In Danico Dicitur: Glossing in Danish Manuscripts

IN DÁNICO DICITUR Glossing in Danish Manuscripts

Jonathan Adams The Society for Danish Language and Literature

There are hundreds of extant Danish manuscripts from the

Middle Ages housed largely in libraries and archives in Denmark but also, among other places, in Sweden, Germany, Norway, France, the Czech Republic, the Vatican City, Austria, and the UK.1 Casualties of abandonment and destruction (intended or otherwise) during and after the Middle Ages and victims of their unfortunate fate during the Reformation as well as of fire (particularly that in Copenhagen in 1728), of scurrilous book dealers and collectors, and of poor conservation, they represent only a small fraction of the total number of works that were produced. The manuscripts cover a wide range of subject matter, both secular and religious, and contain original and translated works of which the vast majority are written in Latin, the oldest being the so- called Dalby Book (NkS 1325 40), a gospel manuscript from the second half of the eleventh century. The oldest Danish-language manuscript is part of the Law of Jutland (Jyske lov) in Cod. Holm. B 74 dating from c. 1250. Less decorative and finely produced than some of their European counterparts, Danish manuscripts -while not untouched by their users through the centuries- have nowhere near the same level of later additions, comments, scribbling, and other marginalia found, for example, in the Icelandic corpus.2 The extant later additions and marginalia in medieval Danish manuscripts are of several different types: nib trials, textual commentaries, marginal and interlinear glosses, doodles, and so on (see fig. 1). A common feature is that they have received little prior scholarly attention.

1. For an overview of Danish manuscripts, see Nielsen, Danmarks middelalderlige Heumd- skrifter, and Frederiksen, "Medieval Books in Danish." 2. On marginalia in Icelandic manuscripts, see Driscoll.

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Figure i. A typical nib trial, Holm. K 48, roi. ov, domine dominus noster ; there is no apparent connection between this marginal addition and the main text which is a fragment of a miracle legend.

This article examines a single type of textual commentary in Danish manuscripts, the gloss, which can appear either as a later addition or as an integrated part of the main text. Glosses are found in several forms and an attempt is made below toward a typology and means of describing the different kinds of glosses found in the Danish corpus. Other gloss-like additions are also described and placed into a glossing context. The discussion subsequently turns to the Danish context glosses found in medieval Latin charters where the value of glossographic investigations is demonstrated, both as an indication of the assimilation of Latin culture and also in terms of Danish language history and the development of lexicon.

Definition and Typology

Glossing is the explication of an unintelligible word or passage through the use of a "gloss,55 that is, a short translation or another form of explanation of the word for the reader's benefit. Glosses are often synonyms and as such tautological words or phrases. However, this is not always the case. The gloss can also be a so-called hyponym, a clearer or more precise term than the word in the main text; it can also be a long explanation or a cross-reference. Glosses are usually in the vernacular and explain a Latin text. Not all scribes and readers were able to understand Latin with equal ease and so glosses were written on the page as an aid to reading and understanding the text. It is nonetheless


Glossing in Danish Manuscripts 119

also possible to find vernacular glosses explaining vernacular words, and Latin glosses explaining other Latin words that may be unfamiliar to the reader. In theory, synonyms and comments can even appear in both languages (Latin and Dáaish), or even three (although I have yet to come across such an example in the Danish material).3 It is, of course, possible that glosses were regarded as a general teaching aid rather than an individual reader's crib, in which case they would be provided by the scribe to teach other manuscript users the meaning of the difficult word and assist them in their reading. Not all glosses are later additions; some are found embedded in the main text where the scribe has included an explanatory or clarifying word that is often flagged by a marker (for example: "this is x in the vernacular called jy," where "x" is the glossed word, "/' is the gloss, and "in the vernacular called" is the gloss marker).

A model for categorizing types of gloss needs to be based on the language of the text and the language of the gloss, the position of the gloss, and the hand in which it is written. The text (T) itself can be written in Latin (L) or the vernacular (Vi), with the gloss (G) in Latin or another vernacular language (V2). In a few cases, a gloss is not written in an actual language but rather as some other sort of non-verbal sign (N), such as an illustration, map, or symbol.4 The gloss can be written between the lines (interlinear gloss, i), in the margin (marginal, m), or in the text itself (in context, c), and it can be written by the scribe responsible for the glossed words in the main text (hand 1, Hi) or by another scribe or reader (hand 2, H2). Those glosses written in context are by definition written in Hi.5 Each gloss in a manuscript can thus

3. See Hüllen ioi. 4. The word^/otf is from Latin glossa "obsolete or foreign word" and ultimately from Greek yXoooa (Ionic; yXorra Attic) meaning "tongue." I have used the term in this article to refer to both "language-based/verbal" and "non-language-based/non-verbal" explanations of a word's meaning. It is thus not restricted to the sense of a "definition text/9 but includes all possible aids to explaining or clarifying a word or phrase in the text. 5. This model provides us with a total of thirty possible types of glosses which are listed at the end of this article in an appendix. We might also wish to consider the way the glossed word is treated: underlined, overlined, unmarked, marked with a symbol or gloss marker, etc., and what the gloss's role is: synonym, hyponym, (lengthier) explanation, cross-reference etc. The extent to which a given type does in fact occur in the manuscript corpus or is merely theoretical would require a thorough quantitative survey of all the extant material- that is not the aim of this article. The model is used here merely to describe those glosses under discussion and as a suggestion for a framework for use in future investigations.


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be categorized using this descriptive model and a concise formula, e.g. LT + ViG[m, H2] would mean a vernacular gloss has been written in the margin of a Latin text by another hand. Although Scandinavia has not left us with much evidence of glossography (the writing of glosses) in comparison with other Germanic-speaking areas,6 the extant types of glosses represented in the Danish manuscript corpus are exemplified below.

Marginal and Interlinear Glosses

Glosses written in the margin or between the lines of the main text are usually later additions and do not form an integral part of the original text per se. They do, however, form a web of target information sur- rounding and linked to the main text. The linking between the text and its target gloss usually occurs through a reference symbol (such as a cross + or an asterism A), a line connecting the glossed word to the gloss, underlining the glossed word, or by writing the gloss directly above the glossed word. Marginal and interlinear glosses tend to be written by the user rather than the creator of the main text, but they can also be found in the same hand as the main text. This type of glossing is a rather sporadic phenomenon and is related to the wider practice of marginalia writing. It constitutes important evidence for how the manuscript was used, read, and understood, as well as for medieval literacy and the assimilation of "foreign35 (for example, Latin) culture more generally. Marginal and interlinear glosses in medieval Swed- ish manuscripts have been investigated by Arendt Quak and Börje Tjäder,7 but those found in Danish manuscripts largely have yet to be researched.8 Indeed, in many, particularly older, editions of medieval Danish manuscripts, glosses and marginalia are not mentioned at all, presumably being seen by the editors as irrelevant to the text. More recently, however, and no doubt due to the influence and growing popularity of New Philology among some scholars of East Norse, such notes and commentaries by the manuscripts' users have been

6. On glossography in Scandinavia, see Skautrup "Glosser," and Raschellà. 7. See articles by Quak, and Tjäder. 8. See, however, Lorenzen.



included in newer editions where their importance for understanding the manuscripts' history has been recognized.9

Glosses in the Danish manuscript corpus vary in thoroughness and complexity, ranging from simple marginal notations of words one reader found difficult or obscure to entire interlinear translations of the original text and explanations and cross references to similar passages. In the fourteenth-century manuscript AM 11 8°, there is a Latin translation of the Law of Jutland that contains a large number of Danish marginal glosses from the fifteenth century. 10 Among the simple interlinear glosses, we find, for example, the word "seruum55 [servant, slave] on fol. i2v, which appears with an interlinear gloss "trail" [slave] and is thus an example of LT + ViG[i, H2]:

f Item quicumque receperit [<repeterit] cdiquem seruum /glossed with: tmll] uel aliquem fletfering débet responderé pro delictis suis.

(Whoever takes some servant [ : slave] or some elderly person into his household must answer for their misdemeanors.)

Above a section concerning inheritance rights on fol. 5V, we find the word ccsteffs0n" [stepson] written in the margin above the word "privi- gnus" [stepson]- another example of a gloss of a specific Latin word (IT + ViG[m,Ha]):

[...] f Sed si pater prius moritur et nouerca cum pueris remanet tune recipit priuignus /glossed with: steffsen] primus de terra empticia.

(But if the first father dies and the stepmother remains with some sons, then the first-born stepson [: stepson] inherits of the purchased land.)

And on fol. 4ir, the word "uillitus55 in "Qualiter uillitus possit iurare raan55 [how a bailiff can swear to theft] has been glossed with an interlinear "brydia55 [estate manager]. A Latin interlinear gloss (LT + LG[i, H2]) is found on fol. 7V with "suo55 [his] being clarified by ccs[cilicet] mortuo55 [that is deceased] :

9. Later additions of all kinds are included, for example, in the electronic editions developed by the project Studér MiddelMer pâ Nettet (http://smn.dsl.dk). On New, or Material, Philology, see Cerquiligni, and Speculum, 1990. 10. lhe manuscript also includes a large number of context glosses making it particularly interesting for the development of vernacular legal language and the study of language mixtures in manuscript.


122 Scandinavian Studies

nee emus nee ana possit ei auferre quod aims suus dedit filio suo /glossed with: s. mortuo].

(neither grandfather nor grandmother can take from him what his grandfather has given to his [who is deceased] son.)

Many of the glosses in the manuscript relate to the content of the text but do not translate a difficult word as such; rather they act as a summary index for the manuscript user by providing the vernacular term for the main topic of the paragraph (LT + ViG[m, H2]). Such glosses include fol. i4v where "siadegifft" [a soul's gift] is written above a paragraph on gifts to the church for the sake of a deceased's soul; above descriptions of different land divisions (fol. i6v) are written "ornum" [land owned separately], "bool" [a division of land], "jordh" [earth], and ccreb" [measurement of length, possibly twenty feet] ; above a section on different types of settlement (fol. i7r) appear "torp" [secondary village, hamlet] and "adelby" [main village]; and above a paragraph concerning rape (fol. 29r) we find "voldtekt" [rape]. However, not all marginal glosses are in the vernacular. For example, on fol. i2v in the margin above a section on court cases is written "tutor in placito laytomm" [defense in the secular courts] and is thus an example of LT + LG[m, H2]. On fol. 24V, a marginal gloss in Latin that acts as a heading for chapter 2 viz. "veredici jurent" [the jurors swear an oath] has itself been glossed at a later stage with the Danish "Sandmewd" [jurymen]. This process can be represented as LT + LG[m, H2] + ViG[m, H3].

A vernacular explanatory gloss summarizing the legal situation concerning inheritance law (LT + ViG[m, H2]) has been written in the bottom margin of fol. 8V:

lord bedhcr iord oc bofa beder bofa hoc rex cristiernus anno domini Mcdh? .

(Pay land duties for land and pay movable goods duties for movable goods King Christian I, AD 1460.)

Other examples of lengthy explanations and cross references can be seen in the manuscript E don. var. 155 40 (1250-1300), which contains the Hexamaeron by Anders Sunesen, archbishop of Lund (d. 1228). There are a large number of marginal and interlinear notes and glosses in Latin written by two different hands (LT + LG[m, H2] and LT + LG[i, m, H3]) in the manuscript.11 For example, fol. 7r, line 9, reads:

n. A facsimile is available on the web-pages of the Department of Manuscripts and Rare Books accessible from the Royal Library's homepage (http://www.kb.dk).



"Peruerso. non ut conformis subditus esset" [wanting to be his equal turns the relationship upside down], where "Peruerso" has been marked with an asterism and the following gloss written in the margin: "A

Super ilium locum. Deus quis similis erit tibi. qui per se uult esse ut deus. peruerse uult esse similis deo. ut diabolus" [About this place: O God, who is like unto thee? Who wants to be like God? It is perverse to want to be similar to God, like the Devil] (taken from Augustine's On Psalms 70: 19).

rigure 2. An example or LI + LCj[i,m, H2J in NkS 813X 40, toi. ir.

In a fragment of Peder Laale's proverb collection in NkS 813X 40, there are a large number of glosses and later additions. In this short text ("Agros cum serere vetat impia turba verere | Vndae mxn spyllae offtse forthi kommer oldhm sillas" [A wicked crowd prevents the fields with grain from flourishing | Evil men often cause damage which is why the harvest comes late]), the following words are glossed: "Agros" [fields] glossed with "campos" [fields], "serere" [grain] with "frumento" [corn], "vetat" [prevents] with "prohiber" [prohibits], "impia" [wicked] with "mala" [bad], "turba" [crowd] with "turmula" [rabble], and "verere," a scribal error for "virere" [to flourish] with "florere" [to bloom]. Furthermore, in the right-hand margin is written: "Ceres a creo hec ceres cereris dea frumenti et ponitur sepe pro frumento et hoc quia creat fruges" [Ceres from creo (to create) f. nom. gen. Goddess of grain and is used instead of grain and this is because she creates grain]. This marginal comment looks as though it is an article copied from a dictionary: many glosses also look like the result of the enthusiastic use of a dictionary. It should be noted that these glosses are not in the lemma form, but rather in the form they would have in the syntactic context of the main text. This procedure is even followed when the gloss is in a different language. As such, glosses comprise a visible element of a metatext or an otherwise invisible translation of the entire text.



It will be noted that not all glosses are interlingual translations (that is, between different languages) or involve Latin. Some are intralingual, that is, either a synonym or paraphrase of the glossed word or an equivalent from a later period in the same language. Others are intersemiotic : the glossed word is transformed into a non-linguistic sign or symbol. A vernacular gloss of a vernacular text can provide us with valuable information about the development of language, including insight into the stage when words became obsolete or their meanings changed so much that understanding was disrupted. In this example from the manuscript NkS 66 8° (c. 1300) in the section containing a copy of Henrik Harpestreng's book of herbs (fig. 3), we read that:

Thœn tynu hou&th&n œr meor tha stynjjœr man r0f.a. th&m oc lœœr l0pœ ut mielk of them .i. en sk0th.

(When the heads [of the poppies] are soft, prick a hole in them, and let the milk pour out of them into a spoon.)

The word "roP (hole, opening) has been marked with a line above it and an early modern hand (from the sixteenth century?) has written "hul55 (hole) in the margin. This is because the word "raf55 (cf. Norse rauf, modern Danish rttv) had come to mean "opening55 in the restricted sense of ccanus55 by the mid-sixteenth century,12 and evidently required a clarifying gloss or more accurately an intralingual translation, for this user of the manuscript.13

A similar case can be seen in another copy of Harpestreng5s book of herbs in the manuscript Holm. K 48, where a reader has glossed the Latin word "pastinaca55 [parsnip; carrot] with the Danish "brekanne rod55 [sugar beet] despite the fact "pastinaca55 is directly followed by the vernacular explanation "thaet 2er mora <haennae> rotser55 [that is carrots] in the main text (see fig. 4). The gloss "brekanne rod55 refers to the species pastinaca gallica and thus provides a more precise type of root vegetable than the Latin umbrella tcrmpastinaca and one different from the Danish "morse rotaer.55 It seems unlikely that the gloss writer did not understand the vernacular term "morse rotaer55 despite the intrusive "haennse55 in the spelling as morrodder was the commonly used term for

12. In the extant early modern Latin-Danish dictionaries, "anus" is translated with "RofP for the first time in Jon Tursen's Vocabularius rerum from 1561. 13. Here Vi and V2 refer to two different periods of the same language rather than to different languages. Vi is Old Danish (¿fammeldansk) and V2 is Early Modern Danish {dare nydansk).



Figure 3: An example of ViT + VzGfm, H2] in NkS 66 8°, fol. 56V

Figure 4: An example of LT/ViG + Vi/2G[m, H2] in Holm. K48, fol. 9V

"carrots" until modern times (cf. Swedish morötter); but it is impossible to know whether the writer meant it as a gloss for "pastinaca," as a correction to the text, or as an alternative ingredient to carrots in the medicinal concoction.

There is a gray area, largely a question of definition, between certain later additions on the one hand and glosses on the other. In the section of NkS 66 8° comprising Henrik Harpestreng's book of herbs, the text has been indexed in the margin with keywords written in red ink. Thus, the remedy for baldness on fol. 26r is accompanied by a marginal keyword written in red ink: "houceth" [head] (see fig. 5).14 These keywords run throughout the manuscript as a sort of marginal index to the work. However, a later user of the manuscript has underlined the remedy for baldness in the main text and drawn the head of a (rather unhappy looking) bald man just above the keyword in the margin. Is this picture of a bald head merely a doodle, or is it a non-verbal gloss?

Although the bald head does not explain the full meaning of the text, it does provide an intersemiotic translation or transmutation of it, and it also offers an immediate and graphical clarification of what in fact is

14. For those curious readers, Harpestreng's cure for baldness is to wash one's head frequently with onion juice.



Figure 5: An example of V/T + NG[m, H2] in NkS 66 8°, fol. 26r

precisely meant by the rubricated keyword "houaeth" : not any head, but a bald one. Thus, this illustrative doodle helps the user to understand what is meant by "houseth" in this context and fulfils the criteria of a gloss (the brief explanation or translation of an unintelligible, ambiguous or poorly understood word).

Another example of simple intersemiotic notations clarifying what a reader found unclear in a manuscript is the case of the Greek manuscript Fabricius 23 20 (Ptolemy's Geogmphia, 1250-1300), though it should be mentioned that this manuscript can only be considered Danish by virtue of its current ownership, i.e. being housed in the Royal Library in Copenhagen. I am including it here as an example of another kind of intersemiotic glossing. A later hand has scribbled "italie pars" [part of Italy] onto a stretch of land on the map on fol. 2r in order to explain an unclear part of the illustration and act as a Latin interlinear gloss in a Greek text/linguistically unmarked section of map.15 On the same map, the same hand has also drawn a scale and labeled it "Longitudo" [longitude] ; a river has also been added and labeled "arabon flumen" [the river Riba]. A few of the Greek place-names have also been translated and glossed in Latin; for example, the gloss "idest pannonia inferior" [that is Lower Panonnia] appears next to the Greek IIANNONIAH KATH and "illuris" [Illyria] next to the Greek ÏAAYPIC.16

15 . In much the same way as the bald head in the Harpestreng manuscript discussed above is an intersemiotic translation, but in the opposite direction (word -> sign in NkS 66 8°, and sign -> word in Fabricius 23 20). 16. A good example of extensive intralinear and marginal glossing in a manuscript containing a classical text housed in the Royal Library in Copenhagen is GkS 2006 40 (c. 1175-1200), which contains the twelve books ofVirgiFsAeneid.



Occasionally, we find glosses that do not have anything to do with the main text. They are brief inserted lexicographical fragments, sometimes written in the margin and sometimes in the main text field. In the fifteenth-century Danish teacher's manual AM 76 8°, a reader has inserted "fassia /loft falcastrum lee" [confession promise, sickle sickle] on the bottom line of fol. 24V. The rest of the text on the page comprises materials for an exposition on faith in relation to other virtues. The editors (Frederiksen, et al. 32) have suggested the glosses are excerpts from a Latin-Danish vocabulary, but why the manuscript user chose to write these glosses here is impossible to know. Another, more unusual, example is found in a copy of the first printed book in Danish, The Danish Rhymed Chronicle (Den danske Rimkwnike, 1495), 17 housed in the University collection at the Royal Library in Copenhagen (E 2175). On the rear flysheet (see fig. 6), there is a lexical note written in a sixteenth-century hand that explains the etymology of the insect mentioned in 1 Sam. 24: 15 (and 26: 20). However, the scribe does not discuss the Latin word (pulex)^ but rather the Hebrew word and makes comparisons with Arabic:

rigure 6: A He brew- Arabic gloss on page 188 of a copy of 1 he Danish Rhymed Chronicle (1495)

K7S7"1D ex EH S segregat et K7CC7S7 evehet vel potius arabice cui. ictus mflixit IS 24, 15.

(par'osh [flea] from p-r-sh "sets aside" and '-sh-sh "spreads abroad" or more probably from Arabic gh-th-th "inflicts a bite" 1 Samuel 24: 15.)18

This marginal gloss is of great interest as it contains both Hebrew and Arabic script, but unfortunately we have no way of knowing who wrote this note or why.

17. [Niels of Soro?]. Den danske Rimkrenike. Copenhagen: Gotfred of Ghemen [Govert van Ghemen], 1495. 18. 1 Samuel 24: 15 reads: "Against whom has the king of Israel come out? Whom are you pursuing? A dead dog? A single flea?"



With regard to medieval Danish manuscripts, there are thus examples of Latin texts with interlinear and marginal glosses in the vernacular and in Latin. Vernacular texts have marginal and interlinear glosses in the vernacular and also in the form of non-linguistic signs such as the illustrative head discussed above. Additionally, we can find occasional maverick glosses (lexicographical comments) written into manuscripts that do not relate to the main text. As the aim of marginal glosses was to move a piece of text into a more comprehensible form, Latin was not considered a suitable means by readers of glossing vernacular texts:

Text Gloss

T . > Latin T Latin .

_,

Danish Danish -

"" > Non-linguistic

Figure 7: Marginal and interlinear glosses

Context Glosses

Glosses can also be found in the main text itself to explain Latin or other foreign words. These are known as context glosses as they constitute an integral part of the text and are not later additions. There are many such examples in Danish manuscripts. Often such a gloss is just a single word introduced with a gloss-marking phrase such as "in uulgari nostro" [in our vernacular].19 For example, in Anders Sunesen's Lex Scanu prouincialis, a Latin paraphrase of the Law of Skâne (Skànske lov) from the beginning of the thirteenth century (published inThorsen 1853), we find the following examples of LT+ViG[c, Hi], each one introduced by a different gloss marker:20

19. On Sunesen's gloss markers, see Kristensen, "Bidrag," 69-70. 20. Utfter good examples ot L± + V^c, HiJ are touna in Lvopennagen, ine Koyai Library, GkS 3168 40, a copy of the town law of Schleswig from e. 1317.



• per undecim quos hotholbondor lingua materna nominai adimplere. (Thorsen 115)

(by eleven men who in the mother- tongue are called athelbonder.)

• Si corpus occisi uestimentis suis uel armis quod crimen walruf in lingua patria nominatur. (Thorsen 134)

(If the corpse of the killed man is robbed of its clothes or weapons, the crime which is called valrov in the "father-tongue")

• ethec emendatio in uulgari nostro lindabot appellatur. (Thorsen 136)

(and this penalty is called lindebot in the vernacular.)

• solum habet refugium ad candentis ferri iudicium quod lingua patria scuzstiarn nominat. (Thorsen 190)

(he can only seek refuge in the judgment of the glowing iron which in the "father-language" is called skutsjarn.)

The Latin translation of the Law of Jutland in AM 11 8° mentioned above contains a very large number of vernacular context glosses (LT + ViG[c, Hi] ) that would make a worthy object for a separate study, not least because of their importance for understanding the development of legal language in Denmark. The following example is typical:

de oppressione mulierum per vim. xvi. Siquis conqueritur de muliere quod uim passa est quod dicitur woldukœn et si ueredici uoluerint ipsum cum suo iuramento pace priuare tune debent iurare quod ipsafuit oppressa per uim och hafthœ til hathkona et tenetur Ule qui earn oppressit propter hoc priuari pace sua. (AM n 8°, fol. 29e)

(On the laying down of women by force §16. If someone makes an accusation concerning a woman, that she has suffered by force that which is called valdtaken (rape) and if the jurors want to deprive him of his freedom with their oath, then they must swear that she has been raped and hafthe til hathkone (made a concubine), and the man who has raped her must be forced to lose his freedom because of this.)

Sometimes in translated literature, a vernacular phrase has a Latin term, probably taken from the original, attached to it. Here it is the Latin phrase in a vernacular text that is the gloss. It may be both marked and unmarked (except perhaps by a comma). For example, in the Danish Kvinders Rosengaard (GkS 3487 8°) from 1475-1525:



• ambrot po latin ambrotanum (Nielsen ii: 132) (southern-wood, in Latin "ambrotanum" [ = southern-wood, a plant of a pleasant, aromatic smell]) • i hwylcketh wan ersoen hoffwedhct ochfeddhtrnœ äffen weddhcr, caput et pedes de ariete (Nielsen ii: 194) (in which water has been boiled the head and feet of a ram, the head and feet of aram) • som wermer och t0rg0r, quod calefacit etsiccat (Nielsen ii: 194) (that warms and makes dry, that warms and dries)

The glosses almost seem to have an educational purpose in this work, a view supported by the last section of the text (Nielsen ii: 197-206). It comprises a "taffle" or glossary (that is, a list of glosses in Latin, German, and Danish) with the following introduction:

fitem i thenne bogh standher marche ordhpo latin, hwylcke [icke] wel kwnnœ settespo danske, so ath the kwnnœ wart qw'mdhcnu tiil ath wndhcrsto; thcr fore skwlle the haffwe tiilflwcth tiil doctores i apotechen, och the skwlle wndh- cfwysse them. Och icke haffwer 0rthcne yth naffn i alt danmark, men tiil en tr0sth och heylp, so skulle the fly tiil thenne tajfle, i hwylcken standher orthcne po latin, dysk och dansk, och nor the skulle gere noghcr legdom, so skal man haffue altyth tiilflwcth tiil thenne tajfle etc. (Nielsen vol. ii 197)

(f There are many words in this book in Latin, which cannot be translated into Danish so that they can be understandable to women; for this reason they should seek help from learned men at the apothecary, and they will teach them. And the herbs do not have one name in all Denmark, but as a comfort and help, they [i.e. female users of the book] should hurry to this table [i.e. glossary], in which the herbs' names are found in Latin, German and Danish, and when they need to make a medicine, they must always seek help from this table, and so on.)

The introduction tells illiterate (unable to read Latin) women to seek help at the apothecary should they encounter a Latin term they do not understand. The list that follows the introduction aims to help women unable to read Latin to understand the various names of the herbs and to provide them with the "international equivalents" in Danish and in German so that they will be able to purchase the correct ones. It surely makes good sense to assume that the context glosses in the manuscript have the same educational role. In many such medicinal, herbal and encyclopedic handbooks, Danish terms are provided with a context gloss in Latin:



.vi. Afw&ßhbreth Arrwglossa sine, plantado, that œr wœghbreth. (NkS 66 8°, fol. iir, 11. 11-13)21

(6. Concerning plantain. "Arnoglossa" [sheep's tongue] or "plantago" [plantain], that is plantain.)

An interesting case from the Swedish material for which I have been unable to find a parallel in the Danish is this example from the manuscript Ups. C 396 (fol. io8r, 1. 24) where the verb is not translated, but rather clarified in the vernacular gloss:

quattuor homines percusserunt eum slagh oppa staff h. (Tjäder 117)

(Four men are hitting it beat after beat.)

Just as vernacular context glosses in Latin texts can be introduced with a phrase such as "in our vernacular," so too can Latin glosses be signposted with a similar gloss marker. These markers sometimes make reference to the learned status of Latin compared to the vernacular, which may help us understand why they are included:

Saa b0ries enffortaUpaa danskœ som man kalter prolqgus paa latina. (AM 26 40, fol. ir)

(Thus begins a prologue in Danish which is called "prologus" [prologue] in Latin.)

21. The names of stones, plants etc. in medieval vernacular works can cause a number of problems for the philologist. It is not always clear whether to treat a term as Latin or vernacular. For example, in NkS 66 8° there are some straightforward cases such as: "Af kaal. xxiiii. Caulis romana, thaet heiser thset gront saar [Concerning cabbage §24 Caulis romana. It heals gangrene]" fol. 27V, 11. 7-9, where "kaal" is Danish, and "caulis romana [cabbage]" Latin; "Af danst kumyn. xxvi. Carui xr danst kumyn het oc thiurt [Concerning Danish cumin §26. Carvi is Danish cumin, hot and dry]" fol. 3OV, 11. 1-3, where "danst kumyn" is Danish and "carui [caraway]" Latin, and "Af caniael. xxvii. Cinamomum. kaniel thryfald het. oc twofald thiurt [Concerning cinnamon §27. Cinamomum, cinnamon, three grades hot and two grades dry]" fol. 3ov, 11. 8-10, where "Caniad" and "kaniel" are Danish and "cinamomum" Latin. However, the following are more problematic: "Af camphora. xxi. Camphora. xr enkyns thser ryndaer af et tra. thxr waxaer in montibus indie [Concerning camphora §21. Camphora is a substance that is excreted by a tree that grows in the mountains of India]" fol. 32r, 11. 2-6, where "Camphora" is Latin and may also be Danish. A brief description of the plant in the vernacular has been provided. "Af eupatorio, xxxv. [...] Af eupatorium. xxxv. Eupatorium. xr het .i. forste trappse. [Concerning eupatorium §35. Concerning eupatorium §35. Eupatorium is hot in the first degree]" fol. 34r, 11. 3-6, where "Eupatorium [Hempagrimony?]" after "af" has been declined once (ablative) and been left undeclined once. This could mean that the declined version should be regarded as Latin (despite its placement in the vernacular position in the section) and the undeclined version as Danish (despite its Latin position).



Swo taker en for tafo til for loghan a danske th&r forth*, nun calfo prologus a latim. (AM n 8°, fol. 8ir)

(So begins a prologue to the law in Danish, which learned men call "prologus" [prologue] in Latin.)

In both of these examples, the gloss seems unnecessary if it is simply to provide clarity or explain a difficult or ambiguous section of text. It seems rather to be a literary device that "lifts55 the text into a more learned sphere, providing it and its scribe or user with a sense of authority and air of Latin literacy, learning, and scholarship required by the genre. These glosses have a similar role to that of the foreign words and phrases that some choose to utilize today in order to indicate certain values, status, and beliefs.

There are also entire sentences that require an explanation, for which the scribe provides a paraphrase or translation. This practice is especially common when using a biblical quotation, for example as a therna in a sermon. The following examples are taken from two different Danish sermons in the manuscript Vind. 13013:

Swa som genesis sighxr Edificat dominus costarti quant dominus tulerat de adam in mulierem etc War hxrm skap&th& een quinnœ afadams rifoggaf hannum til husfrughe. (fol. 54ra, 11. 10-15; Adams 36)

(Just as it says in Genesis "Edifica [vi] t Dominus costam quam Dominus tulerat de Adam in mulierem" [Gen. 2:22] and so on. Our Lord created a woman from Adam's rib and gave [her] to him as a wife.)

Swa som sanctuspawel sighxr oc biuthxr jf emine obedite viris vestris sicud sara obediebat abrahe dominum eum vocans Quinna i skufo lyth& ithxr husbondsr so sum sam lyddi oc hemthéò abraham kalfotha han sin hœrrœ. (fol. 54ra, 11. 30-37; Adams 37)

(Just as St. Paul says and commands, "Feminae obedite viris vestris, sicut Sara obediebat Abrahe dominum eum vocans," Women, you shall obey your husbands as Sarah obeyed and honored Abraham and called him her lord.)

suo sum han sauthœ til sana thomas Cognosce loca clauorum etc. threua mimi vndxr oc tro stathelikœ at&c <zr vp standen of doth*, (this gloss includes an expansion; fol. 57™, 11. 22-25; Adams 43)

(Just as he said to St. Thomas, "Cognosce loca clavorum" and so on. Feel my wounds and believe firmly that I am risen from the dead.)



This sort of linguistic mixture in a manuscript is very common, and although its purpose is to ensure clarity of the text and its message, the occurrence of such a context gloss after a biblical quotation in vernacular sermons is so common that it could almost be considered a stylistic requirement of the genre. In fact, the gloss does not eluci- date a particularly difficult piece of Latin in any of the examples from Vind. 13013, but rather acts as a prompt around which the reader can build a (spontaneous) vernacular translation of the biblical quotation. It is a short transition from this type of glossing to the writing of a macaronic text.

The relationship between a context gloss and the text to which it refers can thus be more complicated than that of simple translation or some other direct explanatory connection. A gloss can act as an indicator of learnedness or as a prompt to the reader to undertake some action (for example, the retelling of a biblical story in the vernacular). It can place the text into a context outside and beyond itself and in this way imbue it with a learned, Latin coloring, the effect of which might include a sense of authority, credibility, and tradition. In this way the role of some context glosses is quite different from that of marginal and interlinear glosses.

Danish Context Glosses in Medieval Latin Charters

There are a large number of Danish context glosses that appear in medieval Latin charters from Denmark.22 This particular corpus of Old Danish glosses has as yet not been investigated systematically, but during the registering of Danish glosses in Latin charters up to 1410, 1 have come across a number of interesting cases.23 Danish context glosses

22. I use the term charter to cover public and private documents, letters, decrees and codicils - the medieval documents studied in diplomatics. Medieval charters from and relating to Denmark are published in the series Diplomatarium Danicum by the Society for Danish Language and Literature. Each letter - be it in Latin, Old Danish or Low German - is accompanied by a translation, published in the series Danmarks Riges Breve. Both series are now published online at http: www. diplomatarium. dk/index_en. html. 23. See, however, articles by Hald, and Sorensen. The only published dictionary of Old Danish to make use of the material is Kalkar. None of the glosses appear in Molbech or Lund.



in medieval charters are of importance to the language historian for a number of reasons:

1. They occur in sources that for the most part can be precisely dated- a rare luxury!;

2. They help fill in our rather poorly documented knowledge of Danish from the period between runic inscriptions and later medieval vernacular manuscripts;

3. They provide us with valuable information regarding the use of the vernacular in a Latinate milieu along with insight into levels of fluency and learning;

4. They include the oldest recorded examples of some Danish words;

5. Several of the words have a special meaning in these charters that is not recorded elsewhere;

6. They include a number ofhapax legomena.

In all, over 500 different Danish lexical items appear as context glosses in Latin charters from the Middle Ages where some word or phrase in Latin is followed by a gloss in Danish. They are usually introduced by one of these gloss markers:

• alias dicuntur. "tarn immobilia quam mobilia que alias dicuntur varendhaue" (DD iii, 7 no. 225: [215]) [both immovable and movable goods otherwise called farendhave2* (personal property)]; • cognomincmtur. "exceptis tribus duntaxat causis quae cognominantur lingwa Dánica wrech lethangwithe frithcöp" (DD i, 2 no. 32: [76]) [except for the following three things which in Danish are called vrak (wreck), Icthingsvite (war payment), znàfrithkap (fine to avoid being outlawed)]; • Danice nuncupatur: "propter expeditionem. que Danice leyding nuncupatur" (DD i, 2 no. 123 232) [on account of the armed expedition which in Danish is called a lething'' • Dánico vocábulo dicitur: "cum debito quod Dánico uocabulo dicitur mithsumeres chield" (DD i, 2 no. 78: [153]) [with the debt which with a Danish name is called mithsumergjald (payment in market towns)];

24. The word is borrowed from Middle Low German varendehaue (DRB iii, 7: [174 n.



• hoc est: "illi qui emerant uenire ad eorum withermaalsthingh hoc est proximo placito antequam ueredici debent iurare" (DD ii, 6 no. 474: [384]) [those who have bought shall come to their vithermalsthing (defense court), that is the court meeting before the jurors swear an oath]; • id est: "infra términos uillse eorundem id est Wibols pali" (DD ii, 6 nr. 335: [279]) [inside of their town's limits, that is vikbddespcde (the boundary stakes that mark a municipal area)]; • in Dánico dicitur: "empcione sepulture quod uulgo dicitur erthkop seu in Dánico dicitur arfijxk00p" (DD ii, 9 no. 290: [252]) [purchase of a burial ground which in the (German) vernacular is called erdkôp or in Danish is called arvk.0p (inheritance fee); cf. "erfkop" in (DD iii, mo. 38: [38])]; • in wlgo: "loricam meam in wlgo panzer" (DD iii, 5 no. 97: [81]) [my coat of armor in the vernacular pantser]; • qui dicitur: "prêter decursum aquarum, qui dicitur flothaermaal" (DD ii, 7 no. 177: [127] ) [except for in the waterway that is called zflothernml (watercourse to the mill)]; • qui et dicitur: "Censum edam qui et dicitur gresgyald" (DD ii, 1 no. 138: [116]) [the tax that is also caHedgmsgjald (grass payment)]; • quod in wlgari appellatur: "regale debitum in wlgari mitsummersgyeld et torfgyold appellatur" (DD iii, 3 no. 22: [16-17]) [the royal payment which in the vernacular is called mithsumergjald (market-town fee) and torghgjald (fee for sellers at the marketplace)]; • seu: "ne quis ueredictorum seu nefningorum" (DD ii, 5 no. 29: [35]) [that any jurors or nœvninger (jurors)]; • siue: "naufraga siue ilia wrak aut aliis uocabulis nuncupentur" (DD ii, 7 no. 373: [272]) [shipwrecked whether it is called vrak (a wreck) or by some other words] ; • uulgo dictum: "aduocatum ciuitatis uulgo byvagt dictum" (DD ii, 12 nr. 216: [180]) [town counselor in the vernacular called byvakt (guardian of the town)]; • videlicet: "de plena porcione videlicet full legh" (DD ii, 6 nr. 495: [398]) [of a whole portion namely a full leghe ( = 10 cattle)]; • wlgariter. . . : "naufragi, wlgariter wrak vel seevunt uel quocumqve alio nomine nuncupatis seu vocatis in Danici sermonis et ydeomatis expres- sive" ]" (DD iii, 7 no. 359: [325]) [shipwrecked goods in the vernacular



vrak (wreck) or sjofimd (items washed up by the sea) or with whatever other name they are called or named in Danish speech and idiom]; • wlßariter dicitur: "molendinum aut claustrum piscium que wlgariter dicitur waermen siue fiscagarth" (DD i, 7 no. 88: [85]) [a mill or an enclosure for fish which in the vernacular is called vœrrnen (fish trap) or fiskaßarth (fish trap)]; • wlgariter nuncupate ' "exitu domus gangstigh wlgariter nuncupato" (DD iii, 3 no. 597: [473]) [the exit of the house, in the vernacular called ßangstißh (footpath)].

In addition to these, there are many examples of Danish words being used in the Latin charters to replace rather than explain a Latin word. The Latin has simply been dropped- either the scribe felt the Latin term was insufficient in some way, or, not knowing the word in Latin, he gave up and wrote the Danish equivalent. These Danish words act as glosses for a missing Latin phrase and are not introduced by a marker:

• [no marker] : "Item hospes ferens korsbunden packe soluat pro quo- libet vi denarios" (DD ii, n no. 215: [224]) [Furthermore, a stranger carrying a korsbunden packe (wrapped parcel) must pay six pennies for each one].

These Danish words have been included in the discussion below as their role in the text is the same as that of other glosses. They are glosses where the glossed Latin term has been leapt over. They form the visible tips of a parallel vernacular metatext that runs behind the Latin. The older Latin charters in particular include a large number of such glosses where the Danish words appear in a Latinized form.25 For example:

• "bing" [storage chest] > "bincos" (m.acc.pl.): "Omnia que habuit sunt in compositione. exceptis infrascriptis. quatuor iumenta. duas sistas. unum lectisternium. unum compedem .ii. secures, v.que falces, unum iuuencum. iii. bincos. ii. falcastra" (6 May 1291, DD ii, 4, no. 12 [12]) [Everything that he owns is included in the agreement, except the following: 4 draught-cattle, 2 chests, 1 set of bed clothes, 1 foot-fetter for a horse, 2 axes, 5 seals, 1 young cow, 3 storage chests, 2 sickles]; • "blakketh" [dun] > "blaccatum" (m.acc.sg.):

25. See Skautrup, Det danske sprogs historie i 205.



"Equum blaccatum" (21 March 1201, DD i, 4 no. 32: [62]) [a dun horse] ; • "both" [booth, market stall] > "bodam" (f.acc.sg.): "Quilibet habens ibi bodam" (10 June 1316, DD ii, 7 no. 373: [275]) [if one of them has a booth]; • "brun" [brown] > "brunei" (m.gen.sg.): "Equum brunei colons" (21 March 1201, DD i, 4 no. 32: [62]) [a brown horse] ; • "fothreth" [lined] > "forratam" (f.acc.sg.): "cappam forratam de pellibus marturum" (21 March 1201, DD i, 4 no. 32: [61]) [a cape lined with marten fur]; • "potte" [pot] > "pottis" (f.abl.pl.): "uidelicet in culcedris, caldariis uel potties" (10 March 1338, DD ii, 12 no. 70: [58]) [namely cushions, kettles, or pots]; • "tunne" [barrel] > "tunnam" (f.acc.sg.): "non tenuerunt predicto aduocato nostro pro tributo illius loci tunnam ceruisie" (1336, DD ii, 11 no. 339: [329] ) [had to give our aforementioned bailiff a barrel of beer as payment for this place]; • "nsevninger" [jurors] > "nefningorum" (m.gen.pl.) : "ne quis ueredicorum seu nefningorum de quibuscunque herreth" (27 August 1320, DD ii, 8 no. 263: [236]) [that any juror or juror from whichever hundred-district].

The Danish words appear here as loanwords in the Latin text, where the borrowed form has been subjected to Latin rules of syntax and mor- phology and in some instances, phonology too. They are the ultimate blending of the glossed and the gloss: the scribe mixes the familiar and precise Danish term seamlessly with the Latin environment of the text. It should, of course, be remembered that some of these words were quite widespread in medieval Latin texts and were probably not considered anything other than Latin by the scribes (for example, bruneus, boia, tunna, andpot(t)us are found in Latin texts originating throughout the Germanic linguistic area).

The Danish words that appear alongside a Latin term are sometimes synonyms:

• "claustrum piscium" [fish enclosure] : "fiscagarth" [fish trap] (DD i, 7 no. 88: [85]);



• "ligna iacentia" [lying trees] : "vyndfillae" [wind-falls] (DD ii, 3 no. 262: [221]); • "naufraga" [shipwreck]: "wrak" [shipwreck] (DD ii, 7 no. 373: [272]); • "statata nostre ciuitatis" [our town's statutes]: "skra" [(town) law- book] (DD ii, 11 no. 215: [223]); • "ueredictorum" [jurors]: "nefningorum" [jurors] (DD ii, 5 no. 29: M); • "paruam domum lapideam retro in curia ex transuerso positam" [small stone-house standing diagonally at the back of the farm] : "thwaerhusae" [diagonal house] (DD iii, 3 no. 497: [386]).

However, usually they act as a more specific term or clarification of the Latin hypernym. This usage is particularly common for specifically Danish concepts and phenomena (particularly penalties and fines). For example:

Clothing • "pellibus variis" [of different skins]: "graaskind" [gray skin] (DD iii, 1 no. 121: [no]) • "coopertorium" [blanket]: "thaekene" [cloth blanket] (DD iii, 6 no. no: [118])

Environment • "exitu domus" [house exit] : "gangstigh" [pathway] (DD iii, 3 no. 597: [473]) • "decursum aquarum" [waterway] : "flothaermaal" [watercourse to the mill] (DD ii, 7 no. 177: [127])

Legal Matters • "literis et priuilegiis" [letters and privileges] : "handfaest" [royal legal guarantees] (DD ii, 5 no. 310: [298]) • "aduocatum ciuitatis" [town councilor] : "byvagt" [town guardian] (DD ii, 12 no. 216: [180])



Payments/Fines • "censum" [tax]: "gresgyald" [grass payment] (DD ii, 1 no. 138: [nó]) • "regale debitum" [royal fee]: "mitsummersgyeld et torfgyold" [market-town fee and fee for sellers at the marketplace] (DD iii, 3 no. 22: [16-17]) • "salariimi" [allowance]: "haestaelaeghx" [payment to cover travel expenses] (DD ii, 5 no. 310: [298]) • "solucionem" [payment] : "arnaegiald" [tax paid per fireplace] (DD ii, 11 no. 215: [224]) • "obuencione" [payment] : "aldengield" [fee paid to have pigs forage in another man's forest] (DD ii, 7 no. 27: [24]) • "solucio" [payment]: "bede" [kind of payment] (DD ii, 5 no. 322: [309])

The scribe did not always write the Latin hypernym and instead just used the Danish term on its own without any form of explanation. This usage is particularly common for currency (for example, 0rtug,penning) and measurements (for example, alen).

The Latin charters are among some of the oldest written records from Denmark, and the Danish glosses that appear in them are in many cases the oldest written records of the word. In dictionaries and accounts of Old Danish, often a younger citation of the word from a non-diplomatic source is provided as the oldest example of a word. By using die Latin diplomatic material, we can re-date a number of words and move them back several decades, if not centuries, in time. For example:

• "afgift" [fee, penalty] (earliest citation 1518 in Kalkar v, nb 10, s.v. «Afgift''):

"dimidietatem pensionis que afgift dicitur" (26 September 1348, DD iii, 3 no. 61: [55]) [half of the income which is called ajfyifi];

• "aldengjald" [fee paid to be allowed to have one's pigs forage in another man's forest] (earliest citation 1456 in Kalkar iii, 286a 29, s.v. "Oldengseld"):

"et obuencione dicta aldengield" (9 April 131 3, DD ii, 7 no. 27: [24]) [and the payment called aldengjald];



• "alegarth" [eel trap] (earliest citation 1407 in Kalkar iv, 940a 34, s.v. "Âlegârd"):

"sepes anguillarum . . . predictam aalgaard" (22 May 1307, DD ii, 6 no. 69: [58]) [eel trap ... aforementioned eel trap];

• "bakn" [beacon] (earliest citation 1428 in Kalkar i, 94b 41, s.v. "Bagn"):

"uidelicet furto, homicidio, wlneribus. friithk00 bakaen. strand- worth, garthadtae. et causis alus" (6 April 1328, DD ii, 10 no. 21 : [15] ) [namely for theft, homicide, injury, fine to avoid being outlawed, beacon (for giving an alarm), coast watch, fine for breaking fences and boundaries, and all other cases];26

• "baldekin" [canopy, baldachin] (earliest citation 1312 in Kalkar i, 243a 2, s.v. "Boldekin"; cf. Kristensen, Fremmedordene^ 36) :

"unum baldekinum" (1 April 1295, DD ii, 4 no. 163: [130]) [a baldachin] ;

• "bethe" [fee] (earliest citation 1482 in Kalkar i, 117b 20, s.v. "Bede"; loanword from Middle Low German or Dutch ("bede") ; cf. Reinhardt 162):

"superaddendo gradam specialem, quod in bonis ipsorum nulli militum, uel armigerorum seu aliorum quorumcunque solucio precaria que bede dicitur in wlgari" (29 April 1304, DD ii, 5 no. 322: [309]) [we add the special favor that the payment on your goods called a bede fee in the vernacular must not in future be handed over to a soldier or an esquire or anyone else];

• "bing" [storage chest] (earliest citation 1495 in Kalkar i, 2O4b 17, s.v. "Bing"):

"iii. bincos" (6 May 1291, DD ii, 4, no. 12: [12]) [three storage chests] ;

• "bla" [bloody wound] (earliest citation c. 1500 in Kalkar i, 231a 31, ^."Blâ"):

"prêter excessus manus et colli et bla et blot que iudicia uolumus nobis reseruari" (c. 10 June 1316, DD ii, 7 no. 373: [273]) [except for offences concerning the hand and throat and bleeding injuries, such cases we want to reserve for ourselves] ;

26. See DRB ii, 10 (p. 13 n. 2), and Sorensen 545-46.



• "blakketh" [dun] (earliest citation 1514 in Kalkar i, 215o 18, s.v. "blak- ket"):

"Equum blaccatum" (before 21 March 1201, DD i, 4 no. 32: [62]) [a dun horse] ;

• "blus" [candle] (earliest citation 1883 in Kalkar i, 228o 17, s.v. "Blus"):

"unam candelam que dicitur bluus" (28 February 1300, DD ii, 5 no. 112: [125]) [a candle which is called candle];

• "bothegjakT [payment for owning a booth] (earliest citation 422 in Kalkar i, 237a 51, s.v. "Bodegadd") :

"Ericus mandat omnibus residentibus in Nestuet cum tofftegiadd bodegiadd mitsommergiadd et lethingsgiadd sine dilacione" (1291, DD ii, 4 no. 49: [35]) [Erik imposes a fee on hamlets, booths, market towns and military with immediate effect] ;

• "botngjald" [tax on liquids] (cf. Kalkar i, 260a 16, s.v. "Bundgadd") :

"pensionibus, redditibus, decimis, fructibus causis excessibus. alecibus. salsatura alecum, piscatura. thelonio, solucionibus naefgyadd. bodngyadd stadgyadd. mithsomersgyadd nuncupatis similiter et de subsidiis rectorum ecclesiarum ibidem" (13 March 1345, DD iii, 2 no. 132: [115]) [fees, forms of income, tithes, fruits, penalties, damages, herring, salting offish, fishing, duties, those payments called nœfyjald (meaning uncertain), bandßjald (tax on liquids), stathegjald (fee for booths), mithsumergdd (market-town payment) and similarly for subsidium (payment to the archbishop) by the parish priests at that same place] ;

• "brevdragher" [letter carrier] (earliest citation 1514 in Kalkar i, 272o 31, s.v. "Brevdragere") :

"cursorum nostrorum, brifdravere" (13 May 1350, DD iii, 3 no. 285: [227]) [to our runners, letter-carriers];

• "broget" [piebald] (earliest citation 1550 in Kalkar v, 140a 49, s.v. "Broget"):

"polidrum brogeth" (17 May 1342, DD iii, 1 no. 222: [211]) [a piebald foal] ;

• "brun" [brown] (earliest citation 1492 in Kalkar v, i44b 45, s.v. "Brun"; cf. Skautrup, Det danske sprqßs historie, i, 205) :



"Equum brunei coloris" (before 21 March 1201, DD i, 4 no. 32: [62]) [a brown horse];

• "bryggist" [(cloth) from Bruges] (not included in Kalkar):

"pannus Orthingburgh et Brygist" (13 March 1304, DD ii, 5 no. 310: [295]) [cloth from Aardenburg and Bruges] ;

• "brynjeleghe" [hire of a coat of mail] (same citation in Kalkar v, 146a 43, s.v. "Brynjeleje") :

"pro hesteleya et brynnieleya" (20 March 1282-13 June 1285, DD ii, 3 no. 21: [19]) [for hiring a horse or coat of mail];

• "bulvirke" [bulwark] (earliest citation 1460 in Kalkar i, 300a 5, s.v. "Bulvirke"):

"bulwirkse construere" (5 October 1306, DD ii, 6 no. 28: [22]) [construct a bulwark] ;

• "byvakt" [town counselor] (not included in Kalkar) : "aduocatum ciuitatis uulgo byvagt dictum" (DD ii, 12 nr. 216: [180]) [town counselor in the vernacular called byvagt (guardian of the town)];

• "fanelaen" [endowment made by presenting a banner] (earliest citation 1735 in Kalkar 1, 503o 54, s.v. "Faneken"):

"cum uexillis dictis vanenlen" (16 August 1326, DD ii, 9 no. 303: [267]) [with a banner called afanekn];

• "forban" [payment to sail freely away from a town] (earliest citation 1255 in Kalkar v, 266b 27, s.v. "Forban"):

"tribus hiis exceptis. forban, strandwraech. iu<re> .xl. marcharum" (1146-57, DD i, 2 no. 98: [182]) [with the exception of the following three things: departure fee, beach wrecks and penalties of 40 marks];

• "fotherduk" [foot-doth] (earliest citation 1705 in Kalkar v, 261a 24, j.?."Foddug"):

".xii. ulnas foodhmiuch" (6 December 1364, DD iii, 7 no. 179: [190]) [24 feet of material for the feet];

• "gangstigh" [pathway] (earliest citation 1552 in Kalkar ii, 11a 50, s.v. "Gangstig"):



"exitu eiusdem domus gangstigh" (8 December 1352, DD iii, 3 no. 597: [473]) [the exit of the same house, a pathway];

• "gartkors" [cloak, mantle] (same citation in Kalkar ii, 17a 46, s.v. "Gartkors (wardekors)"):

"unum gartkors" (3 September 1338, DD ii, 12 no. 107: [91]; cf. DRB ii 12, 74 n. 4) [a mantle] ;

• "hjulbor" [wheelbarrow] (cf. in Kalkar v, 458a 42, s.v. "Hjulbâr") : ".vi. hiulbor" (6 May 1302, DD ii, 5 no. 201: [197]) [6 wheelbar- rows] ;

• "korkappe" [cloak] (cf. Kalkar v, 6oib 47, s.v. "Kor(e)kappe") : "meum korkappe" (3 September 1338, DD ii, 12 no. 107: [91]) [my cloak] ;

• "lath" [decorative edge(>)] (earliest citation c. 1500 in Kalkar ii, 714a 30,5.1?. "Lad"):

"capuciufm] de uariis pellibus cum bursa et uno lath" (19 September 1337, DD ii, 12 no. 44: [40]) [and my hood of different types of fur with a burse and a decorative edge];

• "lethingsvite" [war payment] (cf. Kalkar ii, 769a 11, s.v. "Ledangs- vide"):

"exceptis tribus duntaxat causis qua? cognominantur lingwa Dánica wrech lethangwithe frithcöp" (1104-17, DD i, 2 no. 32: [76]) [with the exception of the following three things which in Danish are called shipwreck, war payment and the payment to avoid outlawry] ;

• "lxkat" [stoat] (cf. Kalkar v, 685a 40, s.v. "Laekat"):

"pallium magnum de laekatt" (before 21 March 1201, DD i, 4 no. 32: [63]) [a large cloak of stoat-fur];

• "pakke" [pack] (earliest citation 1604 in Kalkar iii, 443a 43, s.v. "Pak(ke)"):

"pakke panni" (29 June 1316, DD ii, 7 no. 375: [278]) [a pack of material];

• "pant" [deposit, security] (earliest citation 1594 in Kalkar iii, 448a 21, s.v. "Pant"):



"pignus suum, quod pand dicitur nobiscum" (i May 1335, DD ii, 11 no. 215: [225] ; not translated in DRB) [his security which is called pant in our language] ;

• "par" [pair, couple] (earliest citation 1546 in Kalkar iii, 451a 8, s.v. "Par"):

"unum paar uestimentorum scarlaken cum uariis pellibus" (before 16 February 1339, DD ii, 12 no. 141: [117]) [a pair of scarlet clothes with different furs];

• "peld" [expensive cloth] (earliest citation 1463 in Kalkar iii, 46ib 14, ^."Peld(pjeld)"):

"ecclesie Broby unum pad" (ca. 1300-35, DD 11, 5 no. 108: [122]) [to the church of Broby a piece of expensive cloth];

• "planke" [plank, board] (earliest citation 1443 in Kalkar iii, 486b 23, s.v. "Planke"):

"uel planche ceciderint" (13 March 1254, DD ii, 1 no. 138: [117]; possibly Latin here) [or the planks have fallen] ;

• "praest" [priest] (earliest citation c. 1500 in Kalkar iii, 520o 23, s.v. "Praest"):

"saduae prest de Worhguth. Nielses prest af Guthum; Mathias prest af Burae, Bo prest af Horsaeby" (17 December 1266, DD ii, 2 no. 48: [54]) [Selve, priest in Vorgod, Niels, priest in Gudum, Mads, priest in Bure, Bo, priest in Husby];

• "pund" [pound] (cf. Kalkar iii, 527o 24, s.v. "Pund"): "iii. pund annone" (9 December 1307, DD ii, 6 no. 91: [80]) [3 pounds of corn];

• "pundere" [set of scales] (earliest citation 1294(1 ) in Kalkar iii, 528a 36, s.v. "Punder(te)"):

"siue ilia cum punder uel cum besemere" (c. 10 June 1316, DD ii, 7 no. 373: [273]) [either with the pundere scales or the bismere scales];

• "rathelang" [farm building, farmhouse] (earliest citation 1521 in Kalkar iii,548b43,^."Ra(de)ling"):



"exceptis duobus longis rathelangi" (before 18 November 1268, DD ii, 2 no. 122: [114]) [with the exception of two long farm buildings] ;

• "ruth" [enclosed field] (earliest citation 1624 in Kalkar iii, 62ob 38, j.F."Rud"):

"uidelicet agris pratis pascuis siluis. ruth, riis faelygh forta" (8 June 1363, DD iii, 6 no. 342: [316]) [namely fields, meadows, pastures, woods, enclosed fields, scrubland, common land, sidewalks];

• "sajen" [fine clothing] (earliest citation 1554 in Kalkar iii, 659o 7, s.v. "Sad(d)en"):

"duas pecias de sayen" (c. 10 May 1334, DD ii, 11 no. 127: [114]) [two pieces of fine clothing];

• "skipere" [skipper] (earliest citation 1524 in Kalkar iii, 78ob 28, s.v. "Skib(s)herre"):

"nauta, dictus skipher" (1 May 1335, DD ii, 11 no. 215: [227]) [sailor called a skipper] ;

• "spang" [bridge made of wood] (earliest citation 1520 in Kalkar iii, 5ib45,^."Spang(e)"):

"ad tenendum ligna, ad spangse in Skyern" (1 June 1338, DD ii, 12 no. 89: [75]) [for the maintenance of the timber in the wooden bridge in Skern];

• "spitalalmuse" [hospital alms] (not included in Kalkar) : "elemosinas uestras, que dicuntur spijtalalmosae" (14 April 1317, DD ii, 7 no. 454: [344]) [your alms which are called hospital alms];

• "tha^ken" [cloth] (cf. Kalkar i, 414a 47, s.v. "Dsekke"): "coopertorium. quod dicitur thaekene de pellibus" (22 November 1361-75, DD iii, 6 no. no: [118]) [a fur blanket which is called a thakeri];

• "top" [measurement = 24 or 40 handfuls] (cf. Kalkar iv, 420a 14, 5.1?. "Top"):

"octo toppa lini" (5 June 1305, DD ii, 5 no. 368: [348]) [eight tops of linen];



• "torgh" [(town) square] (earliest citation 1426 in Kalkar iv, 422b 36, s.v. "Torg (torv, t0rv)"):

"quinqué steenbodhir waestaen kirkin et synnaw tooryt" (20 June 1349, DD iii, 3 no. 164: [129] ) [five stone booths west of the church and south of the square];

• "torghgraeft" [digging for peat] (earliest citation 1518 in Kalkar iv, 427a 12, s.v. ccTo[0]r(v)egr0[e]ft"):

"cum torfgr0ft et arenis" (23 May 1319, DD ii, 8 no. 102: [86]) [with peat- and sand-digging];

• "vikbadde" [town peace] (earliest citation 1337 in Kalkar iv, 8i5b 35, j.y."Vi(g)belle"):

"secundum iusticiam que wigbyld dicitur eiusdem ciuitatis" (1 May 1216, DD i, 5 no. 73: [112]; cf DRB i, 5 76 n. 2) [according to that law which is called that same town's town peace] ;

• "vaethermylne" [windmill] (cf. Kalkar iv, 832a 40, s.v. "Vind- molle"):

"Haeddingas quatuor wasítehrirolnae" (after 22 March 1261, DD ii, 1 no. 333: [257]) [in Hedinge four windmills];

There are Danish glosses that appear in the Latin diplomatic material with meanings that are not attested elsewhere (Sorensen 546). These include:

• "flothemal" [the part of a stream where the water runs down into the mill] ("flothsermaal," DD ii, 7 no. 177: [127], and "flothsermaal," DD ii, 9 no. 102: [70]; incorrectly translated in DRB); • "flaekje" [metal flap on a chainmail shirt to protect the wearer's armpit] ("flaekker," DD iii, 1 no. 149: [143]; cf. Dahlgren 215); • "hovethstok" [the main plank in a millpond across a stream] ("houset- stoch," DD ii, 2 no. 169: [156]; see DRB 140 n. 1); • "huve" [neck and throat protection under a helmet] ("hwva," DD iii, 9 no. 179: [163]); • "klo" [drinking horn] ("klo," DD ii, 12 no. 107: [91]); • "mekt" [land acquired by force] ("Mekt," DD ii, 6 no. 14: [9]; see DRBii, 6 [911.1]);



• "ryg" [ridge (in a field)] ("ryggia?" DD ii, 7 no. 215: [157]); • "silekraenger" [someone who removes or ties up the horse-harness (to prevent riding on a holy day)] (several privileges issued by Valdemar III and Valdemar IV Atterdag; see S0rensen 543); • "spjald" [small square of land] ("spiald" DD ii, 9 no. 239: [187]; mistranslated in DRB).

There are a number of interesting hapax legmonena in the diplomatic material. For most of the words, the interpretation is straightforward as they are either loanwords (typically from Middle Low German or Latin) or else their meaning is clear from the context. I have grouped the material below into words relating to textiles and clothing; transport; land, agriculture, and fishery; and drinking.

Textiles and Clothing There are four adjectives that only appear in the diplomatic corpus and that are used to describe a textile by place of origin (cf. modern English: Egyptian cotton, Chantilly lace, Shetland wool, etc.). The words in question are brabanst, popœrst, thornist, and yrist (note that three of them appear in the same charter from 13 March 1304, DD ii, 5 no. 310: [295]). In total, there are four occurrences of the adjective bmbanst in the Latin charters (viz. "brabanst," 13 March 1304, DD ii, 5 no. 310: [295]; "Brabanz" 11 March 1353, DD iii, 4 no. 17: [15, 11. 3 and 13]; "Braband," 13 March 1304, DD ii, 5 no. 310: [295]) where it is used to describe cloth that comes from Brabant. There is one occurrence of the adjective poperst ("Popaerst" 13 March 1304, DD ii, 5 no. 310: [295]) in order to describe cloth that comes from Poperinge in West Flanders, and of thornist ("Thornist," 13 March 1304, DD ii, 5 no. 310: [295]) to describe cloth from Tournai in Hainaut. The adjective yrist occurs three times ("Ypaersk," 13 March 1304, DD ii, 5 no. 310: [295]; "Yrist," before 16 February 1339, DD ii, 12 no. 141: [118] ; "irsk," 12 December 1359, DD iii, 5 no. 264: [244]), again to describe cloth from Ypres in West Flan- ders. The word has unfortunately been misinterpreted and translated incorrectly in Danmarks Rijjes Breve in two places:

DD ii, 12 no. 141 (118) : .i. par uestimentorum Yrist [two items of clothing made of cloth from Ypres] DRB ii, 12 (96) : to klaedningstykker af irsk kkede [two items of clothing made of Irish cloth]



DD iii, 5 no. 264 (244) : Petro Simonis .i. tapetum de irsk [to Peter son of Simon a blanket of cloth from Ypres] DRB iii, 5 (200) : til Peder Simonsen et tseppe af "irsk" klaede [to Peder Simonsen a blanket of "Irish" cloth]

Another vernacular term used to describe a type of cloth in the medieval Latin charters is sylfar, n. ("sylphaer" 3 October 1347, DD iii, 3 no. 396: [364]; "sylfaar" 13 May 1350, DD iii, 3 no. 286: [227]), which signifies an undyed gray cloth. The word is loaned from Middle Low German sulßfraw(e) and occurs nowhere else in the Old Danish corpus.

Garments can also be made out ofrnarthfdd, n. ("mardsfeld," 13 May 1350, DD iii, 3 no. 285: [225]). It is a compound of marth [marten] and possibly a variant oîpd(d) [a kind of fine clothing]. The usual word for this in Old Danish is marthskin (recorded as "mardskyn," "mordhs- kin," "mordskind," and "marskin"). Another loanword encountered is glysing, n. ("glycing," before 16 February 1339, DD ii, 12 no. 141: [118]) meaning "veil." It is taken from Middle Low German glissink (cf. DRB ii, 12 96 n. 6).

The final hapax legomenon under discussion here that refers to clothing is rithekkthe, n. ("rithklathae" 9 March 1358, DD iii, 5 no. 109 : [98] ) : "a riding habit." The vowel a in the second element in the compound is unusual (one would expect <e), but the entire word may be a loan. Compare, for example, the Old Frisian klâth (as well as klêth' which means "clothes."

Transport One of the hapax legomena relates to an item of gear for travelling by horse:

domino Thorth thaat. meumsoem. cum tentorio et equo summario ualentem ad minus x marchas denariorum. (1 August 1283, DD ii, 3 no. 73: [85])

(to Mr Tord Thot my sem with a tent and a draught-horse, to the value of at least ten marks.)

The "soem" is not translated in Danmarks Riges Breve, but rather is described as most likely being a scribal error ("Ordet er sikkert forskre- vet," DRB ii, 3 73 n. 8). John Kousgârd Sorensen suggests a covered horse-drawn cart: "Efter sammenhsengen ma man tro, at det drejer sig om et kostbart transportmiddel, som er forsynet med en overdaekning og trukket af en hest" (542) [Judging from the context, one would think that it concerns a valuable means of transport, which is equipped with a



roof-covering and is pulled by a horse]. However, the word's cognates (Old Swedish somber, Middle Low German som or some, Old English slam, and Latin sajjma) all denote a "pack-saddle" (or a "burden carried by a pack- animal"). The related noun somere occurs in the text Jon Prœst inThott585 8° and in Hertug Frederik ofNormandi inYLolm. K47where it means "pack animals." It is difficult to understand why "saddle-pack" should not be a more likely meaning of the word som. The combined value of the goods- ten marks- is rather high and suggests that they are luxury items, but the linguistic evidence does not point towards the word meaning a horse-drawn cart.

Land, Agriculture, and Fishery There are five hapax legomena in the diplomatic material that refer to aspects of land division, agriculture, and fishing. The word bygthstath ("bugdsteth," 21 October 1365, DD iii, 7 no. 322: [300]) means a small settlement (Sorensen 551 n. 8). The translation in Danmarks Riges Breve is not correct:

DD: duas otting cum fundo dicto bugdsteth ac omnibus attinentiis

DRB: nemlig 2 otting med en toft kaldet "byggested" [2 ottings with a hamlet called a byggested (site of a building)] (DRB iii, 7 239)

The word (as "bygdaestet") does in fact also occur in another charter from Ribe (dated 16 February 1421, now in the Danish State Archives in Copenhagen) :

Fore hwelkepenninye. tec affmynfrii wilü oc welmwa sd/skeder oc vplader/ for4* capitel, mytgotz i Tmdrop by oc soghen liggex i Grammeherret, sosom œr tw bygdœstet/ meth f am [< fira ?] otting iordh. oc meth Todyslund. meth alle for4* gotzes telly delse som ar aghra. anga. scow/ feskewan ocfagang/ woot oc thyurt enct& vndertaghet/ meth thette myt opn& breff tel ewinnelic aya.

(For which money, I, of my own free will and capacity, sell, mortgage, and hand over the aforementioned capital: my estate in Emdrup town and parish in Gramme hundred, that is two small settlements with five [changed from four?] ottings land and with Todeslund including all the aforementioned adjoining land- fields, meadows, forest, fish ponds, and pasture land, wet and dry without exception- with this my public letter for eternal ownership)

This short text also appears to support the translation "small settlement" rather than site of a building.



A word with an unusual spelling, erde ("erdae " 30 April 1277-86, DD

ii, 2 no. 289: [243]), is the name given to twelve silver marks' worth of land ("ac fructibus xii marcharum argenti terre que erdse dicuntur55). However, its meaning is uncertain and it has been omitted from the translation in Danmarks BJges Breve. There is the possibility, of course, that it is a Middle Low German gloss (erde) for terra [earth], but this seems unlikely as there is no known German involvement in or influence on this charter, which concerns property transfer on the island of Fyn. However, a related German word erdkôp ("erthkop55) used to describe land-purchase (for use as a burial plot as a kind of inheritance fee) does occur in a German-influenced Danish diploma from Greifswald (DD ii, 9 no. 290: [252]) and may provide a parallel.

The noun markfisk (19 April 1355, DD iii, 4 no. 230: [172] and no. 231: [174]) occurs twice and its meaning is uncertain. The charters con- cern the first settlers on Skagen in Vendsyssel, Jutland, and their rights and responsibilities. In both cases, the settlers living on the "predicti campi Skaughen55 [the aforementioned fields of Skagen] are described as receiving a payment of "markfisk55 (being two fish or six sterlings per house). The term "markfisk55 is most likely a local word that refers to the fish that the fishermen gave to the residents of "Skagen mark,55 i.e. the farming area in Skagen, in return for fuel and other necessities.

Afarm in Koberup, Prsesto, is described as being asnwrbo (24 August 1344, DD iii, 2 no. 78 : [67] ), which probably means it is a holding whose farmer pays his taxes in butter.

The noun vœrrnane (15 October 1241, DD i, 7 no. 88: [89]) occurs just once as a context gloss for the Latin "clausuram piscium55:

molendinum aut clausuram piscium que wlßariter dicitur warmen siue fiscagarth.

(a mill or fish enclosure which in the vernacular is called "waermen" or fish trap)

The word is only known from this single occurrence, although a likely parallel can be found in the Smâland word värmcme, a permanent trapping device with a net placed into the current of a watercourse, used especially in trapping eels (see Grarûund, Âlfiskena, 5; Granlund, "Fiskeverke55 348, and Mossberg).



There is a particularly problematic word located in a charter dated 24 December 1342, viz. cch00k." The noun hok means "hawk," but it seems unlikely that hawks would be part of a trading agreement:

unam curiam in JEthelshogh in qua residet lacobus Thortsun ualentem xv. pund annone duas cuñas in quibus resident Boecius R0¿fysun et Ryklef filius suus ix pund cum dimidio annone ualentes in redditus cum quatuor hook ceterisque attinenciis suis mobilibus et immobilibus inpignero. (DD iii, 1 no. 283: [287])

(a farm iniEthelshogh, on which Jakob Tordsen lives, and which pays fees to the value of 15 pounds of corn, and two farms on which live Bo R0gesen and Riklev, his son, and which pays fees to the value of 9^ pounds of corn, with four hook and the remaining adjoining property, both movable and immovable)

If, indeed, the noun is hok it is missing its plural ending. The most likely explanation is that the initial h is intrusive and that the word is the noun 0k(e) [an increase] derived from the verb okja [to increase]. The Diction- ary of the Danish Language (Ordbog over det danske Sprog) translates the word {pg in modern Danish) as "something added to increase the size or amount." The meaning hmk in the charter refers thus to four pieces of land that have been attached to the farm to increase its original size.

Drinking In this category we find the word hanap, n. (28 September 1346, DD iii, 2 no. 280: [259]), which signifies a drinking vessel of some description. Danmarks Riges Breve translates the word as a small silver drinking vessel for drinking wine, but its meaning may not be so quite precise. The word is a loan from the medieval monastery Latin hanappus [a drinking cup], which in turn is constructed from Old High German Hnapfznà Old Frankish Hanap [a wine jug]. Its more usual form in Old Danish is nap (cf., for example, "prepósito Eskillo balteum suum i nap argenteum cum vii coclearibus argenteis" (2 December 1388, DD iv, 3 no. 451: [461]) [to the rural dean Eskil, [our] best belt, one silver cup with seven silver spoons].

There are more than a few Danish words in the Latin diplomatic material whose meaning remains uncertain. These include:



• "aftunc" (DD i, 2 no. 32: [76]); possibly afthvang, that is "something acquired by force";

• "borden" (DD ii, 10 no. 16: [12]); possibly borthe from Middle Low German borde "a decorative border, edge to clothing"?; • "galreda" (DD ii, 7 no. 261: [190]); most likely galrej "gelatin" from Middle Low Gcrmzngalreide; • "grötis" or "g#rtis" (DD iii, 3 no. 391 : [301] ) ; perhaps a Latinized form of 'garth ("farm"). Translated in DRB as "indhegninger" [enclosures]; • "Yadehr" (DD i, 3 no. 179: [287]); "foreshore, edge of the shore?"; see DRB i, 3 ( 196 n. 5); Weise 82, s.v. "Jemen";

• "lerbother"(DD iii, 4 no. 53: [47]); translated in DRB iii, 4 (40) as "laerredsbode" [canvas booths] but it might well be a place-name here;

• "morsetti" (DD ii, 6 no. 91: [82]); "mulberry colored," but possibly from French moiré "mottled";

• "orweydam" (DD ii, 6 no. 431: [344]); translated in DRB as "forlig" [agreement, settlement], but possibly Middle Low German orveide "oath to keep the peace" here;

• "rennerswen" (DD iii, 3 no. 527: [402]); "knight's squire"; a Middle Low German word rennerswen "armed knight's squire" here?

• "stuba" (DD i, 2 no. 130: [250]); "room?"; cf. Old Danish stuve;

• "stupam" "stupa" (DD iii, 6 no. 289: [289]); "room?";

• "Tribomt" (DD ii, 3 no. 290: [245]).

Conclusion

It has been shown that there are many different types of glosses united by a single purpose: to facilitate the correct understanding of (and response to) a piece of text (or some other information-bearing item). This process is accomplished through a wide variety of ways, including later textual additions as well as integral parts of the text. The effect of using a context gloss may also extend beyond facilitating the correct understanding of a word to the extracting of some sort of (emotional



or physical) response or action from the manuscript user. Glosses are a source of valuable information regarding the historical development of Danish and standards of literacy. Their major advantages over many other types of linguistic sources is that they are often datable and that we can often see precisely what the scribe meant by the word. In some cases, it is even possible to rewrite the lexicographical history of several Danish words that occur as glosses. Current trends in East Norse philology are moving glosses into ever greater focus and hopefully it is only a matter of time before a comprehensive edition of Old Danish glosses becomes available.



Appendix

VT+LG[i,H] =

VT+LG[i,HJ =

VT+LG[m,H] =

VT+LG[m,HJ =

VT+LG[c,H] =

VT+VG[i,H] =

VT+VG[i,HJ =

VT+VG[m,H] =

VT+V2G[m,HJ =

VT+VG[c,H] =

VT+NG[i,H] =

VT+NG[i,HJ =

VT+NGtm,H] =

VT+NG[m,HJ =

VT+NG[c,H] =

LT+LG[i,H] =

vernacular text, Latin gloss, interlinear, same hand as text

vernacular text, Latin gloss, interlinear, different hand to text

vernacular text, Latin gloss, marginal, same hand as text

vernacular text, Latin gloss, marginal, different hand to text

vernacular text, Latin gloss, context, same hand as text

vernacular text, different vernacular gloss, interlinear, same hand as text

vernacular text, different vernacular gloss, interlinear, different hand to text

vernacular text, different vernacular gloss, marginal, same hand as text

vernacular text, different vernacular gloss, marginal, different hand to text

vernacular text, different vernacular gloss, context, same hand as text

vernacular text, non-linguistic gloss, interlinear, same hand as text

vernacular text, non-linguistic gloss, interlinear, different hand to text

vernacular text, non-linguistic gloss, marginal, same hand as text

vernacular text, non-linguistic gloss, marginal, different hand to text

vernacular text, non-linguistic gloss, context, same hand as text

Latin text, vernacular gloss, interlinear, same hand as text



IT+LG[i,HJ =

LT+LG[m,H] =

LT+LG[m,HJ =

LT+LG[c,H] =

LT+VG[i,H] =

LT+VG[i,HJ =

LT+VG[m,H] =

LT+VG[m,HJ =

LT+VG[c,H] =

LT+NG[i,H] =

LT+NG[i,HJ =

LT+NG[m,H] =

LT+NG[m,HJ =

LT+NG[c,H] =

Latin text, vernacular gloss, interlinear, different hand to text

Latin text, vernacular gloss, marginal, same hand as text

Latin text, vernacular gloss, marginal, different hand to text

Latin text, vernacular gloss, context, same hand as text

Latin text, vernacular gloss, interlinear, same hand as text

Latin text, vernacular gloss, interlinear, different hand to text

Latin text, vernacular gloss, marginal, same hand as text

Latin text, vernacular gloss, marginal, different hand to text

Latin text, vernacular gloss, context, same hand as text

Latin text, non-linguistic gloss, interlinear, same hand as text

Latin text, non-linguistic gloss, interlinear, different hand to text

Latin text, non-linguistic gloss, marginal, same hand as text

Latin text, non-linguistic gloss, marginal, different hand to text

Latin text, non-linguistic gloss, context, same hand as text

Additional questions that descriptions of glosses might want to answer:

Is the glossed word missing from the text?

How is the glossed word marked- underlined, over-lined, reference symbol, line to the gloss?



What is the gloss - synonym, hyponym, explanation, paraphrase, reference to another part of the text?

Has the gloss been inflected according to the grammar of the language in the main text or the gloss? In other words, has the gloss been either Danicized or Latinized?

Works Cited

Original Sources Copenhagen The Royal Library GkS 2006 40 GkS 3168 40 GkS 3487 8° NkS 813x4° NkS 1325 4° NkS 66 8° Fabricius 23 20 Thott 585 8°

University Library E don. var. 155 40 E 2175 {Den danske Rirnkwnike)

Amamagn&an Collection AM 26 4° AM 11 8° AM 76 8°

Stockholm The Royal Library Holm. B 74 Holm. K 47 Holm. K 48

Uppsala University Library Ups. C 396

Vienna Austrian National Library Vind. 13013



Secondary Sources Adams, Jonathan. Displaced Texts: An Old Swedish Birgittine Révélation in Copenhagen,

GkS ns4fol. and Three Danish Sermons in Vienna, Cod. Vind. 13013. Svenska Forn- skriftsällskapets Serie 3. Smärre texter och undersökningar 4. Uppsala: Svenska fornskriftsällskapet, 2008.

Cerquiligni, Bernard. Eloge de la variante: Histoire critique de la philologie. Paris: Éditions du SeuiL 1089.

Dahlgren, Fredrik August. Glossarium òfverfòraldrade eller ovanliga ord och talesätt i svenska sprdketfran isoo-talets andrà drtionde. Lund: Gleerup, 1914-16.

DD = Diplomatarium Danicum. Eds. A. Afzelius, et al. Det Danske sprog- og litteratur- selskab. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1938-2003.

DRB = Danmarks Riges Breve. Eds. Franz Blatt, et al. Det Danske sprog- og litteratur- selskab. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1938-2003.

Driscoll, Matthew J. "Postcards from the Edge: An Overview of Marginalia in Icelandic Manuscripts." Variants 2/3 (2004): 21-36.

Frederiksen, Britta Olrik. "Medieval Books in Danish- In Plain and Less Plain Figures." Living Words <& Luminous Pictures -.Medieval Book Culture in Denmark. Essays. Copen- hagen / Ârhus: Det Kongelige Bibliotek / Moesgârd Museum, 1999.

, et al., cas. A Danish Teacher's Manual of the Mid-Fifteenth Century. Vol. 2. Com- mentary and Essays. Skrifter utgivna av Vetenskapssocieteten i Lund 96. Lund: Lund up, 2008.

Granlund, John. Älfiskena iMo'rrumsan: Kronobergsboken ips7-' Hyltén Cavalliusfóreningens ârsbok. Växjö: Kronoberg Läns Hembygdsförbund, 1958.

. "Fiskeverke." KLNM iv (1959): 346-52. Hald, Kristian. "Knud den helliges gavebrev." Acta Philologica Scandinavica 21 (1952):

105-42. . "Dansk sprogstof i sjœllandske diplomer fra det 13. ârhundrede." Ti Afhandlinger.

Ed. Anders Bjerrum. Navnestudier udg. af Stednavneudvalget 2. Copenhagen: G.E.C. Gad, i960. 149-62.

Hüllen, Werner. In the Beginning was the Gloss: Remarks on the Historical Emergence of Lexicographical Paradigms ? Lexicographers and Their Works. Ed. Gregory James. Exeter Linguistic Studies 14. Exeter: University of Exeter, 1989. 100-16.

Kalkar, Otto. Ordbog til det ddre danske Sprog. 5 vols. Copenhagen: Universitets-Jubilasets danske Samfund, 1881-1918.

KLNM = Karker, Allan, et al., eds. Kulturhistorisk Leksikon for Nordisk Middelalder 22 vols. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde og Bakker, 1956-78.

Kristensen, Marius. Fremmedordene i detddste danske Skriftsprog. Copenhagen: Schubotske Forlag, 1906.

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In Danico Dicitur: Glossing in Danish Manuscripts

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