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης of the payment of a fine81 Three documents from Ephesus dating from AD 104 show how invalidity had become a standard term aiming to secure the proper execution of the will of the benefactor which was ratified both by the Roman officialrsquos and by the cityrsquos decisions The invalidity clause of future amendments is first mentioned in the letter of Caius Vibius Salutaris offering several benefactions to the boule and demos of Ephesus in form of a legal document82 second the proconsul Gaius Aquillius Proculus in his letter to the archontes boule and demos of Ephesus approves the benefaction of Gaius Vibius Salutaris and ratifies the invalidity

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 78 SE 241 frg hcol 21 lines 7-8 [mdash]ασmicroένων καὶ τὰς ltσgtυνεγmicroεmicroισθωmicroένας αὐτοῖς προσόδους ἀνεξαλλ[άκτας mdash]| [mdash] ψηφισθὲν χρηmicroατισθὲν ἔστω παραχρῆmicroα ἄκυρον κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ποιησαmicro[ένου mdash] 79 In one instance in a decree of Mytilene instituting celebrations in the context of the emperial cult the city threatens with invalidity all actions or propositions of private citizens or magistrates contravening the celebrations and relevant procedures these being considered synonymous with the safeguard of the citys liberty and democracy and sympoliteia since the city had recently seen its status as an ally of Rome confirmed by Augustus IG XII2 59 lines 6-12 ἢ οἰ ἐξ αὔτων γράψωσι ἢ συν[κλήτω δόγmicroα mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αἰ δέ κέ τις ἢ ἰδίωτας ἢ ἄρχων παρ[άβαις τι τῶν ἐν mdash mdash mdash γεγραmicromicroέ]|[νω]ν καὶ ἐν τῶ ψαφίσmicroατι τούτω microὴ πέmicroψη [mdash mdash mdash mdash καττὸν ἐψαφίσθη]| τρόπον ἢ microὴ φυλάξη τὰν τάξιν τᾶς ἀναγράφα[ς mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἄκυ]|ρον ἔστω καὶ ὐπεύθυνος ἔστω ὁ παράβαις [mdash mdash mdash ὠς καταλύων ταὶς τῶν]| Σεβάστων καὶ τῶ οἴκω αὔτων τείmicroαις καὶ ἀναίρεις [mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἐλευ]|θερίας καὶ δαmicroοκρατίας καὶ συmicroπολειτίας 80 In an honorary decree of the boule and demos for Gaius Caninius Synallasson found at Iasos regulating the foundation he established for the gymnasium of the neoi (ca 117-138 AD) Iasos 21 lines 54-67 ἐφrsquo ᾧ οὐ|δενὶ ἐξέσται ἄρχοντι οὐδὲ ἑτέρῳ οὐδενὶ microε|ταδιατάξαι ἕτερόν τι περὶ τούτων τῶν πεντα|κισχειλίων δηναρίων ἢ τῆς προσόδου αὐτῶν| ἐκτὸς ἐὰν microὴ χωρίων ἀγορασθησοmicroένων τοῖς| νέοις δεήσῃ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς τὴν τει|microὴν τῶν ἀγορασθησοmicroένων ἀγρῶν χωρῆσαι| ἐφrsquo ᾧ καὶ οὕτως microενεῖ ἡ πρόσοδος αἰεὶ εἰς τὸ ἄλιmicroα| τῶν νέων καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot ἐπεὶ ὁ ὑπεναντί|ον τούτοις ποιήσας τι ἀποδώσει εἰς τὸν τοῦ κυ|ρίου Καίσαρος φίσκον δηνάρια πεντακισχείλια| καὶ οὐδὲν ἔλασσον ἔσται τὸ microεταδιαταγὲν ἄκυρον| καὶ microενεῖ τὰ πεντακισχείλια δηνάρια καὶ ἡ πρόσοδος| αὐτῶν τοῖς νέοις καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot 81 Miletos 15 lines 18-33 microηδενὶ δὲ ἐξεῖναι microήτε| ἄρχοντι microήτε ἑτέρῳ τινὶ microεταγαγεῖν εἰς| ἀργυρικὸν πόρον τὰς λειτουργίας ταύτα[ς]| τρόπῳ microηδενὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσει microηδεmicro[ι]|ᾷmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις ὑπεναντίον τι πράξῃ τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]| τὸ microὲν γενόmicroενον ᾥτινιοῦν τρόπῳ ὑ|πάρχειν ἄκυρον τὸν δὲ ψηφισάmicroενον ἄρ|χοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον ὑπάρχειν τῶν προ|γεγραmicromicroένων θεῶν καὶ ὀφείλειν αὐτὸν| ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης στατῆρας φʹ ἱερούς| καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον τὸν microὴ ἐπιτελέσαντα| προφήτην τοὺς κόσmicroους ἢ τὸν microὴ ποή|σαντα στεφανηφόρον τοὺς microολποὺς εἰσ|πράσσεσθαι ἐπάναγκες τὰς προδεδηλωmicroέ|νας εὐωχίαςmiddot 82 Ephesos 212 lines 315- 325 microηδὲν δὲ ἐξέστω ἄρχοντι ἢ ἐκδίκῳ ἢ ἰδιώ|τῃ πεσαί τι ἀλλάξαι ἢ microεταθεῖναι ἢ microετοικονοmicroῆσαι ἢ microετα|ψηφίασθα τῶν καθιερωmicroένων ἀπεικονισmicroάτων ἢ τοῦ| ἀργυρίου ἢ τῆς ροσόδου αὐτοῦ ἢ microεταθεῖναι εἰς ἕτερον πόρον| ἢ ἀνάωmicroα ἢ ἄλο τι ποῆσαι παρὰ τὰ προγεγραmicromicroένα καὶ δια|τετmicroένα ἐπεὶ τὸ γενόmicroενον παρὰ ταῦτα ἔστω ἄκυρον middot| ὁ δὲ περάσας ποιῆσαί τι ὑπεναντίον τῇ διατάξει ἢ τοῖς| ὑπὸ τς βουῆς καὶ τοῦ δήmicroου ἐψηφισmicroένοις καὶ ἐπικεκυ|ρωmicroέν ταύτης τῆς διατάξεως ἀποτεισάτω εἰς| προσκῆς microεης θεᾶς Ἀρτέmicroιδος δη(νάρια) δισmicroύρια| εταβαστοῦ φίσκον ἄλλα δη(νάρια) βʹ Μ ͵ε

13 13

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clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

13 13

1513

60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

913

such an act for being opposite to a prior interdiction and its effects can be immediately revoked without further decision In one occasion invalidity strikes a simple petition leading to the dedication of a statue in a public space in a decree concerning the temenos of Asklepeios in Rhodes (datation unknown) it is forbidden to anyone to submit a petition to erect a statue or other dedication at a certain area of the temenos in order not to obstruct the walks and policemen are instructed to remove to another place any dedication erected in spite of the interdiction48 Sometimes a specific action or proposal that may diminish the impact of a donorrsquos benefaction may also be declared ldquoinvalidrdquo In a dedication inscription from Cos (dated from the end of the first or beginning of the second century AD) a donator prescribes that no other statue may be erected on the same platform and that any attempt to contravene this shall be immediately null and void49

Entrenchment clauses

The most frequent occurrence of the ἄκυρον term in decrees concerns entrenchment clauses provisions that make decisions unamendable50 which as Rubinstein51 has correctly noted can be read as ldquoa guarantee issued to a particular individual group of individuals or to another communityrdquo regarding decisions that directly affect them52 Invalidity may be guaranteeing that a particular right bestowed upon a group of individuals would not be revoked In the decree of the city of Nagidos concerning the isopoliteia with Arsinoe already mentioned an invalidity clause strikes any proposition by an archon or a rhetor introducing a contestation of the land given to the Nagidians53 In Thasos of early imperial times the same clause guarantees measures regarding the donation of lands and their subsequent possession by their owners54

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τρόπον τὸ ἐλεύθερον τοῦ δούλου ἄρχει καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν τοῦ θήλεος καὶ ἀνὴρ παιδός καὶ πᾶσιν ἐνυπάρχει microὲν τὰ microόρια τῆς ψυχῆς ἀλλrsquo ἐνυπάρχει διαφερόντως ὁ microὲν γὰρ δοῦλος ὅλως οὐκ ἔχει τὸ βουλευτικόν τὸ δὲ θῆλυ ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἄκυρον ὁ δὲ παῖς ἔχει microέν ἀλλrsquo ἀτελές 48 Suppl Epig Rodio 1 lines 10-22 microὴ ἐξέστω microηθενὶ αἰτήσασ|[θαι ἀνά]θεσιν ἀνδριάντος microηδὲ ἄλλου| [ἀναθ]ήmicroατος microηδενὸς ἐς τὸ κάτω microέρος| [τοῦ τ]εmicroένευς ἀπό τε τοῦ προπύλου| [ἐπrsquo ε]ὐθείας ἔστε ποτὶ τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα| [ὧ]ν ἐντι ταὶ αἰτήσιες πρότερον γεγενη|[micro]έναι ἢ ἐς ἄλλον τινα τόπον ἐν ὧι στα|θέντα τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα κωλύσει τοὺς περι|πάτουςmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἐν τούτωι τῶι τόπωι| αἰτήσηται ἀνάθεσιν ἄκυρος ἔστω αὐτ|[ῶ ] ι ἁ αἴτησις καὶ τοὶ ἀστυνόmicroοι εἴ κά τις| [ἀνα]θῆι microεθελόντω τὰ ἀναθήmicroατα ἐς ἄλ|[λον τ]όπονmiddot 49 Iscr di Cos ED 257 frg bcd1 lines 3-30 [κ]αὶ microηδενὶ ἄλλ[ῳ ἐ]ξῆ|microεν microήτε ἰδιώ[τᾳ micro]ήτε ἄρ|χοντι microήτε γυmicro[να]σιάρχῳ| ἢ ἐπιmicroελητᾷ τᾶς [γε]ρουσί|ας καθόλου microήτε εἰκόνα| microήτε ἄγαλmicroα microήτε ἀνδρι|άντα ἀναθέmicroεν ἐν ταύ|τᾳ τᾷ ἐξέδρᾳ τρόπῳ microηδε|νὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσι microηδε|micro ιᾷ microήτε τινὰ γνώmicroαν ἀ|γορεῦσαι περὶ τοῦ τειmicroαὶ| ἄλλου τινὸς ἀνασταθῆ|microεν ἢ ἀνατεθῆmicroεν ἐν αὐτᾶι | αἰ δέ κά τίς ποτε ἐπ[ι]χιρήσῃ ἢ εἰπεῖν ἢ γνώmicroαν ε[ἰ]σαγῆσ|θαι ἢ ἄλλως τι παρὰ τ[αῦ]τα πρ[ᾶ]|ξαι θελήσῃ τὸ microὲν ἐ[πιχ]ειρ ι[σ]|θὲν ἢ καὶ πιρασθὲν [ῥηθῆναι]|ἢ πραχθῆναι παραχρῆ[microα ἄκυ]|ρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστ[ω καὶ microη]|δὲν ἦσσον τὰ διατε[ταγmicroένα]|ὑπrsquo ἐmicroοῦ κύρια καὶ ἀmicro[ετακίνη]|τα ὑπαρχέτω καὶ ὁ [αἴτιος εἴ]|τε ἰδιώτας εἴτε ἄρ[χων εἴτε]|γυmicroνασίαρχος ἢ [ἐπιmicroε]|λητὰς εἴη τᾶς γ[ερουσίας ἀ]|ποτισάτω πα[ραχρῆmicroα δη]|νάρια χίλια 50 On entrenchment clauses in Athens see Schwartzberg M 2004 311-25 who maintains that the Athenians used entrenchment in highly restrictive contexts in certain financial decrees and in alliances and treaties exclusively for narrow strategic purposes in both the international and the domestic contexts and did not extend them to laws regulating the democracy 51 See Rubinstein L 2008117-118 identifying and categorizing a total of 80 examples of entrenchment clauses 52 IC II v 35 53 SEG 391426 lines 39- 45 microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ microηκέτι |[Ν]αγιδεῦσι παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶι περὶ τῆς χώρας τῆς δοθείσης| [α]ὐτοῖς κατὰ ψήφισmicroα τοῦτο ἀmicroφισβητῆσαι ἐὰν δέ τις ἄρχων προθῆι| [τι] δόγmicroα τltοιgtοῦτο ἢ ῥῆτωρ εἴπηι ὁ microὲν ἄρχων ἀποτεισάτω δραχmicroὰς microυρίας |[ἱερ]ὰς Ἀρσινόηι ἀπαραιτήτους ὁ δὲ ῥήτωρ δραχmicroὰς χιλίας καὶ ἡ γνώmicroη αὐ|[τῶ ]ν ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 54 IG XII Suppl 364 lines 7- 20 τὴν δὲ τῶν [ἀγρῶν κτῆσιν διατη]|ρεῖν ἀθάνατον ἡmicroᾶς καὶ microήτε [καταθεῖναί ποτε τοὺς]| ἀγροὺς ἡmicroᾶς microήτε ἀποδόσθαι [microηδενὶ microήτε συνόλους]| microήτε microέρη microήτε περι[ιδ]εῖν ἀπ[αλλοτριωθέντας αὐτοὺς]| κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τ[ις τῶν Θασίων περί τι]|νος τούτων ἢ γράψῃ ἢ ἐπιψ[ηφίσῃ ἢ ἀναγράψῃ εἰς τὸ]| τής πόλεως γραmicromicroατοφυλα[κεῖον τὴν γνώmicroην τὰ γραφέντα]| καὶ τὰ ψηφισθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι [καὶ ἀκρατῆ τὸν δὲ ἢ]| γράψαντα ἢ ἐπιψηφίσαντα ἢ ἀναγ[ράψαντα τὴν γνώ]|microην εἰς τὸ τῆς πόλεως | γραmicromicroατοφ[υλακεῖον ὀφεί]|λειν τοῖς τῶν Σεβαστῶν ναοῖς στατῆ[ρας

13 13

1013

When a future decree proposition (γνώmicroη) is declared invalid this invalidates in fact the whole decree voting procedure55 Detailed terms in entrenchment clauses56 often mention both private persons (ἰδιώτης) and city officials (ἄρχοντες ῥήτορες ἐπιmicroήνιοι) that may be involved the organs before which such propositions may take place (ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω) as well as all the steps leading to the adoption of new decisions (εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι) oraly or in writing (ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι) sometimes adding for the sake of exhaustivity the annulment of decisions ldquoin any other possible wayrdquo (τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν) The legislation process being an expression of the sovereignty of the demos the invalidity clause acts as a kind of limitation for future times of the operation of the majority principle57 in order to secure that no valid decision shall be reached in the future regulating the same matter in a different way Examples of rules that include a detailed enumeration of all possible ways of obtaining amendments declared a priori invalid include the law of Teos regulating the salaries of instructors for the youth58 and a decree of Chios forbidding the use of funds for other purposes than the ones prescribed

Chios 27 11 [mdash]ΙΑ καὶ micro[ὴ] ἐξεῖν[αι τ]οῖς [χρήmicroασι]

[τοῖς συναγ]οmicroένοις ἐκ τῆς [ὑ]ποσχέσεω[ς] [εἰς ἄλλο κ]αταχρῆσθαι microη[δ]ὲν ἢ εἰς τὰ [διατεταγ]micro ένα κατὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα

5 [ἐὰν δέ τις γ]ράψηι ἢ πρύτανις προ[θ]ῆι [ταῦτα εἰς ἄλ]λο τι microετενεγκεῖν ἢ κατα- [χρήσασθαι] ἢ ποιήσηι τίς τι παρὰ τόδε τὸ [ψήφισmicroα τό] τε γραφὲν ἢ πραχθὲν ἄκυρον [ἔστω καὶ ὀφε]ιλέτω τῆι πόλει δραχmicroὰς ΧΧΧ

10 [ὁ τούτων αἴτιο]ς καὶ ἔστω πρὸς τοῦτο [ὑποδικὸς κ]αθάπερ καὶ οἱ ἐξ ὠνῆς ὀφεί- [λοντες χρήmicro]ατα τῆι πόλειmiddot

In entrenchment clauses invalidity is either explicit or may be implied if (only) penalties or curses are directed against anyone who tries to annul the current provisions59 In order to invest an entrenchment clause with effectiveness invalidity apparently not being considered always sufficient in order to deter citizens from introducing changes in the future the provision of penalties60 added a financial risk to the challenge Combined sanctions (invalidity plus fine) are included in sacred laws61 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τετρα]|[κ]ισmicroυρίους καὶ ἄτιmicroον εἶναι καὶ αὐτὸν κ[αὶ γένος]middot [ἐνέχ]εσθαι δὲ αὐτοὺς καὶ τῆι εἰς τοὺς Σε[βαστοὺς ἀσε]|[βείαιmiddot 55 Cf the use of ἄκυρον in the Athenaion Politeia on the lack of sovereignety of the Boule to decide by itself Arist AthPol 454 τούτων microὲν οὖν ἄκυρός ἐστιν ἡ βουλήmiddot προβουλεύει δrsquoεἰς τὸν δῆmicroον καὶ οὐκ ἔξεστιν οὐδὲν ἀπροβούλευτον οὐδrsquo ὅ τι ἂν microὴ προγράψωσιν οἱ πρυτάνεις ψηφίσασθαι τῷ δήmicroῳ κατrsquo αὐτὰ γὰρ ταῦτα ἔνοχός ἐστιν ὁ νικήσας γραφῇ παρανόmicroων 5613 On entrenchment clauses and different measures aiming to preserve important resources and to guarantee compliance with relevant rules in late Hellenistic and imperial times see Harter-Uibopuu K 2013 (forthcoming)13 57 The interdiction and nullity clause for future decree propositions may have constituted in Athens grounds for a graphe paranomon 58 Teos 41 lines 40-46 ἢν δὲ οἱ ἐνεστηκότες ταmicroίαι ἢ οἱ ἑκάστοτε γινόmicroενοι| microὴ παραδῶσιν τὸ ἀργύριον τοῦτο κατὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα v3 ἢ ἄλλος τις ἄρχων| ἢ ἰδιώτης εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι ἐναντίον τού| τωι ἢ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον ἄρηι τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν ὡς δεῖ τὸ ἀργύρι| ον κινηθῆναι ἢ microὴ ἀναλίσκεσθαι ἀπrsquo αὐτοῦ εἰς ἃ ὁ νόmicroος συντάσσει ἢ ἄλλ[ηι που]| καταχωρισθῆναι καὶ microὴ εἰς ἃ ἐν τῶιδε τῶι νόmicroωι διατέτακται τά τε πραχθέν|τα ἄκυρα ἔστω 59 On examples of such inscriptions see Sickinger J P 2008 104 n 24 25 60 See Rubinstein L 2012329-354 61 IK Kalchedon 10 lines 10-13 [ὃς δέ] κα εἴπῃ ἢ προαισιmicroνάσηι ἢ ἐν [β]ουλᾶι ἢ ἐν δάmicroωι ὀ|[φειλέτω] δραχmicroὰς Μ ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἡρακλεῖος καὶ τὰ| [προαισ]ιmicroναθέντα ἢ ῥηθέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

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from the Asklepieion of Kos (dated from the end of the first century BC) concerning the sale of the priesthoods of Aphrodite Pandamos and Pontia62 and of Asklepios63 invalidating any decree proposing a different use of the thesauros of the sanctuary The penalties are not linked to any concrete damage (βλάβη) that may be incurred by any party64 to any demand of restitution to any unjust enrichment or transfer of property but rely upon the (implied) public interest and the collective (moral) damage of the community or of the sanctuary in case the current regulations are changed65 The combination of legal invalidity to penalties introduce thus avant la lettre the concept of the Roman lex perfecta to Greek law as laws including both a sanction and the nullity of anything contrary to a particular clause of the law as well as the interdiction of future amendments of the statute The earliest occurrences date from the early fourth century BC in an honorary decree from Athens for Sthorys the Thasian (dated 3943) where invalidity combined with penalties is threatened against anyone ldquonullifyingrdquo these honors66 Regarding the penalties combined with invalidity in some decrees concerning matters of particular importance for the city the collection procedure of the fines was also defined ad hoc as in a fourth century BC citizenship decree from Thasos67 in a decree of Miletus68 (2054 BC) instituting a public eisphora for the citizens in order to cover public deficit69 The penalties associated to the invalidity clause may also be escalating by analogy to the importance of the matter regulated or of the person honored by the decree A decree by the Nasiotai bestowing honors to Thersippos (ca 315 BC) for his benefactions in connection to Alexanderrsquos campaigns invalidates all future amendments in combination to severe penalties such as fines threats of atimia and treason charges for acting against the democracy plus a curse against anyone proposing their abolition70

Invalidity clauses may also be included in decisions issued by private associations forbidding that any of the honors bestowed upon their benefactors may be postponed or cancelled71 and this as it

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 62 SEG 50766 back face1 lines 20-24 τὸ δὲ χρῆmicroα τοῦ|το ὑπαρχέτω ἐς κατασκευάσmicroατα ἅ κα δόξῃ τᾶι ἐκλησίαι καὶ ἐς ἐπισ|κευὰν τοῦ ἱεροῦmiddot αἰ δέ κά τις ψαφίξηται ὥστε ἐς ἄλλο τι καταχρη[σ]θῆmicroεν| τὰ ἐκ τῶν θησαυρῶν ἢ προστάτας προθῆι ἀποτισάτω τῶν αἰτίων ἕκασ|τος δραχmicroὰς χειλίας ἱερὰς τᾶς Ἀφροδίτας καὶ ἁ γνώmicroα ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 63 SEG 511066 frg ab lines 31-35 microὴ ἐξέστωι δὲ microήτε]|ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδιώιται [microηδενὶ ἐς ἄλλο καταχρήσασθαι τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ χρήmicroατα]| ἢ microετάγεν τὰς ἀπrsquo αὐτῶ[ιν ποθόδους mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αὐτῶι ἔστωι περὶ πᾶν ὅτι [κα γράψηι ἢ ἐπιψαφίξηι καὶ ἀποτινέτωι (δραχmicroὰς) mdashʹ]| καὶ ἁ γνώιmicroαι ἄκυρος ἤτ[ω 64 On blabe initially limited in cases of damages included in the law see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993191 65 On the notion ἀδικεῖν τὴν πόλιν see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 199391-94 66 IG IIsup2 17 lines 31-33 ἐὰν δέ τις τα[ῦτ]α ἄκυρ[α ποῆι ὀφελέ]|τω χιλίας [δ]ραχmicroὰς ἱερ[ὰς τῆ]ι Ἀθηνα[ίαι καὶ τῶι Ἀπό]|λλωνι τῶ[ι] Πυθίωι ἑτέρα[ς] 67 IG XII 8 267 lines 11-16 microὴ [ἐξεῖ]|ναι δὲ ὑπὲρ τούτων microηδενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτrsquo ἐπε[λθεῖ]ν ὑπὲρ λύσιος microήτrsquo ἐπιψηφίσαι ἀκρατέα εἶνα[ι ταῦ]|τα τὰ ἐψηφισmicroένα ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ ταῦτα εἴπηι ἢ ἐπέλθηι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι τά τε δόξαντα ἄκυρα ἔστω κα[ὶ χι]|λίους στατῆρας ὀφειλέτω ἱεροὺς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίωι χιλίους δὲ τῆι πόλει δικασάσθων δὲ ο[ἱ ἀπό]|λογοιmiddot ἂν δὲ microὴ δικάσωνται αὐτοὶ ὀφειλόντων δικασάσθων δὲ ἀπόλογοι οἱ microετὰ τούτους αἱρεθέντε[ς]middot|δικασάσθω δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὁ ἐθέλων καὶ ἂν ὁ ἰδιώτης νικήσηι microετεῖναι αὐτῶι τὸ ἥmicroυσυ τὴς καταδί[κης] On this inscription see Fournier J 2012 360-361 Cf also the invalidity clause in IG XII8 264 from Thassos (beginning 4th century BC) 68 See Migeotte L 1984 no97 69 Miletos 41 Lines 24- 29 ἐὰν δέ τις εἴπηι| ἢ προθῇ ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι τά τε γραφθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ ὀφείλειν ἕκαστον τῶν αἰτίων| στατῆρας χιλίους καὶ εἶναι ἄτιmicroον ἕως ἂν ἐκτείσηι καὶ microηθὲν ἧσ|σον ἐξαιρεῖσθαι τὸ τεταγmicroένον ὑπὸ τῶν microετὰ ταῦτα γινοmicroένων| ἀνατακτῶν 70 IG XII2 645 b1 lines 32-58 κα|[ὶ microὴ ἔ]micromicroεναι [π]|[ὰρ τ]αῦτα microήτε| [ἄ]ρχοντι προθ|[έ]microεναι microήτε ῥ|[ή]τορι εἶπαι micro|[ή]τε ἐπιmicroηνί[ω]| [ἐ]σένικαιmiddot αἰ δ|[έ] κέ τις ἢ ῥήτω|[ρ] εἴπη ἢ ἄρχων| [ἐσ]αγάγη [ἢ]| [ἐπ]ιmicroήνιος ἐσ[εν]ίκη ἄκυρά τ|[ε] ἔστω καὶ ὀφε|[λ]λέτω ἔκαστο|[ς] στάτηρας τρ|[ ια]κοσίοις ἴρ|[οι]ς τῶ Ἀσκλαπ|[ίω] καὶ ἐπάρατ|[ος] ἔστω καὶ ἄτι|[microος] καὶ γένος| [ε]ἰς τὸν πάντα| [χρ]όνον καὶ ἐν| ἔστω τῶ νόmicro|[ω π]ερὶ τῶ καλλ|[ύο]ντος τὸν δᾶ|[microον] 71 Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros IG XII1 155 face

13 13

1213

is stated in one decree in view of the importance of making an example of the benefaction72 Invalidity in entrenchment clauses in relation to endowments is aiming to prevent any different use of the funds or of the property donated by the benefactor73 as in the testament of Epicteta (dated around 210-195 BC)74 It also guarantees that no alteration of the exact terms of use of the donation75 will take place and nullifies any transaction that may jeopardize the capital donated76 The invalidity clause striking future different decree propositions was aiming to preserve the benefactorrsquos instructions and will (κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν) as it is clearly stated in an honorary decree from Eretria (ca 100 BC)77

The practice of sanctioning entrenchment clauses with invalidity reinforced by fines continued into Roman times Invalidity of future decrees or deliberations was sometimes mentioned as having

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 III85 lines 95-100 τ[ὸ]| δὲ ψάφισmicroα τόδ[ε κ]ύριον ἔστω εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρό|νον καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδι|ώται microήτε κινεῖν microήτε γνώmicroαν γράψασθαι|microήτε τοῖς ἄρχουσι προτιθέmicroειν ὡς δεῖ τὰς δ[ε]|δοmicroένας τιmicroὰς Διονυσοδώρωι ἀκύρους εἴmicro|microειν middot ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἀποτεισάτω τὸ γε|γραmicromicroένον ἐπιτίmicroιον δραχmicroὰς ἑκατόν καὶ ἁ γνώmicro[α]|[α]ὐτοῦ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἔνοχος ἔστω τῶι νό|microωι τῶι ἀκινήτωι 72 Honorary decree (dated after 1532 BC found in Delos) of the koinon of the Βηρυτίων Ποσ[ειδω|νιαστῶν ἐmicroπόρω]ν καὶ ναυκλήρων [καὶ ἐ]γδοχέων for their Roman benefactor the banker Marcus Minatius Sextus ID 1520 lines 57-61 ὅπως ἂν ἀΐδιοι διαmicroένωσι τοῖς εὐεργέταις αἱ δοθεῖσαι τι|[micro]αί microηθενὶ ἐξέστωι microήτε ἰδιώτηι microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτ[ε]| [γ]ράψαι ὡς δεῖ τῶν δεδοmicroένων τιmicroῶν microεταθεῖναι ἢ ἀφελεῖν ἢ ἀκυρ[όν]| [τ] ι ποιῆσαι παρὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ εἴπας ἢ ὁ ἀναγνοὺς| [ἢ] ὁ προθεὶς ἢ ὁ ἐπιχειροτονήσας ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἐξώλης εἴη| [α]ὐτὸς καὶ τὰ τέ[κν]α αὐτοῦ τοῖς δὲ ταῦτα ἐπιτηροῦσι εἴη καὶ βίου καὶ| τέκνων καὶ ὑπαρχόντων ὄνησις καὶ εἴη αὐτοῖς σώιζεσθαι καὶ κατ[ὰ]| [γ]ῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν καὶ ὁ παρὰ ταῦτα ποιήσας ἀποτινέτω| δραχmicroὰς στεφανηφόρους ἑξακισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ποσειδῶ|νος καὶ ὑπόδικος ἔστω τῶι ἀδικουmicroένωιmiddot 73 A decree from Eresos in Lesbos (dating from the middle of the third century BC) regarding the donation by Agemortos of some source of income to be used for sacrifices forbids and invalidates any encumberance or any other use of the income and any such proposition before the council or the assembly IG ΧΙΙ2 529 lines 3- 9 microηδὲ ὐποθέ|[microεναι microηδrsquo ἐγγύ]ασθαι microήδενι microηδὲ ὐπό|θεσθα[ι] microηδrsquo εἴπην ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω microήδενα ὡς δεῖ περιβάλεσθαι| τὰν θυσίαν microηδὲ τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς ἄλλο| κατάταξαι microῆδενmiddot αἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρα ἔmicromicroεναι| τὰ πράχθεντα middot 74 In the inscription recording the legacy she left to her daughter Epiteleia Epicteta was founding a sanctuary to the Muses and her own deceased ancestors and providing for the establishment of an association dedicated to the worship of the Muses her will including an invalidity clause for future amendments by third parties IG XII 3 330 B1 lines 263-267 middot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἢ εἴπει ἢ γράψει | τό τε ῥηθὲν ἢ γραφὲν ἄκυρον ἔστω καὶ ὁ| εἴπας ἢ γράψας στερέσθω τοῦ κοινοῦ καὶ ὁ|φειλ[έ]τω αὐτῶι δραχmicroὰς πεντακοσίας| καὶ πρακτὸς ἔστω καὶ ἀπὸ ἐνεχυρασίας| κατὰ τὸς νόmicroος ὑπὸ τοῦ χρῄζοντος τῶν| συγγενῶν 75 Decree of Didyma establishing annual distribution of food on the occasion of the birthday of Eumenes II (dated 1598 BC) Didyma 13 lines 41-49 microὴ εἶναι microη|θενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτε ἀναγνῶναι microήτε προθεῖ|ναι microήτε προγράψαι microήτε ἐπιψηφίσαι ὡς δεῖ microε|τατεθῆναι τὰ χρήmicroατα εἰς ἄλλο τι καὶ microὴ ὑπάρχει[ν]|εἰς τὰ ἐν τῶι ψηφίσmicro[ατι] κατακεχωρισmicroένα ἐὰν δ[έ]|τις παρὰ ταῦτα π[ράξηι] τρόπωι ltὁτωιgtοῦν τό τε γρ[α]|φὲν ἄκυρον ἔσ[τω ὁ δὲ π]ράξας τι τῶν ἀπειρη|microένων [ἀποτεισάτω στατῆρας] δισχιλίους ἱεροὺς|το[ῦ Ἀπόλλωνος τοῦ Διδυmicro]έωςmiddot 76 The decree of Delphi of 16059 BC regulating the usage of a donation by king Attalos of an important amount of money to the city to be used for the childrenrsquos education and for sacrifices invalidates and punishes by fine any proposition or decision for a different use than the one prescribed by the decree Syllsup3 672 lines 15-19 εἰ δέ τις τούτων τι ποιή|σαι ἢ ἄρχων ἢ ἰδιώτας κατάmicroαστρος ἔστω ἱερῶν χρηmicroάτων φω|ρᾶς καὶ οἱ microαστροὶ καταγραφόντω κατrsquo αὐτοῦ κατὰ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ ἄλ|λως microετενεγχθὲν ἀργύριον ὀκταπλοῦν καὶ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ διαινε|θὲν ἄκυρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστω 77 IG XII9 236 lines 51-61 ὅπως δὲ microένῃ τὸ ἀνακείmicroενον ἀσφα|λῶς κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν καὶ εἰς ἄλλο| microηθὲν ἦι καταχρήσασθαι microηθενὶ ἐξουσίαν εἶναι ἀπὸ| τούτου τοῦ διαφόρου microηδὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ πίπτοντος ἀπrsquo|αὐτοῦ τόκου microήτε καταχρήσασθαι εἰς ἄλλο microηθὲν| microήτε ἐπιψηφίσασθαι microήτε ἐπερωτῆσαιmiddot εἰ δὲ microή ὅ τε γρά|ψας ἢ ἐπερωτήσας | ὀφειλέτω ἱερὰς τῆς Ἀρτέmicroιδος|δραχmicroὰς ἑξακισmicroυρίας καὶ ἔστω ἀπαγωγὴ κατrsquo αὐ|τοῦ τῷ βουλοmicroένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ τρίτῳ microέρει πρὸς τοὺς| ἄρχοντας καὶ τὰ γραφέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

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immediate effect78 The expression οὐδὲν ἔλασσον (no less) preceding in some decrees the invalidity clause shows it was considered the last but not least necessary complement of entrenchment clauses79 In view of the change of political settings invalidity is now sometimes aiming the archonsrsquos orders or the cityrsquos ekdikos propositions (or anybody elsersquos) and the fines are collected by the Roman fiscus80 In a decree from Miletus concerning the cityrsquos and the imperial cults any different use of the funds and any act contravening the purpose secured by this statute (τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]) would be invalid and the archon introducing such a proposition would be guilty of impiety against the gods and guilty ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης of the payment of a fine81 Three documents from Ephesus dating from AD 104 show how invalidity had become a standard term aiming to secure the proper execution of the will of the benefactor which was ratified both by the Roman officialrsquos and by the cityrsquos decisions The invalidity clause of future amendments is first mentioned in the letter of Caius Vibius Salutaris offering several benefactions to the boule and demos of Ephesus in form of a legal document82 second the proconsul Gaius Aquillius Proculus in his letter to the archontes boule and demos of Ephesus approves the benefaction of Gaius Vibius Salutaris and ratifies the invalidity

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 78 SE 241 frg hcol 21 lines 7-8 [mdash]ασmicroένων καὶ τὰς ltσgtυνεγmicroεmicroισθωmicroένας αὐτοῖς προσόδους ἀνεξαλλ[άκτας mdash]| [mdash] ψηφισθὲν χρηmicroατισθὲν ἔστω παραχρῆmicroα ἄκυρον κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ποιησαmicro[ένου mdash] 79 In one instance in a decree of Mytilene instituting celebrations in the context of the emperial cult the city threatens with invalidity all actions or propositions of private citizens or magistrates contravening the celebrations and relevant procedures these being considered synonymous with the safeguard of the citys liberty and democracy and sympoliteia since the city had recently seen its status as an ally of Rome confirmed by Augustus IG XII2 59 lines 6-12 ἢ οἰ ἐξ αὔτων γράψωσι ἢ συν[κλήτω δόγmicroα mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αἰ δέ κέ τις ἢ ἰδίωτας ἢ ἄρχων παρ[άβαις τι τῶν ἐν mdash mdash mdash γεγραmicromicroέ]|[νω]ν καὶ ἐν τῶ ψαφίσmicroατι τούτω microὴ πέmicroψη [mdash mdash mdash mdash καττὸν ἐψαφίσθη]| τρόπον ἢ microὴ φυλάξη τὰν τάξιν τᾶς ἀναγράφα[ς mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἄκυ]|ρον ἔστω καὶ ὐπεύθυνος ἔστω ὁ παράβαις [mdash mdash mdash ὠς καταλύων ταὶς τῶν]| Σεβάστων καὶ τῶ οἴκω αὔτων τείmicroαις καὶ ἀναίρεις [mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἐλευ]|θερίας καὶ δαmicroοκρατίας καὶ συmicroπολειτίας 80 In an honorary decree of the boule and demos for Gaius Caninius Synallasson found at Iasos regulating the foundation he established for the gymnasium of the neoi (ca 117-138 AD) Iasos 21 lines 54-67 ἐφrsquo ᾧ οὐ|δενὶ ἐξέσται ἄρχοντι οὐδὲ ἑτέρῳ οὐδενὶ microε|ταδιατάξαι ἕτερόν τι περὶ τούτων τῶν πεντα|κισχειλίων δηναρίων ἢ τῆς προσόδου αὐτῶν| ἐκτὸς ἐὰν microὴ χωρίων ἀγορασθησοmicroένων τοῖς| νέοις δεήσῃ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς τὴν τει|microὴν τῶν ἀγορασθησοmicroένων ἀγρῶν χωρῆσαι| ἐφrsquo ᾧ καὶ οὕτως microενεῖ ἡ πρόσοδος αἰεὶ εἰς τὸ ἄλιmicroα| τῶν νέων καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot ἐπεὶ ὁ ὑπεναντί|ον τούτοις ποιήσας τι ἀποδώσει εἰς τὸν τοῦ κυ|ρίου Καίσαρος φίσκον δηνάρια πεντακισχείλια| καὶ οὐδὲν ἔλασσον ἔσται τὸ microεταδιαταγὲν ἄκυρον| καὶ microενεῖ τὰ πεντακισχείλια δηνάρια καὶ ἡ πρόσοδος| αὐτῶν τοῖς νέοις καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot 81 Miletos 15 lines 18-33 microηδενὶ δὲ ἐξεῖναι microήτε| ἄρχοντι microήτε ἑτέρῳ τινὶ microεταγαγεῖν εἰς| ἀργυρικὸν πόρον τὰς λειτουργίας ταύτα[ς]| τρόπῳ microηδενὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσει microηδεmicro[ι]|ᾷmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις ὑπεναντίον τι πράξῃ τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]| τὸ microὲν γενόmicroενον ᾥτινιοῦν τρόπῳ ὑ|πάρχειν ἄκυρον τὸν δὲ ψηφισάmicroενον ἄρ|χοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον ὑπάρχειν τῶν προ|γεγραmicromicroένων θεῶν καὶ ὀφείλειν αὐτὸν| ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης στατῆρας φʹ ἱερούς| καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον τὸν microὴ ἐπιτελέσαντα| προφήτην τοὺς κόσmicroους ἢ τὸν microὴ ποή|σαντα στεφανηφόρον τοὺς microολποὺς εἰσ|πράσσεσθαι ἐπάναγκες τὰς προδεδηλωmicroέ|νας εὐωχίαςmiddot 82 Ephesos 212 lines 315- 325 microηδὲν δὲ ἐξέστω ἄρχοντι ἢ ἐκδίκῳ ἢ ἰδιώ|τῃ πεσαί τι ἀλλάξαι ἢ microεταθεῖναι ἢ microετοικονοmicroῆσαι ἢ microετα|ψηφίασθα τῶν καθιερωmicroένων ἀπεικονισmicroάτων ἢ τοῦ| ἀργυρίου ἢ τῆς ροσόδου αὐτοῦ ἢ microεταθεῖναι εἰς ἕτερον πόρον| ἢ ἀνάωmicroα ἢ ἄλο τι ποῆσαι παρὰ τὰ προγεγραmicromicroένα καὶ δια|τετmicroένα ἐπεὶ τὸ γενόmicroενον παρὰ ταῦτα ἔστω ἄκυρον middot| ὁ δὲ περάσας ποιῆσαί τι ὑπεναντίον τῇ διατάξει ἢ τοῖς| ὑπὸ τς βουῆς καὶ τοῦ δήmicroου ἐψηφισmicroένοις καὶ ἐπικεκυ|ρωmicroέν ταύτης τῆς διατάξεως ἀποτεισάτω εἰς| προσκῆς microεης θεᾶς Ἀρτέmicroιδος δη(νάρια) δισmicroύρια| εταβαστοῦ φίσκον ἄλλα δη(νάρια) βʹ Μ ͵ε

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clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

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60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

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δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

1013

When a future decree proposition (γνώmicroη) is declared invalid this invalidates in fact the whole decree voting procedure55 Detailed terms in entrenchment clauses56 often mention both private persons (ἰδιώτης) and city officials (ἄρχοντες ῥήτορες ἐπιmicroήνιοι) that may be involved the organs before which such propositions may take place (ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω) as well as all the steps leading to the adoption of new decisions (εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι) oraly or in writing (ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι) sometimes adding for the sake of exhaustivity the annulment of decisions ldquoin any other possible wayrdquo (τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν) The legislation process being an expression of the sovereignty of the demos the invalidity clause acts as a kind of limitation for future times of the operation of the majority principle57 in order to secure that no valid decision shall be reached in the future regulating the same matter in a different way Examples of rules that include a detailed enumeration of all possible ways of obtaining amendments declared a priori invalid include the law of Teos regulating the salaries of instructors for the youth58 and a decree of Chios forbidding the use of funds for other purposes than the ones prescribed

Chios 27 11 [mdash]ΙΑ καὶ micro[ὴ] ἐξεῖν[αι τ]οῖς [χρήmicroασι]

[τοῖς συναγ]οmicroένοις ἐκ τῆς [ὑ]ποσχέσεω[ς] [εἰς ἄλλο κ]αταχρῆσθαι microη[δ]ὲν ἢ εἰς τὰ [διατεταγ]micro ένα κατὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα

5 [ἐὰν δέ τις γ]ράψηι ἢ πρύτανις προ[θ]ῆι [ταῦτα εἰς ἄλ]λο τι microετενεγκεῖν ἢ κατα- [χρήσασθαι] ἢ ποιήσηι τίς τι παρὰ τόδε τὸ [ψήφισmicroα τό] τε γραφὲν ἢ πραχθὲν ἄκυρον [ἔστω καὶ ὀφε]ιλέτω τῆι πόλει δραχmicroὰς ΧΧΧ

10 [ὁ τούτων αἴτιο]ς καὶ ἔστω πρὸς τοῦτο [ὑποδικὸς κ]αθάπερ καὶ οἱ ἐξ ὠνῆς ὀφεί- [λοντες χρήmicro]ατα τῆι πόλειmiddot

In entrenchment clauses invalidity is either explicit or may be implied if (only) penalties or curses are directed against anyone who tries to annul the current provisions59 In order to invest an entrenchment clause with effectiveness invalidity apparently not being considered always sufficient in order to deter citizens from introducing changes in the future the provision of penalties60 added a financial risk to the challenge Combined sanctions (invalidity plus fine) are included in sacred laws61 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 τετρα]|[κ]ισmicroυρίους καὶ ἄτιmicroον εἶναι καὶ αὐτὸν κ[αὶ γένος]middot [ἐνέχ]εσθαι δὲ αὐτοὺς καὶ τῆι εἰς τοὺς Σε[βαστοὺς ἀσε]|[βείαιmiddot 55 Cf the use of ἄκυρον in the Athenaion Politeia on the lack of sovereignety of the Boule to decide by itself Arist AthPol 454 τούτων microὲν οὖν ἄκυρός ἐστιν ἡ βουλήmiddot προβουλεύει δrsquoεἰς τὸν δῆmicroον καὶ οὐκ ἔξεστιν οὐδὲν ἀπροβούλευτον οὐδrsquo ὅ τι ἂν microὴ προγράψωσιν οἱ πρυτάνεις ψηφίσασθαι τῷ δήmicroῳ κατrsquo αὐτὰ γὰρ ταῦτα ἔνοχός ἐστιν ὁ νικήσας γραφῇ παρανόmicroων 5613 On entrenchment clauses and different measures aiming to preserve important resources and to guarantee compliance with relevant rules in late Hellenistic and imperial times see Harter-Uibopuu K 2013 (forthcoming)13 57 The interdiction and nullity clause for future decree propositions may have constituted in Athens grounds for a graphe paranomon 58 Teos 41 lines 40-46 ἢν δὲ οἱ ἐνεστηκότες ταmicroίαι ἢ οἱ ἑκάστοτε γινόmicroενοι| microὴ παραδῶσιν τὸ ἀργύριον τοῦτο κατὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα v3 ἢ ἄλλος τις ἄρχων| ἢ ἰδιώτης εἴπηι ἢ πρήξηται ἢ προθῆι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ νόmicroον προθῆι ἐναντίον τού| τωι ἢ τοῦτον τὸν νόmicroον ἄρηι τρόπωι τινὶ ἢ παρευρέσει ἡιοῦν ὡς δεῖ τὸ ἀργύρι| ον κινηθῆναι ἢ microὴ ἀναλίσκεσθαι ἀπrsquo αὐτοῦ εἰς ἃ ὁ νόmicroος συντάσσει ἢ ἄλλ[ηι που]| καταχωρισθῆναι καὶ microὴ εἰς ἃ ἐν τῶιδε τῶι νόmicroωι διατέτακται τά τε πραχθέν|τα ἄκυρα ἔστω 59 On examples of such inscriptions see Sickinger J P 2008 104 n 24 25 60 See Rubinstein L 2012329-354 61 IK Kalchedon 10 lines 10-13 [ὃς δέ] κα εἴπῃ ἢ προαισιmicroνάσηι ἢ ἐν [β]ουλᾶι ἢ ἐν δάmicroωι ὀ|[φειλέτω] δραχmicroὰς Μ ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἡρακλεῖος καὶ τὰ| [προαισ]ιmicroναθέντα ἢ ῥηθέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

1113

from the Asklepieion of Kos (dated from the end of the first century BC) concerning the sale of the priesthoods of Aphrodite Pandamos and Pontia62 and of Asklepios63 invalidating any decree proposing a different use of the thesauros of the sanctuary The penalties are not linked to any concrete damage (βλάβη) that may be incurred by any party64 to any demand of restitution to any unjust enrichment or transfer of property but rely upon the (implied) public interest and the collective (moral) damage of the community or of the sanctuary in case the current regulations are changed65 The combination of legal invalidity to penalties introduce thus avant la lettre the concept of the Roman lex perfecta to Greek law as laws including both a sanction and the nullity of anything contrary to a particular clause of the law as well as the interdiction of future amendments of the statute The earliest occurrences date from the early fourth century BC in an honorary decree from Athens for Sthorys the Thasian (dated 3943) where invalidity combined with penalties is threatened against anyone ldquonullifyingrdquo these honors66 Regarding the penalties combined with invalidity in some decrees concerning matters of particular importance for the city the collection procedure of the fines was also defined ad hoc as in a fourth century BC citizenship decree from Thasos67 in a decree of Miletus68 (2054 BC) instituting a public eisphora for the citizens in order to cover public deficit69 The penalties associated to the invalidity clause may also be escalating by analogy to the importance of the matter regulated or of the person honored by the decree A decree by the Nasiotai bestowing honors to Thersippos (ca 315 BC) for his benefactions in connection to Alexanderrsquos campaigns invalidates all future amendments in combination to severe penalties such as fines threats of atimia and treason charges for acting against the democracy plus a curse against anyone proposing their abolition70

Invalidity clauses may also be included in decisions issued by private associations forbidding that any of the honors bestowed upon their benefactors may be postponed or cancelled71 and this as it

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 62 SEG 50766 back face1 lines 20-24 τὸ δὲ χρῆmicroα τοῦ|το ὑπαρχέτω ἐς κατασκευάσmicroατα ἅ κα δόξῃ τᾶι ἐκλησίαι καὶ ἐς ἐπισ|κευὰν τοῦ ἱεροῦmiddot αἰ δέ κά τις ψαφίξηται ὥστε ἐς ἄλλο τι καταχρη[σ]θῆmicroεν| τὰ ἐκ τῶν θησαυρῶν ἢ προστάτας προθῆι ἀποτισάτω τῶν αἰτίων ἕκασ|τος δραχmicroὰς χειλίας ἱερὰς τᾶς Ἀφροδίτας καὶ ἁ γνώmicroα ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 63 SEG 511066 frg ab lines 31-35 microὴ ἐξέστωι δὲ microήτε]|ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδιώιται [microηδενὶ ἐς ἄλλο καταχρήσασθαι τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ χρήmicroατα]| ἢ microετάγεν τὰς ἀπrsquo αὐτῶ[ιν ποθόδους mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αὐτῶι ἔστωι περὶ πᾶν ὅτι [κα γράψηι ἢ ἐπιψαφίξηι καὶ ἀποτινέτωι (δραχmicroὰς) mdashʹ]| καὶ ἁ γνώιmicroαι ἄκυρος ἤτ[ω 64 On blabe initially limited in cases of damages included in the law see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993191 65 On the notion ἀδικεῖν τὴν πόλιν see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 199391-94 66 IG IIsup2 17 lines 31-33 ἐὰν δέ τις τα[ῦτ]α ἄκυρ[α ποῆι ὀφελέ]|τω χιλίας [δ]ραχmicroὰς ἱερ[ὰς τῆ]ι Ἀθηνα[ίαι καὶ τῶι Ἀπό]|λλωνι τῶ[ι] Πυθίωι ἑτέρα[ς] 67 IG XII 8 267 lines 11-16 microὴ [ἐξεῖ]|ναι δὲ ὑπὲρ τούτων microηδενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτrsquo ἐπε[λθεῖ]ν ὑπὲρ λύσιος microήτrsquo ἐπιψηφίσαι ἀκρατέα εἶνα[ι ταῦ]|τα τὰ ἐψηφισmicroένα ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ ταῦτα εἴπηι ἢ ἐπέλθηι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι τά τε δόξαντα ἄκυρα ἔστω κα[ὶ χι]|λίους στατῆρας ὀφειλέτω ἱεροὺς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίωι χιλίους δὲ τῆι πόλει δικασάσθων δὲ ο[ἱ ἀπό]|λογοιmiddot ἂν δὲ microὴ δικάσωνται αὐτοὶ ὀφειλόντων δικασάσθων δὲ ἀπόλογοι οἱ microετὰ τούτους αἱρεθέντε[ς]middot|δικασάσθω δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὁ ἐθέλων καὶ ἂν ὁ ἰδιώτης νικήσηι microετεῖναι αὐτῶι τὸ ἥmicroυσυ τὴς καταδί[κης] On this inscription see Fournier J 2012 360-361 Cf also the invalidity clause in IG XII8 264 from Thassos (beginning 4th century BC) 68 See Migeotte L 1984 no97 69 Miletos 41 Lines 24- 29 ἐὰν δέ τις εἴπηι| ἢ προθῇ ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι τά τε γραφθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ ὀφείλειν ἕκαστον τῶν αἰτίων| στατῆρας χιλίους καὶ εἶναι ἄτιmicroον ἕως ἂν ἐκτείσηι καὶ microηθὲν ἧσ|σον ἐξαιρεῖσθαι τὸ τεταγmicroένον ὑπὸ τῶν microετὰ ταῦτα γινοmicroένων| ἀνατακτῶν 70 IG XII2 645 b1 lines 32-58 κα|[ὶ microὴ ἔ]micromicroεναι [π]|[ὰρ τ]αῦτα microήτε| [ἄ]ρχοντι προθ|[έ]microεναι microήτε ῥ|[ή]τορι εἶπαι micro|[ή]τε ἐπιmicroηνί[ω]| [ἐ]σένικαιmiddot αἰ δ|[έ] κέ τις ἢ ῥήτω|[ρ] εἴπη ἢ ἄρχων| [ἐσ]αγάγη [ἢ]| [ἐπ]ιmicroήνιος ἐσ[εν]ίκη ἄκυρά τ|[ε] ἔστω καὶ ὀφε|[λ]λέτω ἔκαστο|[ς] στάτηρας τρ|[ ια]κοσίοις ἴρ|[οι]ς τῶ Ἀσκλαπ|[ίω] καὶ ἐπάρατ|[ος] ἔστω καὶ ἄτι|[microος] καὶ γένος| [ε]ἰς τὸν πάντα| [χρ]όνον καὶ ἐν| ἔστω τῶ νόmicro|[ω π]ερὶ τῶ καλλ|[ύο]ντος τὸν δᾶ|[microον] 71 Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros IG XII1 155 face

13 13

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is stated in one decree in view of the importance of making an example of the benefaction72 Invalidity in entrenchment clauses in relation to endowments is aiming to prevent any different use of the funds or of the property donated by the benefactor73 as in the testament of Epicteta (dated around 210-195 BC)74 It also guarantees that no alteration of the exact terms of use of the donation75 will take place and nullifies any transaction that may jeopardize the capital donated76 The invalidity clause striking future different decree propositions was aiming to preserve the benefactorrsquos instructions and will (κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν) as it is clearly stated in an honorary decree from Eretria (ca 100 BC)77

The practice of sanctioning entrenchment clauses with invalidity reinforced by fines continued into Roman times Invalidity of future decrees or deliberations was sometimes mentioned as having

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 III85 lines 95-100 τ[ὸ]| δὲ ψάφισmicroα τόδ[ε κ]ύριον ἔστω εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρό|νον καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδι|ώται microήτε κινεῖν microήτε γνώmicroαν γράψασθαι|microήτε τοῖς ἄρχουσι προτιθέmicroειν ὡς δεῖ τὰς δ[ε]|δοmicroένας τιmicroὰς Διονυσοδώρωι ἀκύρους εἴmicro|microειν middot ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἀποτεισάτω τὸ γε|γραmicromicroένον ἐπιτίmicroιον δραχmicroὰς ἑκατόν καὶ ἁ γνώmicro[α]|[α]ὐτοῦ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἔνοχος ἔστω τῶι νό|microωι τῶι ἀκινήτωι 72 Honorary decree (dated after 1532 BC found in Delos) of the koinon of the Βηρυτίων Ποσ[ειδω|νιαστῶν ἐmicroπόρω]ν καὶ ναυκλήρων [καὶ ἐ]γδοχέων for their Roman benefactor the banker Marcus Minatius Sextus ID 1520 lines 57-61 ὅπως ἂν ἀΐδιοι διαmicroένωσι τοῖς εὐεργέταις αἱ δοθεῖσαι τι|[micro]αί microηθενὶ ἐξέστωι microήτε ἰδιώτηι microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτ[ε]| [γ]ράψαι ὡς δεῖ τῶν δεδοmicroένων τιmicroῶν microεταθεῖναι ἢ ἀφελεῖν ἢ ἀκυρ[όν]| [τ] ι ποιῆσαι παρὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ εἴπας ἢ ὁ ἀναγνοὺς| [ἢ] ὁ προθεὶς ἢ ὁ ἐπιχειροτονήσας ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἐξώλης εἴη| [α]ὐτὸς καὶ τὰ τέ[κν]α αὐτοῦ τοῖς δὲ ταῦτα ἐπιτηροῦσι εἴη καὶ βίου καὶ| τέκνων καὶ ὑπαρχόντων ὄνησις καὶ εἴη αὐτοῖς σώιζεσθαι καὶ κατ[ὰ]| [γ]ῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν καὶ ὁ παρὰ ταῦτα ποιήσας ἀποτινέτω| δραχmicroὰς στεφανηφόρους ἑξακισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ποσειδῶ|νος καὶ ὑπόδικος ἔστω τῶι ἀδικουmicroένωιmiddot 73 A decree from Eresos in Lesbos (dating from the middle of the third century BC) regarding the donation by Agemortos of some source of income to be used for sacrifices forbids and invalidates any encumberance or any other use of the income and any such proposition before the council or the assembly IG ΧΙΙ2 529 lines 3- 9 microηδὲ ὐποθέ|[microεναι microηδrsquo ἐγγύ]ασθαι microήδενι microηδὲ ὐπό|θεσθα[ι] microηδrsquo εἴπην ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω microήδενα ὡς δεῖ περιβάλεσθαι| τὰν θυσίαν microηδὲ τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς ἄλλο| κατάταξαι microῆδενmiddot αἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρα ἔmicromicroεναι| τὰ πράχθεντα middot 74 In the inscription recording the legacy she left to her daughter Epiteleia Epicteta was founding a sanctuary to the Muses and her own deceased ancestors and providing for the establishment of an association dedicated to the worship of the Muses her will including an invalidity clause for future amendments by third parties IG XII 3 330 B1 lines 263-267 middot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἢ εἴπει ἢ γράψει | τό τε ῥηθὲν ἢ γραφὲν ἄκυρον ἔστω καὶ ὁ| εἴπας ἢ γράψας στερέσθω τοῦ κοινοῦ καὶ ὁ|φειλ[έ]τω αὐτῶι δραχmicroὰς πεντακοσίας| καὶ πρακτὸς ἔστω καὶ ἀπὸ ἐνεχυρασίας| κατὰ τὸς νόmicroος ὑπὸ τοῦ χρῄζοντος τῶν| συγγενῶν 75 Decree of Didyma establishing annual distribution of food on the occasion of the birthday of Eumenes II (dated 1598 BC) Didyma 13 lines 41-49 microὴ εἶναι microη|θενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτε ἀναγνῶναι microήτε προθεῖ|ναι microήτε προγράψαι microήτε ἐπιψηφίσαι ὡς δεῖ microε|τατεθῆναι τὰ χρήmicroατα εἰς ἄλλο τι καὶ microὴ ὑπάρχει[ν]|εἰς τὰ ἐν τῶι ψηφίσmicro[ατι] κατακεχωρισmicroένα ἐὰν δ[έ]|τις παρὰ ταῦτα π[ράξηι] τρόπωι ltὁτωιgtοῦν τό τε γρ[α]|φὲν ἄκυρον ἔσ[τω ὁ δὲ π]ράξας τι τῶν ἀπειρη|microένων [ἀποτεισάτω στατῆρας] δισχιλίους ἱεροὺς|το[ῦ Ἀπόλλωνος τοῦ Διδυmicro]έωςmiddot 76 The decree of Delphi of 16059 BC regulating the usage of a donation by king Attalos of an important amount of money to the city to be used for the childrenrsquos education and for sacrifices invalidates and punishes by fine any proposition or decision for a different use than the one prescribed by the decree Syllsup3 672 lines 15-19 εἰ δέ τις τούτων τι ποιή|σαι ἢ ἄρχων ἢ ἰδιώτας κατάmicroαστρος ἔστω ἱερῶν χρηmicroάτων φω|ρᾶς καὶ οἱ microαστροὶ καταγραφόντω κατrsquo αὐτοῦ κατὰ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ ἄλ|λως microετενεγχθὲν ἀργύριον ὀκταπλοῦν καὶ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ διαινε|θὲν ἄκυρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστω 77 IG XII9 236 lines 51-61 ὅπως δὲ microένῃ τὸ ἀνακείmicroενον ἀσφα|λῶς κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν καὶ εἰς ἄλλο| microηθὲν ἦι καταχρήσασθαι microηθενὶ ἐξουσίαν εἶναι ἀπὸ| τούτου τοῦ διαφόρου microηδὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ πίπτοντος ἀπrsquo|αὐτοῦ τόκου microήτε καταχρήσασθαι εἰς ἄλλο microηθὲν| microήτε ἐπιψηφίσασθαι microήτε ἐπερωτῆσαιmiddot εἰ δὲ microή ὅ τε γρά|ψας ἢ ἐπερωτήσας | ὀφειλέτω ἱερὰς τῆς Ἀρτέmicroιδος|δραχmicroὰς ἑξακισmicroυρίας καὶ ἔστω ἀπαγωγὴ κατrsquo αὐ|τοῦ τῷ βουλοmicroένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ τρίτῳ microέρει πρὸς τοὺς| ἄρχοντας καὶ τὰ γραφέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

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immediate effect78 The expression οὐδὲν ἔλασσον (no less) preceding in some decrees the invalidity clause shows it was considered the last but not least necessary complement of entrenchment clauses79 In view of the change of political settings invalidity is now sometimes aiming the archonsrsquos orders or the cityrsquos ekdikos propositions (or anybody elsersquos) and the fines are collected by the Roman fiscus80 In a decree from Miletus concerning the cityrsquos and the imperial cults any different use of the funds and any act contravening the purpose secured by this statute (τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]) would be invalid and the archon introducing such a proposition would be guilty of impiety against the gods and guilty ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης of the payment of a fine81 Three documents from Ephesus dating from AD 104 show how invalidity had become a standard term aiming to secure the proper execution of the will of the benefactor which was ratified both by the Roman officialrsquos and by the cityrsquos decisions The invalidity clause of future amendments is first mentioned in the letter of Caius Vibius Salutaris offering several benefactions to the boule and demos of Ephesus in form of a legal document82 second the proconsul Gaius Aquillius Proculus in his letter to the archontes boule and demos of Ephesus approves the benefaction of Gaius Vibius Salutaris and ratifies the invalidity

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 78 SE 241 frg hcol 21 lines 7-8 [mdash]ασmicroένων καὶ τὰς ltσgtυνεγmicroεmicroισθωmicroένας αὐτοῖς προσόδους ἀνεξαλλ[άκτας mdash]| [mdash] ψηφισθὲν χρηmicroατισθὲν ἔστω παραχρῆmicroα ἄκυρον κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ποιησαmicro[ένου mdash] 79 In one instance in a decree of Mytilene instituting celebrations in the context of the emperial cult the city threatens with invalidity all actions or propositions of private citizens or magistrates contravening the celebrations and relevant procedures these being considered synonymous with the safeguard of the citys liberty and democracy and sympoliteia since the city had recently seen its status as an ally of Rome confirmed by Augustus IG XII2 59 lines 6-12 ἢ οἰ ἐξ αὔτων γράψωσι ἢ συν[κλήτω δόγmicroα mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αἰ δέ κέ τις ἢ ἰδίωτας ἢ ἄρχων παρ[άβαις τι τῶν ἐν mdash mdash mdash γεγραmicromicroέ]|[νω]ν καὶ ἐν τῶ ψαφίσmicroατι τούτω microὴ πέmicroψη [mdash mdash mdash mdash καττὸν ἐψαφίσθη]| τρόπον ἢ microὴ φυλάξη τὰν τάξιν τᾶς ἀναγράφα[ς mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἄκυ]|ρον ἔστω καὶ ὐπεύθυνος ἔστω ὁ παράβαις [mdash mdash mdash ὠς καταλύων ταὶς τῶν]| Σεβάστων καὶ τῶ οἴκω αὔτων τείmicroαις καὶ ἀναίρεις [mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἐλευ]|θερίας καὶ δαmicroοκρατίας καὶ συmicroπολειτίας 80 In an honorary decree of the boule and demos for Gaius Caninius Synallasson found at Iasos regulating the foundation he established for the gymnasium of the neoi (ca 117-138 AD) Iasos 21 lines 54-67 ἐφrsquo ᾧ οὐ|δενὶ ἐξέσται ἄρχοντι οὐδὲ ἑτέρῳ οὐδενὶ microε|ταδιατάξαι ἕτερόν τι περὶ τούτων τῶν πεντα|κισχειλίων δηναρίων ἢ τῆς προσόδου αὐτῶν| ἐκτὸς ἐὰν microὴ χωρίων ἀγορασθησοmicroένων τοῖς| νέοις δεήσῃ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς τὴν τει|microὴν τῶν ἀγορασθησοmicroένων ἀγρῶν χωρῆσαι| ἐφrsquo ᾧ καὶ οὕτως microενεῖ ἡ πρόσοδος αἰεὶ εἰς τὸ ἄλιmicroα| τῶν νέων καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot ἐπεὶ ὁ ὑπεναντί|ον τούτοις ποιήσας τι ἀποδώσει εἰς τὸν τοῦ κυ|ρίου Καίσαρος φίσκον δηνάρια πεντακισχείλια| καὶ οὐδὲν ἔλασσον ἔσται τὸ microεταδιαταγὲν ἄκυρον| καὶ microενεῖ τὰ πεντακισχείλια δηνάρια καὶ ἡ πρόσοδος| αὐτῶν τοῖς νέοις καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot 81 Miletos 15 lines 18-33 microηδενὶ δὲ ἐξεῖναι microήτε| ἄρχοντι microήτε ἑτέρῳ τινὶ microεταγαγεῖν εἰς| ἀργυρικὸν πόρον τὰς λειτουργίας ταύτα[ς]| τρόπῳ microηδενὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσει microηδεmicro[ι]|ᾷmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις ὑπεναντίον τι πράξῃ τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]| τὸ microὲν γενόmicroενον ᾥτινιοῦν τρόπῳ ὑ|πάρχειν ἄκυρον τὸν δὲ ψηφισάmicroενον ἄρ|χοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον ὑπάρχειν τῶν προ|γεγραmicromicroένων θεῶν καὶ ὀφείλειν αὐτὸν| ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης στατῆρας φʹ ἱερούς| καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον τὸν microὴ ἐπιτελέσαντα| προφήτην τοὺς κόσmicroους ἢ τὸν microὴ ποή|σαντα στεφανηφόρον τοὺς microολποὺς εἰσ|πράσσεσθαι ἐπάναγκες τὰς προδεδηλωmicroέ|νας εὐωχίαςmiddot 82 Ephesos 212 lines 315- 325 microηδὲν δὲ ἐξέστω ἄρχοντι ἢ ἐκδίκῳ ἢ ἰδιώ|τῃ πεσαί τι ἀλλάξαι ἢ microεταθεῖναι ἢ microετοικονοmicroῆσαι ἢ microετα|ψηφίασθα τῶν καθιερωmicroένων ἀπεικονισmicroάτων ἢ τοῦ| ἀργυρίου ἢ τῆς ροσόδου αὐτοῦ ἢ microεταθεῖναι εἰς ἕτερον πόρον| ἢ ἀνάωmicroα ἢ ἄλο τι ποῆσαι παρὰ τὰ προγεγραmicromicroένα καὶ δια|τετmicroένα ἐπεὶ τὸ γενόmicroενον παρὰ ταῦτα ἔστω ἄκυρον middot| ὁ δὲ περάσας ποιῆσαί τι ὑπεναντίον τῇ διατάξει ἢ τοῖς| ὑπὸ τς βουῆς καὶ τοῦ δήmicroου ἐψηφισmicroένοις καὶ ἐπικεκυ|ρωmicroέν ταύτης τῆς διατάξεως ἀποτεισάτω εἰς| προσκῆς microεης θεᾶς Ἀρτέmicroιδος δη(νάρια) δισmicroύρια| εταβαστοῦ φίσκον ἄλλα δη(νάρια) βʹ Μ ͵ε

13 13

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clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

13 13

1513

60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

1113

from the Asklepieion of Kos (dated from the end of the first century BC) concerning the sale of the priesthoods of Aphrodite Pandamos and Pontia62 and of Asklepios63 invalidating any decree proposing a different use of the thesauros of the sanctuary The penalties are not linked to any concrete damage (βλάβη) that may be incurred by any party64 to any demand of restitution to any unjust enrichment or transfer of property but rely upon the (implied) public interest and the collective (moral) damage of the community or of the sanctuary in case the current regulations are changed65 The combination of legal invalidity to penalties introduce thus avant la lettre the concept of the Roman lex perfecta to Greek law as laws including both a sanction and the nullity of anything contrary to a particular clause of the law as well as the interdiction of future amendments of the statute The earliest occurrences date from the early fourth century BC in an honorary decree from Athens for Sthorys the Thasian (dated 3943) where invalidity combined with penalties is threatened against anyone ldquonullifyingrdquo these honors66 Regarding the penalties combined with invalidity in some decrees concerning matters of particular importance for the city the collection procedure of the fines was also defined ad hoc as in a fourth century BC citizenship decree from Thasos67 in a decree of Miletus68 (2054 BC) instituting a public eisphora for the citizens in order to cover public deficit69 The penalties associated to the invalidity clause may also be escalating by analogy to the importance of the matter regulated or of the person honored by the decree A decree by the Nasiotai bestowing honors to Thersippos (ca 315 BC) for his benefactions in connection to Alexanderrsquos campaigns invalidates all future amendments in combination to severe penalties such as fines threats of atimia and treason charges for acting against the democracy plus a curse against anyone proposing their abolition70

Invalidity clauses may also be included in decisions issued by private associations forbidding that any of the honors bestowed upon their benefactors may be postponed or cancelled71 and this as it

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 62 SEG 50766 back face1 lines 20-24 τὸ δὲ χρῆmicroα τοῦ|το ὑπαρχέτω ἐς κατασκευάσmicroατα ἅ κα δόξῃ τᾶι ἐκλησίαι καὶ ἐς ἐπισ|κευὰν τοῦ ἱεροῦmiddot αἰ δέ κά τις ψαφίξηται ὥστε ἐς ἄλλο τι καταχρη[σ]θῆmicroεν| τὰ ἐκ τῶν θησαυρῶν ἢ προστάτας προθῆι ἀποτισάτω τῶν αἰτίων ἕκασ|τος δραχmicroὰς χειλίας ἱερὰς τᾶς Ἀφροδίτας καὶ ἁ γνώmicroα ἄκυρος ἔστω middot 63 SEG 511066 frg ab lines 31-35 microὴ ἐξέστωι δὲ microήτε]|ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδιώιται [microηδενὶ ἐς ἄλλο καταχρήσασθαι τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ χρήmicroατα]| ἢ microετάγεν τὰς ἀπrsquo αὐτῶ[ιν ποθόδους mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αὐτῶι ἔστωι περὶ πᾶν ὅτι [κα γράψηι ἢ ἐπιψαφίξηι καὶ ἀποτινέτωι (δραχmicroὰς) mdashʹ]| καὶ ἁ γνώιmicroαι ἄκυρος ἤτ[ω 64 On blabe initially limited in cases of damages included in the law see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993191 65 On the notion ἀδικεῖν τὴν πόλιν see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 199391-94 66 IG IIsup2 17 lines 31-33 ἐὰν δέ τις τα[ῦτ]α ἄκυρ[α ποῆι ὀφελέ]|τω χιλίας [δ]ραχmicroὰς ἱερ[ὰς τῆ]ι Ἀθηνα[ίαι καὶ τῶι Ἀπό]|λλωνι τῶ[ι] Πυθίωι ἑτέρα[ς] 67 IG XII 8 267 lines 11-16 microὴ [ἐξεῖ]|ναι δὲ ὑπὲρ τούτων microηδενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτrsquo ἐπε[λθεῖ]ν ὑπὲρ λύσιος microήτrsquo ἐπιψηφίσαι ἀκρατέα εἶνα[ι ταῦ]|τα τὰ ἐψηφισmicroένα ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ ταῦτα εἴπηι ἢ ἐπέλθηι ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι τά τε δόξαντα ἄκυρα ἔστω κα[ὶ χι]|λίους στατῆρας ὀφειλέτω ἱεροὺς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίωι χιλίους δὲ τῆι πόλει δικασάσθων δὲ ο[ἱ ἀπό]|λογοιmiddot ἂν δὲ microὴ δικάσωνται αὐτοὶ ὀφειλόντων δικασάσθων δὲ ἀπόλογοι οἱ microετὰ τούτους αἱρεθέντε[ς]middot|δικασάσθω δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὁ ἐθέλων καὶ ἂν ὁ ἰδιώτης νικήσηι microετεῖναι αὐτῶι τὸ ἥmicroυσυ τὴς καταδί[κης] On this inscription see Fournier J 2012 360-361 Cf also the invalidity clause in IG XII8 264 from Thassos (beginning 4th century BC) 68 See Migeotte L 1984 no97 69 Miletos 41 Lines 24- 29 ἐὰν δέ τις εἴπηι| ἢ προθῇ ἢ ἐπιψηφίσηι ἢ ὑπογραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγνῶι ἢ γραmicromicroατεὺς ἀναγρά|ψηι τά τε γραφθέντα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ ὀφείλειν ἕκαστον τῶν αἰτίων| στατῆρας χιλίους καὶ εἶναι ἄτιmicroον ἕως ἂν ἐκτείσηι καὶ microηθὲν ἧσ|σον ἐξαιρεῖσθαι τὸ τεταγmicroένον ὑπὸ τῶν microετὰ ταῦτα γινοmicroένων| ἀνατακτῶν 70 IG XII2 645 b1 lines 32-58 κα|[ὶ microὴ ἔ]micromicroεναι [π]|[ὰρ τ]αῦτα microήτε| [ἄ]ρχοντι προθ|[έ]microεναι microήτε ῥ|[ή]τορι εἶπαι micro|[ή]τε ἐπιmicroηνί[ω]| [ἐ]σένικαιmiddot αἰ δ|[έ] κέ τις ἢ ῥήτω|[ρ] εἴπη ἢ ἄρχων| [ἐσ]αγάγη [ἢ]| [ἐπ]ιmicroήνιος ἐσ[εν]ίκη ἄκυρά τ|[ε] ἔστω καὶ ὀφε|[λ]λέτω ἔκαστο|[ς] στάτηρας τρ|[ ια]κοσίοις ἴρ|[οι]ς τῶ Ἀσκλαπ|[ίω] καὶ ἐπάρατ|[ος] ἔστω καὶ ἄτι|[microος] καὶ γένος| [ε]ἰς τὸν πάντα| [χρ]όνον καὶ ἐν| ἔστω τῶ νόmicro|[ω π]ερὶ τῶ καλλ|[ύο]ντος τὸν δᾶ|[microον] 71 Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros Examples include an honorary decree from Rhodes (second century BC) of the κοινὸν τὸ Ἁλιαδᾶν καὶ Ἁλιαστᾶν for their benefactor Dionysodoros IG XII1 155 face

13 13

1213

is stated in one decree in view of the importance of making an example of the benefaction72 Invalidity in entrenchment clauses in relation to endowments is aiming to prevent any different use of the funds or of the property donated by the benefactor73 as in the testament of Epicteta (dated around 210-195 BC)74 It also guarantees that no alteration of the exact terms of use of the donation75 will take place and nullifies any transaction that may jeopardize the capital donated76 The invalidity clause striking future different decree propositions was aiming to preserve the benefactorrsquos instructions and will (κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν) as it is clearly stated in an honorary decree from Eretria (ca 100 BC)77

The practice of sanctioning entrenchment clauses with invalidity reinforced by fines continued into Roman times Invalidity of future decrees or deliberations was sometimes mentioned as having

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 III85 lines 95-100 τ[ὸ]| δὲ ψάφισmicroα τόδ[ε κ]ύριον ἔστω εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρό|νον καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδι|ώται microήτε κινεῖν microήτε γνώmicroαν γράψασθαι|microήτε τοῖς ἄρχουσι προτιθέmicroειν ὡς δεῖ τὰς δ[ε]|δοmicroένας τιmicroὰς Διονυσοδώρωι ἀκύρους εἴmicro|microειν middot ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἀποτεισάτω τὸ γε|γραmicromicroένον ἐπιτίmicroιον δραχmicroὰς ἑκατόν καὶ ἁ γνώmicro[α]|[α]ὐτοῦ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἔνοχος ἔστω τῶι νό|microωι τῶι ἀκινήτωι 72 Honorary decree (dated after 1532 BC found in Delos) of the koinon of the Βηρυτίων Ποσ[ειδω|νιαστῶν ἐmicroπόρω]ν καὶ ναυκλήρων [καὶ ἐ]γδοχέων for their Roman benefactor the banker Marcus Minatius Sextus ID 1520 lines 57-61 ὅπως ἂν ἀΐδιοι διαmicroένωσι τοῖς εὐεργέταις αἱ δοθεῖσαι τι|[micro]αί microηθενὶ ἐξέστωι microήτε ἰδιώτηι microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτ[ε]| [γ]ράψαι ὡς δεῖ τῶν δεδοmicroένων τιmicroῶν microεταθεῖναι ἢ ἀφελεῖν ἢ ἀκυρ[όν]| [τ] ι ποιῆσαι παρὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ εἴπας ἢ ὁ ἀναγνοὺς| [ἢ] ὁ προθεὶς ἢ ὁ ἐπιχειροτονήσας ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἐξώλης εἴη| [α]ὐτὸς καὶ τὰ τέ[κν]α αὐτοῦ τοῖς δὲ ταῦτα ἐπιτηροῦσι εἴη καὶ βίου καὶ| τέκνων καὶ ὑπαρχόντων ὄνησις καὶ εἴη αὐτοῖς σώιζεσθαι καὶ κατ[ὰ]| [γ]ῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν καὶ ὁ παρὰ ταῦτα ποιήσας ἀποτινέτω| δραχmicroὰς στεφανηφόρους ἑξακισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ποσειδῶ|νος καὶ ὑπόδικος ἔστω τῶι ἀδικουmicroένωιmiddot 73 A decree from Eresos in Lesbos (dating from the middle of the third century BC) regarding the donation by Agemortos of some source of income to be used for sacrifices forbids and invalidates any encumberance or any other use of the income and any such proposition before the council or the assembly IG ΧΙΙ2 529 lines 3- 9 microηδὲ ὐποθέ|[microεναι microηδrsquo ἐγγύ]ασθαι microήδενι microηδὲ ὐπό|θεσθα[ι] microηδrsquo εἴπην ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω microήδενα ὡς δεῖ περιβάλεσθαι| τὰν θυσίαν microηδὲ τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς ἄλλο| κατάταξαι microῆδενmiddot αἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρα ἔmicromicroεναι| τὰ πράχθεντα middot 74 In the inscription recording the legacy she left to her daughter Epiteleia Epicteta was founding a sanctuary to the Muses and her own deceased ancestors and providing for the establishment of an association dedicated to the worship of the Muses her will including an invalidity clause for future amendments by third parties IG XII 3 330 B1 lines 263-267 middot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἢ εἴπει ἢ γράψει | τό τε ῥηθὲν ἢ γραφὲν ἄκυρον ἔστω καὶ ὁ| εἴπας ἢ γράψας στερέσθω τοῦ κοινοῦ καὶ ὁ|φειλ[έ]τω αὐτῶι δραχmicroὰς πεντακοσίας| καὶ πρακτὸς ἔστω καὶ ἀπὸ ἐνεχυρασίας| κατὰ τὸς νόmicroος ὑπὸ τοῦ χρῄζοντος τῶν| συγγενῶν 75 Decree of Didyma establishing annual distribution of food on the occasion of the birthday of Eumenes II (dated 1598 BC) Didyma 13 lines 41-49 microὴ εἶναι microη|θενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτε ἀναγνῶναι microήτε προθεῖ|ναι microήτε προγράψαι microήτε ἐπιψηφίσαι ὡς δεῖ microε|τατεθῆναι τὰ χρήmicroατα εἰς ἄλλο τι καὶ microὴ ὑπάρχει[ν]|εἰς τὰ ἐν τῶι ψηφίσmicro[ατι] κατακεχωρισmicroένα ἐὰν δ[έ]|τις παρὰ ταῦτα π[ράξηι] τρόπωι ltὁτωιgtοῦν τό τε γρ[α]|φὲν ἄκυρον ἔσ[τω ὁ δὲ π]ράξας τι τῶν ἀπειρη|microένων [ἀποτεισάτω στατῆρας] δισχιλίους ἱεροὺς|το[ῦ Ἀπόλλωνος τοῦ Διδυmicro]έωςmiddot 76 The decree of Delphi of 16059 BC regulating the usage of a donation by king Attalos of an important amount of money to the city to be used for the childrenrsquos education and for sacrifices invalidates and punishes by fine any proposition or decision for a different use than the one prescribed by the decree Syllsup3 672 lines 15-19 εἰ δέ τις τούτων τι ποιή|σαι ἢ ἄρχων ἢ ἰδιώτας κατάmicroαστρος ἔστω ἱερῶν χρηmicroάτων φω|ρᾶς καὶ οἱ microαστροὶ καταγραφόντω κατrsquo αὐτοῦ κατὰ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ ἄλ|λως microετενεγχθὲν ἀργύριον ὀκταπλοῦν καὶ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ διαινε|θὲν ἄκυρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστω 77 IG XII9 236 lines 51-61 ὅπως δὲ microένῃ τὸ ἀνακείmicroενον ἀσφα|λῶς κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν καὶ εἰς ἄλλο| microηθὲν ἦι καταχρήσασθαι microηθενὶ ἐξουσίαν εἶναι ἀπὸ| τούτου τοῦ διαφόρου microηδὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ πίπτοντος ἀπrsquo|αὐτοῦ τόκου microήτε καταχρήσασθαι εἰς ἄλλο microηθὲν| microήτε ἐπιψηφίσασθαι microήτε ἐπερωτῆσαιmiddot εἰ δὲ microή ὅ τε γρά|ψας ἢ ἐπερωτήσας | ὀφειλέτω ἱερὰς τῆς Ἀρτέmicroιδος|δραχmicroὰς ἑξακισmicroυρίας καὶ ἔστω ἀπαγωγὴ κατrsquo αὐ|τοῦ τῷ βουλοmicroένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ τρίτῳ microέρει πρὸς τοὺς| ἄρχοντας καὶ τὰ γραφέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

1313

immediate effect78 The expression οὐδὲν ἔλασσον (no less) preceding in some decrees the invalidity clause shows it was considered the last but not least necessary complement of entrenchment clauses79 In view of the change of political settings invalidity is now sometimes aiming the archonsrsquos orders or the cityrsquos ekdikos propositions (or anybody elsersquos) and the fines are collected by the Roman fiscus80 In a decree from Miletus concerning the cityrsquos and the imperial cults any different use of the funds and any act contravening the purpose secured by this statute (τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]) would be invalid and the archon introducing such a proposition would be guilty of impiety against the gods and guilty ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης of the payment of a fine81 Three documents from Ephesus dating from AD 104 show how invalidity had become a standard term aiming to secure the proper execution of the will of the benefactor which was ratified both by the Roman officialrsquos and by the cityrsquos decisions The invalidity clause of future amendments is first mentioned in the letter of Caius Vibius Salutaris offering several benefactions to the boule and demos of Ephesus in form of a legal document82 second the proconsul Gaius Aquillius Proculus in his letter to the archontes boule and demos of Ephesus approves the benefaction of Gaius Vibius Salutaris and ratifies the invalidity

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 78 SE 241 frg hcol 21 lines 7-8 [mdash]ασmicroένων καὶ τὰς ltσgtυνεγmicroεmicroισθωmicroένας αὐτοῖς προσόδους ἀνεξαλλ[άκτας mdash]| [mdash] ψηφισθὲν χρηmicroατισθὲν ἔστω παραχρῆmicroα ἄκυρον κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ποιησαmicro[ένου mdash] 79 In one instance in a decree of Mytilene instituting celebrations in the context of the emperial cult the city threatens with invalidity all actions or propositions of private citizens or magistrates contravening the celebrations and relevant procedures these being considered synonymous with the safeguard of the citys liberty and democracy and sympoliteia since the city had recently seen its status as an ally of Rome confirmed by Augustus IG XII2 59 lines 6-12 ἢ οἰ ἐξ αὔτων γράψωσι ἢ συν[κλήτω δόγmicroα mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αἰ δέ κέ τις ἢ ἰδίωτας ἢ ἄρχων παρ[άβαις τι τῶν ἐν mdash mdash mdash γεγραmicromicroέ]|[νω]ν καὶ ἐν τῶ ψαφίσmicroατι τούτω microὴ πέmicroψη [mdash mdash mdash mdash καττὸν ἐψαφίσθη]| τρόπον ἢ microὴ φυλάξη τὰν τάξιν τᾶς ἀναγράφα[ς mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἄκυ]|ρον ἔστω καὶ ὐπεύθυνος ἔστω ὁ παράβαις [mdash mdash mdash ὠς καταλύων ταὶς τῶν]| Σεβάστων καὶ τῶ οἴκω αὔτων τείmicroαις καὶ ἀναίρεις [mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἐλευ]|θερίας καὶ δαmicroοκρατίας καὶ συmicroπολειτίας 80 In an honorary decree of the boule and demos for Gaius Caninius Synallasson found at Iasos regulating the foundation he established for the gymnasium of the neoi (ca 117-138 AD) Iasos 21 lines 54-67 ἐφrsquo ᾧ οὐ|δενὶ ἐξέσται ἄρχοντι οὐδὲ ἑτέρῳ οὐδενὶ microε|ταδιατάξαι ἕτερόν τι περὶ τούτων τῶν πεντα|κισχειλίων δηναρίων ἢ τῆς προσόδου αὐτῶν| ἐκτὸς ἐὰν microὴ χωρίων ἀγορασθησοmicroένων τοῖς| νέοις δεήσῃ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς τὴν τει|microὴν τῶν ἀγορασθησοmicroένων ἀγρῶν χωρῆσαι| ἐφrsquo ᾧ καὶ οὕτως microενεῖ ἡ πρόσοδος αἰεὶ εἰς τὸ ἄλιmicroα| τῶν νέων καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot ἐπεὶ ὁ ὑπεναντί|ον τούτοις ποιήσας τι ἀποδώσει εἰς τὸν τοῦ κυ|ρίου Καίσαρος φίσκον δηνάρια πεντακισχείλια| καὶ οὐδὲν ἔλασσον ἔσται τὸ microεταδιαταγὲν ἄκυρον| καὶ microενεῖ τὰ πεντακισχείλια δηνάρια καὶ ἡ πρόσοδος| αὐτῶν τοῖς νέοις καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot 81 Miletos 15 lines 18-33 microηδενὶ δὲ ἐξεῖναι microήτε| ἄρχοντι microήτε ἑτέρῳ τινὶ microεταγαγεῖν εἰς| ἀργυρικὸν πόρον τὰς λειτουργίας ταύτα[ς]| τρόπῳ microηδενὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσει microηδεmicro[ι]|ᾷmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις ὑπεναντίον τι πράξῃ τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]| τὸ microὲν γενόmicroενον ᾥτινιοῦν τρόπῳ ὑ|πάρχειν ἄκυρον τὸν δὲ ψηφισάmicroενον ἄρ|χοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον ὑπάρχειν τῶν προ|γεγραmicromicroένων θεῶν καὶ ὀφείλειν αὐτὸν| ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης στατῆρας φʹ ἱερούς| καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον τὸν microὴ ἐπιτελέσαντα| προφήτην τοὺς κόσmicroους ἢ τὸν microὴ ποή|σαντα στεφανηφόρον τοὺς microολποὺς εἰσ|πράσσεσθαι ἐπάναγκες τὰς προδεδηλωmicroέ|νας εὐωχίαςmiddot 82 Ephesos 212 lines 315- 325 microηδὲν δὲ ἐξέστω ἄρχοντι ἢ ἐκδίκῳ ἢ ἰδιώ|τῃ πεσαί τι ἀλλάξαι ἢ microεταθεῖναι ἢ microετοικονοmicroῆσαι ἢ microετα|ψηφίασθα τῶν καθιερωmicroένων ἀπεικονισmicroάτων ἢ τοῦ| ἀργυρίου ἢ τῆς ροσόδου αὐτοῦ ἢ microεταθεῖναι εἰς ἕτερον πόρον| ἢ ἀνάωmicroα ἢ ἄλο τι ποῆσαι παρὰ τὰ προγεγραmicromicroένα καὶ δια|τετmicroένα ἐπεὶ τὸ γενόmicroενον παρὰ ταῦτα ἔστω ἄκυρον middot| ὁ δὲ περάσας ποιῆσαί τι ὑπεναντίον τῇ διατάξει ἢ τοῖς| ὑπὸ τς βουῆς καὶ τοῦ δήmicroου ἐψηφισmicroένοις καὶ ἐπικεκυ|ρωmicroέν ταύτης τῆς διατάξεως ἀποτεισάτω εἰς| προσκῆς microεης θεᾶς Ἀρτέmicroιδος δη(νάρια) δισmicroύρια| εταβαστοῦ φίσκον ἄλλα δη(νάρια) βʹ Μ ͵ε

13 13

1413

clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

13 13

1513

60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

1213

is stated in one decree in view of the importance of making an example of the benefaction72 Invalidity in entrenchment clauses in relation to endowments is aiming to prevent any different use of the funds or of the property donated by the benefactor73 as in the testament of Epicteta (dated around 210-195 BC)74 It also guarantees that no alteration of the exact terms of use of the donation75 will take place and nullifies any transaction that may jeopardize the capital donated76 The invalidity clause striking future different decree propositions was aiming to preserve the benefactorrsquos instructions and will (κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν) as it is clearly stated in an honorary decree from Eretria (ca 100 BC)77

The practice of sanctioning entrenchment clauses with invalidity reinforced by fines continued into Roman times Invalidity of future decrees or deliberations was sometimes mentioned as having

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 III85 lines 95-100 τ[ὸ]| δὲ ψάφισmicroα τόδ[ε κ]ύριον ἔστω εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρό|νον καὶ microὴ ἐξέστω microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε ἰδι|ώται microήτε κινεῖν microήτε γνώmicroαν γράψασθαι|microήτε τοῖς ἄρχουσι προτιθέmicroειν ὡς δεῖ τὰς δ[ε]|δοmicroένας τιmicroὰς Διονυσοδώρωι ἀκύρους εἴmicro|microειν middot ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἀποτεισάτω τὸ γε|γραmicromicroένον ἐπιτίmicroιον δραχmicroὰς ἑκατόν καὶ ἁ γνώmicro[α]|[α]ὐτοῦ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἔνοχος ἔστω τῶι νό|microωι τῶι ἀκινήτωι 72 Honorary decree (dated after 1532 BC found in Delos) of the koinon of the Βηρυτίων Ποσ[ειδω|νιαστῶν ἐmicroπόρω]ν καὶ ναυκλήρων [καὶ ἐ]γδοχέων for their Roman benefactor the banker Marcus Minatius Sextus ID 1520 lines 57-61 ὅπως ἂν ἀΐδιοι διαmicroένωσι τοῖς εὐεργέταις αἱ δοθεῖσαι τι|[micro]αί microηθενὶ ἐξέστωι microήτε ἰδιώτηι microήτε ἄρχοντι microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτ[ε]| [γ]ράψαι ὡς δεῖ τῶν δεδοmicroένων τιmicroῶν microεταθεῖναι ἢ ἀφελεῖν ἢ ἀκυρ[όν]| [τ] ι ποιῆσαι παρὰ τόδε τὸ ψήφισmicroα ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ εἴπας ἢ ὁ ἀναγνοὺς| [ἢ] ὁ προθεὶς ἢ ὁ ἐπιχειροτονήσας ἢ ὁ γράψας ἢ ὁ προθεὶς ἐξώλης εἴη| [α]ὐτὸς καὶ τὰ τέ[κν]α αὐτοῦ τοῖς δὲ ταῦτα ἐπιτηροῦσι εἴη καὶ βίου καὶ| τέκνων καὶ ὑπαρχόντων ὄνησις καὶ εἴη αὐτοῖς σώιζεσθαι καὶ κατ[ὰ]| [γ]ῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν καὶ ὁ παρὰ ταῦτα ποιήσας ἀποτινέτω| δραχmicroὰς στεφανηφόρους ἑξακισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ποσειδῶ|νος καὶ ὑπόδικος ἔστω τῶι ἀδικουmicroένωιmiddot 73 A decree from Eresos in Lesbos (dating from the middle of the third century BC) regarding the donation by Agemortos of some source of income to be used for sacrifices forbids and invalidates any encumberance or any other use of the income and any such proposition before the council or the assembly IG ΧΙΙ2 529 lines 3- 9 microηδὲ ὐποθέ|[microεναι microηδrsquo ἐγγύ]ασθαι microήδενι microηδὲ ὐπό|θεσθα[ι] microηδrsquo εἴπην ἐmicro βόλλα microηδὲ ἐν| δάmicroω microήδενα ὡς δεῖ περιβάλεσθαι| τὰν θυσίαν microηδὲ τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς ἄλλο| κατάταξαι microῆδενmiddot αἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρα ἔmicromicroεναι| τὰ πράχθεντα middot 74 In the inscription recording the legacy she left to her daughter Epiteleia Epicteta was founding a sanctuary to the Muses and her own deceased ancestors and providing for the establishment of an association dedicated to the worship of the Muses her will including an invalidity clause for future amendments by third parties IG XII 3 330 B1 lines 263-267 middot εἰ δέ τίς κα ἢ εἴπει ἢ γράψει | τό τε ῥηθὲν ἢ γραφὲν ἄκυρον ἔστω καὶ ὁ| εἴπας ἢ γράψας στερέσθω τοῦ κοινοῦ καὶ ὁ|φειλ[έ]τω αὐτῶι δραχmicroὰς πεντακοσίας| καὶ πρακτὸς ἔστω καὶ ἀπὸ ἐνεχυρασίας| κατὰ τὸς νόmicroος ὑπὸ τοῦ χρῄζοντος τῶν| συγγενῶν 75 Decree of Didyma establishing annual distribution of food on the occasion of the birthday of Eumenes II (dated 1598 BC) Didyma 13 lines 41-49 microὴ εἶναι microη|θενὶ microήτε εἰπεῖν microήτε ἀναγνῶναι microήτε προθεῖ|ναι microήτε προγράψαι microήτε ἐπιψηφίσαι ὡς δεῖ microε|τατεθῆναι τὰ χρήmicroατα εἰς ἄλλο τι καὶ microὴ ὑπάρχει[ν]|εἰς τὰ ἐν τῶι ψηφίσmicro[ατι] κατακεχωρισmicroένα ἐὰν δ[έ]|τις παρὰ ταῦτα π[ράξηι] τρόπωι ltὁτωιgtοῦν τό τε γρ[α]|φὲν ἄκυρον ἔσ[τω ὁ δὲ π]ράξας τι τῶν ἀπειρη|microένων [ἀποτεισάτω στατῆρας] δισχιλίους ἱεροὺς|το[ῦ Ἀπόλλωνος τοῦ Διδυmicro]έωςmiddot 76 The decree of Delphi of 16059 BC regulating the usage of a donation by king Attalos of an important amount of money to the city to be used for the childrenrsquos education and for sacrifices invalidates and punishes by fine any proposition or decision for a different use than the one prescribed by the decree Syllsup3 672 lines 15-19 εἰ δέ τις τούτων τι ποιή|σαι ἢ ἄρχων ἢ ἰδιώτας κατάmicroαστρος ἔστω ἱερῶν χρηmicroάτων φω|ρᾶς καὶ οἱ microαστροὶ καταγραφόντω κατrsquo αὐτοῦ κατὰ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ ἄλ|λως microετενεγχθὲν ἀργύριον ὀκταπλοῦν καὶ τὸ ψαφισθὲν ἢ διαινε|θὲν ἄκυρον καὶ ἀτελὲς ἔστω 77 IG XII9 236 lines 51-61 ὅπως δὲ microένῃ τὸ ἀνακείmicroενον ἀσφα|λῶς κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀναθέντος βούλησιν καὶ εἰς ἄλλο| microηθὲν ἦι καταχρήσασθαι microηθενὶ ἐξουσίαν εἶναι ἀπὸ| τούτου τοῦ διαφόρου microηδὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ πίπτοντος ἀπrsquo|αὐτοῦ τόκου microήτε καταχρήσασθαι εἰς ἄλλο microηθὲν| microήτε ἐπιψηφίσασθαι microήτε ἐπερωτῆσαιmiddot εἰ δὲ microή ὅ τε γρά|ψας ἢ ἐπερωτήσας | ὀφειλέτω ἱερὰς τῆς Ἀρτέmicroιδος|δραχmicroὰς ἑξακισmicroυρίας καὶ ἔστω ἀπαγωγὴ κατrsquo αὐ|τοῦ τῷ βουλοmicroένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ τρίτῳ microέρει πρὸς τοὺς| ἄρχοντας καὶ τὰ γραφέντα ἄκυρα ἔστω

13 13

1313

immediate effect78 The expression οὐδὲν ἔλασσον (no less) preceding in some decrees the invalidity clause shows it was considered the last but not least necessary complement of entrenchment clauses79 In view of the change of political settings invalidity is now sometimes aiming the archonsrsquos orders or the cityrsquos ekdikos propositions (or anybody elsersquos) and the fines are collected by the Roman fiscus80 In a decree from Miletus concerning the cityrsquos and the imperial cults any different use of the funds and any act contravening the purpose secured by this statute (τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]) would be invalid and the archon introducing such a proposition would be guilty of impiety against the gods and guilty ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης of the payment of a fine81 Three documents from Ephesus dating from AD 104 show how invalidity had become a standard term aiming to secure the proper execution of the will of the benefactor which was ratified both by the Roman officialrsquos and by the cityrsquos decisions The invalidity clause of future amendments is first mentioned in the letter of Caius Vibius Salutaris offering several benefactions to the boule and demos of Ephesus in form of a legal document82 second the proconsul Gaius Aquillius Proculus in his letter to the archontes boule and demos of Ephesus approves the benefaction of Gaius Vibius Salutaris and ratifies the invalidity

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 78 SE 241 frg hcol 21 lines 7-8 [mdash]ασmicroένων καὶ τὰς ltσgtυνεγmicroεmicroισθωmicroένας αὐτοῖς προσόδους ἀνεξαλλ[άκτας mdash]| [mdash] ψηφισθὲν χρηmicroατισθὲν ἔστω παραχρῆmicroα ἄκυρον κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ποιησαmicro[ένου mdash] 79 In one instance in a decree of Mytilene instituting celebrations in the context of the emperial cult the city threatens with invalidity all actions or propositions of private citizens or magistrates contravening the celebrations and relevant procedures these being considered synonymous with the safeguard of the citys liberty and democracy and sympoliteia since the city had recently seen its status as an ally of Rome confirmed by Augustus IG XII2 59 lines 6-12 ἢ οἰ ἐξ αὔτων γράψωσι ἢ συν[κλήτω δόγmicroα mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αἰ δέ κέ τις ἢ ἰδίωτας ἢ ἄρχων παρ[άβαις τι τῶν ἐν mdash mdash mdash γεγραmicromicroέ]|[νω]ν καὶ ἐν τῶ ψαφίσmicroατι τούτω microὴ πέmicroψη [mdash mdash mdash mdash καττὸν ἐψαφίσθη]| τρόπον ἢ microὴ φυλάξη τὰν τάξιν τᾶς ἀναγράφα[ς mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἄκυ]|ρον ἔστω καὶ ὐπεύθυνος ἔστω ὁ παράβαις [mdash mdash mdash ὠς καταλύων ταὶς τῶν]| Σεβάστων καὶ τῶ οἴκω αὔτων τείmicroαις καὶ ἀναίρεις [mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἐλευ]|θερίας καὶ δαmicroοκρατίας καὶ συmicroπολειτίας 80 In an honorary decree of the boule and demos for Gaius Caninius Synallasson found at Iasos regulating the foundation he established for the gymnasium of the neoi (ca 117-138 AD) Iasos 21 lines 54-67 ἐφrsquo ᾧ οὐ|δενὶ ἐξέσται ἄρχοντι οὐδὲ ἑτέρῳ οὐδενὶ microε|ταδιατάξαι ἕτερόν τι περὶ τούτων τῶν πεντα|κισχειλίων δηναρίων ἢ τῆς προσόδου αὐτῶν| ἐκτὸς ἐὰν microὴ χωρίων ἀγορασθησοmicroένων τοῖς| νέοις δεήσῃ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς τὴν τει|microὴν τῶν ἀγορασθησοmicroένων ἀγρῶν χωρῆσαι| ἐφrsquo ᾧ καὶ οὕτως microενεῖ ἡ πρόσοδος αἰεὶ εἰς τὸ ἄλιmicroα| τῶν νέων καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot ἐπεὶ ὁ ὑπεναντί|ον τούτοις ποιήσας τι ἀποδώσει εἰς τὸν τοῦ κυ|ρίου Καίσαρος φίσκον δηνάρια πεντακισχείλια| καὶ οὐδὲν ἔλασσον ἔσται τὸ microεταδιαταγὲν ἄκυρον| καὶ microενεῖ τὰ πεντακισχείλια δηνάρια καὶ ἡ πρόσοδος| αὐτῶν τοῖς νέοις καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot 81 Miletos 15 lines 18-33 microηδενὶ δὲ ἐξεῖναι microήτε| ἄρχοντι microήτε ἑτέρῳ τινὶ microεταγαγεῖν εἰς| ἀργυρικὸν πόρον τὰς λειτουργίας ταύτα[ς]| τρόπῳ microηδενὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσει microηδεmicro[ι]|ᾷmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις ὑπεναντίον τι πράξῃ τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]| τὸ microὲν γενόmicroενον ᾥτινιοῦν τρόπῳ ὑ|πάρχειν ἄκυρον τὸν δὲ ψηφισάmicroενον ἄρ|χοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον ὑπάρχειν τῶν προ|γεγραmicromicroένων θεῶν καὶ ὀφείλειν αὐτὸν| ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης στατῆρας φʹ ἱερούς| καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον τὸν microὴ ἐπιτελέσαντα| προφήτην τοὺς κόσmicroους ἢ τὸν microὴ ποή|σαντα στεφανηφόρον τοὺς microολποὺς εἰσ|πράσσεσθαι ἐπάναγκες τὰς προδεδηλωmicroέ|νας εὐωχίαςmiddot 82 Ephesos 212 lines 315- 325 microηδὲν δὲ ἐξέστω ἄρχοντι ἢ ἐκδίκῳ ἢ ἰδιώ|τῃ πεσαί τι ἀλλάξαι ἢ microεταθεῖναι ἢ microετοικονοmicroῆσαι ἢ microετα|ψηφίασθα τῶν καθιερωmicroένων ἀπεικονισmicroάτων ἢ τοῦ| ἀργυρίου ἢ τῆς ροσόδου αὐτοῦ ἢ microεταθεῖναι εἰς ἕτερον πόρον| ἢ ἀνάωmicroα ἢ ἄλο τι ποῆσαι παρὰ τὰ προγεγραmicromicroένα καὶ δια|τετmicroένα ἐπεὶ τὸ γενόmicroενον παρὰ ταῦτα ἔστω ἄκυρον middot| ὁ δὲ περάσας ποιῆσαί τι ὑπεναντίον τῇ διατάξει ἢ τοῖς| ὑπὸ τς βουῆς καὶ τοῦ δήmicroου ἐψηφισmicroένοις καὶ ἐπικεκυ|ρωmicroέν ταύτης τῆς διατάξεως ἀποτεισάτω εἰς| προσκῆς microεης θεᾶς Ἀρτέmicroιδος δη(νάρια) δισmicroύρια| εταβαστοῦ φίσκον ἄλλα δη(νάρια) βʹ Μ ͵ε

13 13

1413

clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

13 13

1513

60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

1313

immediate effect78 The expression οὐδὲν ἔλασσον (no less) preceding in some decrees the invalidity clause shows it was considered the last but not least necessary complement of entrenchment clauses79 In view of the change of political settings invalidity is now sometimes aiming the archonsrsquos orders or the cityrsquos ekdikos propositions (or anybody elsersquos) and the fines are collected by the Roman fiscus80 In a decree from Miletus concerning the cityrsquos and the imperial cults any different use of the funds and any act contravening the purpose secured by this statute (τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]) would be invalid and the archon introducing such a proposition would be guilty of impiety against the gods and guilty ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης of the payment of a fine81 Three documents from Ephesus dating from AD 104 show how invalidity had become a standard term aiming to secure the proper execution of the will of the benefactor which was ratified both by the Roman officialrsquos and by the cityrsquos decisions The invalidity clause of future amendments is first mentioned in the letter of Caius Vibius Salutaris offering several benefactions to the boule and demos of Ephesus in form of a legal document82 second the proconsul Gaius Aquillius Proculus in his letter to the archontes boule and demos of Ephesus approves the benefaction of Gaius Vibius Salutaris and ratifies the invalidity

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 78 SE 241 frg hcol 21 lines 7-8 [mdash]ασmicroένων καὶ τὰς ltσgtυνεγmicroεmicroισθωmicroένας αὐτοῖς προσόδους ἀνεξαλλ[άκτας mdash]| [mdash] ψηφισθὲν χρηmicroατισθὲν ἔστω παραχρῆmicroα ἄκυρον κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ποιησαmicro[ένου mdash] 79 In one instance in a decree of Mytilene instituting celebrations in the context of the emperial cult the city threatens with invalidity all actions or propositions of private citizens or magistrates contravening the celebrations and relevant procedures these being considered synonymous with the safeguard of the citys liberty and democracy and sympoliteia since the city had recently seen its status as an ally of Rome confirmed by Augustus IG XII2 59 lines 6-12 ἢ οἰ ἐξ αὔτων γράψωσι ἢ συν[κλήτω δόγmicroα mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash]| αἰ δέ κέ τις ἢ ἰδίωτας ἢ ἄρχων παρ[άβαις τι τῶν ἐν mdash mdash mdash γεγραmicromicroέ]|[νω]ν καὶ ἐν τῶ ψαφίσmicroατι τούτω microὴ πέmicroψη [mdash mdash mdash mdash καττὸν ἐψαφίσθη]| τρόπον ἢ microὴ φυλάξη τὰν τάξιν τᾶς ἀναγράφα[ς mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἄκυ]|ρον ἔστω καὶ ὐπεύθυνος ἔστω ὁ παράβαις [mdash mdash mdash ὠς καταλύων ταὶς τῶν]| Σεβάστων καὶ τῶ οἴκω αὔτων τείmicroαις καὶ ἀναίρεις [mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash mdash ἐλευ]|θερίας καὶ δαmicroοκρατίας καὶ συmicroπολειτίας 80 In an honorary decree of the boule and demos for Gaius Caninius Synallasson found at Iasos regulating the foundation he established for the gymnasium of the neoi (ca 117-138 AD) Iasos 21 lines 54-67 ἐφrsquo ᾧ οὐ|δενὶ ἐξέσται ἄρχοντι οὐδὲ ἑτέρῳ οὐδενὶ microε|ταδιατάξαι ἕτερόν τι περὶ τούτων τῶν πεντα|κισχειλίων δηναρίων ἢ τῆς προσόδου αὐτῶν| ἐκτὸς ἐὰν microὴ χωρίων ἀγορασθησοmicroένων τοῖς| νέοις δεήσῃ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύριον εἰς τὴν τει|microὴν τῶν ἀγορασθησοmicroένων ἀγρῶν χωρῆσαι| ἐφrsquo ᾧ καὶ οὕτως microενεῖ ἡ πρόσοδος αἰεὶ εἰς τὸ ἄλιmicroα| τῶν νέων καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot ἐπεὶ ὁ ὑπεναντί|ον τούτοις ποιήσας τι ἀποδώσει εἰς τὸν τοῦ κυ|ρίου Καίσαρος φίσκον δηνάρια πεντακισχείλια| καὶ οὐδὲν ἔλασσον ἔσται τὸ microεταδιαταγὲν ἄκυρον| καὶ microενεῖ τὰ πεντακισχείλια δηνάρια καὶ ἡ πρόσοδος| αὐτῶν τοῖς νέοις καθότι προγέγραπταιmiddot 81 Miletos 15 lines 18-33 microηδενὶ δὲ ἐξεῖναι microήτε| ἄρχοντι microήτε ἑτέρῳ τινὶ microεταγαγεῖν εἰς| ἀργυρικὸν πόρον τὰς λειτουργίας ταύτα[ς]| τρόπῳ microηδενὶ microηδὲ παρευρέσει microηδεmicro[ι]|ᾷmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις ὑπεναντίον τι πράξῃ τοῖς δι|ὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ψηφίσmicroατος ἠσφαλισmicroένοι[ς]| τὸ microὲν γενόmicroενον ᾥτινιοῦν τρόπῳ ὑ|πάρχειν ἄκυρον τὸν δὲ ψηφισάmicroενον ἄρ|χοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον ὑπάρχειν τῶν προ|γεγραmicromicroένων θεῶν καὶ ὀφείλειν αὐτὸν| ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης στατῆρας φʹ ἱερούς| καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον τὸν microὴ ἐπιτελέσαντα| προφήτην τοὺς κόσmicroους ἢ τὸν microὴ ποή|σαντα στεφανηφόρον τοὺς microολποὺς εἰσ|πράσσεσθαι ἐπάναγκες τὰς προδεδηλωmicroέ|νας εὐωχίαςmiddot 82 Ephesos 212 lines 315- 325 microηδὲν δὲ ἐξέστω ἄρχοντι ἢ ἐκδίκῳ ἢ ἰδιώ|τῃ πεσαί τι ἀλλάξαι ἢ microεταθεῖναι ἢ microετοικονοmicroῆσαι ἢ microετα|ψηφίασθα τῶν καθιερωmicroένων ἀπεικονισmicroάτων ἢ τοῦ| ἀργυρίου ἢ τῆς ροσόδου αὐτοῦ ἢ microεταθεῖναι εἰς ἕτερον πόρον| ἢ ἀνάωmicroα ἢ ἄλο τι ποῆσαι παρὰ τὰ προγεγραmicromicroένα καὶ δια|τετmicroένα ἐπεὶ τὸ γενόmicroενον παρὰ ταῦτα ἔστω ἄκυρον middot| ὁ δὲ περάσας ποιῆσαί τι ὑπεναντίον τῇ διατάξει ἢ τοῖς| ὑπὸ τς βουῆς καὶ τοῦ δήmicroου ἐψηφισmicroένοις καὶ ἐπικεκυ|ρωmicroέν ταύτης τῆς διατάξεως ἀποτεισάτω εἰς| προσκῆς microεης θεᾶς Ἀρτέmicroιδος δη(νάρια) δισmicroύρια| εταβαστοῦ φίσκον ἄλλα δη(νάρια) βʹ Μ ͵ε

13 13

1413

clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

13 13

1513

60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

1413

clause83 and third in the honorary decree of Ephesos for Gaius Vibius Salutaris legal invalidity strikes any contrary decree proposal84

3 Invalidity of transactions and private legal acts

In the third category legal invalidity clauses in inscriptions affected private transactions and legal acts The first cases examined are transactions invalidated for being imposed upon individuals under a different political regime than the one currently in place In the so-called ldquoconstitutionrdquo of Cyrene imposed or accorded by Ptolemy I (before 321 BC) in a mutilated passage the invalidity of sales of houses and fields is prescribed most probably concerning sales forced upon the parties

SEG 18726 [ν]τα Σλοιποὺς τόπους ἀποθυσ[άντων] πρῶτον οἱ δε[σπ]όται οἳ ἦσαν κατὰ τοὺ[ς]

70 microαορας microὴ ἐλεύ[θε]ρα ἐπρίαντο [οἰκ]ίας ἢ ἀγρούς ἄκυρος αὐτοῖς ἔστω ἡ [ὠνή]

Quite explicit are the prescriptions of the law against tyranny and oligarchy of Ilion (dated from 281 BC) including a series of clauses striking with invalidity several legal acts involving the collaborators of a undemocratic regime Forbidden transactions include the sale and lease of land houses animals slaves (or anything else) as well as the institution of dowries to the benefit of any person having served under a tyrant or an oligarchy85 The acquisition of property through any transaction involving these persons as it is (twice) stated in the law will be invalid Anyone who has suffered such an injustice can pursue its actor86 and the property will be returned to its former owner The invalidity clause was thus protecting the citizens and metics from transactions which in spite of having all the external elements of legality may have not been freely negotiated and may have been a product of duress The particular conditions of any such transaction are considered irrelevant as long as one of the contracting parties is a person involved in the undemocratic government

IMT Skam|NebTaeler 182 I1 helliphellipmiddot ὃς ἂν ἐπὶ τυράννοltυgt ἢ ὀλιγαρχίαltςgt στρατηγήσηι

55 ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ ἀρχὴν ἄρξηι [ἡν]τιναοῦν διrsquo ἧς ἀργυ[ρί]- [ου λ]όγον ἔρχεται ἢ ἐπιγρ[α]- [φὴν ἐ]πιγράψηι Ἰλιέων [τ]ινὶ ἢ [τῶν microε]τοίκων π[αρ]ὰ microηδε-

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 83 Ephesos 213 lines 357-365 []ε οὐδένα β[ούλοmicroαι νυ]νὶ τρόπ[ῳ οὐδενὶ οὔτε παρευρέσει οὐ]|[δ]εmicroιᾷ microετ[αθεῖναι ἢ π]αραλλά[ξαι τι τῶν ὑπrsquo αὐτοῦ διατεταγmicroέ]|[ν]ωνmiddot εἰ δ[έ τις ἐπι]χειρήσει ἢ λῦσ[αι ἢ παραλλάξαι τι τῶν]|[ὑ]φrsquo ὑmicroῶ[ν διὰ το]ύτου το[ῦ ψηφίσmicroατος κυρωθησοmicroένων]|[ἢ] εἰσ[ηγ]ήσασθαί τι τοιοῦτον [πειράσει ὑποκείσθω εἰς προσ]|[κ]όσ[micro]ησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδ[ος δη(ναρίοις) βʹ Μ ͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν ἱε]|[ρ]ώτατον φίσκον ἄλλοις δη(ναρίοις) δισmicroυρίοις πεντακισχειλίοις καὶ]|[οὐ]δὲν ἔλαττον ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅ[παν τὸ παρὰ τὴν] καθιέ[ρωσιν 84 Ephesos 115 lines 106-116 [mdash τὴν δὲ διάταξιν αὐ]τοῦ κυρίαν εἶν[αι ἀmicroετάθετον]|[ἀκατάλυτον ἀπαράλλακτ]ον εἰς τὸν [ἅπαντα χρόνον]| [ἐὰν δέ τις εἴτε ἰδιωτῶν ε]ἴτε ἀρχό[ντων ἐπιψη]φίσῃ τ[ι πα]|[ρὰ τὴν διάταξιν τὴν διὰ ψηφί]σmicroα[τος κυρωθη]σοmicroένη[ν] ἢ|[ἀλλάξῃ ἔστω ἄκυρον ἅπαν τὸ ἐναντίον τῇ διατάξ]ει ὅ τε ποιή|[σας τι τούτων ἢ εἰσηγησάmicro]εν[ος ἀποτεισάτω εἰ]ς προ[σ]κόσ|[microησιν τῆς κυρίας Ἀρτέmicroιδο]ς δ[ην(άρια) βʹ] micro(ύρια) [͵ε καὶ εἰς τὸν] τοῦ κ[υρ]ίου Κ[αί]|[σαρος φίσκον ἄλλα] δην(άρια) [βʹ] micro(ύρια) ͵ε κ[αθάπερ οἱ κράτισ]το[ι ἡ]|[γεmicroόνες Ἀκουίλλιος] Πρόκλο[ς ὁ ἀνθύπατος καὶ Ἀφράνι]|[ος Φλαουιανός ὁ πρεσβευ]τ[ὴς καὶ ἀντιστράτηγος διrsquo ἐ]|[πιστο]λῶν τὸ [προγεγραmicromicroένον πρόστειmicroον ὥρισανmiddot] 85 Archonts include those having served as a strategos or any other archonship subject to logodosia or who is responsible for registering on a public list the names of the citizens and metics 86 Clauses as the above may have followed solutions adopted in other occasions regarding the well-known problem of disposition of the properties the exiles under a previous regime for which several solutions have been adopted in Greek cities following the return of the exiles under Alexander

13 13

1513

60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

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principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

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rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

1513

60 [νὸς τούτων ὠν]εῖσθαι microηδὲ [παρατίθεσθαι micro]ήτε γῆν microή- [τε οἰκί]α[micro microήτ]ε κτήνη microήτε [ἀνδ]ράποδα [microή]τε ἄλλο microη- [δ]ὲν microηδὲ φ[ερν]ὴν δέχεσθαιmiddot

65 ὃς δrsquo ἂν παρὰ [τού]των τινὸς πρί- ηταί τι ἢ παρ[αθ]ῆται ἢ φερ[ν]ὴν λάβηι ἢ ἄλλ[ως] πως κτήση- ται ἄκυρον ε[ ἶνα] ι τὴγ κτῆσιν καὶ τὸν ἀδικ[ηθέ]ντα ἰέναι εἰς

70 τὰ τοῦ ἀδικήσ[αν]τος ἀτιmicroη- τεί ὁπόταν θ[έλ]ηιmiddot

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἐ-

ὰν δέ τις τύραννος ἢ ἡγεmicroὼν ὀλιγαρχίας ἢ ὅσ- τις Ἰλιέων ἀρχὰς συ[ν]αποδεικνύηι microετὰ τού[των] ἢ ἄλλος πρὸ τούτων πρίηται γῆν ἢ οἰκίαν ἢ κτήν[η]

110 ἢ ἀνδράποδα ἢ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν ἀκύρως ἐωνήσθω κα[ ὶ] ἐπανίτω εἰς τοὺς ἀποδοmicroένους middot

Under different circumstances invalidity of a sale of land is threatened as a preemptive measure destined to secure compliance of the citizens with the cityrsquos settlement decisions with another community and constitutes part of the decisionrsquos implementation procedure In the symbolon agreement between the cities of Stymphalos in Arkadia and Sikyon-Demetrias in Corinthia87 (dated around 303-300 BC) regulating the process of adjudicating disputes between citizens a procedure for reaching agreements between the parties is set out which will be drafted in writing (σύνγραφον) in presence of three witnesses posessing property whereas any other agreement or transaction shall be invalid

IPArk 17 B ΛϹmiddot εἰ δrsquo ἐναντίο[ν τριῶν micro]- [αρτ]ύρων ἀξιοχρέων ὁ[microολογέοι] [τε]λεία ἔστωmiddot εἰ δέ τι πλέον ὁ[microολ]-

105 [ογ]έοι ἢ συντιθεῖτο σύνγραφον [γ]- ράφεσθαι ἐναντίον τριῶν microα[ρτ]- [ύ]ρων εἰ δrsquo ἄλλως τις συντιθεῖ[τ]- [ο] ἢ συναλλάσσοι ἄκυρον ἔστω middot

In the decree of Miletus concerning the sharing of citizenship with Cretans lands in the vicinity of Myous are granted to the new citizens and it is forbidden to sell these plots of land for twenty years If any such sale takes place it shall be invalid A trial may also be brought by any citizen of Miletus against both the seller and the buyer for committing an injustice against the city by following the same procedure as under the xenikos nomos

Miletos 54 e1 οmicroεν[c33]ια[ καθότι ἐπι]- τήδειον ἔσται καὶ τὴν γενοmicroένην διαίρεσιν ἀναγράψαι εὐ[θὺς microε]- τὰ τῶν ὀνοmicroάτων καὶ παραδοῦναι τῶι γραmicromicroατεῖ τῆς βουλῆς [ἵνα] ὑπάρχῃ ἐν τοῖς δηmicroοσίοιςmiddot δοῦναι δὲ τὸγ γραmicromicroατέα τὸ ἀντίγ[ρα]-

5 φον καὶ τοῖς οἰνοφύλαξι τοὺς δὲ παραλαβόντας καταχωρίσαι εἰς [τὰ] λευκώmicroατα ἐν οἷς καὶ αἱ ὦναι ὑπάρχουσι microὴ εἶναι δὲ αὐτοῖς τὴ[ν]

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 87 Arnaoutoglou I 1998133-137

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

1613

δεδοmicroένην χώραν ἀποδόσθαι micro ηδενὶ ἕως ἐτῶν εἴκοσιmiddot [ἐ]ὰν [δ]έ 8 τις ἀποδῶται τρόπωι ὁτωι[ο]ῦν ἥ τε ὠνὴ ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ δίκην εἶν[αι]

κατὰ δὲ τοῦ ἀποδοmicroένου καὶ τοῦ ἀγοράσαντος ἀδικίου τῆς πόλε[ως] 10 τῶι βουλοmicroένωι Μιλησίωνmiddot τὰσ δὲ γραφὰς τῶν δικῶν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ [συν]-

τελεῖσθαι κατ[ὰ τὸν] ξενικ[ὸν] νόmicroον helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

Although it does not target private transactions but possession of land by sovereign cities it is worth mentioning that in the peace treaty between Miletus and Magnesia (Mai) (dating from 175 BC) the two cities in order to avoid any potential future conflict regarding contested areas mutually forbid any possession of the land of the peraia and of the citadels belonging to each other under any pretext declaring invalid any ldquobequest dedication consecration or possession under any pretext or in any way performed at any time by the contracting parties or through intermediariesrdquo88

Miletos 60 (Milet I 3 148) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip ἵνα δὲ ὦσιν ἀσφαλεῖς αἱ σ[υνλύ]- [σει]ς καὶ διαmicroένηι ἡ εἰρήνη καὶ φιλία εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνον ἀmicroφοτέραι[ς]

40 [τ]αῖς πόλεσιν microὴ εἶναι microήτε Μάγνησιν τὴν Μιλησίων χώραν micro [η]- [τ]ε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδὲ φρούριον microήτε Μιλησίο[ις] [τὴ]ν Μαγνήτων χώραν microήτε τὴν περαίαν microήτε ἄλλην microηδεmicroίαν microηδ[ὲ] [φρ]ούριον παρὰ microηθενὸς λαβεῖν microήτε διrsquo αὑτῶν microήτε διrsquo ἑτέρων microήτltεgt ἐγ κτ[ήσει] [microή]τε ἐν δόσει microήτε ἐν ἀναθέσει microήτε ltἐνgt καθιερώσει microήτε κατrsquo ἄλλον τρόπ[ον microη]-

45 [θέ]να microηδὲ κατὰ παρεύρεσιν microηδεmicroίανmiddot εἰ δὲ micro ή ἄκυρον εἶναι τὴγ γενοmicroέν[ην] [δ]όσ ιν ἢ ἀνάθεσιν ἢ καθιέρωσιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ ἐάν τις γένηται παρεύρεσι[ς ἢ] τρό- [πο]ς τισποτεοῦν ἢ δι rsquo αὐτῶν ἢ δι rsquo ἑτέρων

The disputed occupation of public territory within a community was the object in Roman times of the decree of the Battynaioi89 from Macedonia (144145 or 192193 AD) Distinguishing three categories of inhabitants the Battynaioi the Orestes and the ἐπαρχικοὶ the ekklesia of the Battynaioi decides that the sale of public land is interdicted to the ἐπαρχικοὶ (with one exception) imposing a fine in case of transgression and invalidating all the sales already executed the objects of which must be returned by the buyers

ΕΑΜ 186 ὁmicroοίως

δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἁλώσεται πωλῶν ἐπαρχικῷ τινα τῶν δη- microοσίων καὶ τοῦτον ὑποκεῖσθαι τῷ προγεγραmicroένῳ προστ- τείmicroῳ τά τε ἤδη πεπραmicroένα ἄκυρα εἶναι καὶ microὴ κρατεῖσ-

40 θαι τοῖς ἡγορακόσιν

In other instances invalidity is threatened against private legal acts and contractual rights in case of non-compliance of one of the parties with the terms of an agreeement The earliest such occurrence is found in two inscriptions from Attica dating from the end of the 4th century BC containing lease documents by which the members of a religious association (orgeon) lease for an indefinite period of time a private sanctuary to an individual and to his descendants The lessees undertake several obligations such as the payment of the rent at a set date each year and to maintain the sanctuary in a specific state regarding the cult In case they fail to make the agreed use of the sanctuary or if they fail to make payment the nullity of the lease is prescribed and the orgeones may claim back the temenos

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 88 This clause takes care to enumerate all lands included in the citiesrsquo respective territories and to include reference to what must have been notorious and usual tricks in border conflicts such as the declaration of an occupied territory as sacred its dedication to a divinity or the acquisition of lands through intermediaries 89 Papazoglou F 1979363

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

1713

IG IIsup2 2501 [ἀγαθ]ῆι [τύχη]ι [οἱ ὀργε]ῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν ltτὸ ἱgtερὸν τοῦ Ὑποδέκτο[υ Διοπείθει Διοπ]- [είθους Σφη]ττ[ί]ω[ι αὐτῶι καὶ ἐκγό]νο[ι]ς αὐτοῦ εἰς τ[ὸν ἅπαντα χρόν]- [ον] χρῆσθαι τῶι ltτgt[εmicro]ένεltιgt [καὶ τῶι τοῦ] Ὑποδέκτου ἱερῶι [ὡς ἱερῶι ἀποδιδό]-

5 [ναι δὲ] αὐτοὺς τοῖς [ὀργεῶσι τὴν] microίσθωσltινgt δραχmicroὰς ἑκάστ[ου τοῦ] [ἐνιαυ]τltοgtῦ τεῖ νουmicroηνίαι τοῦ [Βοηδ]ρ[οmicroι]ῶνος microηνός τεῖ δὲ τετρά[δι ἐπὶ] [δέκα ὅ]ταν ἱεροῖς ἀπαντltῶgtσιν παρέχειltνgt αὐτοὺς τοῖς ὀργεῶ[σι τὸ ἱε]- [ρὸν ἀν]εωιγmicroένον ltκαθrsquogt ἡmicroέραltνgt καὶ ἐστεφανωmicroέν[ον τὸ δὲ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ] [θεοῦ ἀλ]ηλειmicromicroένον καὶ [τὰ καλύ]micromicroατα ἀποδltεδυgtmicroένο[ν c9]ΝΛ [ Δ]ιοπε[ί]θltηgtς c9ΝΛ[c4 ἐὰν δὲ] microὴ [χρῶντ]αlt ιgt [τ]ῶι τεmicroέν[ει τοῦ] [Ὑποδ]έκτου ὡς ἱερltῶgt ι [ἢ] τὴν micro ίσθω [σιν microὴ ἀποδιδῶσιν τοῖ]ς

[ὀ]ργε[ῶσιν] καltτgt[ὰ] [τὰ γ]εγραmicromicroένα [ἢ ]ι ἄλλων τι c7ΝΑΕΙ παρασκευάζειν αὐτὰ [εἰς] τὴν θυσίαν καὶ πltοιεgtῖν τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρltοgt[ν αὐ]τοῖς εἶναι τltὴνgt [micro ίσ]θωσιν κα[ ὶ] ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι[ν ἀπ]α[ ιτ]ε[ ῖν] παρ rsquo αὐτῶν τὸ

τέmicroltενgt[ος] 20 [τ]οῦ θεοῦ ἀναγράψαι δὲ τάσδε τὰς συνθήκας τοὺς microὲν ὀργεῶνα[ς]

εἰς τὸ κοινὸν γραmicromicroατεῖον Διοπείθην δὲ εἰς στήλην λιθίνην καὶ στῆσαι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι παρὰ τὸ ἄγαλmicroα τοῦ θεοῦ

In the second lease document the lessee may use the sanctuary and the houses built within it but he must perform some maintenance work and he is allowed to make any construction he likes He must pay the rent agreed upon on the set dates and to offer ldquoopen houserdquo during the celebration of the orgeonesrsquos rites In case he fails to comply with any of these obligations his lease shall be invalidated he will lose all the materials integrated in the building and the orgones will be free to lease the property to anyone they like

IG IIsup2 2499 [θε]οί [ο]ἱ ὀργεῶνες ἐmicroίσθωσαν τὸ ἱερὸν το- [ῦ] Ἐγρέτου Διογνήτωι Ἀρκεσίλου Με- λιτεῖ εἰς δέκα ἔτη ∶ΗΗ∶ δραχmicroῶν τοῦ ἐ-

5 ενιαυτοῦ ἑκάστου χρῆσθαι τῶι ἱ- ερῶι καὶ ταῖς οἰκίαltιgtς ταῖς ἐνωικοδ- οmicroηmicroέναις ὡς ἱερῶι περιαλείψει δ- ὲ Διόγνητος καὶ τῶν τοίχων τοὺς δε- οmicroένους ἐνοικοδοmicroήσει δὲ καὶ κατ-

10 ασκευάι καὶ ἄλλrsquo ὅltτgtαν τι βούληται v Διόγνητος ὅταν δὲ ὁ χρόνος ἐξίηι v αὐτῶι τῆς δεκαετίας ἄπεισιν ἔχων τὰ ξύλα καὶ τὸν κέραmicroον καὶ τὰ θυρώ- [micro]ατα τῶν δrsquo ἄλλων κινήσει οὐθέν ἐπι-

15 [micro]ελήσεται δὲ καὶ τῶν δένδρων τῶν v ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι πεφυκότων καὶ ἄν τι ἐγ- λείπει ἀντεmicroβαλεῖ καὶ παραδώσει τὸν αὐτὸν ἀριθmicroόν τὴν δὲ microίσθωσιν ἀποδώσει Διόγνητος τῶι ἀεὶ ταmicroιε-

20 ύοντι τῶν ὀργεώνων ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐν- ιαυτοῦ τὴmicro microὲν ἡmicroίσεαν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰ[ς]

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

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principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

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rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

1813

τοῦ Βοηδροmicroιῶνος τῆι νουmicroηνίαι v τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν τὰς ∶Η∶ δραχmicroὰς τοῦ Ἐλα- φηβολιῶνος τῆι νουmicroltηgtνίαι ὅταν δὲ

25 θύωσιν οἱ ὀργεῶνες τῶι ἥρωι τοῦ Βο- ηδροmicroιῶνος παρέχειν Διόγνητον τ- ὴν οἰκίαν οὗ τὸ ἱερόν ἐστιν ἀνεωιγ- microένην καὶ στέγην καὶ τὸ ὀπτάνιον v καὶ κλίνας καὶ τραπέζας εἰς δύο τρ-

30 ίκλινα ἐὰν δὲ microὴ ἀποδιδῶι τὴmicro microίσθ- ωσιν Διόγνητος ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τοῖς γεγραmicromicroένοις ἢ τἆλλα microὴ ποεῖ τὰ ἐν τῆι microισθώσει γεγραmicromicroένα ἄκυρος v ἔστω αὐτῶι ἡ micro ίσθωσις καὶ στερέσθω

35 τῶν ξύλων καὶ τοῦ κεράmicroου καὶ τῶν v θυρωmicroάτων καὶ ἐξέστω τοῖς ὀργεῶσι micro ισθοῦν ὅτωι ἂν βούλωνται ἐὰν δέ τις εἰσφορὰ γίνηται ἀπὸ τοῦ τιmicroήmicroατος τοῖς ὀργεῶσιν εἶναι ἀναγράψαι δὲ

40 τὴmicro microίσθωσιν τήνδε Διόγνητον εἰς τὴν στήλην τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῶι ἱ- ερῶι χρόνος ἄρχει τῆς microισθώσεως v ἄρχων ὁ microετὰ Κόροιβον ἄρχοντα

In a similar manner at the end of a document from Mylasa concerning a lease of land invalidity is threatened against any cession of the property to a third party90 In Mylasa again a series of prohibitions regarding the lease of land to Thraseas by the phyle of Otorkondeis include in case of nonpayment of the rent the annulment of the lease and the invalidity of any ldquocessionrdquo by which perhaps a sub-lease is meant91 In such case the existing lease ldquowill not exist anymorerdquo (οὐχ ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι ἡ microίσθωσις) whereas any cession will be invalid (ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ παραχώρησις)92 Such invalidity clauses may have constituted a standard provision in lease agreements aiming to protect owners from the most frequent in practice refusals of lessees to comply with the terms of the lease thus permitting them to easily recover their property Invalidity is also striking in inscriptions transactions forbidden by law A decree from Halasarna in Cos dating from the middle of the third century BC is forbidding to the priest and the timouchoi to receive or offer any loan by pledging the sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Apollo93 If any loan is granted contrary to the terms of the decree any such security shall be invalid The debt would thus remain unsecured and both the lender and the debtor would receive other than fines the wrath of the god so they may know better in the future and refrain from concluding loans contrary to the terms of the decree

SEG 54743 ἔδοξε τῶι δάmicroωιmiddot Σύmicromicroαχος καὶ Ἀριστοφάνης ναποῖαι εἶπανmiddot microὴ ἐξέστω τῶι ἱερεῖ microηδὲ τοῖς τιmicroάχοις δανείσασθαι ἐπὶ τοῖς v

5 ποτηρίοις microηδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκεύεσι 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 90 IMyl 221 lines 2-3 middot οὐκ ἐξέσται δὲ οὐδὲ παραχωρεῖν οὐθενὶ τὸ Ε[mdash]| [mdash εἰ δὲ microή ἄκυρος ἔσται] ἡ παραχώρησις middot 91 See also IMyl 218 l 8 92 IMyl 208 lines 1-12 93 On this and other interdictions to give surety see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011153-156

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

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was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

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συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

1913

τοῖς ὑπάρχουσι ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τοῦ v Ἀπόλλωνοςmiddot microηδὲ δανείζεν microηθένα ἐπὶ τούτοις παρευρέσει microηδεmicroιᾶιmiddot εἰ δέ τίς κα δανείσηται ἢ δανείσηι v

10 παρὰ τὰ γεγραmicromicroένα ἀποτεισάτω v ἕκαστος τῶν αἰτίων δραχmicroὰς πεντα- κισχιλίας ἱερὰς τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ v ἁ ὑποθήκα ἄκυρος ἔστω καὶ ἐνθύmicroιον ἔστω τῶι δανείσαντι καὶ τῶι δανεισα-

15 microένωι ὡς ἀδικεῦντι τὸν θεόν εἴ κα microὴ δανείζωνται τοὶ δαmicroόται οἷς microέτεστι τοῦ ἱεροῦ κατὰ ψάφισmicroαmiddot vacat

A particular case of invalidity is included in the law of Aegiale in Amorgos dating from the late second century BC regulating the administration of the endowment94 of Kritolaos who bequetheted a sum of 2000 drachmae to fund a festival to commemorate the heroisation of his deceased son Aleximachos The extraordinary terms on the lending of the capital prescribe that it will be lent in shares of up to 200 drachmae with an interest of 10 and real securities provided by the debtors worth 2000 drachmae (ten times the amount lent) Any repayment of the capital was forbidden and for any such payment received by any archon he would be personally liable to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae to the city In what constitutes a unique instance it is such payments that are declared ldquoinvalidrdquo thus not entailing the extinction of the debtorrsquos obligation This complicated arrangement turned what were individual loans into perpetual payments of interests on a capital never returned thus securing new sources of income and financing in perpetuity the scope of the foundation

IG XII7 515 helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip microὴ ἐξέστω δὲ τοῖς ὀφείλουσιν τοῦτο τὸ ἀργύ- [ριο]ν καταβαλεῖν τὸ ἀρχαῖον κατὰ microηθένα τρόπον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς ὑπο[θ]ήκαις ἐπὶ αἷς ἂν δανείσωνται εἰς τὸν ἀεὶ χρόνονmiddot ἐὰν δέ τις κα-

25 ταβάλη παρευρέσει ᾗτινιοῦν εἲ ἄρχ[ο]ντες αὐτῷ προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν microὴ ἔστω αὐτῷ καταβεβληmicroένον ἀλλrsquo ἐνοφειλέσθω ἐν ταῖς [αὐ]ταῖς ὑποθήκαις καὶ microηθὲν ἧσσον ἔστω πρακτὸς κατὰ ταὐτάmiddot [καὶ ἐὰν] οἱ νέοι ἄρχοντες προσδέξωνται τὴν καταβολήν ὀφειλέτωσαν δρα- χmicroὰς χιλίας τῷ δηmicroοσίωι καὶ ἡ καταβολὴ ἄ[κυρος] ἔστω middot

Invalidity is also threatened in sepulchral inscriptions by which the deceased reserves the right of use of a grave monument for himself and his family forbidding any selling of the grave and declaring invalid any transaction of the kind often menacing also transgressors with fines Such terms are included in the Mnemeion inscription by Hermogenes Menodorou95 in Aphrodisias in a funerary inscription from Didyma96 and in the inscription by Apollonios Symmacchou from Smyrna who is reserving the mnema for himself and his relatives and forbids any future sale of the grave97 In another

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 94 Harter-Uibopuu K 2011119-139 spec 126 95 LW 1639 lines 6-12 microηδενὸς ἔχοντος ἐξουσίαν microηδ[εmicroίαν τῶν]| κληρονόmicroων ἢ διαδόχων αὐτῶν| ἐξαλλοτριῶσαι microήτε τὸ πύργιον microή| τε τὸ ὑπrsquo αὐτὸ microνηmicroεῖον microήτε πράσεως ὀνόmicroατι microήτε συνχωρήσεωςmiddot ἐπεὶ| ὁ ποιήσας τι ἐπὶ ἀπαλλοτριώσει ᾧ δή ποτε τρόπῳ καὶ ὁ ἀναδεξάmicroενος| ἔνοχος ἔσται ἀσεβείᾳ καὶ εἰσοίσει ἕκαστος αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν κυριακὸν φίσκον ἀ|νὰ microυρία ὡς ἐκ καταδίκης ὧν τὸ τρίτον ἔσται τοῦ ἐκδικήσαντος καὶ τὸ ὑ| πεναντίως γενόmicroενον ἔσται ἄκυρον 96 Didyma 6445 with penalty line 3 [mdash]ς ἡ χάρις ἄκυρος ἐσ[τω ] 97 Smyrna 347 line 9-15 middot ὃ καὶ microνῆ[microα]| microηδενὶ ἐξέτω ἐξαλλοτριῶσ[αι]| microηδὲ τούτοις ἢ ἐγγόνοις αὐτῶ[ν]| εἰ δὲ microή ἀποτεισάτω ὁ παρὰ ταῦ|τα ποιήσας τῇ Ζmicroυρναίων πόλει| δηνάρια δισχείλια πεντακόσια| καὶ τὸ πραθὲν ἔστω ἄκυρον

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

2013

inscription from Thebes in Thessaly forbidding any foreign body to be buried in the tomb under threat of a fine payable to the city of Thebes the expression used is that ldquothis attempt shall be invalidrdquo98 Among private legal acts testaments were the ones more subject to be nullified ex post Obtaining the nullification of testaments by heirs claiming the inheritance was an issue often brought before the Greek courts as illustrated among others by Isocratesrsquo Aeginiticus99 and Isaiosrsquo Cleonymus100 One late example of the testator wishing to avoid such post mortrem complications is the testament of Epikrates from Lydia (second century AD)101 a long document in which the testator also curses anyone who may contravene or annul his will (microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν) On the other hand a testament could be nullified in vivo by the testator himself by changing his previous will In a inscription from Lycia dating before AD 43 bearing on one of its sides a testament by Artapates the testator who now wishes to leave all his immoveables to the gods Leto Appolo and Artemis to be ldquosacred inalienable and non subject to serve as real securitiesrdquo starts by declaring null all testaments of his prior to this one ldquoin any way these may have been draftedrdquo102 Invalidy could also strike inheritances if executed against the law In an inscription from Thisbe in Boetia dating from in the third century AD regarding the grant of the right of emphyteusis regulated by the Roman authorities it is stated that if any person to which such a right over the land is granted bequeaths by testament the land to a third party this so-called ldquodonationrdquo shall be null and the plot of land will revert to the city103 Invalidity is also frequently attested in manumission inscriptions In a sacral manumission by means of an iera oni from Delphi (dated 168 BC)104 a fictive sale and consecraton of a female slave to the god Sostrata having entrusted her sale to Apollo the next day the said sale is declared revoqued (ἠρmicroένη) and null (καὶ ἄκυρον) resulting in the acquistion of her liberty and independence for life being from now on free to do and to go as she pleases

SGDI II 1746 1 στραταγέοντος τος τῶν Φωκέων Πυθέα Εεος microη ἐνάτου ἐν Δελφοῖς δὲ

ἄρχοντος Κλευδάου τοῦ Μαντία microηνὸς Ἰλαίου ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ἀπέδοτο Δωροξένα Λιλαιῒς τῶι Ἀπόλλωνι τῶι Πυθίω σῶmicroα γυναικεῖον ἇι ὄνοmicroα Σωστράτα τιmicroᾶς ἀργυρίου microνᾶν τεσσάρων καθὼς ἐπίστευσε Σωστράτα τῶι θεῶι τὰν ὠνάν ὥστε τὰν προτερασίαν

5 ὠνὰν ἀρmicroέναν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἄκυρον ἐφrsquo ὧιτε ἐλευθέραν εἶmicroεν καὶ ἀνέφαπτον ἀπὸ 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 98 AE (1929) 14518 lines 3-7 εἰ δέ τις ἔξω τοῦ γένους| τολmicroήση ἀνῦξαι κὲ ἀλλότριον σῶmicroα ἀποθέσ|θαι δώσει τῷ microὲν ταmicroείῳ ͵βφʹ τῇ δὲ Θηβαί|ων πόλει ͵ασνʹ κὲ τῷ ἐπιτηδεύσαντι ἄ|κυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐπιχείρησις 99 Isocr Aegin 36 Νῦν δrsquoαὐτῇ τοσούτου δεῖ microεταmicroέλειν ὧν εἰς ζῶντrsquo ἐξήmicroαρτεν ὥστε καὶ τεθνεῶτος αὐτοῦ πειρᾶται τήν τε διαθήκην ἄκυρον ἅmicroα καὶ τὸν οἶκον ἔρηmicroον ποιῆσαι 158 Καίτοι τίνος ἂν ὑmicroῖν ἀποσχέσθαι δοκοῦσιν οἵτινες ζητοῦσι πείθειν ὑmicroᾶς ὡς χρὴ τὰς διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιῆσαι τῶν microὲν νόmicroων οὕτως ἐχόντων ὑmicroῶν δὲ κατrsquo αὐτοὺς ὀmicroωmicroοκότων ψηφιεῖσθαι 444 Πολλοῦ ltγrsquogt ἂν δεήσειεν ἀχθεσθῆναι κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους ὑmicroῶν ψηφισαmicroένων ἀλλὰ πολὺ ἂν microᾶλλον εἰ τὰς τῶν παίδων διαθήκας ἀκύρους ἴδοι γενοmicroένας 100 Is 121 εἰ microὲν γὰρ ἀνελεῖν τὰς διαθήκας βουλόmicroενος microετεπέmicroπετο τὴν ἀρχήν ὥσπερ ἡmicroεῖς φαmicroεν οὐδεὶς ἔνεστι τούτοις λόγος εἰ δ᾽ οὕτω παραφρονῶν ἔτυχεν ὥσθ᾽ ἡmicroᾶς ἀεὶ περὶ ἐλαχίστου ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς γένει πρωτεύοντας καὶ χρωmicroένους αὐτῷ πάντων οἰκειότατα δικαίως ἂν δήπου τὰς τοιαύτας διαθήκας ἀκύρους ποιήσαιτε 101 SEG 54 1221 lines 94-105 ἐὰν δὲ οἷς γέγραπφα ἢ διατετάκχα| ὑπεναντίον τι γένηται τι ἄλλως τέ τι γένηται ἢ ὡς διατέτακ|[χ]α ὁ ὑπεναντίον τούτοις τι ποιήσας ὑπόδικος ἔστω τυmicroβωρυ|[χί]ᾳ καὶ οὐδὲν ἧσσον θεοὺς σχοίῃ ἐπουρανίους τε καὶ ἐπιγεί|ους καὶ ἐναλίους καὶ καταχθονίους καὶ ἥρωας κεχολωmicroέ|νους καὶ ἀνεξειλάστους καὶ microήτε αὐτῷ microήτε γενεᾷ microήτε γέ|νει ἀὴρ καθαρὸς ἢ ὑγιεινὸς microήτε γῆ κάρπιmicroος ἢ βάσιmicroος microήτε|ἐφικτὴ χώρα ἢ θάλασσα πλωτὴ microήτε οἶκος ἑδραῖος microήτε ἔγ|γονοι ἢ διάδοχοι γνήσιοι πρόσρειζα δὲ καὶ πανόλεθρα ἀρθεί| ῃ καὶ ἀφανισθείῃ πάντα τοῖς παραβᾶσι καὶ ἀκυρώσασίν microου τὴν |προγεγραmicromicroένην διάταξιν κεῖνται δὲ καὶ ἕτεραι ἀραὶ τοῖς πα|ραβᾶσι τὴν διάταξίν microου ταύτην 102 TAM II 261 face b1 lines 7-10 [ὅτα]ν δέ τ[ι π]άθωι ἀνθρώπ[ι]|[νον κ]αὶ microεταλλ[ά]ξ[ω]ι τὸν βίο[ν]|[ἃς πρὶ]ν τέθειmicro αι διαθήκας καθ rsquo ὁνδ[ή]|[ποτε] οὖν τρόπον ἀκυρῶι πάσαις middot 103 IG VII 2226 frg D1 lines 5-9 εἰ δέ τις]| [διαθήκ]αις καταλίποι ξένῳ συνγενεῖ ἢ φίλῳ τούτων τι τῶν [χωρίων ἄκυρος] |[ἔστω α]ὐτοῦ ἡ δωρεltάgt ἔστω δὲ τῆς πόλεως τὸ χωρίον 104 Zelnick-Abramovitch R 200586f

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

2113

πάντων τὸmicro πάντα βίον ποιέουσα ὅ κα θέληι καὶ ἀποτρέχουσα οἷς κα θέληι

In other manumissions invalidity operates in the context of a resolutory condition the apeleutheros reverts to his former status of slavery in case of non-compliance with the terms set out in the manumission act by his former master especially the paramone condition105 or if he fails to pay back the eranos106 that financed his manumission Similar conditions included obligations such as not to move out of town and to seek the masterrsquos advice107 to stay at the masters house until the daughter of the family came of age and got married108 to burry the masters once dead and to perform their funeral rites109 In one inscription from Beroia (ca 239-229 BC) it is the liberty that is declared ldquoinvalidrdquo in case of non-compliance of the former slaves of their women and children to whatever the master ordered110 Invalidity of property transfers to third parties other than the master could also be imposed upon the apeleutheroi in case they had no heir of their own111 On the other hand in one case it is mentioned that if the apeleutheroi were arrested and reduced to slavery by a third party it is their enslavement that would be ldquoinvalidrdquo and this person would be liable to pay a fine112

4 Invalidity and contracts in Athens

To what extent the ἄκυρον clauses in inscriptions add to our understanding of contractual obligations as refered to in Athenian literary sources One point on which no consensus has been reached by modern research is whether contractual liberty could extend to include even agreements that were forbidden by the law The basis of Athenian contractual commitment was agreement113 according to the commonly cited law ldquoὅσα ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναιrdquo (whatever one agrees with another is legally valid)114 One part of the modern doctrine considers that whatever included even what

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 105 FD III l 6 36 38 687 692 SGDI II 1689 1702 1721 1747 1804 1811 1819 1832 1884 1944 IG IX1sup2 3640 36394 Darmezin Affranchissements 100135 106 SGDI II 1791 FD III 695 107 Cf invalidity in case of violation of the obligation to remain in Delphi SGDI II 1830 and the case of a Syrian lady named Asia (ca 170-1576 BC) SGDI II 1718 lines 10-14 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Ἀσία ἔξω Λιλαίας microηδὲ πολιτευσάτω ἄνευ τᾶς| Ἐπιχαρίδα γνώmicroαςmiddot εἰ δὲ οἰκήσαι ἢ πολιτεύσαιτο ἄκ[υρ]ος αὐτᾶς ἔστω ἁ ὠνὰ καὶ ἀτελής | ὡσα[ύτω]ς δὲ microηδὲ ἀπαλλοτριωσάτω Ἀσία [εἴ] τί κα ἐπεργάζηται ἀπὸ Ἐπιχα|ρίδα ἢ τῶν ἐπινόmicroων αὐτοῦ κατὰ microηδένα τρόπονmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀπαλλοτριωοίη δε καθrsquo ὁποῖον τρόπον ἄκυ|ρος αὐτᾶς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω καθὼς καὶ ἐπάνω γέγραπται 108 FD III 321 lines 17-20 microὴ οἰκησάτω δὲ Εὐ|φροσύνα ἐν ἐγδαmicroία πανοικία ἄχρι οὗ κα Δαντὼ ἐν ἁλικίαν ἵκη|ται καὶ ἀνδρὶ ἐκγδοθῆ εἰ δὲ ἀπέλθοι καὶ οἰκήσαι ἄνευ τᾶς Πο|λυξένας γνώmicroας ἄκυρος καὶ ἀτελὴς ἁ ὠνὰ ἔστω 109 IG IX1 42 lines 8-17 εἰ δὲ microὴ θάψωντι καὶ ποιήσω[ν]|τι τὰ ὥρια αὐτῶν καθὼς προγέγραπται ἀτελὴς ἔστω ἁ ἀ|νάθεσις καὶ ποταποτισάτωσαν ἀργυρίου microν|ᾶς τριάκοντα εἰ δέ τις ἐπιλανβάνοιτο αὐτῶ|ν ἢ καταδουλίζοιτο ἅ τε γενηθltεgt ῖσα δουλαγω|γία αὐτῶν ἄκυρος καὶ ἀρεmicroένα ἔστω καὶ ποτα|ποτιltσάgtτω ὁ καταδουλιζόmicroενος microνᾶς τριάκοντα|[κα]ὶ τὸ microὲν ἥmicroισον ἔστω τοῦ προστάντος τὸ| [δὲ] ἥmicroισον τοῦ Ἀσσltκgtλαπιοῦ ἐξέltσgtτω δὲ προστ|[ᾶ]microεν ὑπὲρ ltαgtὐτοὺς τὸν θέλοντα Φωκέων 110 EKM 1 Beroia 45 lines 24-27 εἰ δὲ microὴ παραmicroένω|σι microηδὲ ποιῶσιν ὅ τι ἂν Ἀττίνας προστάσσῃ καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ αἱ| γυναῖκες καὶ τὰ παιδία ἕως ἂν Ἀττίνας ζῆι τῶι microὴ ποιοῦντι| ἄκυρος ἔστω ἡ ἐλευθερ ία αὖ middot 111 SGDI II 1891 lines 26-33 εἰ δέ κά τι| [πάθηι Σαραπιὰς] καὶ ἔχηι γενεὰν ἀπὸ τᾶς ἀρχᾶς |[τᾶς Φιλοκ]ράτεος τοῦ Ξένωνος κυρία ἔστω ἔχουσα| [ἁ γενεὰ τὰ] Σαραπιάδοςmiddot εἰ δὲ ἀγένειος εἴη Σαραπιὰς Ἀστοξέ|[νωι πάντα] τὰ ὑπάρχοντα τὰ Σαραπιάδος Ἀστοξένου ἔστω| [καὶ τῶν] ἐκγόνων Ἀστοξένου microηδὲ δόσιν ποησάτω Σαραπι|[ὰς microη]θενὶ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῶν ἰδίωνmiddot εἰ δὲ ποιήσαιτο ἄκυρος| ἁ δόσις ἔστω 112 Cf also the same in IG IX1 39 dated in the 2nd c AD 113 On this law thought to have originated from judicial procedure see Pringsheim F 195013-34 Thuumlr G 1977180-185 On homologia as contract see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993163-65 114 Hyp 313 ἐρεῖ δὲ πρὸς ὑmicroᾶς αὐτίκαmicroάλα Ἀθηνογένης ὡς ὁ νόmicroος λέγει ὅσα ἂν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι ἐξ αὐτῶν δέ σοι τῶν νόmicroων ἐγὼ φανερώτερον ποιήσω Dem 4777 ἀνάγνωθί microοι τὸν νόmicroον καὶ τὴν microαρτυρίαν ὅς κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ὅ τι ἄν ἕτερος ἑτέρω ὁmicroολογήση 4854 πῶς γὰρ οὐ microαίνεται ὅστις οἴεται δεῖν ἃ microὲν ὡmicroολόγησεν καὶ

13 13

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was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

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συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

2213

was prohibited by law or by decree The thesis of Gernet115 that contracts in Athens had not to be ldquoκατὰ τοὺς νόmicroουςrdquo which results in consensus overriding the law has I think rightly been criticized116 The argument in favor of total contractual liberty puts forth passages of Demosthenes which seem to stress the omnipotence of contracts concluded in the correct form117 in presence of witnesses or sworn by oath Contracts may have included the standard provision118 ldquoκυριώτερον δὲ περὶ τούτων ἄλλο microηδὲν εἶναι τῆς συγγραφῆςrdquo119 mentioned in the speech of Demosthenes against Lacritos ldquoἡ microὲν γὰρ συγγραφὴ οὐδὲν κυριώτερον ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν ἐγγεγραmicromicroένων οὐδὲ προσφέρειν οὔτε νόmicroον οὔτε ψήφισmicroα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν πρὸς τὴν συγγραφήνrdquo120 The debate about the sense of the kyria syngraphe is a long one121 one of the most plausible explanations of the clause being that it is declaring the written document to be the most valid instrument of proof before a court of law122 The document was meant to constitute the most authentic embodiment of the contracting partiesrsquo mutual obligations against which no law or decree may serve as proof of different obligations123 Not though in the sense that this document could override legal rules and agree as valid something that was forbidden by law124 Otherwise it would suffice to introduce the οὐδὲν κυριώτερον clause for example in private loan agreements in order to set aside rules such as the Solonian seisachtheia125 if we are to presume that this law did not explicitly declare invalid all borrowing against onersquos liberty as security126 If absolute contractual liberty was in Athens set above the rule of law the whole edifice of the cityrsquos legislation would prove inefficient and inapplicable Such a total contractual laissez-faire is incompatible with what we know about the respect for the rule of law127 as an expression of the will of the people and of democracy itself particularly in a city where the legality even of decree propositions could be questioned by anyone through the graphe paranomon procedure128 Plato in the Laws excludes from binding contracts those forbidden by law or decree (ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 συνέθετο ἑκὼν πρὸς ἑκόντα καὶ ὤmicroοσεν 562 καὶ τοῖς νόmicroοις τοῖς ὑmicroετέροις οἳ κελεύουσιν ὅσα ἄν τις ἑκὼν ἕτερος ἑτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι Pl Symp 196c ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἑκὼν ἑκόντι ὁmicroολογήσῃ φασὶν οἱ πόλεως βασιλῆς νόmicroοι δίκαια εἶναι Din 34 καὶ ὁ microὲν κοινὸς τῆς πόλεως νόmicroος ἐάν τις ἑνὸς ἐναντίον τῶν πολιτῶν ὁmicroολογήσας τι παραβῇ τοῦτον ἔνοχον εἶναι κελεύει τῷ ἀδικεῖν 115 Gernet L 1937 111-44 See also Phillips D D 200989-112 Aviles D 201127-28 all available evidence points to the wording of the general law of contracts not imposing any limitation on the validity of agreements and thus validating even such agreements that were obviousy at odds with justice 116 Cantarella E 196688-93 117 Dem 4212 τὸν κελεύοντα κυρίας εἶναι τὰς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὁmicroολογίας ἃς ἂν ἐναντίον ποιήσωνται microαρτύρων 118 Lanni A 2006 163-164 Among the few similar references in pre-hellenistic times see the loan inscriptions of Arkesine in Amorgos cf IG XII 67 69 70 119 Dem 3513 120 Dem 3539 121 On further references and a presentation of different views see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001103-115 122 On this sense of the clause and relevant bibliography see Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993176-179 123 Beauchet L 189780-82 argues that the syngraphe could not override the laws of public interest On the homologia as a preparatory step of court proceedings by which the parties are merely agreeing that the contents of a statement must not be denied to the dikasterion see Thuumlr G 1977157 124 Cf Wolff H J 1966575 A partir de lagrave les contrats grecs se sont deacuteveloppeacutees sous forme de laquodisposition destineacutee agrave des fins deacutetermineacuteesraquo (Zweckverfuumlgung) Les parties contractantes eacutetaient libres drsquoen fixer le but agrave la seule condition de ne pas violer les dispositions leacutegales Pringsheim J 1950497-500 also agrees that A contract of sale is void if one of its essential element is missing or if the sale is forbidden by law See also Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 2001108 la renonciation agrave tout autre texte leacutegislatif ou contractuel dont le contenu se heurte agrave celui de la syngraphegrave nrsquoa aucun effet lorsque le contrat est illicite 125 Ar Ath Pol 61 126 Phillips D (2009107) argues that Solonrsquos laws such as the law banning the export of agricultural produce other than olive oil presumably rendered contracts concluded for such purposes invalid This invalidity may have been rather implicit than expressis verbis 127 Aesc 16 36-7 considering respect for the law as one of the characteristics of democracy 128 On the place of Nomos in Athenian law and rhetoric see Carey C 199633-46

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

2313

συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα)129 and this must not be a rule of his own devising The invalidity clauses included in decrees and symbola agreements as early as the mid-fifth century BC show that Platos statement has been wrongfully dismissed as not corresponding to Athenian legal reality130 Further evidence in the same direction can be found in the statute attributed by Gaius to Solon allowing contractual liberty to members of associations unless forbidden by public statutes131 Also in Demosthenesrsquo statement that only adoptions which are conform to the law are valid132 and in Hyperidesrsquos argument that both betrothals and testaments were nullified if illegal133 We may also note that the various legal conditions for a valid sale and transfer of property described by Theophrastus134 imply a contrario that if one of these conditions was not met the sale would be invalid and that no agreement to the contrary could override the law135 On the other hand in a legal system where legislation was far from exhaustive leaving unregulated several aspects of private life and enterprise a very large margin was indeed left to contractual liberty Whether the facts of a specific case corresponded to what was forbidden by the law was a question open to forensic debate and would at the end be subject to the juryrsquos decision Since all laws are either prescribing some form of action or forbidding some other we may thus distinguish two forms of legal invalidity invalidity for what is an illicit causa136 in the general sense of anything contrary to public statutes (ex publica lege as Gaius puts it for Solonrsquos law on associations)137 and invalidity expressis verbis as a sanction attested in some decrees What was the utility of an expressis verbis invalidity clause If we accept the criterion on συmicroβόλαια138 as an agreement that serves as the basis of legal action139 no (valid) legal action could arise from an agreement invalidated by law140 This

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 129 Pl Leg 920d1-3 ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 130 Pringsheim F 195040 Platorsquos descriptions on the other hand must not be taken as simply reproducing actual law 42 The texts of Plato hellip must not be taken as giving strict legal rules Phillips D 200989-122 who maintains that (p 95) this law stated by Plato is a measure of his own devising 131 D 47224 (Gaius 4 ad l xii tab) Sodales sunt qui eiusdem collegii sunt quam Graeci hetaireian vocant His autem potestatem facit lex pactionem quam velint sibi ferre dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant Sed haec lex videtur ex lege Solonis tralata esse Nam illuc ita est ἐὰν δὲ δῆmicroος ἤ φράτορες ἤ ἱερῶν ὀργιῶν ἤ ναύται ἤ σύσσιτοι ἤ ὁmicroόταφοι ἤ θιασῶται ἤ ἐπὶ λείαν οἰχόmicroενοι ἤ εἰς ἐmicroπορίαν ὅτι ἀν τούτων διαθῶνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους κύριον εἶναι ἐὰν microὴ ἀπαγορεύσῃ δηmicroόσια γράmicromicroατα 132 Dem 447 ὁmicroολογοῦmicroεν δrsquoἐναντίον ὑmicroῶν δεῖν τὰς ποιήσεις κυρίας εἶναι ὅσαι ἄν κατὰ τοὺς νόmicroους δικαίως γένωνται 133 Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ microὴν οὐκ ἀπέχρησε τῷ νοmicroοθέτῃ τὸ ἐγγυηθῆναι τὴν γυναῖκα ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἢτοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ἔγραψε διαρρήδην ἐν τῷ νόmicroῳ ἣν ἂνἐγγυήσῃ τις ἐπὶ δικαίοις δάmicroαρτα ἐκ ταύτης εἶναι παῖδας γνησίους καὶ οὐκ ἐάν τις ψευσάmicroενος ὡς θυγατέρα ἐγγυήσῃ ἄλλην τινά ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 134 Pringsheim J 1950156 135 St Fl 44224 Κυρία δὲ ἡ ὠνὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶσις εἰς microὲν κτῆσιν ὅταν ἡ τιmicroὴ δοθῆι καὶ τἀκ τῶν νόmicroων ποιήσωσιν οἷον ἀναγραφὴν ἢ ὅρκον ἢ τοῖς γείτοσι τὸ γιγνόmicroενονmiddot εἰς δὲ τὴν παράδοσιν καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ πωλεῖν ὅταν ἀρραβῶνα λάβηιmiddot σχεδὸν γὰρ οὕτως οἱ πολλοὶ νοmicroοθετοῦσινmiddot 136 The notion of illicit causa had not though been isolated by the Greeks as it would latter be by the Romans a point on which see Beauchet L 189738-39 137 This expression may imply a notion of ius absolutum of certain laws of public interest ie norms that cannot be dispensed with and against which no private agreement stands contrary to ius dispositivum which may apply only if the parties have not agreed otherwise as known in civil-law systems Aviles D 201133 argues correctly I think that ldquothere is little to suggest that Athenian lawgivers ever meant any statute they enacted to be only ius dispositivum rather than a fully binding norm expressing the will of the polisrdquo 138 On the sense of the word as ldquocontractrdquo see Mirhady D C 200451-63 139 Todd S 1993265 140 In Rome if someone had promised something contrary to the prescriptions of a lex imperfecta he could not be successfully sued by the promisee the praetor intervening with a denegatio actionis

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

2413

principle is illustrated by the law on the interdiction regarding maritime loans not destined to serve the import of grain or other merchandise in Athens which in case of transgression deprived the plaintiff of an action and was forbidding such action to be introduced to court141 Whether or not an agreement was prohibited by law and had to be annulled remained though to be proven at court If the invalidity of an act or agreeement was not expressis verbis declared by law or by the terms of the agreement such a proof may present a great degree of difficulty Thus introducing the invalidity clause in decrees or contracts offered the advantage of facilitating the proof since all one would have to do is read at court the relevant clause forbidding such agreements The laws and contracts being according to Aristotle142 two of the main ldquoinartificial proofsrdquo (ἄτεχναι πίστεις) properly belonging to forensic oratory the invalidity clause left little room for speculation on whether an act or obligation was indeed lawful or not

In view of the lack of clear legal definitions in ancient Greek Law the problems of interpretation that could arise at court if the legal invalidity of an act or of an agreement had to be proven only on the basis of the facts of the case applied to general legal principles143 may have been very complex These problems are illustrated in the Rhetoric when Aristotle speaking both about laws and contracts offers advice on argumentative technique144 He explains how their importance may be magnified or minimized depending on the side for which one is arguing and advises to ldquosee whether the law is contradictory to another approved law or to itself for instance one law enacts that all contracts should be binding while another forbids making contracts contrary to the lawrdquo145 Aristotles mention of the second law has been criticized as not corresponding to an actual law146 in spite of the uncontested existence of the first law Both of these laws may have existed in Athens without any statutory conflict147 since the one in fact complements the other all contracts -that are not forbidden by law- are binding148 What Aristotle proposes is how to make the best of the worst case where the argument ldquothe contract is a law special and partialrdquo is to be put forth if the contract is on our side A different line of argumentation is to be followed if the contract is against us ldquoIn addition to this we must examine whether the contract is contrary to any written law of our own or foreign countries or to any general

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 141 Dem C Lacrit 51 Beauchet L 189741 thinks that invalidity did not have to be clearly stated in the law provided the law was ldquod`ordre publicrdquo It is doubtfull though that this notion had been formulated in ancient Greek law 142 Arist Rhet 1375a 15 περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀτέχνων καλουmicroένων πίστεων ἐχόmicroενόν ἐστι τῶν εἰρηmicroένων ἐπιδραmicroεῖν ἴδιαι γὰρ αὗται τῶν δικανικῶν εἰσὶν δὲ πέντε τὸν ἀριθmicroόν νόmicroοι microάρτυρες συνθῆκαι βάσανοι ὅρκοι πρῶτον microὲν οὖν περὶ νόmicroων εἴπωmicroεν πῶς χρηστέον καὶ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα καὶ κατηγοροῦντα καὶ ἀπολογούmicroενον 143 Such as illegality conflict between different laws a law being obsolete and the notions of fictitiousness error fraud menace immorality 144 On the argument that Aristotles ideas ldquodo not really correspond to the actual practice of law courts and forensic oratory in fourth-century Athensrdquo see Aviles D 201122 27 See also Phillips D 200993-106 who rules out philosophersrsquo views as concering hypothetical cases On the contrary the extant oratorrsquos forenisic speeches illustrate Aristotles arguments put litteraly to trial showing how the laws and contracts were indeed being manipulated by the orators according to the side one was arguing for This is exactly the point Aristotle is making in the Rhetoric offering examples of arguments rather than analyising legal issues On the other hand as the orators are presenting their clientrsquos side of the story their speeches offer only a partial view of the rules of law limited to the ones favorable to their case 145 Arist Rhet 1375b καὶ εἴ που ἐναντίος νόmicroῳ εὐδοκιmicroοῦντι ἢ καὶ αὐτὸς αὑτῷ οἷον ἐνίοτε ὁ microὲν κελεύει κύρια εἶναι ἅττ᾽ ἂν συνθῶνται ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον 146 Pringsheim J 1950 39 For a general statute forbidding illegal agreements seems neither necessary nor adequate to the then prevailing legal thought 147 The real ldquocontradictionrdquo revealed by Aristotle is one of arguments not of laws On the procedures that in Athens would secure there were no contradictions and inconsistencies among the laws see Sickinger J P 2008 Canevaro M 2013139-160 148 Beauchet L 189740 n 4 tentatively suggests that Aristotle may be referring to the difference between ldquoune loi formelle (ob iniustam causam)rdquo and ldquoune loi drsquoordre publicrdquo

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

2513

law or to other previous or subsequent contracts For either the latter are valid and the former not or the former are right and the latter fraudulent we may put it in whichever way it seems fitrdquo149 What is apparent from Aristotles argumentation is not that contracts could in Athens circumvent the law but rather that a margin of forensic argumentation was always left to litigants and that legal validity or invalidity were subject precisely to an interpretation of the facts Introducing ἄκυρον ἔστω in a decree limited this margin of argumentation and served thus the interest of legal security and judicial efficiency the arguing of a case escaping the ambiguities of proof on matters of law leaving only the facts to be proven150

Why then only some decrees included the invalidity clause whereas other did not Given Greek laws seldom present a similar structure and elements are often missing invalidity may not have been included expressis verbis in many cases but may have been a presumed consequence151 This does not mean that in Greek law the decrees that did not include the invalidity clause were considered a kind of lex impefecta left on purpose without a sanction152 We cannot be sure for example whether the law on testaments setting some exceptions (πλὴν ἢ) to the general rule explicitly declared invalid testaments obtained through improper influence or whether invalidity was only implied and further confirmed by a court of law when such a case was brough to a hearing153 In case a legal act was executed contrary to the terms of the law it seems that its validity remained a matter open to interpretation to be challenged before a court of law154 This left a wide margin of maneuver for litigants who could claim an act was valid or not by interpreting both the laws and the facts of the case155 The case of Hyperidesrsquo Against Athenogenes156 illustrates how difficult it was to overlook the terms of a written contract if an ad hoc

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 149 Arist Rhet 1376a-b περὶ δὲ τῶν συνθηκῶν τοσαύτη τῶν λόγων χρῆσίς ἐστιν ὅσον αὔξειν ἢ καθαιρεῖν ἢ πιστὰς ποιεῖν ἢ ἀπίστουςmdash ἐὰν microὲν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχωσι πιστὰς καὶ κυρίας ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ ἀmicroφισβητοῦντος τοὐναντίον hellipmiddot ἡ γὰρ συνθήκη νόmicroος ἐστὶν ἴδιος καὶ κατὰ microέρος καὶ αἱ microὲν συνθῆκαι οὐ ποιοῦσι τὸν νόmicroον κύριον οἱ δὲ νόmicroοι τὰς κατὰ νόmicroους συνθήκας καὶ ὅλως αὐτὸς ὁ νόmicroος συνθήκη τίς ἐστιν ὥστε ὅστις ἀπιστεῖ ἢ ἀναιρεῖ συνθήκην τοὺς νόmicroους ἀναιρεῖ ἔτι δὲ πράττεται τὰ πολλὰ τῶν συναλλαγmicroάτων καὶ τὰ ἑκούσια κατὰ συνθήκας ὥστε ἀκύρων γιγνοmicroένων ἀναιρεῖται ἡ πρὸς ἀλλήλους χρεία τῶν ἀνθρώπων hellip πρὸς δὲ τούτοις σκοπεῖν εἰ ἐναντία ἐστί τινι τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων νόmicroων ἢ τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν γεγραmicromicroένων ἢ τοῖς οἰκείοις ἢ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ἔπειτα εἰ ἢ ἄλλαις συνθήκαις ὑστέραις ἢ προτέραιςmiddot ἢ γὰρ αἱ ὕστεραι κύριαι ἄκυροι δ rsquo αἱ πρότεραι ἢ αἱ πρότεραι ὀρθαί αἱ δrsquo ὕστεραι ἠπατήκασιν ὁποτέρως ἂν ᾖ χρήσιmicroον 150 Todd S C (1993264-268 and 1994138) argues on the inexistence of a clear doctrine of contract in combination with the usage of contracts as ldquopersuasive supporting argumentrdquo that would allow a court to distinguish which contractual agreements were legally binding If though a law was declaring such agreements invalid such proof would have been rendered easier 151 The lack of the invalidity clause in some cases may be explained by the very perception of the law as being binding for all without the need for the legislator to annul agreements contrary to its terms such a sanction being considered superfluous and unnecessary 152 On the explanation given regarding the Roman prototype of a lex imperfecta the lex Cincia de donis et muneribus of 204 BC which prohibited donations exceeding a certain amount without invalidating those exceeding the limit and not permitting an enrichment claim against the recipient see Zimmerman R 1990 699 ldquoone did not want to embarrass the leading circles of society by exposing them to court proceedings and the concomitant publicityrdquo 153 Hyp 317-18 ἔτι δὲ καὶ ὁ περὶ τῶν διαθηκῶν νόmicroος παραπλήσιος τούτοις ἐστίν κελεύει γὰρ ἐξεῖναι τὰ ἑαυτοῦ διατίθεσθαι ὅπως ἄν τις βούληται πλὴν ἢ γήρως ἕνεκεν ἢ νόσου ἢ microανιῶν ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενον ἢ ὑπὸ δεσmicroοῦ ἢ ὑπὸ ἀνάγκης καταληφθέντα ὅπου δὲ οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν αὑτοῦ ἰδίων αἱ microὴ δίκαιαι διαθῆκαι κύριαί εἰσιν πῶς Ἀθηνογένει γε κατὰ τῶν ἐmicroῶν συνθεmicroένῳ τοιαῦτα δεῖ κύρια εἶναι καὶ ἐὰν microέν τις ὡς ἔοικεν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὶ πειθόmicroενος διαθήκας γράψῃ ἄκυροι ἔσονταιhellip 154 In the same way that if the law did not specify the penalty for some offense this could be assessed by the jury (MacDowell D M 197855-56) in cases the law did not specify the annulment of an act or contract contrary to its terms this could also have been assessed by the jury 155 On the method of interpretation in this speech of the few athenian statutes regulating contracts by examining other laws in order to discover general principles and the intent of the lawgiver see Harris E 200047-54 [=2013(b)198-205] 156 Cohen E 2013213-224

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

2613

rule of law did not invalidate contracts concluded under dubious circumstances of honesty157 in view of the general law on contracts attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι)158 Epikrates who has been was fooled into taking over unspecified debts incurred by the perfume business of a slave he bought from Athenogenes159 argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding (τά γε δίκαια ὦ βέλτιστε τὰ δὲ microὴ τοὐναντίον ἀπαγορεύει microὴ κύρια εἶναι) but in lack of a specific law160 vitiating agreements on account of fraud or concealment he tries to establish that ldquounjustrdquo equals ldquoillegalrdquo by referring to similar laws (ν[όmicroο]ς παρ[α]πλήσιος) setting a standard of ldquojustrdquo behavior expected in other transactions161 Investing statutory prohibitions with the sanction of invalidity may have come as a development dictated by such procedural incidents in legal cases where the rule of law and general legal principles proved insufficient to effectively prohibit certain unjust transactions or behaviors and this in order to facilitate proof in a court of law Rendering agreements forbidden by law non actionable as Plato is implying162 or rendering legal acts already concluded voidable163 may have been an important legal development although in lack of any direct evidence the means of procedure and any specific legal actions by which this could be achieved are not clear An example164 of such an action may have been related to the above case of Epicrates in Against Athenogenes Epicrates who has not yet paid the perfume shoprsquos creditors but merely promised to Athenogenes to undertake these debts165 seems to be launching before an Athenian court a preemptive legal action against Athenogenes166 the object of which may have been not a dike vlaves as the communis opinio has it but a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract167

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 157 Epikrates is accusing the defendant of trying to impose an unjust agreement to the detriment of the laws ([σὺ δὲ καὶ τ]ὰς ἀδίκους συνθ[ήκας ἀξιοῖς κρατεῖν πάντων] τῶν νόmicroων) In order to refute his adversaryrsquos expected argument on the law on contract attributed to Solon (ὅσα ἄν ἔτερος ἐτέρῳ ὁmicroολογήσῃ κύρια εἶναι) he argues that ldquounjust contractsrdquo should not be binding Hyp Ath1023 158 Hyp Ath 65-6 159 Cohen E 2012213-224 160 The fact that Epikrates after stating that the law declares invalid the unjust agreements proceeds to quote statutes that are not directly relevant to his case has been interpreted as a proof that no statute of this wording existed (Kaumlstle D 2012193 202 Aviles D 201128-29) But it is one matter the existence of a general legal principle forbidding illegal agreements (refered to also by Aristotle in Rhet 1375b ὁ δ ἀπαγορεύει microὴ συντίθεσθαι παρὰ τὸν νόmicroον) and a different one the (non) existence of a law forbidding an agreement as the one concluded with Athenogenes where the fraud claimed by the plaintiff consisted in the lack of full disclosure by the seller of the amount of the slaves debts the buyer was fooled into promising to take over Even by contemporary legal standards such a behavior would fall under general legal principles forbidding dishonesty and bad faith in transactions rather than be opposed by an ad hoc prohibition 161 Such as laws on the sale of slaves on marriage and testaments 162 Pl Laws 920d ὅσα τις ἂν ὁmicroολογῶν συνθέσθαι microὴ ποιῇ κατὰ τὰς ὁmicroολογίας πλὴν ὧν ἂν νόmicroοι ἀπείργωσιν ἢ ψήφισmicroα ἤ τινος ὑπὸ ἀδίκου βιασθεὶς ἀνάγκης ὁmicroολογήσῃ καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ τύχης ἀπροσδοκήτου τις ἄκων κωλυθῇ δίκας εἶναι τῶν ἄλλων ἀτελοῦς ὁmicroολογίας ἐν ταῖς φυλετικαῖσιν δίκαις ἐὰν ἐν διαιτηταῖς ἢ γείτοσιν ἔmicroπροσθεν microὴ δύνωνται διαλλάττεσθαι 163 Such as the law mentioned by Epicrates Hyp 316 ἀλλὰ τὰς microὲν δικαίας ἐγγύας κυρίας τὰς δὲ microὴ δικαίας ἀκύρους καθίστησιν 164 For a discussion of the arguments concerning the invalidity of the agreement of Demosthenesrsquo Against Olympiodorus see Carawan E M 2006361-374 165 Hyp37 εἰ δὲ πριαίmicroην ὠνῇ καὶ πράσει ὁmicroολογήσας αὐτῷ τὰ χρέα ἀναδέξεσθαι ὡς οὐθενὸς ἄξια ὄντα διὰ τὸ microὴ προειδέναι καὶ τοὺς πληρωτὰς τῶν ἐράνων ἐν ὁmicroολογίᾳ λαβών ὅπερ ἐποίησεν 166 Epikrates is claiming that he would have been liable for payment only if he had been informed of the extent of the debts Hyp 314 ἐπεὶ ἐὰν δείξῃς προειπὼν ἐmicroοὶ τοὺς ἐράνους καὶ τὰ χρέα ἢ γράψας ἐν ταῖς συνθήκαις ὅσους ἐπυθόmicroην οὐδὲν ἀντιλέγω σοι ἀλλ᾽ὁmicroολογῶ ὀφείλειν 315 ὅσα δ᾽ οὐκ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πωλοῦντος ταῦτα οὐ δίκαιός εἰmicroι διαλύειν 167 On the nature of the action of Epikrates against Athenogenes as a graphe bouleuseos for the annulment of the contract contra the communis opinio of a dike vlaves (Osborne R 198557 Whitehead D 2004268-269) see Maridakis G S 1963398-524 Cantarella E 1966 88-93 Dimopoulou A 2012226 Regarding the graphe bouleuseos see Harrison A R W 197278 ldquothe main effect of which if the defendant was convicted was to

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

2713

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 release the plaintiff from bondage or from payment (though there may of course have been a penalty attached as well)rdquo

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

2813

Bibliography

Ager S L 1996 Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World 337-90 BC Berkeley-Los Angeles-London

Arnaoutoglou I 1998 Ancient Greek Laws London

Aviles D 2011 ldquoArguing Against the Lawrdquo Non-Literal Interpretation in Attic Forensic Oratory Dike 14 19-42

Beauchet L 1897 Histoire du droit priveacute de la Reacutepublique Atheacutenienne IV Le droit des obligations Paris

Biscardi A 1991 Αρχαίο Ελληνικό Δίκαιο Athens (transl P Dimakis)

Cantarella E 1966 ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo Labeo 12 88-93 (= ldquoIn tema di invaliditagrave del negozio giuridico nel diritto atticordquo in Diritto e societagrave in Grecia e a Roma Scritti scelti a cura di A Maffi e L Gagliardi Milan 2011 263-70)

Canevaro M 2013 ldquoNomothesia in Classical Athens What Sources Should We Believerdquo CQ 63 1 139-160

Carawan E M 2006 ldquoThe Athenian Law of Agreementrdquo GRBS 46 339-374

Carey C 1996 ldquoNomos in Athenian Law and Rhetoricrdquo JHS 116 33-47

Cohen E E 2006 ldquoConsensual Contracts at Athensrdquo Symposion 2003 73-92

-shy‐‑ 2012 Juridical Implications of Athenian Slavesrsquo Commercial Activity Symposion 2011 213-224

Dimopoulou A 2012 ldquoLe rocircle des esclaves dans lrsquoeacuteconomie atheacutenienne Reacuteponse agrave Edward Cohenrdquo Symposion 2011 225-236

Fournier J 2012 ldquoLes modaliteacutes de controcircle des magistrats de Thasos aux eacutepoques classique et helleacutenistique reacuteponse agrave Lene Rubinsteinrdquo Symposion 2011 355-364

Gernet L 1937 ldquoSur la notion du jugement en droit grecrdquo Archives dhistoire du droit oriental 1 111-44

Giovannini A - Grzybek E 1978 ldquoLa lex de piratis persequendisrdquo MH 35 33-47

Harris E 2000 ldquoOpen Texture in Athenian Lawrdquo DIKE 3 27-79

- 2013 ldquoHow to Address the Athenian Assembly Rhetoric and Political Tactics in the Debate about Mytilene (Thuc 337-50)rdquo Classical Quarterly 631 94-109

- 2013(b) The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens Oxford-New York

Harrison A R W 1972 The Law of Athens II Oxford

Harter-Uibopuu K 2011 ldquoMoney for the Polis Public Administration of Private Donations in Hellenistic Greecerdquo in van Nijf O M amp Alston R (Eds) Political culture in the Greek city after the Classical Age Paris 119-139

- 2013Bestandsklauseln und Abaumlnderungsverbote Der Schutz zweckgebundener Gelder in der spaumlthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Polis Tyche 28 forthcoming

- 2014 Amnestien und Schuldenerlasse im ersten mithradatischen Krieg forthcoming

Jones J W 1956 The Law and Legal Theory of the Greeks Oxford

Kaumlstle D J 2012 ldquoZur Gesetzasargumentation in der attischen Gerichtsrederdquo ZSS 129 161-205

Lanni A 2006 Law and Justice in the Courts of Classical Athens Cambridge 163-164

MacDowell D 1978 The Law in Classical Athens London

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town

13 13

2913

Maffi A 2012 ldquoOrigine et application du principe de majoriteacute dans la Gregravece anciennerdquo Symposion 2011 21-31

Maridakis G S 1963 ldquoὙπερείδου κατrsquoἈθηνογένουςrdquo Τιmicroητικός τόmicroος ἐπὶ τῇ 125-ετηρήδι τοῦ Ἀρείου Πάγου Athens 398-524

Migeotte L 1984 Lrsquoemprunt public dans les citeacutes grecques Queacutebec

Mirhady D C 2004 ldquoContracts in Athensrdquo in D L Cairns and R A Knox (Eds) Law Rhetoric and Comedy in Classical Athens Essays in Honor of Douglas M MacDowell Swansea 51-63

Osborne R 1985 ldquoLaw in Action in Classical Athensrdquo JHS 105 40-58

Papazoglou F 1979 ldquoQuelques aspects de lhistoire de la province de Maceacutedoinerdquo ANRW II 71 302-69

Phillips D D 2009 ldquoHypereides 3 and the Athenian Law of Contractrdquo TAPA 139 89-122

Pringsheim F 1950 The Greek Law of Sale Weimar

Quadrato R 1983 Sulle trace dellrsquo annullabilitagrave Quasi nullus nella giurisprudenza Romana Napoli

Rubinstein L 2008 ldquoResponse to James P Sickingerrdquo Symposion 2007 113-124

-shy‐‑ 2012 ldquoIndividual and Collective Liabilites of Boards of Officialsrdquo Symposion 2011 329-354

Schwartzberg M 2004 Athenian Democracy and Legal Change American Political Science Review 98 (2) 311-325

Sickinger J P 2008 ldquoIndeterminacy in Greek Law Statutory Gaps and Conflictsrdquo Symposion 2007 99-112

Todd SC 1993 The Shape of Athenian Law Oxford

- 1994 ldquoStatus and Contract in Fourth Century Athensrdquo Symposion 1993 125-140 (with a reply by E E Cohen 141-152)

- 2012 ldquoThe Publication of Voting-Figures in the Ancient Greek World a Response to Alberto Maffirdquo Symposion 2011 33-48

Thuumlr G 1977 Beweisfuumlhrung vor den Schwurgerichtshoumlfen Athens dei Poklesis zur Basanos Vienna

Velissaropoulos-Karakostas J 1993 Λόγοι Ευθύνης Ιστορική γένεση και σύγχρονη αmicroφισβήτηση των πηγών της ενοχικής δεσmicroεύσεως Athens

-shy‐‑ 1996 ldquoPacta conventa servabo et Aristoterdquo RHD 74 (2) 185-197 -shy‐‑ 2001 ldquoRemarques sur la clause kyria he syngrapherdquo Symposion 1997 103-115 -shy‐‑ 2011 Droit Grec drsquoAlexandre agrave Auguste (323 av JndashC ndash 14 ap JndashC) vol II (Les biens)

Athegravenes (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 66)

Wallace R W 2012 ldquoWhen the Athenians Did Not Enforce their Lawsrdquo Symposion 2011 115-125

Whitehead D 2004 Hypereides The Forensic Speeches Oxford 268-269

Wolff H J 1966 ldquoLa structure de lrsquoobligation contractuelle en droit grecrdquo RHDFE 44 569-583

Youni M 2010 ldquoPolis and Legislative Procedure in Early Creterdquo Symposion 2009 151-167

Zelnick ndash Abramovitz A 2005 Not Wholly Free The Concept of Manumission and the Status of Manumitted Slaves in the Ancient Greek World Leiden-Boston

Zimmermann R 1990 The Law of Obligations Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition Cape Town