Kalden Singhi Bhutia - ENVIS Sikkim

Kalden Singhi Bhutia The only surviving herdsman of Thangu North Sikkim conferred with India Biodiversity Award 2018 for conservation of Tibetan Highland Sheep

Kalden Singhi Bhutia, the only surviving herdsman owning about 200 Tibetan Highland

Sheep in Thangu village, North Sikkim was conferred India Biodiversity Award 2018 on

the category Conservation of Species (Individual) on May 22, 2018 at a Domesticated

function organized in Hyderabad by Telangana Agricultural University and Telangana

Biodiversity Board.

Earlier in September 2017, Kalden Singhi Bhutia had also become the first Sikkimese to

be feted with the Breed Conservation Award by ICAR National Bureau of Animal

Genetic Resources, Karnal, Haryana for his long term and dedicated conservation

efforts in maintaining a healthy breed of Tibetan highland Sheep in the cold deserts

above his village Thangu in North Sikkim.

Contd…

2018-19 APRIL-JUNE QUARTERLY VOL. 11 ISSUE 1

On Status of Environment & Its Related Issues

MORE IN THIS ISSUE

Exclusive interview with Kalden Singhi Bhutia by a team of North Wildlife Division

Excerpt on the Documentation of Ethno-Veterinary practices in Sikkim

Observations on the

Impact of Different

Forest Types on

Hydrology in Sikkim

Look in for more at

www.sikenvis.nic.in

Sikkim State ENVIS Quarterly Newsletter 2018-19 Vol. 11, Issue 1 April-June

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…..continued from Page 1

With deep traditional knowledge and an

indomitable spirit, Kalden Singhi Bhutia

took a number of steps to conserve and

propagate the Tibetan highland sheep.

He started herding at the age of 13. The

hardworking herder now 47 years old is

the only surviving herdsman of this

breed which is found at an altitude

above 16,000 ft and is considered

endangered due to various factors.

Braving all odds, he still maintains a herd of

the famous ‘Luk’ or Bhyanglung, the

Tibetan highland sheep. Making his living

out of this herd, he rears the sheep for milk

and milk products (butter, ghee etc), wool

as raw materials which is excellent for

carpets and meat which is considered to

contain high medicinal values.

He has also conducted awareness and

sensitization programmes, constructed

a sheep farm to accommodate 550

sheep and documented its genetic

characteristics in collaboration with

National Bureau of Animal and Genetic

Resources.

In an exclusive exercise to nominate a

Sikkim candidature for the India

Biodiversity Award 2018, the North

Wildlife Division of the Sikkim Forest

Department got in person with Kalden

Singhi Bhutia in the Himalayan cold

desert at about 16000 ft near the

Thangu village above Lachen in North

Sikkim. Known for his hardship and

sound traditional knowledge of

herding the highland sheep since the

early age of 13, Kalden Singhi Bhutia

who is 47 years old is the only

surviving herder amongst his clan in

Sikkim. His conservation and breeding

efforts for supporting his livelihood

had also conferred upon him the

Breed Conservation Award felicitated

by ICAR National Bureau of Animal

Genetic Resources earlier in

September 2017.

A team from North Wildlife Division

captured a short documentary on his

conservation practices in the cold

desert. The same supplemented as a

nomination befittingly for this

hardworking mountain man to be

feted with yet another National Award

– India Biodiversity Award 2018

presented by the Ministry of

Environment, Forest & Climate

Change, Government of India. It is a

great boost and encouragement for

him to upkeep the tradition and also

to sensitize his fellow men.

Exclusive Interview with

Kalden Singhi Bhutia by a

team of North Wildlife

Division of the Sikkim Forest

Department

Picture: India Biodiversity Award 2018 on the category Conservation of

Domesticated Species (Individual) being presented to Kalden Singhi Bhutia by His

Excellency, the Governor of Telangana State and Andhra Pradesh E.S.L.

Narasimhan on May 22, 2018 at a function organized by Telangana Agricultural

University and Telangana Biodiversity Board in Hyderabad.


3

FG: Achu, how far do you fetch the water from?

KSB: I fetch from a far place, it takes about an hour walk.

FG: Is the water for self-consumption?

KSB: It is for drinking and also for feeding the sheep.

FG: For how many hours are you there in the cold desert?

KSB: I start from my village (Thangu) by 8 am and return by

4-5 pm.

FG: What are you doing Achu?

KSB: I am preparing feed for the herd. Its wheat flour (Atta)

mixed with little salt.

FG: At what time you give this feed to the sheep?

KSB: It is fed in morning and evening. Sheep graze in the day

time

FG: How many sheep you have currently?

KSB: About 160-165

FG: Are you able to feed all with this quantity?

KSB: We feed the weak ones, feeding all is costly. We have

to add Til (sesame) to the feed of mulching sheeps, tea

leaves to the feed of those sheeps who are weak.

FG: Do you get external support for the supplies?

KSB: Animal Husbandry Department has extended support.

They give us Atta and rice. We were in three years project

under ICAR. The project provided me with Rs. 6000/- p.m.

for the feed with medicine supply as well.

FG: How many sheep did you have prior to this project?

KSB: Earlier, I had 60-70 sheep, after the project the number

has increased to 160-165.

FG: You mean to say that the ICAR project has helped in

population growth?

KSB: Yes!

FG: What are the struggles you face while taking care of

your herd?

KSB: During the winter season the area is snow covered and

grazing becomes difficult and it is very cold. Getting

additional manpower support is difficult.

FG: Why are the sheep important or why is it significant?

KSB: The butter, curd and meat of these sheep have

medicinal properties. Even the head is used for religious

ceremonies in Tibetan culture. It is considered as good luck.

These are the reasons for conserving this breed. The Lachen

Pipon has also assured that all benefits will come directly to

us for the upkeep of these sheep.

FG: What are the things you carry to the shed?

KSB: We carry tea leaves, phalay (rotis), yak butter, sugar,

milk, utensil and sometime curry if available and yak dung to

lit fire for tea and warming the food.

FG: What is the name of this place, where sheep graze?

KSB: It is called Thiptha.

FG: In summers, how far do you go?

KSB: In summers, we head to Lhasar valley to a place called

Phalung upto Thapuchecha beyond which we don’t go, as

there are lots of poisonous plants which can kill the sheep.

FG: Can Byanglung be bred/ present in Lachen?

KSB: No.

FG: Do the yak dung serve the purpose of firewood?

KSB: Yes, it does but we face problems when the dungs are

Interviewed by Shri Tshering Thendup Bhutia, Forest Guard FG – Forest Guard | KSB –Kalden Singhi Bhutia | KC – Kishore Chettri


4

covered by snow in winters. We are hoping that we get some

help/ support from the Government as we are facing problem

of firewood.

FG: Do you face any threat from the wild predators?

KSB: Yes! The sheep are prey to feral dogs, vultures, eagles

and also eaten by wild cat.

FG: Is there any problem by Snow Leopard?

KSB: No, we don’t have except the feral dogs recently from

Defence establishments. In these surrounding hills we have a

lot of wild animals like the Argali, Gazelle, Picas, etc. but the

dogs are threat to these animals as well.

FG: How many times do you go Lachen in a month?

KSB: I don’t get much time; I go once in five months.

FG: Apart from feral dogs, do you have problem of fodder?

KSB: Yes there are fodder problems but that can be done in

these areas.

FG: In spite of having hardship, you are the sole person with

160-165 Byanglung? You are contributing a lot to

conservation. Since you are not married, there is no one to

take care of these sheep in coming generations? As you are

saying that if the Government gives you direct benefit, how

can it be helpful to you?

KSB: First of all I need is manpower, with which someone can

milk these sheep, prepare butter, cut wools, earn money, buy

machines, supply and earn money. We need a person with

sufficient funds and brains who can make proper use of it, not

a poor and a single person like me. Even though I may get

some helpers, but I am unable to pay them. That is why I am of

the view that I will hand these sheep to the Government,

because as a poor person, it is not profitable for me. The

Government can benefit and earn money by selling butter and

wool for carpet weaving. The dung can be used for farming of

vegetables and flowers. It is superior in quality compared to

dung of other cattle. The dung also helps in the growth of

medicinal plants in these regions.

FG: What is the cost of one sheep?

KSB: Since it involves a lot of hard work, the actual cost is Rs.

17-18 thousand but I sell for 15-16 thousand only.

FG: How many do you sell in a year?

KSB: I sell around 10 sheep which are aged.

FG: If you sell 10 sheep, how many births, mortalities take

place?

KSB: There is a lot of fear when there is snowfall, sometimes

all the young ones dies. As there are no proper sheds to cover.

But with the grace of God there has been a balance in the

number of deaths and births.

FG: Do you think that this is sustainable?

KSB: I think it can be sustainable provided there is enough

manpower and he or she should have the appetite of staying

in this harsh terrain.

Watch the full interview

https://youtu.be/DeaslxuNSA8


5

The Bhutias, Lepchas and Nepalis are

three major ethnic groups inhabiting

Sikkim. Rearing of livestock and poultry

is a part of their rural life and it plays an

important role in uplifting the rural

economy of state. The use of ethno-

veterinary medicines for animal health

care practices is as old as the

domestication of various livestock

species (Sharma 2012). Although

modern veterinary medicine is well

developed, most of the villagers still

rely on the traditional practitioners and

herbal medicines for health care of

their livestock. The present paper deals

with the documentation of indigenous

knowledge of ethno veterinary

practices in Sikkim.

The use of indigenous veterinary

medicine is a cost effective treatment

option for livestock, especially in

primary health care (Punniamurthy

2010) in remote areas. Sikkim has very

rich heritage of folk healers having vast

knowledge of herbal medicine which is

being practiced right from their

ancestors for the health care of their

livestock.

The traditional health practices are

accessible, affordable and culturally

acceptable. This traditional knowledge

system has been orally passed on from

one generation to the other without

any written documentation. Due to

socio-cultural and other reasons, this

knowledge system is being eroded very

Documentation of Ethno-veterinary

practices in Sikkim, India T. P. Sharma*, Sabita Dahal and S. K. Borthakur

*E-mail: [email protected]

fast. However, this traditional

knowledge system is of much

significance not only in the present

regime of IRP, Patent Rights, etc., but

also for new or alternative drug

discovery. Keeping this in view, an

attempt has been made to document

the indigenous traditional knowledge

system pertaining to veterinary

practices in Sikkim and the present

communication is the result of the

above study.

Ethnobotanical surveys were

undertaken in different parts of Sikkim

during the years 2009 – 2012 for

recording firsthand information

regarding the medicinal uses of plants

for ethno veterinary practices. As a

result of the survey, a total of 34

species of plants used by local healers

for preparing ethno veterinary recipes

were applied in curing 15

ailments/problems of livestock which

have been documented in this article,

some of which are enumerated below:

Source Pleione 6(2): 353 - 358. 2012. East Himalayan Society for Spermatophyte Taxonomy

Excerpt

COLD SICKNESS IN GOAT

Ingredients: (i) fruits of Datura metel Linnaeus (Solanaceae), (ii) bulb of Allium cepa Linnaeus (Alliaceae), and (iii) resin of Canarium strictum Roxburgh (Burseraceae). Local name: (i) Dhaturo ,(ii) Piaz and (iii) Gokul dhoup Method of treatment: The fruit of Datura metel, bulb of Allium cepa and resin of Canarium strictum in equal parts are crushed and made into paste and given about 100gm orally, thrice daily for 5 consecutive days . COUGH IN CATTLE

Ingredient: (i) bulb of Allium sativum Linnaeus (Alliaceae) Local name: (i) Lasun Method of treatment: 2 – 3 bulbs of Allium sativum are crushed and made into paste and is given along with feeds, twice daily for 3 consecutive days.


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. . . . Documentation of Ethno-veterinary practices in Sikkim, India

CUTS AND WOUNDS IN CATTLE

Ingredients: (i) whole plant of Drymaria cordata (Linnaeus) Roemer & Schultes (Caryophyllaceae), and (ii) leaves of Acorus calamus Linnaeus (Acoraceae)

Local name: (i) Abijalo and (ii) Bojo

Preparation: The paste of whole plant of Drymaria cordata or the leaf paste of Acorus calamus is applied to cuts and wounds. FEVER IN CATTLE

Ingredients: (i) seeds of Heracleum wallichii DC. (Apiaceae), (ii) seeds of Litsea cubeba (Loureiro) Persoon (Lauraceae), and (iii) fruits of Fagopyrum esculentum Moench (Polygonaceae)

Local name: (i) Chimphing, (ii) Sil-timbur and (iii) Phaper

Method of treatment: About 100 gm seeds of each of Heracleum wallichi and Litsea citrata along with the fruits of Fagopyrum esculentum are crushed and made into paste and given to the cattle, thrice daily for 4 consecutive days. BONE DISLOCATION OF CATTLE

Ingredients: (i) rhizome of Kaempferia rotunda Linnaeus (Zingiberaceae), (ii) branches of Viscum articulatum Bentham (Loranthaceae), and (iii) grains of Zea mays Linnaeus (Poaceae)

Local name: (i) Bhui champa, (ii) Harchur, and (iii) Makai

Preparation: Dried branches of Viscum articulatum along with dried rhizome of Kaempferia rotunda and grains of Zea mays in equal parts and a little sugar are crushed and made into powder and boiled it in about two liters of water till it turn into gummy paste. The paste is applied and bandaged on dislocated bones.

INFESTATION OF TICKS IN DOG AND CALF

Ingredients: (i) tender shoots of Lyonia ovalifolia (Wallich) Drude (Ericaceae), and (ii) Nicotiana tabacum Linnaeus (Solanaceae). Local name: (i) Angeri, and (ii) Surti Method of treatment: Fresh juice or paste of tender shoots of Lyonia ovalifolia mixed with little amount of common salt is applied externally, twice daily for a week. Juice of fresh leaves of Nicotiana tabacum is applied all over the body, twice a day for a week. DOG BITE IN COW AND BUFFALO

Ingredients: (I) fruits of Datura metel Linnaeus (Solanaceae), (ii) root-stock of Smilax ferox Wallich ex Kunth (Smilacaceae), (iii) whole plant of Equisetum diffusum D. Don (Equisetaceae), (iv) rhizome of Tectaria macrodonta (A.L. Fée) C. Christensen (Dryopteridaceae), (v) rhizome of Curcuma caesia Roxburgh (Zingiberaceae), (vi) root of Mirabilis jalapa Linnaeus (Nyctaginaceae), and (vii) bark of Betula utilis D. Don (Betulaceae) Local name: (i) Kalo Dhaturo, (ii) Kukurdainu, (iii) Salli, (iv) Kalo Nigro, (v) Kalo Hardi, (vi) Lankasani, and (vii) Saur. Method of treatment: The fruits of Datura metel, root-stock of Smilax ferox, rhizome of Curcuma caesia and Tectaria macrodonta, roots of Mirabilis jalapa, bark of Betula utilis and whole plant of Equisetum debile in equal parts are crushed and made into powder. About 200 gm of the powder is given with water twice daily for 10 consecutive days.

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASES IN COW

Ingredients: (I) leaves of Azadirachta indica A. Jussieu (Meliaceae) and (ii) fruits of Fagopyrum esculentum Moench (Polygonaceae)

Local name: (i) Nimpati and (ii) Phaper

Method of treatment: About 25 – 30 ml of leaf juice of Azadirachta indica is given thrice daily for 10 days and the paste of the fruits of Fagopyrum esculentum is applied externally. DIARRHOEA IN COW

Ingredients: (i) fruit of Litsea cubeba (Loureiro) Persoon (Lauraceae), (ii) tender shoots of Cannabis sativa Linnaeus (Cannabaceae), (iii) fruits of Rhus chinensis Miller (Anacardiaceae), and (iv) rhizome of Acorus calamus Linnaeus (Acoraceae)

Local name: (i) Siltumbur ,(ii) Ganja, (iii) Bhakmilo and (iv) Bojo

Method of treatment: The infusion of about 100 gm of dried fruits Litsea cubeba and 200 gm of fresh tender shoots of Cannabis sativais given twice daily for 3 consecutive days. Decoction of about 250 gm dried fruits of Rhus chinensisis given thrice daily for 3 consecutive days. Decoction of about 250 gm rhizome of Acorus calamus is given thrice daily for 4 consecutive days. RETENTION OF PLACENTA IN COW, BUFFALO AND GOATS

Ingredients: (i) leaves of Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxburgh ex Hornemann) Honda (Poaceae), (ii) leaves of Saccharum officinarum Linnaeus (Poaceae) and (iii) Zea mays Linnaeus (Poaceae) Local name: (i) Amloso (ii) Ukho (iii) Makai Method of treatment: Leaves of Thysanolaena latifolia or Saccharum officinarum are fed to the cow and buffalo after the delivery. However, grains or powder of grains of Zea mays are fed to goats.

Read the complete article from our website www.sikenvis.nic.in under Publications Journals and Scientific Paper sections

http://www.sikenvis.nic.in/


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State Pollution Control Board Sikkim has been continuously

monitoring the ambient air quality of the State through eight

monitoring stations installed at major town areas across the

State.

As per the findings of the ambient air quality monitoring, the Air

Quality Index (AQI) of towns along the National Highway NH-10

i.e Rangpo, Singtam and Gangtok have been recorded as

‘Satisfactory’ with minor breathing discomfort to sensitive

people as per the National AQI categorization with its associated

health impacts. The AQI status of other major towns such as

Ravangla, Namchi, Pelling, Chungthang and Mangan has been

recorded as ‘Good’ during the monitoring period January to June

2018.

Ambient Air Quality recorded Good to Satisfactory at major towns of Sikkim AQI status for 2018 (January –June)

SN Year Rangpo Singtam Gangtok Ravangla Namchi Pelling Chungthang Mangan

1.. Jan ’18 (25/01/18) 89 87 67 34 24 33 24 26

2. Feb ’18 (22/02/18) 92 100 56 27 23 33 26 39

3. Mar ’18 (27/03/18) 86 91 51 40 31 77 40 55

4. Apr ’18 (19/04/18) 52 34 50 29 33 30 35 26

5. Jun ’18 (21/06/18) 63 No data 89 21 23 15 No data No data

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Jan '18(25/01/18)

Feb ’18 (22/02/18)

Mar ’18 (27/03/18)

Apr ’18 (19/04/18)

Jun ’18 (21/06/18)

Last 5 Months AQI of Eight Stations at Sikkim Source: SPCB Sikkim

Rangpo

Singtam

Gangtok

Ravangla

Namchi

Pelling

Chungthang

Mangan

National AQI category and its associated health impacts

Good 0-50

Minimal Impact

Satisfactory 51-100

Minor breathing discomfort to sensitive people

Moderate 101-200

Breathing discomfort to the people with lung, health disease, children and older adults

Poor 201-300

Breathing discomfort to people on prolonged exposure

Very Poor 301-400

Respiratory illness to the people on prolonged exposure

Severe (>401)

Respiratory effects even on healthy people

The AQI of towns along the National Highway NH-10 i.e Rangpo, Singtam and Gangtok being ‘Satisfactory’ can be attributed to the

fact that these towns are subjected to heavy traffic movement resulting in higher suspended particulate matter PM10.. However,

PM10 has been recorded below the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS-24 hrs) of 100 µg/m3 at all stations. SO2 and

NO2 have been below 15 µg/m3 at all stations for which the NAAQS-24 hrs is 80 µg/m3 each.


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Sikkim falls in tropical climatic zone and has mixed temperate forest. However, being a part of the Eastern Himalaya, it has wide variation in the elevations from 230 m asl (foothill) to 8589 m asl (Mt. Khangchendzonga). Due to this, the State has different climatic conditions from humid tropical to temperate to alpine and the vegetation type changes with the climate and the altitude, regionally. The common type of forest in Sikkim includes tropical dry-deciduous forest (300 – 900 m), sub-tropical evergreen forest (900 – 1500 m), temperate broad-leaf (moist temperate, wet temperate and dry temperate, 1500 – 3000 m), sub-alpine (3000 – 3600 m) and alpine forests (3600 – 4500 m). Altitude above 4500 m remains under perpetual snow cover except the Trans-Himalaya zone or the cold desert where the summer wind blows away the snow and the snow cover is restricted to winter months. The total recorded forest area in Sikkim is 5841 sq. km (82.31 per cent of TGA) which is categorized into Reserve forest (93.34 per cent) and Protected forest (6.66 per cent; Khasmal and Gaucharan). The State has 47.13 per cent of its total geographical area under forest cover (32.33 per cent dense forest, 47.10 per cent moderately dense forest and 20.57 per cent open forest) and 30.77 per cent under Protected Area Network (PAN) which includes 01 National Park and 07 Sanctuaries. The State has 84 glaciers, 534 lakes and 104 rivers and streams; nevertheless, two major river systems i.e., Teesta and Rangit are the lifeline of the State. Sikkim is the most humid region in the whole Himalaya because of its proximity to the Bay of Bengal and direct exposure to southwest monsoon. Rainfall is heavy and well distributed during monsoon and it rains for almost 10 months from March to October; the peak monsoon period being June-July where the rainfall exceeds 5000 mm, in some pockets

Observations on the Impact of Different

Forest Types on Hydrology in Sikkim

Dr. Bharat Kumar Pradhan, Sikkim Biodiversity Board

while pre-monsoon rains are received during March - April; the State receives first shower during mid February. The intensity of rainfall during southwest monsoon decreases from south to north while the winter distribution of rainfall is in opposite order. Fog is the common feature in the entire state from May to September. In Sikkim, the melt water from the glacier, snowfall and precipitation are the main source of water but the forests being established on the steep slopes, most of the water drains out as surface runoff through streams and insignificant amount of water is infiltrated through joints, fractures, weathered zones of the rocks and soil covers. At the current scenario, the global climate change is posing threat to the existing water resource in the Himalaya including Sikkim and is a cause of concern because the world is going to face severe water crisis in terms of quantity and quality in the near future. Increasing temperature will have direct impact on the rainfall pattern and the existing forest because slight change in the rainfall will increase evapotranspiration rate which may deplete soil water reserve causing

severe water stress. Hence, understanding forest hydrology has become essential as changes in watershed hydrology can impact future forest productivity, stream flows, water availability and quality, agriculture and may alter the biodiversity of the region. Forest provides many ecosystem services such as erosion control, improved water quality, regulate ground water level, carbon sequestration, recreation, timber, fuel wood, other forest products, etc. Forest also acts as natural filters for the pollutants. Besides providing habitat for wildlife and supporting biodiversity, forest captures horizontal precipitation from fog and cloud and plays a significant role in maintaining the hydrological cycle and the ground water recharge as well as regulating downstream flow in the mountainous region. The forest types and stands, forest soil, and even forest topography greatly affect forest hydrology. Therefore, their management as well as degradation directly affects the watershed hydrology. Keeping this in view, it has become imperative to assess the catchment yield and ongoing changes in the forest hydrology and the changes that might occur in future to device appropriate watershed

Temperate broad leaved forest


9

management strategies to address the future water resource challenge. Of all the forest ecosystems, temperate eco-regions are very important because of its floristic richness and it covers highest area worldwide including Sikkim. More than that, the water availability downstream depends on the management of the temperate montane forest. Excess rain, fog and mist are the characteristic feature of the temperate montane forest; here precipitation exceeds evaporation resulting in high atmospheric moisture and low evapo-transpiration. High atmospheric moisture other than precipitation can be a direct input of water into forest hydrology. Further the dense forest canopy act as an obstacle thereby condensing the water droplets out of the fog or mist moving through the canopies. At the same time, it restricts the trapped moisture from escaping out of the forest area thereby increasing the moisture level in the forest. The abundant leaf litter on the forest floor results in high infiltration rate. These all lead to increase in soil moisture; the excess soil moisture infiltrates and percolates to the ground water table. The dense forest with multi-layered stand produces tangible results in increasing rainfall leading to low water use by the trees, high water yield and stable streamflow during extended period of low rainfall, but simultaneously increases the interception loss of the rain water. Nevertheless, the water that reaches the soil surface through stem fall and leaf drip either infiltrates completely or gets accumulated on the surface and flows down as surface runoff which further gets infiltrated during runoff. Infiltrated water is temporarily stored in soil which either evaporates or percolates and recharges the aquifer. The dense forest cover act as a moisture sink and the water absorbed by the soil is retained for longer period as surface evaporation is very low or almost nil under the dense forest cover. The leaf litter and the dense ground vegetation also help in preserving the soil moisture by obstructing the solar radiation from reaching the ground surface directly. In temperate region, the trees are clothed with dense mosses, ferns and epiphytes which act as sponge absorbing the water particles from the fog or mist, gaining

additional water. It has been found that in a region with frequent fog or mist, fog drip may increase the precipitation reaching the ground by amounts up to two or three times the precipitation in the open. In summer, the dense broad-leaved forest provides higher evaporative surface and transpire more water due to increase solar radiation and higher temperature whereas in winter, greater diffusion coefficient of water vapour in air leads to high transpiration. During such period, the moisture trapped in the soil, mosses, leaf litter, etc. replenishes the water requirement of the trees. Hence the water yield, streamflow and the baseflow is not much affected in temperate forest during summer and non-monsoon period. Therefore, slight disturbance in the temperate forest would adversely influence the regional climate consequently affecting rainfall patterns as well as streamflow and water availability downstream.

The humid tropical eco-regions are exposed to unprecedented development, industrialization, intensive agriculture and land use changes with contrasted environmental impacts leading to extensive deforestation and biodiversity loss. Restoration of those degraded landscape through massive afforestation has been considered to be the only solution. However, this was looked upon from the commercial point of view and emphases were given only to the tree species having commercial value for reforestation and other species were neglected. In other words, irregular forest with mixed species was converted into regular, even-aged forest of valuable species; during the process, the fact that every forest plantation cannot have positive effect was ignored. For example, earlier the foresters considered the plantation of only Teak and Sal, both being high valued timber species and are adapted to dry climate.

Consequently, pure dense stand of Teak and Sal covers vast area of lower hill forest in Sikkim as well as adjoining hills and plains of Darjeeling district in West Bengal. Such practice has resulted in considerable loss of biodiversity and dramatic alteration of the landscape as well as hydrological cycle leading to reduced downstream flow. Hydrological studies conducted during 1980s and 1990s have revealed that though upstream forest cover ensures water quality but do not regulate annual and seasonal water flow; moreover, forest ecosystem is in fact a major user of water. Therefore, forests are not the best land cover to increase downstream water yield especially in the lower montane forest. Teak being fast growing tree species has potential for high water demand; also, the high leaf area index of teak results in high evaporation and transpiration during summer and non-monsoon period causing decrease in soil moisture. Sal plantation also has similar negative impact on the hydrology of the lower hill forest because high temperature, seasonal rainfall and high water demand results in exploitation of soil moisture and ground water in the local area. Moreover, Sal requires more water than Teak for being semi-evergreen species with high transpiration rate. Studies have found that the dense broad-leaved forest canopy intercepts 10 - 20% of the rain water in an average and is evaporated back to the atmosphere and of the remaining 80 - 90% reaching the soil surface, high proportion is drained as surface runoff to the nearby river from the hill slope and meagre amount of rain water gets infiltrated which are used by the forest/trees and some percolates to ground water table. As an adaptation to the water stress condition, Teak sheds its leaf for almost five months in a year but the exposed soil, during leaf shed, evaporates high amount of soil moisture affecting the ground water table and causing reduction in streamflow and baseflow. Studies have shown that teak does not provide any hydrological services, rather it exacerbate the problem of erosion and soil degradation. Conversely, Sal does not shed its leaf fully but the older leaves are replaced with new ones at the onset of summer, hence transpiring the water

Sal forest


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continuously causing more water stress; in addition, Sal has deep root system enabling access to sub-soil water during extreme drought condition and is responsible for drying out of the soil. In extreme dry weather situation, Sal sheds its leaves for very short period i.e., 1 – 2 week in March. Under such condition, timber harvesting or thinning of the forest have been suggested in many of the studies for maintaining the hydrological cycle and regulating downstream flow for extended period of low rainfall and post monsoon. Also thinning would relax soil-water competition among trees by reducing interception evaporation and canopy transpiration. When rain falls, forest soil does not get wet uniformly. The soil beneath the dense canopy receives less rainfall causing the compaction of the soil while the direct throughfall in the open forest splashes the soil and increases its porosity and permeability thus enhancing the percolation of water. Timber harvest generally allows direct throughfall due to reduction in interception loss; it also reduces the loss of rain water through evapo-transpiration thus increasing the soil moisture and infiltration of water to the unsaturated zone, which in turn increases baseflow and net groundwater recharge, but the amount of recharge depends on the ability of the subsurface to store and transmit water. If the soil is too compact or too dry, it severely limits the infiltration capacity of the soil and increases the surface runoff and the rain water flows down through channel to the stream. The tropical forests in Sikkim are prone to fire incidence during dry period due to high temperature, low soil moisture, high wind velocity, etc., but it is not so intense and frequent. Moreover, the wild land fires in Sikkim are human induced in majority of cases. Intense wild fire has potential to drastically alter watershed hydrology; nevertheless, light wild land fire or prescribed / controlled burnings do not affect hydrology regime rather it is necessary to break seed dormancy in many of the tropical tree species. Indeed it affects the infiltration due to formation of water repellent layer at the soil surface and increases the surface runoff, soil erosion and water flow in the river during extreme

rainfall condition. The increased river flow accelerates the flow velocity and increase the impact of river flow on river banks such as landslides, landslips, flood risk, etc. The destruction of surface vegetation and leaf litter due to wild land fire can decrease the interception loss in one hand but can severely lower the water holding capacity of the soil on the other hand thereby increasing the surface runoff. Studies reveal that rainfall runoff increases by 40 percent post-wild land fire compared to less than 01 percent pre-wild land fire. All the changes caused by wild land fire such as runoff, soil erosion, drought erosion and shift of river can affect downstream water quality to some extent. Modern forestry is largely based on monoculture because it is concentrated on timber production but forest contributes more ecosystem services such as biological diversity, carbon storage, water retention, etc. A new study in Sweden shows that mixed forests have positive effects on several different areas including forest biomass production compared to monoculture plantation because different tree species contribute to different services and in order to attain more of such services, it is necessary to have mixed forest plantations. It has been argued that monoculture plantation exhaust soil water and nutrient resources in the tropics and subtropics and prevent understory growth, resulting in decreased biodiversity and in further soil erosion and loss of fertility. On the other hand, both natural forest and mixed stands have better hydrological function than monoculture plantations because in former case, there will be high canopy interception as a result of their more complex vertical structure and in latter, rain interception and stemflow is low resulting in large surface runoff and leaching loss of soil nutrients. Further, decomposition of leaf litter and nutrient cycling is higher in natural evergreen broad-leaved mixed forest compared to monoculture forest; higher decomposition rate means increase in soil porosity vis-à-vis increase capacity of soil to hold high moisture ultimately leading to increased baseflow and ground water recharge. In addition, with global change, monoculture plantations are vulnerable to biotic and abiotic

disturbances. For example, an outbreak of disease can wipe out the entire monoculture forest. Therefore, in order to avoid such situation, we need to adopt ecosystem approach and move to plantations that are diverse in genotypes, species and structure. A global pledge for protecting the existing forest and undertake afforestation in degraded landscape to create carbon sink has increased the global forest cover by ca. 5 million ha between 2000 to 2010. Studies in TreeDivNet experimental plantations suggest that the carbon sequestration rates of tree species that are rarely planted in forestry may be higher than for species that are traditionally planted for wood production. In a mountainous landscape, high surface runoff is a major problem associated with the high intensity rain and there have been no such dedicated effort undertaken to minimize it. In many countries forest plantations on bench terraces have been experimented but with not much positive impact on hydrological processes though there have been report of reduction in surface runoff and soil erosion to some extent. Bench terrace was found to be most effective in regions where rainfall is rare, brief and very intense, falling on dry slopes with low permeability. However, it may result in accumulation of water during intense rain; long term accumulation of which will aggravate the problems of landslides as well as decomposition of the root system of the trees. It is envisaged that the creation of bench terrace affects watershed hydrology by modifying the water flow path and increasing the over land flow and reducing water infiltration. For example, terrace cuts on steep mountain slopes results in formation of seepage face along the terrace cut. This causes the groundwater flow to be redirected, occurring as surface water rather than as shallow subsurface flow. Such an alteration can influence the timing and magnitude of peak flows because the surface water moving through channels typically reaches a stream more rapidly than subsurface water does. The interception of shallow groundwater may also reduce groundwater flow to down slope environments.


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Forestry practices affects the water cycle of the forests and changes in water cycle in forested areas affects water resources downstream. Numerous studies have reported changes in catchment runoff and various components of forest water cycle (e.g., transpiration, evaporation and interception) due to forestry practices. It is known that the dense plantation of trees could consume more water by evapotranspiration and reduce catchment runoff and water resources. Nevertheless, this is applicable only during winter rain or pre monsoon rain when the temperature is high and the rainfall is low. During monsoon, precipitation is generally higher than evapotranspiration; the rain water may not reach the surface directly as throughfall but as leafdrip, crown drip and stemflow which flows down as surface runoff. Some water infiltrates and percolates down to the shallow water table thus increasing the baseflow. Cryptomeria japonica is one such species which have been considered for afforestation in the past and today it covers wide forest area in several parts of Sikkim; nonetheless, its impact on hydrological cycle is yet to be understood. Studies reveal that C. japonica has large water vapour diffusion conductance and large hydraulic resistance. This means that the species has a tendency to consume large amounts of water but has low ability to transport water from the soil. To overcome this, the species is seen growing in moist shady areas with abundant precipitation, generally higher than the evapotranspiration. C. japonica has the tendency to enhance the soil moisture and recharge the ground water table as the dense canopy act as a moisture sink and the condensed water from the fog or mist reaches the surface as leaf drip or crown drip. However, the case is different; it is observed that understory vegetation and associated tree species are completely absent in Cryptomeria plantation forest due to its allelopathic effect, as it releases toxins which inhibit the growth of other vegetation. As a result, the soil gets directly exposed to the high surface runoff during rainfall and condensed water from fog or mist which washes away the soil humus and water soluble

basic element (Ca, Mg, K, etc.), thus resulting in acidic soil. The underground leaching of acid from the soil directly affects the water quality; it will also have negative impact on the biodiversity of the area as the acidic soil will promote the growth of acidophobic plant species thereby replacing the indigenous species. Further, continuous surface runoff and moisture on the exposed surface makes the soil compact and the chance of water infiltration in such compact soil is very low. The compact soil increases the surface runoff which in turn increases the landslide probability downstream. In a mountainous region of Sikkim, natural or human induced landslide is most common type of disturbances that is causing huge damages to the existing forests. A report of Forest Survey of India 2017 reveals that the total forest cover in Sikkim has decreased by 9.0 km2 as compared to 2015. Those degraded landscapes have paved a way for Himalayan alder Alnus nepalensis which now can be seen growing extensively as monoculture stand all along the river valleys and road sides from sub-tropical to the sub-alpine coniferous forest in Sikkim. Worldwide experience indicates that Alnus sp. supply nitrogen in the ecosystem but its contribution towards hydrology needs explorations. Basically, Alnus species grow in wet conditions on well-drained soil; however, some species are adapted to water logging and species like Alnus nepalensis are drought tolerant but the roots should have access to ground water table. Studies have disclosed that the leaves of Alnus have no mechanism for controlling transpiration due to which they have high transpiration rate.

For example, in Germany, the evapotranspiration rate in black alder (Alnus glutinosa) was found to be equal to total annual rainfall. In general, the water use by Alnus is much higher; nevertheless, the water loss through evapotranspiration and soil moisture is balanced because it commonly grows in area with abundant water or high precipitation. Alnus nepalensis has a tremendous capacity to improve the harsh environment of landslide damaged landscapes because of its high nitrogen fixation and nutrient cycling capacity. It appears as the foundation species and colonizes the whole landslide affected mountainscape in a short span of time. The dense growth of Alnus nepalensis intercepts the direct throughfall and minimizes its widespread flow on the newly exposed soil thereby controlling the surface runoff and soil erosion during intensive rain. At the same time, the deep root system of Alnus nepalensis encourages the recharge of aquifer during monsoon which will sustain the dry season flow. Once the Alnus nepalensis matures, they can be replaced with the indigenous tree species in phases, which help in landscape recovery to its original state vis-à-vis restoring the local hydrological functioning of the degraded sites. On the other hand, Alnus nepalensis growing along the stream bank, rivers and in areas with excess soil moisture should be kept undisturbed as the high evapotranspiration rate in A. nepalensis removes the excess soil moisture to the atmosphere; it also binds the soil and prevent the landscape from further degradation, removal of Alnus trees from such areas can further degrade the landscape.

Alder Forest (Elevation: 1500-2300m)

Forest is predominantly comprised of Alnus nepalensis


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Sikkim State ENVIS Hub On Status of Environment publishes newsletter on quarterly basis with the support from the Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change, Government of India. A special edition “PANDA Newsletter” is published at every fourth quarter with the extended support from the Forests, Environment & Wildli fe Management Department, Government of Sikkim. This newsletter is aimed at disseminating environment, forest and wildl ife information among the environment enthusiasts, students and public at large. Please send your valuable suggestions, comments and queries to; SIKKIM STATE ENVIS HUB On Status of Environment & its Related Issues Forest Secretariat, Block - B, Room No – B101, Ground Floor Forests, Environment & Wildlife Management Department, Government of Sikkim, Deorali -737102, Gangtok Email us at: [email protected] Visit us at: www.sikenvis.nic.in Tel (O) : 03592-280381 Fax: 03592-281778, 280381

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Likewise forest ecosystem, forest blanks such as grasslands and shrublands too play an important role in maintaining the hydrological cycle. For example, the grassland act as sponge holding large amount of water during rainfall and releasing this water slowly over time maintaining the baseflow. Similarly, the dense surface cover and low canopy of shrubs / herbs decreases the surface runoff during rainfall and enhances the rainwater percolation to ground water table. Both grassland and shrubland has high organic content which maintains soil health such as low bulk density and porosity thus increasing the water holding capacity of the soils ultimately resulting in recharge of the aquifers. At the same time, the net water use in grassland and shrubland is low due to low transpiration rate; also the low surface evaporation as well as the absence of species with deep penetrating roots helps retain the soil moisture for longer period consequently leading to continuous baseflow during dry period. Forest plantations in grassland and shrubland would result in extraction of more water from the soil as the trees have deep root system. Further, the rough canopy of tree increases evaporation loss by increasing the air circulation, ultimately affecting the water availability in the area and downstream flow. The different green initiatives like ban on grazing, ban on green felling of trees, extensive annual afforestation programmes, Smritivan, State Green Mission, Ten Minutes to Earth, Paryavaran Mahotsav etc. has increased the forest and tree cover in Sikkim by about 4% in last two decades. The impact of invasive species on ecosystem has attracted worldwide

attention. Invasive plant species have been shown to alter hydrological cycles by changing evapotranspiration rates and timing, runoff, and water table levels and changes to water cycle may affect both water supply and regulation. Studies on the hydrological impact of invasion indicate that changes in vegetation structure and seasonality can have significant impact on water resources both at habitat and landscape level. Invasion can also have significant impacts where the invaded habitat has more water available within the rooting depth than adjacent areas. It is now well recognized that invasive alien species, particularly tree species, often have much increased water usage compared with native vegetation and impacts are greatest when the invaders differ from natives in traits such as transpiration rate, leaf area index, photosynthetic tissue biomass, rooting depth, and phenology. In Sikkim, numerous exotic tree species like Paulownia sp., Eucalyptus sp., etc. have been introduced in the past whose impact on the local biodiversity is well recognized but their impact on local hydrology needs to be studied; both the species are fast growing species and fast growing tree species have high water demand. Similarly, the widespread invasion of species like Lantana camara, Mikania micrantha, Gleichenia gigantean, Osbeckia stellata, Osbeckia nepalensis, Artemesia vulgaris, etc. into the forest areas needs attention. Species like Cestrum elegans, Cestrum aurantiacum, etc., introduced as garden plants, are now slowly escaping into the wild. The impact of shrub species may not be as much like tree species; nevertheless, whatever may be the intensity of impact, it cannot be neglected from the conservation as well as hydrology point of view.

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