Article

Identification of Suitable Sites for Jatropha curcas L. BioenergyPlantation Using the AquaCrop Model

Faisal Khalid 1,2,3, Sami Ullah 2,3 , Fariha Rehman 4 , Rana Hadi 5, Nasreen Khan 5 , Farzana Ibrahim 5 ,Tariq Khan 6, Farha Aziz 7, Dania Aeema Feroz 5, Syeda Ghufrana Nadeem 8 and Majid Hussain 1,*

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Citation: Khalid, F.; Ullah, S.;

Rehman, F.; Hadi, R.; Khan, N.;

Ibrahim, F.; Khan, T.; Aziz, F.;

Feroz, D.A.; Nadeem, S.G.; et al.

Identification of Suitable Sites for

Jatropha curcas L. Bioenergy Plantation

Using the AquaCrop Model. Forests

2021, 12, 1772. https://doi.org/

10.3390/f12121772

Academic Editor: Julien Fortier

Received: 14 September 2021

Accepted: 23 November 2021

Published: 14 December 2021

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1 Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, University of Haripur,Haripur 22620, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan; fkcbuneri@gmail.com

2 Department of Forestry, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Sheringal 18000, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan;sami.ullah@sbbu.edu.pk

3 GIS and Space Applications in Geosciences Lab (GSAG-L), National Center of GIS and SpaceApplication (NCGSA), Institute of Space Technology, Islamabad 44000, Punjab, Pakistan

4 Department of Economics, Lahore Campus, COMSATS University Islamabad (CUI),Lahore 54000, Punjab, Pakistan; fariharehman@cuilahore.edu.pk

5 Department of Zoology, Jinnah University for Women, Karachi 74600, Sindh, Pakistan;ranahadi2000@yahoo.co.uk (R.H.); nasreen_khan2007@yahoo.com (N.K.); dr.farzanas@yahoo.com (F.I.);imakhan23@gmail.com (D.A.F.)

6 Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Haripur,Haripur 22620, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan; tariqkhan@uoh.edu.pk

7 Department of Biochemistry, Jinnah University for Women, Karachi 74600, Sindh, Pakistan;farahtariq2@hotmail.com

8 Department of Microbiology, Jinnah University for Women, Karachi 74600, Sindh, Pakistan;s.ghufrana@gmail.com

* Correspondence: majid@uoh.edu.pk; Tel.: +92-308-8144348

Abstract: Jatropha curcas (JC), as a biofuel plant, has been reported to have various desired character-istics such as high oil content seeds (27–40%), fast-growth, easy cultivation, drought tolerance, andcan be grown on marginal soil and wasteland, requiring fewer nutrients and management and doesnot interfere with existing food crops, insects, and pest resistance. This investigation was the firststudy of its type to use climatological data, blue/green water footprints, and JC seed production toidentify suitable sites for JC bioenergy plantation using the AquaCrop FAO model across the KhyberPakhtunkhwa province in northwest Pakistan. The JC seed yield (10 ton/ha) was at a maximumin the districts of Bannu, Karak, Hangu, Kurram, North Waziristan, Lakki Marwat, South Waziris-tan, and Dera Ismail Khan, in addition to its frontier regions, Tank, Peshawar, Mohmand, Orakzai,Khyber, Kohat, Charsadda, Mardan, Swabi, and Nowshera, respectively. Green water footprint(264 m3/ton of JC seed) and blue water footprint (825 m3/ton) was less in these areas. Furthermore,the results revealed that, depending on climatological circumstances, the southern part of the KhyberPakhtunkhwa province is more appropriate for JC bioenergy plantation than the northern region. Thedistricts of Bannu, Karak, Hangu, Kurram, North Waziristan, Lakki Marwat, South Waziristan, DeraIsmail Khan, and its frontier regions, Tank, Peshawar, Mohmand, Orakzai, Khyber, and Kohat, inKhyber Pakhtunkhwa province were identified to be the most ideal places for JC bioenergy plantation.As a result, under the Billion Tree Afforestation Project (BTAP) and the Green Pakistan Project, theForest Department of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa should consider planting JC species in the province’ssouthern region. Furthermore, this research will provide scientific information to government andprivate sector officials for better management and optimum yield of the JC biofuel crop, as well as forthe promotion of energy forestry in Pakistan.

Keywords: Jatropha curcas; suitable site; water footprint; Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; Pakistan

Forests 2021, 12, 1772. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12121772 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/forests

Forests 2021, 12, 1772 2 of 17

1. Introduction

The physic nut (Jatropha curcas L.) is a non-food seed and oil crop that is a well-knownsource for biodiesel production around the world [1]. This crop was first planted on theIndian subcontinent in the 16th century by Portuguese merchants [2]. The name Jatrophacomes from the Latin words Jatros, meaning doctor, and trophe, meaning food, as it containsnumerous medical qualities [3,4]. Jatropha curcas (JC) belongs to the Euphorbiaceae familyand is a small tree (semi-perennial tree) or tall shrub, up to 5–7 m tall, with an averagelife duration equal to 50 years [5–8]. Initially, JC was a native plant of South Americancountries as well as Mexico, Meso-America, Central America, Africa, Brazil, Argentina,and Paraguay, but now it is grown in all tropical regions [5,9–13]. It is now found in alltropics and subtropics [9,14–16], and it has adapted to a wide range of precipitation andsoil conditions [17]. It is currently grown on a 1.8 million ha area in Indonesia, China,Brazil, India, and Africa to satisfy the need for biodiesel production [18].

The fruit is a kernel that comprises three seeds each, but the yield of JC seed in variouscountries and regions varies from 0.1 to 15 tonnes/hectare/year (t/ha/yr) [19], and theproduction of JC is reported at 1590 kg/ha/yr [7,20]. By 2017, global biodiesel productionis expected to reach 24 billion liters (Divakara et al., 2010). As a biofuel plant, JC has beenreported to have various desired characteristics such as fast-growing, easy cultivation,drought tolerance, insect and pest resistance, high oil content seeds (27–40%), and goodquality yields for biodiesel and bio kerosene fuel production performance [8,21–23]. SinceJC oil is rich in unsaturated oily acids (equal to 3— oily acids in seeds) [24,25], it worksas the best biodiesel feedstock in agreement with the worldwide standards [26]. Roughly30% of protein by weight is contained in the seed kernel [27]. Since the 1970s oil crisis,JC has received major attention for making a recognizable alternative to the world’s oilresources [9,28]. The seeds contain about 30–35 percent non-edible oil [3,9,29,30]. Onehectare of land will yield 158 to 396 gallons of oil. Depending on density [31], it is possibleto extract 0.26 gallons of oil per 8.8 lbs [32] or around 11–12 lbs of seeds [33].

In addition to fuel, various parts of the plants have pharmaceutical qualities, andafter the extraction of oil, they produce many important by-products that can be usedcommercially [22,34–38]. JC species’ oil content, physicochemical properties, fatty acidstructure, and energy values have all been studied [35,39,40]. Jatropha cultivation is alsoimportant because mature crops consume approximately 18 lbs of carbon dioxide (CO2) peryear [41]. Growing plants and trees on one hectare of land sequester produces 20 tonnes ofCO2 per year [42]. JC crop is also easy to cultivate, a drought-resistant plant can be grownon marginal soil, and a wilderness plant needs fewer nutrients and management withoutinterfering with an existing food crop [43–46]. Generally, the JC plant reaches maturityafter 6 years, and the production of seeds continues for the next 30–40 years [47]. JC isa hardy tree with great oil that contains protein and little water demand [32]. It can beplanted to recover degraded and desert soils [48].

Previous studies have focused on the biodiesel production potential of JC, with littleattention given to the suitability of the site for its cultivation. Furthermore, no satellite-based study has been undertaken in Pakistan for this purpose. Field surveys are commonlyused in JC plantation studies [49–52]. Some research studies assessed and selected potentialJC plant sites using meteorological data, elevation, and slope [50–54] using remote sensingand GIS techniques [50,54,55]. The recent appearance of satellite technology has beenshown to be quite useful in solving difficulties linked to ground features in a timely andcost-effective manner. As a result, some satellite data was used in the present study toidentify suitable areas for JC plantations in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.Using remote sensing data and geographic information system techniques, several climaticand topographic features, as well as the soil types of the study area, were investigated andexamined to find the most suitable sites for JC cultivation in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwaprovince of Pakistan. Roughly 60% of the area of Pakistan is rangeland, and there isno accurate and reliable data on the yield of Jatropha curcas plantations under differentenvironmental conditions. As a result, the goal of this study was to identify suitable sites for

Forests 2021, 12, 1772 3 of 17

JC bioenergy plantation in Pakistan’s Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province using meteorologicalparameters, blue and green water footprint, and JC crop yield, as well as to provide scientificinformation to policymakers, government, and the private sector for better managementand maximum yield of the JC crop in Pakistan.

2. Materials and Methods2.1. Study Area

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is one of Pakistan’s four provinces, as can be seen in Figure 1.Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has a total area of 101,741 km2 and is located at 34.9526◦ N and72.3311◦ E. The province is divided into two zones geographically: the northern zone,which stretches from the Hindu Kush mountains to the Peshawar basin’s borders, andthe southern zone, which stretches from Peshawar to the Derajat basin [56,57]. Withthe exception of the Peshawar basin, which is hot in summer and cold in winter, thenorthern zone has cold and snowy winters, significant rains, and pleasant summers. Ithas a moderate amount of rainfall [58]. The southern zone is desert, with warm summersand chilly winters as well as little rain. Drought is common in the southern half of theprovince throughout the summer. The climate of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is characterisedby extremes and is indicative of most of Pakistan’s climate types. For the most part, it isusually dry [59], although the province’s eastern half is recognised for being the wettest inPakistan, particularly during the monsoon season, which runs from June to mid-September.Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The climate is extremely diverse for a territory of its size, includingthe majority of Pakistan’s climate types [60]. The province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, inPakistan’s northwest region, is the country’s most forested area [61].

Forests 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

sites for JC bioenergy plantation in Pakistan’s Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province using me-

teorological parameters, blue and green water footprint, and JC crop yield, as well as to

provide scientific information to policymakers, government, and the private sector for

better management and maximum yield of the JC crop in Pakistan.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is one of Pakistan’s four provinces, as can be seen in Figure 1.

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has a total area of 101,741 km2 and is located at 34.9526° N and

72.3311° E. The province is divided into two zones geographically: the northern zone,

which stretches from the Hindu Kush mountains to the Peshawar basin’s borders, and the

southern zone, which stretches from Peshawar to the Derajat basin [56,57]. With the ex-

ception of the Peshawar basin, which is hot in summer and cold in winter, the northern

zone has cold and snowy winters, significant rains, and pleasant summers. It has a mod-

erate amount of rainfall [58]. The southern zone is desert, with warm summers and chilly

winters as well as little rain. Drought is common in the southern half of the province

throughout the summer. The climate of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is characterised by ex-

tremes and is indicative of most of Pakistan’s climate types. For the most part, it is usually

dry [59], although the province’s eastern half is recognised for being the wettest in Paki-

stan, particularly during the monsoon season, which runs from June to mid-September.

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The climate is extremely diverse for a territory of its size, including

the majority of Pakistan’s climate types [60]. The province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, in

Pakistan’s northwest region, is the country’s most forested area [61].

Figure 1. Location map of the study area along with elevation.

2.2. Site Suitability Modeling for JC Bioenergy Plantation

The site suitability investigation for JC bioenergy plantations in the Khyber Pakh-

tunkhwa province was performed in two steps, as shown in flow chart Figure 2. First,

slope, elevation, soil types, rainfall, and temperature data were acquired for all the dis-

tricts of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. Second, the water footprint and

Figure 1. Location map of the study area along with elevation.

2.2. Site Suitability Modeling for JC Bioenergy Plantation

The site suitability investigation for JC bioenergy plantations in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwaprovince was performed in two steps, as shown in flow chart Figure 2. First, slope, ele-vation, soil types, rainfall, and temperature data were acquired for all the districts of theKhyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. Second, the water footprint and yield of the JCcrop were simulated through the AquaCrop FAO model as described in Section 2.3. The

Forests 2021, 12, 1772 4 of 17

climatological parameters data were gathered from the National Centre for EnvironmentalPrediction (NCEP) in Peshawar, the Pakistan Forest Institute (PFI) in Peshawar, and thePakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) in Islamabad, and include information on maxi-mum temperature, minimum temperature, and rainfall. Soil type information was obtainedfrom the Harmonized World Soil Database (HWSB) (30 arc-second raster database) [62], and asoil type map was prepared using Arc GIS v.10.3 (ESRI, Redlands, CA, USA), as can be seenin Figure 3. The elevation and slope were derived from the Shuttle Radar TopographyMission (SRTM) with a spatial resolution of 30 m digital elevation model tiles as depictedin Figures 1 and 4. The previous 30 years’ daily climate data (1986–2016) was furtherconverted according to the study requirements into annual averages. Initially, criteriafor a suitable site for JC bioenergy plantation in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province weredeveloped, following [63] (Table 1). Based on meteorological parameters (temperature, soil,rainfall), elevation and slope, suitable sites were identified for JC bioenergy plantation inKhyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Secondly, the water footprint and yield of the JC cropcalculated in Section 2.2 were applied for the identification of suitable sites for JC bioenergyplantation in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.

Forests 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18

yield of the JC crop were simulated through the AquaCrop FAO model as described in

Section 2.3. The climatological parameters data were gathered from the National Centre

for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) in Peshawar, the Pakistan Forest Institute (PFI) in

Peshawar, and the Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) in Islamabad, and include

information on maximum temperature, minimum temperature, and rainfall. Soil type in-

formation was obtained from the Harmonized World Soil Database (HWSB) (30 arc-sec-

ond raster database) [62], and a soil type map was prepared using Arc GIS v.10.3 (ESRI,

Redlands, CA, U.S.), as can be seen in Figure 3. The elevation and slope were derived from

the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) with a spatial resolution of 30 m digital

elevation model tiles as depicted in Figure 1 and Figure 4. The previous 30 years’ daily

climate data (1986–2016) was further converted according to the study requirements into

annual averages. Initially, criteria for a suitable site for JC bioenergy plantation in the

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province were developed, following [63] (Table 1). Based on mete-

orological parameters (temperature, soil, rainfall), elevation and slope, suitable sites were

identified for JC bioenergy plantation in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Secondly, the

water footprint and yield of the JC crop calculated in Section 2.2 were applied for the

identification of suitable sites for JC bioenergy plantation in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

province of Pakistan.

Figure 2. Flow chart diagram of the modeling approach.

Figure 2. Flow chart diagram of the modeling approach.

Table 1. Site suitability criteria for JC plantation [63].

S.# Parameter Range/LimitationSuitability Classes

Data Source ReferenceMore Suitable Moderate Suitable Less Suitable

1 Elevation 0–1800 m <1500 m 1500 m–2100 m <0 and >2150 SRTM DEM [54]2 Slope Not exceed 30◦ <15◦ 15◦–30◦ >30◦ SRTM DEM [30]

4 Rainfall 250 mm–3000 mm 1000 mm–3000 mm 250 mm–1000 mm <250 mm and>3000 mm NCEP Data [64]

5 Temperature 18 ◦C–28 ◦C 20 ◦C–28 ◦C 17 ◦C–20 ◦C <17 ◦C and >28 ◦C NCEP Data [65]

6 Soil Type

Aerated sandy,gravelly, loamy or

soil without/a littleclay content

sandy or Loamy,gravelly,

well-drained soil

Stony or rocky soilor a little part of

clay/salt

Clay soil orwaterlogged

HarmonisedWorld Soil databased (HWSB)

[62,63]

Forests 2021, 12, 1772 5 of 17Forests 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18

Figure 3. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa soil map.

Table 1. Site suitability criteria for JC plantation [63].

S.# Parameter Range/Limitation

Suitability Classes

Data Source Reference More Suitable

Moderate

Suitable Less Suitable

1 Elevation 0–1800 m <1500 m 1500 m–2100 m <0 and >2150 SRTM DEM [54]

2 Slope Not exceed 30° <15° 15°–30° >30° SRTM DEM [30]

4 Rainfall 250 mm–3000 mm 1000 mm–3000

mm

250 mm–1000

mm

<250 mm and >3000

mm NCEP Data [64]

5 Temperature 18 °C–28 °C 20 °C–28 °C 17 °C–20 °C <17 °C and >28 °C NCEP Data [65]

6 Soil Type

Aerated sandy, gravelly,

loamy or soil without/a

little clay content

sandy or Loamy,

gravelly, well-

drained soil

Stony or rocky

soil or a little

part of clay/salt

Clay soil or water-

logged

Harmonised

World Soil data

based (HWSB)

[62,63]

Figure 3. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa soil map.

2.3. Estimation of Water Footprint and Yield of JC Bioenergy Plantation

The data for the JC cultivation stage, i.e., crop phenology, irrigation, and field manage-ment, were collected from field experiments that took place at the University of Scienceand Technology, Bannu, Pakistan. The meteorological data were collected from regionalmeteorological stations located in various districts of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinceof Pakistan, as can be seen in Figure 5 and Table 2. The data regarding rainfall and themaximum and minimum temperature from each weather station was collected for the last30 years (1986 to 2016). Soil type data of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistanwas obtained from Harmonized World Soil Database (HWSB) [62], and then a soil typemap was generated with the help of ArcGIS version 10.3 software. The whole provincewas divided into various sub-regions based on climate and soil data by using the Thiessenpolygon method [66] as depicted in (Figure 3). For the soil characteristics of the KhyberPakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan, SPAW (soil-plant-air-water) computer software ver-sion 6.02.75 (United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Washington, DC, US) wasused [67]. The soil characteristics of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province were thickness(m), sand fraction (%), silt fraction, (%), clay fraction (%), bulk density (kg/dm3), organicmatter (wt.%), salinity (ds/m) stoniness (%), soil water data, permanent wilting point(PWP volume %), field capacity (FC), and saturation (sat volume %) saturated hydraulicconductivity (Ksat) (mm/day), all of which are summarised in (Table 2). Crop data such as(crop density (plant/ha), canopy cover, duration of flower (days), maximum rooting depth

Forests 2021, 12, 1772 6 of 17

(meter), harvest index (%), threshold temp (lower and upper ◦C, salinity (ds/m) and soilfertility stress, and irrigation data (irrigation schedule), e.g., irrigation water conductivity(ds/m) were also measured. All these data were entered in the AquaCrop FAO model, andsoftware was run for every meteorological station in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.The annual green/blue water footprint for the JC cultivation was estimated for the entireKhyber Pakhtunkhwa province using AquaCrop model version 6.1 developed by FAO(Food and Agriculture Organization) [68,69]. According to [70], blue water footprint isan indicator of freshwater use (surface and groundwater) for a person or communitydevelopment of goods and services. In comparison, green water footprint is the utilisa-tion of rainwater, which does not run off or refill the groundwater but is retained as soilmoisture within the soil. The blue and green water footprint of the JC crop was estimatedfollowing the global water footprint accounting standards [70]. The AquaCrop model ofFAO (version 6.1) was used to simulate the soil water balance and JC productivity [68,69].This model estimates the evapotranspiration (ET) and JC yield by simulating the dynamicsoil water balance and biomass growth (Equation (1)).

Forests 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18

Figure 4. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa slope.

2.3. Estimation of Water Footprint and Yield of JC Bioenergy Plantation

The data for the JC cultivation stage, i.e., crop phenology, irrigation, and field man-

agement, were collected from field experiments that took place at the University of Science

and Technology, Bannu, Pakistan. The meteorological data were collected from regional

meteorological stations located in various districts of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province

of Pakistan, as can be seen in Figure 5 and Table 2. The data regarding rainfall and the

maximum and minimum temperature from each weather station was collected for the last

30 years (1986 to 2016). Soil type data of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan

was obtained from Harmonized World Soil Database (HWSB) [62], and then a soil type

map was generated with the help of ArcGIS version 10.3 software. The whole province

was divided into various sub-regions based on climate and soil data by using the Thiessen

polygon method [66] as depicted in (Figure 3). For the soil characteristics of the Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan, SPAW (soil-plant-air-water) computer software version 6.02.75 (United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Washington D.C., US)

was used [67]. The soil characteristics of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province were thick-

Figure 4. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa slope.

Si = Ri + Ii + CR − ROi - Dr − ET i (1)

where S is soil water content (mm) on a day i, R is rainfall (mm), I is mean irrigation(mm), CR is the capillary rise (mm), RO is mean surface runoff, Dr is drainage (mm),

Forests 2021, 12, 1772 7 of 17

and ET is evapotranspiration [71]. The output of the AquaCrop simulation-crop growthcharacteristics and water fluxes were divided into blue and green parts using the methodintroduced by [72]. The blue and green components of JC crop water use (CWU) wereestimated by summing the blue and green ET over the JC crop growing period as shown inEquations (2) and (3).

CWUb =∑Tt=1

SbtSt

ETt × 10 (2)

CWUg =∑Tt=1

Sgt

StETt × 10 (3)

where CWUb and CWUg are blue and green water consumption (m3), Sbt and Sgt arechange in blue and green soil water stock over the growing season, and 10 is the conversionfactor from mm to m3. Ti = first day and tT = last day of the run of the AquaCrop model,the model was run 30 times for 30 years from 1986–2016. The WFb and WFg were obtainedby dividing CWU by the crop yield Y using Equations (4) and (5) [70].

WFb =CWUb

Y(4)

WFg =CWUg

Y(5)

Forests 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18

Figure 5. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa meteorological stations.

Table 2. Details of meteorological stations in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

Name of Meteorological Station Latitude Longitude

Chitral 35.85 71.78

Drosh 35.57 71.78

Dir 35.2 71.85

Pattan 35.06 73

Timergara 34.83 71.84

Saidu Shaif 34.73 72.35

Balakot 34.55 72.35

Abbottabad 34.18 73.25

Resal pur 34.07 71.97

Peshawar 34.02 71.56

Bannu 32.98 70.6

D.I.K 31.82 70.93

Figure 5. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa meteorological stations.

Forests 2021, 12, 1772 8 of 17

Table 2. Details of meteorological stations in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

Name of Meteorological Station Latitude Longitude

Chitral 35.85 71.78

Drosh 35.57 71.78

Dir 35.2 71.85

Pattan 35.06 73

Timergara 34.83 71.84

Saidu Shaif 34.73 72.35

Balakot 34.55 72.35

Abbottabad 34.18 73.25

Resal pur 34.07 71.97

Peshawar 34.02 71.56

Bannu 32.98 70.6

D.I.K 31.82 70.93

3. Results and Discussion

The site suitability for JC plantation in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, was deter-mined by two methods, i.e., one is based on meteorological parameters (temperature,rainfall, soil), elevation, and slope, and the other is based on JC water footprint and yield.The results of both methods are explained below.

3.1. Site Suitability for JC Plantation Based on Meteorological Parameters, Elevation and Slope

The site suitability for JC plantation is divided into three classes, i.e., “more suitable,”“moderately suitable”, and “less suitable” in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.This suitability was computed carefully using meteorological analysis based on parametersincluding the temperature, elevation, slope, rainfall, and soil type information of differentsites in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan [54,63]. The temperature is an impor-tant aspect that limits JC plantations [54]. The most suitable temperature for JC bioenergyplantation was (20–28 ◦C), the moderately suitable temperature was (17–20 ◦C), and theleast suitable temperature was (17 ◦C and >28 ◦C), as shown in Table 3 [53,54,65,73–77].Second is soil quality, which has some impact on JC site suitability. The more suitable soiltypes were loamy, sandy, or gravelly well-drained soil, while moderately suitable soil typeswere stony or rocky soil or a little bit of clay/salt, and less suitable soil was clay soil or wa-terlogged, as listed in Table 3 [65,77]. Rainfall is another factor that affects the JC plantation.Table 3 show the more suitable rainfall (1000 mm–3000 mm), moderately suitable rainfall(250 mm–1000 mm), and less suitable rainfall (250 mm and >3000 mm) for JC bioenergyplantation. The slope is one more factor that affects the JC bioenergy plantation. The mostsuitable slope was <15◦, the moderately suitable slope was 15◦–30◦, and the least suitableslope was >30◦ for JC bioenergy plantation, as summarised in Table 3 [30,78]. Elevation alsoaffects the suitable site for JC bioenergy plantation. As shown in Table 3 [26,50,54,65,77],the most suitable elevation for JC bioenergy plantation was 1500 m, the moderately suitableelevation was (1500 m–2100 m), and the least suitable elevation was (0 and >2150). Onthe basis of meteorological parameters (temperature, rainfall, soil), elevation and slope,the most suitable areas for JC bioenergy plantation in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provincewere found to be the Bannu, Karak, Hangu, Kurram, North Waziristan, Lakki Marwat,South Waziristan, D.I Khan, FR D.I Khan, Tank, Peshawar, Mohmand, Orakzai, Khyber,Kohat, Charsadda, Mardan, Swabi, and Nowshera districts, as summarized in Table 4 andcan be seen in Figure 6. In comparison, Buner, Mansehra, Haripur, and Abbottabad werefound to be the moderately suitable sites for JC bioenergy plantation, as summarized inTable 4. Based on climatological parameters, Lower Dir, Malakand, Bajaur, Upper Dir,

Forests 2021, 12, 1772 9 of 17

Swat, Shangla, Batagram, Kohistan, and Chitral were those areas which showed the leastsuitability for JC bioenergy plantation as summarised in Table 4 and can be seen in Figure 6.Based on these findings, the southern part of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province is moresuitable for JC bioenergy plantation than its northern part.

Forests 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

Sub soil Clay

loam 0.65 30 42 28 1.34 0.29 0.1 30 18 33 47.7 62.64

Fluvisols Top soil Loam 0.3 35 47 18 1.39 0.6 0.7 10 12.6 28.2 46.5 211.2

Sub soil Loam 1 37 45 18 1.41 0.4 0.5 11 11.6 26 41.9 221.28

Regosols Top soil Loam 0.3 43 35 22 1.4 0.77 0.3 17 14.8 28.2 45.6 179.28

Sub soil Loam 1 38 36 26 1.52 0.53 0.3 18 16.2 29.5 42.8 115.44

Figure 6. More suitable, moderate suitable and less suitable sites for JC bioenergy plantation in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,

Pakistan.

Table 4. More suitable, moderate suitable and less suitable districts for JC bioenergy plantation in

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

More Suitable Areas Moderate Suitable Areas Less Suitable Areas

D.I. Khan Buner Lower Dir

FR DIK Balakot Malakand Agency

Tank Mansehra Bajaur Agency

Peshawar Haripur Upper Dir

Mohmand Agency Abbottabad Swat

Figure 6. More suitable, moderate suitable and less suitable sites for JC bioenergy plantation inKhyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

Table 3. Soil characteristics of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan.

SoilType Horizons Texture

USDAThickness

(m)

SandFraction

(%)

SiltFraction

(%)

ClayFraction

(%)

BulkDensity(kg/dm3)

OrganicMatter(wt.%)

Salinity(ds/m)

Stoniness(%)

Soil Water

PWP FC SAT Ksat

(Volume %) (mm/day)

CalcisolsTop soil Loam 0.3 39 40 21 1.32 0.7 1.6 4 13.5 27 46 196.5Sub soil Loam 0.7 36 40 24 1.42 0.29 1.6 3 15 29 41 131.5

CambisolsTop soil Loam 0.3 42 36 22 1.37 1 0.1 9 14 27 42 100Sub soil Loam 0.7 40 35 25 1.39 0.4 0.1 12 15.3 28 41 116

RockOut-crop

Top soil Loam 0.3 43 34 23 1.3 1.4 0.1 26 14.7 28 43 151.2

Sub soil Clayloam 0.7 42 30 28 1.37 0.3 0.7 3 17.1 29 41 118.56

Liptosols Top soil Loam 0.3 43 34 23 1.38 0.37 0.1 26 15.4 28.7 45.6 189.12

Sub soil Clayloam 0.65 30 42 28 1.34 0.29 0.1 30 18 33 47.7 62.64

FluvisolsTop soil Loam 0.3 35 47 18 1.39 0.6 0.7 10 12.6 28.2 46.5 211.2Sub soil Loam 1 37 45 18 1.41 0.4 0.5 11 11.6 26 41.9 221.28

Regosols Top soil Loam 0.3 43 35 22 1.4 0.77 0.3 17 14.8 28.2 45.6 179.28Sub soil Loam 1 38 36 26 1.52 0.53 0.3 18 16.2 29.5 42.8 115.44

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Table 4. More suitable, moderate suitable and less suitable districts for JC bioenergy plantation inKhyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

More Suitable Areas Moderate Suitable Areas Less Suitable Areas

D.I. Khan Buner Lower DirFR DIK Balakot Malakand Agency

Tank Mansehra Bajaur AgencyPeshawar Haripur Upper Dir

Mohmand Agency Abbottabad SwatOrakzai Agency ChitralKhyber Agency Shangla

Kohat BatagramCharsadda Drosh

Mardan KohistanSwabi

Nowshera

3.2. Site Suitability for JC Plantation Based on Water Footprint (WF) and Yield of JC Seeds

A suitable site identified for JC plantation in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is based on thewater footprint and yield of the JC seeds. The results of the AquaCrop FAO model showedthe yield and water footprint (WF green and WF blue) of JC crops in different districts ofthe Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan, as can be seen in Table 5. The yield andWF in the Bannu, Karak, Hangu, Kurram Agency, North Waziristan, Lakki Marwat, andSouth Waziristan districts were found to be the same as, in these districts, the temperature,soil, elevation, slope, and rainfall are almost similar. Therefore, the yield and WF for eachdistrict is 10 tonnes/ha, WF green 264 m3/ton, and WF blue 825 m3/ton, respectively. Theyield in Dera Ismail Khan and its frontier regions and Tank were also found to be similar(10 tonnes/ha) and the WF result for each district was also the same (WF green 214 m3/tonand WF blue 846 m3/ton) because these three districts have the same climatic conditions,edaphic factors, elevation, and slope. In Peshawar, Mohmand, Orakzai, Khyber, Kohat, andCharsadda, due to having similar meteorological conditions, the yield was239 m3/ton andWF blue 869 m3/ton) were also the same for each district. The yield in the Buner districtwas 5 tonnes/ha, WF green was 757 m3/ton, and WF blue was 926 m3/ton. The yield andWF in Balakot Mansehra were the same as in Buner. The same yield (4 ton/ha) and the sameWF (WF green 799 m3/ton and WF blue 1016 m3/ton) were calculated for the districts ofMansehra, Haripur, and Abbottabad. For the districts of Lower Dir, Malakand, and Bajaur,the yield (3 ton/ha) and WF (WF green 384 m3/ton and WF blue 1688 m3/ton) were alsosimilar for these areas. In Upper Dir, the yield was 3 tons/ha, and the WF was (WF green941 m3/ton and WF blue 1528 m3/ton). The same yield (3 tonnes/ha) and the same WF(WF green 384 m3/ton and WF blue 1528 m3/ton) were assessed for the districts of Swat,Shangla, Batagram, Kohistan, and Chitral, because these areas have similar meteorologicalconditions, such as the same soil type, same frequent slope, and elevation. The yield wasat a maximum in the districts of Bannu, Karak, Hangu, Kurram, North Waziri-stan, LakkiMarwat, South Waziristan, and Dera Ismail Khan and its frontier regions, Tank, Peshawar,Mohmand, Orakzai, Khyber, Kohat, Charsadda, Mardan, Swabi, and Nowshera whereasless WF (Green and Blue) was reported, respectively. Therefore, these are the areas thatare most suitable for JC bioenergy plantation, because in these areas the yield is maximumwith less WF (green and blue). The yield in Buner, Mansehra, Haripur, and Abbottabadwere less than the above district and WF (Green and Blue) were high confirming that theseare areas which are moderately suitable for JC bioenergy plantation. Based on JC cropyield and WF (green and blue), Lower Dir, Malakand, Bajaur, Upper Dir, Swat, Shangla,Batagram, Kohistan, and Chitral are areas that showed less JC seed yield and high-waterfootprint as compared to the most suitable site. Consequently, these areas are less suitablefor JC bioenergy plantation in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. The resultsalso exhibited that the yield of the JC crop was decreasing from the southern part of Khyber

Forests 2021, 12, 1772 11 of 17

Pakhtunkhwa province to the northern part, whereas WF was increasing accordingly. Thisindicated that the southern part of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is more suitable as comparedto its northern part. Moreover, based on climatological conditions such as temperature, soil,slope, elevation, and rainfall, the northern part is less suitable for JC bioenergy plantationthan the southern part. The yield and WF (green and blue) also revealed the same trend.Thus, results of both the criteria for identification of suitable site (climatological parametersand yield and water footprints of the JC crop) proved that the southern part of the KhyberPakhtunkhwa province is more suitable for JC bioenergy plantation than its northern part.

Table 5. Water footprint and yield of JC in different districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

District Name WFgreen (m3/ton) WFblue (m3/ton) Yield (ton/ha)

Bannu 264 825 10Karak 264 825 10Hangu 264 825 10

Kurram Agency 264 825 10North Waziristan 264 825 10

Lakki Marwat 264 825 10South Waziristan 264 825 10

D.I.Khan 214 846 10FR DIK 214 846 10

Tank 214 846 10Peshawar 258 851 8

Mohmand Agency 258 851 8Orakzai Agency 258 851 8Khyber Agency 258 851 8

Kohat 258 851 8Charsada 258 851 8Mardan 239 869 8Swabi 239 869 8

Nowshehra 239 869 8Buner 757 926 5

Balakot 757 926 5Mansehra 799 1016 4Haripur 799 1016 4

Abbottabad 799 1016 4Lower Dir 384 1688 3

Malakand Agency 384 1688 3Bajaur Agency 384 1688 3

Upper Dir 941 1528 3Swat 384 1688 3

Shangla 384 1688 3Batagram 384 1688 3Kohistan 384 1688 3

Drosh 384 1688 3Chitral 384 1688 3

4. Discussion

JC as a biofuel plant has been reported to have various desired characteristics such asfast-growing, easy cultivation, drought tolerance, insect and pest resistance, and high oilcontent seeds (27–40%) that are good quality for biodiesel and bio kerosene fuel production.The JC is a hardy tree with great oil, protein, and little water demand, so it can be plantedto recover desert and degraded soils. The JC crop is easy to cultivate. The drought-resistantplant can be grown on marginal soil and wilderness areas without interfering with existingfood crops. The JC plant could provide a percentage of the present sustainable biofueldemand with minimal environmental impacts [78]. The crude oil from JC has potential forthe manufacturing of biodiesel, with little acidity and more oxidation stability in contrastto soybean oil. It has a lower viscosity than castor oil and has better cold qualities thanoil from palm [79]. Therefore, JC oil is able to be directly used in diesel engines [80].

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Biofuels such as biodiesel are used by several countries, such as Italy, Australia, the UnitedStates, Germany, Austria, and Brazil, as this trend is predicted to develop continuously andhas been leading to more biofuel consumption [81,82]. Biodiesel has perhaps gained thegreatest interest of all the biofuels because of its chemical structure and energy content [83].Pakistan, with a population of over 200 million people, is an emerging, developing, anddensely populated country [84]. Total energy demand in Pakistan has risen in recent yearsand is expected to follow the same pattern as many developing economies [85]. Mainenergy supplies have increased by more than 90% in recent decades, from 34 million tonnesof oil equivalent (MTOE) in 1992, to 64.7 in 2012 [86]. Pakistan is an energy deficientcountry, and an alternate source of energy is an urgent need. Biodiesel is a prototype inPakistan and is a good source of renewable energy. Pakistan’s desire to blend biodieselinto fossil diesel up to 2025 and a huge amount of large-scale research work has beendedicated to this topic in different universities and organisations throughout the country.Considering the deadline of the year 2025 for blending biodiesel into fossil diesel, thegovernment of Pakistan has mandated that 10% of the country’s use of fossil diesel bereplaced by biodiesel [87]. However, to achieve this target, huge quantities of biomassfeedstock will be needed, such as JC seeds, castor seeds, soya bean seeds, etc.

Therefore, the major goal of the present study was to identify suitable sites for JCbioenergy plantation in the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, using meteorolog-ical parameters, elevation, slope, blue-green water footprint, and the yield of the JC plant,to provide scientific information to policymakers, the government, and the private sector inorder to improve JC crop and yield management. Our results were in line with the previousresearch, where similar environmental parameters were considered for the identification ofsuitable sites for JC plantation [30,53,54,63,65,66,73,74,76,77,88]. These studies indicatedmore suitable, moderately suitable, and less suitable temperatures, soil quality, rainfall,slope, and elevation for JC bioenergy plantations in different countries. [89] in SouthwestChina, [53] in Mexico and continental Central America, [76] in Zimbabwe, [73] in Yunnanprovince, [77] in Brazil, [54] in China, and [64] in Rajasthan, India, conducted studies onsite suitability for JC bioenergy plantations globally. Temperature, soil quality, rainfall,slope, and elevation are the basic environmental factors that have a tremendous effect onsuitable sites for JC bioenergy plantations. Ref. [63] conducted a similar study, indicatingthe same suitability criteria for JC bioenergy plantations in Thatta tehsil of Pakistan’sSindh province. The results showed that when we go to the northern part of the KhyberPakhtunkhwa province, the yield is decreasing, and the WF is increasing, as summarisedand shown in Table 5. According to Refs. [32,90–92], the water consumption is mostlydue to the irrigation of the JC bioenergy plantation, which is necessary to sustain highproductivity throughout the cultivation phase of JC crop growth. Ref. [93] calculated thewater footprint of bioenergy plantations. Wani et al. [94] also conducted studies on thehydrological consequences of cultivating Jatropha crops in degradable wastelands andecosystem trade-offs at a watershed scale in India. Ref. [95] conducted a comprehensivestudy on a field assessment of the agronomic performance and water use of JC in SouthAfrica. Ref. [96] conducted a study on the water footprint of bioenergy from Jatropha curcas.Similar studies were conducted on the water footprint of JC by [53,70,93,97–102] in differentcountries. Our results were in accordance with the findings of these studies. A similar studywas conducted by [55] on suitability analysis for JC cultivation in Ethiopia using a spatialmodelling approach. Suitable locations for JC cultivation in Ethiopia were identified usingGIS (Geographical Information Systems) and the Spatial Analytical Hierarchy Process(SAHP). Weighted overlay analysis results for biophysical suitability evaluation using spa-tial modelling methods identified 15.07 percent (166,082 km2), 76.57 percent (844,040 km2),and 8.36 percent (km2) of the land as highly suitable, moderately suitable, and not suitablefor JC cultivation, respectively. Ref. [50] conducted a comprehensive study in China onthe assessment of bioenergy potential on marginal land. According to the findings, thetotal area of marginal land usable for significant energy plant development was around43.75 million ha. Similarly, Ref. [77] also conducted a study on the agro-climatic zoning

Forests 2021, 12, 1772 13 of 17

of JC as a subside for crop planning and implementation in Brazil. Ref. [73] conducted acomprehensive survey on the investigation of the geographical distribution and evaluationof JC in Yunnan province, China. Another study was carried out by [75] on the division ofsuitable arable planting areas for JC in Sichuan Province, China.

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

This study was conducted on site suitability for Jatropha curcas (JC) bioenergy planta-tion in northwest Pakistan. The site suitability for JC plantation in Khyber Pakhtunkhwawas found based on meteorological parameters (temperature, rainfall, and soil), elevation,slope, JC water footprint, and seed yield. Globally, numerous studies have been conductedon site suitability for bioenergy plantations. However, no study has been conducted onthe site suitability of bioenergy plantations such as JC in Pakistan. The results of the sitesuitability modelling of the present study found that the southern part of the KhyberPakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan is more suitable for JC bioenergy plantation than itsnorthern part. The present study provides a benchmark or baseline for future researchwork to investigate suitable sites for other bioenergy plants based on the climatologicalconditions, water footprint, and yield in Pakistan. The JC plant is a multipurpose, fast-growing tree that is easy to cultivate and has good pest and drought resistance. From theabove results and the importance of the JC plant, it is highly recommended that it should beplanted under the Billion Tree Afforestation Project (BTAP), Ten Billion Tree AfforestationProject (10-BTAP), and Green Pakistan Project recently launched by the Federal governmentof Pakistan.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.K., F.I. and M.H.; Data curation, F.K., F.R. and D.A.F.;Formal analysis, F.K., T.K., F.I. and M.H.; Funding acquisition, S.U. and F.K.; Investigation, S.U., R.H.,F.I. and S.G.N.; Methodology, M.H., S.U., T.K., F.R., F.A. and D.A.F.; Project administration, R.H.and F.A.; Resources, S.U. and D.A.F.; Software, T.K., S.U., M.H., N.K. and D.A.F.; Supervision, M.H.;Validation, S.U., T.K., N.K. and S.G.N.; Visualization, S.U., F.R., N.K. and F.A.; Writing—originaldraft, F.K., S.U. and M.H.; Writing—review & editing, S.U., R.H., S.G.N. and M.H. All authors haveread and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: The authors are very thankful to the GIS and Space Applications in Geosciences Laboratoryfor providing financial and technical support. This Centre is recently established at the NationalCentre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar with the partnership of the Shaheed BenazirBhutto University, Sheringal, Dir Upper, an affiliated laboratory of the National Centre of GIS andSpace Applications (NCGSA), Institute of Space Technology, Islamabad, established under a PC1project of the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan.

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors have declared no conflict of interest in the publication of this article.

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