Infrastructure Delivery and Crime Prevention in Nigerian Cities

By Olufemi Adedamola Oyedele, ND Building Tech., BSc. EstateManagement, MSc. Housing, MSc. International Project Management,ANIVS, RSV.

Abstract

Infrastructure is the basic physical and organisational structureneeded for the operation of a society like security measures,electricity, telecommunication, industries, buildings, roads,bridges, health services, governance and so on. It includes allstructures, natural or man-made, hard or soft, goods andservices, necessary for the success of a system. The NigeriaPolice Force, Nigerian Security and Civil Defense Corps (NSCDC)and the private security organisations are all infrastructuresfor crime prevention. Organised crime has been on the increase inrecent years and this is affecting the country in a number ofways. Terrorism and kidnapping are crimes plaguing the countryand affecting direct foreign investment and tourism. Federalgovernment cannot combat this menace because of its nature andcost. The high unemployment rate and the level of corruption maybe contributing to the high level of crime in the country. Thispaper will adopt the meta-data approach to highlight the roles ofinfrastructure delivery in crime prevention in Nigerian cities.

Key words: Cities, Crime detection mechanisms, Infrastructure,Risk management, Security infrastructure.

Introduction

Crime is the breaking of established rules, orders or laws forwhich some governing authorities, through mechanisms such aslegal systems, can ultimately prescribe a conviction or penalty.

Crime is an inhibitor to peaceful co-habitation of man in hisenvironment. It gives a negative image of a country where it isbeing perpetrated at unbearable level. “The American governmentlamented the worsening crime rate in coastal areas and the freemovement of Islamic extremists between Mali and Nigeria. The USambassador to Nigeria, Terence McCulley, and his Consul-General,Mr. Jeffrey Hawkins, spoke at different fora. The US ambassadorsaid Islamic extremists have continued to move freely betweenNigeria and northern Mali, despite the ongoing French militaryoperation there against them” (Vanguard Newspaper, 2013).

Security is not the work of the security officers alone. It isthe work of everybody especially town planners and citydevelopers who must not only plan for adequate infrastructuresbut ensure that the plans are adhered to. Peak and Glensor(1996), stated that “the variety of police agencies in the UnitedStates has been criticized as being inefficient and chaotic. Somepeople have decried the lack of standards in policing, oftenpointing to the worst actions of the police”. Provision ofadequate lighting in the community, especially isolated areas,alley and streets, provision of Close Circuit Television (CCTV),provision of traffic separators like balustrades along walkways,traffic wardens, zebra crossing, overhead bridges and tunnels,pedestrian bridges, traffic lights etc, will serve as preventivemeasures for urban crime.

Infrastructures are the goods, facilities and services necessaryfor the smooth operation of a state. It is the enterprise or theproducts, services and facilities necessary for an economy tofunction (Sulivan and Sheffrin, 2003). The word infrastructurehas been used in English since at least 1927 according to OnlineEtymology Dictionary (2012), originally meaning "theinstallations that form the basis for any operation or system".Infrastructure in developing countries connotes roads andtransport infrastructures. The advent of telecommunication

infrastructure in Nigeria in 2001 brought infrastructure to thefront seat as the products and services necessary for theperformance of an entity.

Infrastructure provision can help to generate activities thathelp to reduce crime. Ball (1981), stated that “almost 24,000workers were employed for one full year for each billion dollarsspent in 1980 for new construction such as buildings, houses, andhighways. More than half of the jobs were created in industriesthat produce, sell, and deliver materials and equipment requiredfor construction, such as the manufacturing, trade,transportation, and mining industries” The Nigeria Police Force(NPF), the Nigerian Security and Civil Defense Corps (NSCDC) andthe private security organisations are all part of the securitysystem to curb crime. Other infrastructures that form thesecurity system includes laws and orders, security gadgets likeclose circuit television (CCTV), effective lightning, effectiveland administration and management including urban and regionalplanning, parks and leisure grounds etc.

This paper aims to identify infrastructure delivery as a means ofcrime prevention. The objectives are: (a) To identify theorigin, types and modes of security challenges in the country,(b) To appraise impediments to safety such as developmentpatterns, infrastructural provisions, mapping information etc,(c) To compare global best practices in security management, (d)

To improve the skills and competences of practitioners inthe built environment in designing human environments withminimal security challenges, (e) To recommend appropriatepolicies, physical planning and urban design strategies tominimize criminality and security challenges in the country torelevant stakeholders for consideration and implementation.

Infrastructure and Crime in the Third World cities

Third world as a term arose during the Cold war to definecountries that were non-aligned with either NATO (representingUnited States of America, Western European nations and theirallies forming the first world) or the Communist bloc(representing Soviet Union, China, Cuba and their allies formingthe second world). Today, Third World is succinctly used to meanunderdeveloped states. Underdeveloped states are states whichlack basic infrastructures and where poverty rates are very high.

“Cities are amalgams of buildings and people. They are inhabitedsettings from which daily rituals – the mundane and the extra-ordinary, the random and the staged – derive their validity. Inthe urban artifact and its mutations are condensed continuitiesof time and place. The city is the ultimate memorial of ourstruggles and glories. It is where the pride of the past is seton display” (Kostof, 2009). Cities are multi-cultural centrewhere different people interact and live together. The culturaldiversity adds colour to city while at the same time poses asbehavioral challenges as one group way of life may negativelyinfluence the other.

After the civil war of 1970, armed robbery was the order of theday. This was due to high number of unemployed people roaming thestreets. The government was not prepared for aftermath of thewar. In the early 80’s and early 90’s, drug-pushing was thecommon crime in Nigeria. Illegal migration and human traffickingwas also common. In the early 2000, the case off local militantsespecially in rebelling in the Niger Delta was reported. Thiswidespread protest was changed into oil theft and kidnapping in2003. Today, apart from terrorism of Boko Haram, a groupadvocating for adoption of Islam as a national religion,kidnapping for ransom is also rampant.

Infrastructure delivery is synonymous to crime control.Researches show that crime rate is directly related to the levelof infrastructure in an area. Fitzgerald (2009), said thatincreases in crime rates due to massive slaughterhouse complex inChicago “have been theorized as being linked to the demographiccharacteristics of the workers, social disorganization in thecommunities, and increased unemployment rates”. Shehu (2013) saidthat “rate of reported crime incidences, instances and episodesin Kano State from 1999 to April 2003, vide the police periodiccrime review bulletin clearly indicates that crime, particularlyarmed robbery, houses and shops breaking, willful murder, suicideand homicide cases, breach of trust, etc. were rising at alarmingand geometrically rate and speed.  Although the various policebulletins did not attribute facts that could be said to beresponsible for the scourge.  But that does not make it difficultfor one to comprehend.

Osa-Okunbor (2013), said that “there are many benefits in havinghangars in a country. Besides reducing the cost of aircraft,maintenance, they create jobs. In Ethiopia, the BoeingMaintenance Hangar has created thousands of jobs”. These jobswill definitely increase the income of the people and reducecrime rate. The United Nations Organisation (UNO) hasrecommended that maximum of 30 per cent of income should beexpended on housing. In Nigeria, accommodation expenses may be ashigh as 70% of income. This may give room for fraud and self-help.

“These crime rate increases (from 1999 to April 2003) were notcoincidental but happened to be incidental, identified andassociated with the then Kwankwaso regime which deployed andadopted pedestrian and vigilante approach to security matters. An approach with inputs from hunters’ syndrome, a syndrome oftenand many times left to chances, assumptions and wishfulthinking.  With political thuggery promoted, protected and

handsomely rewarded by the government (1999-April 2003), one doesnot need further explanation as to what accounts for the increasein murder, arson and other assorted crime instances”. Thepolitical thugs are as a result of unemployment and lack ofrecreational centres to relax. Idle hand is the devil’s workshop.Most of these thugs are products of slums.

Slums are unplanned communities which lack basic infrastructuresand are eyesores in the community. According to the “StrainTheory”, slum contributes to increase crime rate. There are fourtheories that are commonly classified as “strain theories.” Thesetheories include Anomie Theory (Merton, 1938), InstitutionalAnomie Theory (Messner and Rosenfeld, 1994), General StrainTheory (Agnew, 1985 and 1992), and Relative Deprivation Theory(Crosby, 1976; Davis, 1959; Gurr, 1970; Runciman, 1966). Eachtheory argues that strain creates pressures and incentives toengage in criminal coping as a response to the strainexperienced, though each differs with respect to what constitutesthe most important sources of strain.

Robert Merton published his “Social Structure and Anomie” in1938. In this article, Merton set forth a theoretical frameworkfor explaining crime rates that differed from the Chicago Schoolcriminologists. For example, theorists such as Shaw and McKay(1942) held that urban slum areas foster criminal behaviourthrough the generational transmission of deviant cultural value.Thus, social disorganization theory assumes that the rejection ofconventional middle-class values results in high rates of crimein urban slum communities.

In Messner and Rosenfeld’s (1994) Crime and the American Dream,Merton’s anomie/strain theory was extended and partiallyreformulated. Although Messner and Rosenfeld agreed with Merton’sview of American culture, they found his analysis of socialstructure incomplete. In particular, Merton held that theAmerican system of stratification was responsible for restricting

individuals’ access to legitimate opportunities for upward socio-economic mobility, which in turn resulted in high levels ofcriminogenic anomie in society. What was missing from the anomietradition, argued Messner and Rosenfeld (1994), was anunderstanding of how the American dream promotes and sustains aninstitutional structure in which one institution, the economy,assumes dominance over all others. This apparent “imbalance” inthe institutional structure limits the ability of other socialinstitutions, such as the family, education, and/or the politicalsystem, to insulate members of society from the criminogenicpressures of the American dream or to impose controls over theirbehaviour.

Agnew’s (1985 and 1992) General Strain Theory posits that strainleads to negative emotions, which may lead to a number ofoutcomes, including delinquency. The specific strains discussedin the theory include the failure to achieve positively valuedgoals (e.g., money or status), the removal of positively valuedstimuli (e.g., loss of a valued possession), and the presentationof negatively valued stimuli (e.g., physical abuse, human rightsabuse). While many specific types of strain may fall into thesecategories, Agnew has attempted to specify the conditions underwhich strain may lead to crime. Strains that are 1) seen asunjust, 2) high in magnitude 3) associated with low socialcontrol, and 4) create some incentive to engage in criminalcoping are most likely to lead to violence and delinquency.

Relative deprivation refers broadly to people’s perceptions oftheir well-being relative to others. Well-being may be estimatedbased on a number of dimensions, including wealth, income, powerand prestige. “Relative deprivation is also used to refer to theemotion one feels when making negatively discrepant comparisons”(Crosby, 1976: 88). Relative deprivation theories argue that whenattempting to understand the causes of crime, it is insufficientto examine objective factors such as poverty or inequality, and

instead we must try to “delineate the factors that regulate therelationship between objective and subjective status” (Crosby,1976: 88). According to relative deprivation theory, objectiveconditions may have little relationship to people’s behaviour,since their perceptions of these conditions may be at odds withthe actuality. The research of Agnew et al. (1996) suggests that“dissatisfaction or strain may occur at all class levels, and[this] may help to explain the weak effect of stratificationmeasures on crime. Although one’s ‘objective’ position in thestratification system is important, one’s subjectiveinterpretation of that position may be even more important”. Theconcept of relative deprivation directly measures people’ssubjective assessment of their economic position or otherdimension of social comparison.

Infrastructure development is one of the bases of evaluating theachievements of democratic leaders and it is the foundation ofgood democratic governance. Agitation for infrastructuraldevelopment in Third World countries like Nigeria is higher indemocratic government than in military dictatorship or comparedto developed countries. This is because the resources forprovision of infrastructure are always scarce. Ethnic-interestagitation and lobbying are common things in democratic governancein developing countries. This is why the Office of GovernmentCommerce (OGC) in United Kingdom, advised that infrastructureproject initiation should be done by an office specificallyestablished to do this job. (P3O, 2008).

The Infrastructural report of Nigeria just like any third worldcountry is nothing to write home about. The housing situation isin a sorry state both quantitatively and qualitatively (Agbola,1998; Ajanlekoko, 2001; Nubi, 2000; Onibokun and Kumuyi, 1996 andOyedele, 2012). Most infrastructures are now decayed and/ordisservice and need repair, refurbishment, rehabilitation orreplacement. Government is the system that plans, organizes,

controls and supervises the people who are resident in an area inother for all to have conducive-environment for living and asense of belonging to the society. Governments have the power toput in place all measures that they deem fit will make anenvironment comfortable for the living of everybody.

Infrastructure development in democratic governance is morechallenging because of the accessibility of people to governmentand involves identifying the right project, carrying outfeasibility and viability studies and embarking on physicaldevelopment of the project. The challenges are numerous andinclude finance, technology for development, maintenance anddesign. The challenges also include quality requirements ofprojects to meet international standard and to be sustainablydeveloped. Projects must meet the carbon emission standard set byinternational organizations like International StandardOrganisation. Air is captured and analyses are done incommunities to ensure that they emit as little greenhouse gases(GHGs) as possible. Human settlements must be bio-diversifiedwith co-habitation of other animals and plants and naturalenvironment must be conserved for sustainable development and soon.

Tradesmen and other technical human resources needed forinfrastructural development are scarce because of lack oftraining and motivation. “As a result many professional people,tradesmen and senior managers are migrating to other countries”(Robbins et al, 2009). Because of fast money, most youths thatsuppose to learn a trade are now commercial bicycle riders.

The numerous challenges have not been tackled as they should.Nigeria's lack of basic infrastructure to facilitate sustainabledevelopment and trade – both regionally and globally – and toensure competitiveness is already known by all. In particular,for the large number of local governments, especially the rural

ones, the dwellers produce have no access to markets and are notstored, hampered by weak transport and energy infrastructure.

The physical development pattern in which communities areevolving unplanned at the suburb of cities is detrimental tosecurity management as these communities act as hide-outs forcriminals and centres of criminal activities. Along Lagos-Ibadanexpressway, communities are developing unplanned and withoutadequate infrastructure especially public schools, health centresand police stations, that may lead to slums and abode ofcriminals.

The Benefits of Infrastructures in National Development

The African Development Bank (ADB) has made infrastructuredevelopment a cornerstone in its development agenda with regionalmember countries (TMSA, 2012). The Bank recognizes that lack ofadequate social and economic infrastructure is one of the keyconstraints to short- and medium term poverty reduction inAfrica, and has thus been a major force in private and publicsector infrastructure development through the provision offinancial and technical resources. At the same time, the Bankrecognises the increasing importance of governance forinfrastructure development and has made good governance animperative in its lending and non-lending operations.

There have been considerable changes in the delivery of nationalinfrastructure services across Africa. While Nigeria has improvedits telecommunication infrastructural situation, it has notimproved in other areas like security, health, education, airportinfrastructures, electricity, housing and transportation.However, performance in terms of infrastructure service deliveryand quality continue to vary across countries. Infrastructure is

the medium of production of goods and services and forms thenational asset of any nation.

According to Kathmandu Final Workshop Report (2009),infrastructure can help solve four problems: social; health andenvironment; development; and, economics. A region'sinfrastructure network, broadly speaking, is the very socio-economic climate created by the institutions that serve asconduits of trade and investment. Some of these institutions arepublic, others private. In either case, their roles in thecontext of integration are transformative, helping to changeresources into outputs or to enhance trade by removing barriers.Therefore, an improvement in regional infrastructure is one ofthe key factors affecting the long-term economic growth of aregion.

The linkages between infrastructure delivery and crime preventionare multiple and complex. Not only does infrastructure provisionaffect production and consumption directly, it also creates manydirect and indirect externalities like improving standard ofliving and the temptation to engage in crime. It also involveslarge flows of expenditure, thereby creating additionalemployment. Studies have shown that infrastructure can have asignificant impact on output, income, employment, internationaltrade, reduction in crime rate and quality of life.Infrastructure development can reduce stress and promote goodhealth. Provision of electricity in Inverness in 1987 reduces thecrime rate by more than half.

Infrastructure has always played a key role in integratingeconomies within a region. Well developed and efficientinfrastructure is essential for a region's economic developmentand growth. In a dynamic concept, infrastructure is seen as aregional public good that moves factors of production within andacross countries, thus helping the region attain higherproductivity and growth. According to Frischmann (2007),

“infrastructure resources generate value as inputs into a widerange of productive processes and that the outputs from theseprocesses are often public goods and nonmarket goods thatgenerate positive externalities that benefit society as a whole.”

Gill and Hemming (2004), said “two important measures of theimportance of CCTV system are the degree to which CCTV operatorsare effective at detecting and reporting incidents to the police,and the proportion of those reports that result in a policeattendance and appropriate action taken”. The table belowemphasis the importance of CCTV in detecting crime and crimerelated activities in London Borough of Lewisham between 2003 and2004.

Table 1: Number of incidents by types of incidents

Type of Incident Number Percentage

Nuisance behavior and causingdisturbance

155 16.0%

Road traffic accidents 140 14.4%

Fighting 137 14.1%

Shoplifting 68 7.0%

Injured or ill person 60 6.2%

Assault 53 5.5%

Drunk and disorderly 52 5.4%

Robbery 46 4.7%

Fly-tipping 41 4.2%

Alarm activation 41 4.2%

Possession of an offensive weapon 29 3.0%

Suspicious behavior 28 2.9%

Fraudulent credit cards or cheques 20 2.1%

Criminal damage 18 1.9%

Missing persons 18 1.9%

Drug offences 13 1.3%

Drink driving 9 0.9%

Stolen car 9 0.9%

Harassment 7 0.7%

Snatch and dip offences 7 0.7%

Fly-posting 6 0.6%

Threatening behavior 6 0.6%

Potential suicide 4 0.4%

Abduction 2 0.2%

Racial incidents 1 0.1%

Murder 1 0.1%

Total 971 100.00%

Source: Gill and Hemmings (2004), pp.20 and 21.

The Challenges of Infrastructure Delivery in Nigeria

The challenges of infrastructure delivery in Nigeria include:

- Finance: The fund for infrastructure delivery is meager and thebudget not executed on time. This is why plan by the federalgovernment to provide 75 per cent of Nigeria’s population with

potable water by 2015 may not be realised (The Guardian, 2012).Federal Road Maintenance Agency (FERMA) cannot achieve itsmission statement “to efficiently administer road maintenancewith the objective of keeping all federal roads in good, safe andcomfortable condition for the best value in road transport”because of lack of adequate finance and corruption. To ensurecontinuous availability of fund, the Lagos State Government hasforwarded a bill to establish Infrastructure Asset ManagementAgency.

- Lack of Maintenance Culture: Maintenance culture is lacked indeveloping countries including Nigeria. Infrastructuralfacilities are left to decay after completion. It is shockingthat we spend huge sums of money building and developinginfrastructures in Nigeria only for us to look back after fewyears and find out that such beautiful infrastructures aredecayed due to lack of maintenance. Our lack of maintenance is acase study and second to none. The National Stadiums in Lagos andAbuja; National Theatre, Murtala Muhammed International Airport,all in Lagos; are examples of infrastructures that have gone baddue to lack of maintenance.

- High demand and Low supply: Due to poor performances of mostpast leaders in the area of infrastructure delivery, the demandfor infrastructural facilities overwhelms the provision. With aland mass of 9,110,000 square kilometers of land and over 160,000million people, Nigeria has a total road network of 193,200kilometres. This comprise of 34,123KM federal roads, 30,500KMstate roads and 129,577 kilometres government roads.Unfortunately, over 70% of the federal roads are in bad state ofrepair due to intensive usage especially by heavy duty vehicles.South Africa’s total road network is about 754,000 kilometreswith a total land mass of 1,219,090 square kilometres. In thearea of housing, Nigeria requires about 17 million housing units

and 60 trillion naira in order to meet its housing needs as at2011 (Pepple, 2011).

- PARETO Analysis: Pareto analysis is a statistical method indecision making that is used for identification of a specificnumber of tasks that produce major impact. It uses the ParetoPrinciple (which is also called the 80/20 rule). It originatedthe idea that by doing specific 20% of the work, you can generate80% of the benefits of doing the whole job. In terms of qualityimprovement, a large majority of defects (80%) are produced by afew key causes (20%). This is also known as the vital few and thetrivial many. In infrastructural delivery, 80% of inefficienciesare caused by 20% of defects etc. It can also mean that 80% ofthe defects are caused by 20% of the users.

- Development Matrix: Infrastructure developers are notappreciative of the four factors of infrastructural facilitiesdevelopment which are: design, finance, technology andmanagement. The appropriate designs that will ensure easymaintenance are equally important as the technology and finance.For example, conduit system is now being eradicated because ofmaintenance problems. In case of electric spark, the conduit pipewill be difficult to remove because the structure is monolithic.Now concealed surface wiring is being adopted.

- Capital Flight, Capital Sink and Capital Stagnancy:Infrastructure delivery in Nigeria suffers from capital flight,capital sink and capital stagnancy. A lot of materials andmanagerial services are procured outside the country forinfrastructure development and maintenance. The contracts areusually full of loop-holes that allow leakages of funds. In somecases, there is over-design for the designers to earn moreprofessional fees which are percentage of the contract sum.Capital stagnancy due to abandoned projects is also rampant.

- Project Management: Project management approach in projectdelivery evolved in the late fifties in the United States ofAmerica (USA) when it was first used by the American Army formilitary projects execution. The success recorded through projectmanagement approach in the Defense sector led to itsestablishment as a reliable method of project delivery in othersectors like construction, manufacturing, health, informationtechnology (IT), media, pharmaceutical, education andentertainment (Oyedele, 2012). The approach was introduced intoUnited Kingdom (UK) in the early sixties. Countries like HongKong, Malaysia, Canada and Ireland have adopted this approach,but it is still unpopular in developing countries, especially inNigeria. Project management approach will surely improve ourmaintenance system.

- Procurement Method: The procurement methods being adopted formaintenance are prone to criticisms. The Public FinanceInitiatives, especially the Concession Method and Public/PrivatePartnership (PPP) are questionable and seems to mortgage thefuture of others who are not part of the arrangement of thescheme. The 105-kilometre Lagos-Ibadan Expressway which, underthe PPP scheme, the federal government did concession to Bi-Courtney Consortium in 2009 for N89.53 billion for 25 years isnot the best arrangement possible and did not change thesituation of the road.

- Corruption: Corruption is clog in the wheel of progress inNigeria and has eaten deep into the system. The corruption inNigeria is very high and unbearable for effective infrastructuraldelivery. The Bureau of Public Procurement (BPP), the IndependentCorrupt Practices Commission (ICPC) and Economic and FinancialCrimes Commission (EFCC) have not been able to eradicatecorruption in the country. In Nigeria, “corruption permeatesfacet of life” (Wall, 2013).

Conclusion

Infrastructure delivery is a necessary tool for combating crimein any country and a good tool for engaging people in meaningfuldevelopment. The introduction of closes in residential areasagainst open streets in access planning is a means of introducingprivacy and curbing crime in residential areas. Access roadconstruction which makes it easy for the police to access allparts of a community will also help in combating crime asresponse rate of the police will be higher. Artworks and statuteswithin open spaces and sculptures and art works in publicbuildings have been found to reduce stress among the inhabitants.

Provision of CCTV system will closely monitor the cities andengage a lot of people in meaningful jobs. This will also reducethe crime rate especially in terrorism and kidnapping. Theprovision of train in all parts of the country and highwaypatrols by the police force will surely reduce highway robbery.The high rate of unemployment, especially among the youths, iscreating affinity for crime like shoplifting, cyber-crime,prostitution, drug, fraud etc. Provision of playing ground andsports arena will help in reducing idleness. The federalgovernment can also create social security scheme for the youths.

The commute time of motorists in most Nigerian cities isunacceptable. For example in Lagos State, travelling from Igandoin Alimosho Local Government to Victoria Island during weekdaysis a big stress. Parks and open spaces can be introduced toreduce density. Security personnel should be increased especiallyfor the security of the oil pipe across the country. High-risesare being demolished in developed countries to give way to low-rise buildings because they have high rate of crime occurrence.The introduction of adequate road furniture will help to reducetraffic offences.

Through urban renewal, governments should try to eradicate slumsand shanties in our societies. The dwellers of slums and shantiesusually do not have sense of belonging to the community andresult to crime and avarices. Most crimes are committed in cities

because of the complexity of cities including cultural diversity.The government should try and move some city dwellers to therural areas through regiomal growth scheme like the provision offarm settlement and infrastructure like electricity in the ruralareas.

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