HOW DO FEMALE MUSLIM COLLEGE STUDENTS WHO MAINTAIN THEIR

ISLAMIC IDENTITY RECEIVE SUPPORT?: A QUALITATIVE STUDY

by

ELIZABETH SHAH, MAT

DISSERTATION Presented to the Graduate Faculty of

California State University, Bakersfield in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION IN EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

COMMITTEE MEMBERS:

John Stark, Ph.D., Chair Randolph Schultz, Ph.D.,

Emmanuel Mourtzanos, Ph.D.

CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, BAKERSFIELD School of Social Sciences and Education

August 2019

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my family. First, to my husband, Richard, for his unwavering support and encouragement. Also to my two older children, Farhana and Uthman, for never letting me quit and taking over my parental duties so that I could focus on my studies. Similarly, to my youngest child, Layan, who was born in the second year of the doctoral program. Her beautiful smile always brightened my day and got me through the tough times. Finally, I dedicate this to my mother who was always there for my family while I was in class. She made sure that my husband and children were fed and taken care of, and for that I will forever be grateful. My family truly was my inspiration and motivation to help me complete this program.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Of course, this incredible journey would not be possible without the assistance of my

Lord, so to Him I am most thankful. I would also like to express my gratitude and appreciation

to all my professors who helped me through this process. Additionally, I would like to thank all

my cohort members. I would not have been able to get through this without their constant

support and encouragement.

I owe my deepest gratitude to the chair of my dissertation committee, Dr. John Stark. For

three years, he has continually encouraged and inspired me with his optimism and enthusiasm.

He believed in me when sometimes I did not believe in myself. As I struggled to figure out my

topic, he listened to all my ideas and helped me narrow them down to an area of research that I

was most passionate about. I can honestly say that without his support, this study would not

have been possible. I truly appreciate all his patience and assistance throughout this process.

I would also like to thank Dr. Randolph Schultz. I came to him last minute and asked if

he would serve on my committee. Without any hesitation, he graciously accepted. I would also

like to thank him for his constructive suggestions, which have been essential in helping to guide

my study and develop my ideas.

Finally, I would like to also acknowledge Dr. Emmanuel Mourtzanos, who also served on

my dissertation committee. I am particularly thankful for his willingness to give his time so

generously to critique my writing and offer valuable recommendations. His insights and editing

advice have undeniably been helpful towards the completion of my dissertation.

August 2019

iii

HOW DO FEMALE MUSLIM COLLEGE STUDENTS WHO MAINTAIN THEIR

ISLAMIC IDENTITY RECEIVE SUPPORT?: A QUALITATIVE STUDY

Elizabeth Shah, Ed.D. California State University, Bakersfield, 2019

Supervising Professor: John Stark, Ph.D.

The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine and understand how female Muslim

college students who choose to embrace their Islamic identity while in college receive support.

The data for this qualitative research study has been collected through interviews from nine

Muslim women attending universities in the Western United States. All students were

undergraduates. They each maintained Islamic identity, which entailed wearing a hijab and

modestly covering all their bodies except for hands and face.

The results of this study indicated that Muslim students do feel supported in their schools,

particularly by their peers, the faculty, and administrators in their diverse academic settings.

This study also identified areas where Muslim female students who maintain their Islamic

identities could be further supported. The data suggested that there is a need for a place for

students to pray and that a meditation room can serve that purpose for people of any faith so they

may fulfill their religious obligations. This study also indicated that students have the need for

an active organization for Muslim students to come together, such as the MSA. The results of

the study also showed that Muslim students wanted inclusion, Islamic awareness, and

understanding towards them and their religion. Finally, the study found that students need a safe

place to go to if they are feeling vulnerable or just need someone to reach out and talk to.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ iii

Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vi

Chapter One: Introduction to the Study ...........................................................................................1

Chapter Two: Literature Review....................................................................................................14

Chapter Three: Research Method ..................................................................................................36

Chapter Four: Results ....................................................................................................................43

Chapter Five: Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations ....................................................65

Appendices.....................................................................................................................................77

References....................................................................................................................................111

Vita

v

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Participants’ Characteristics and Demographics....................................................46

vi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Presently, there are roughly over 2.5 million Muslims in America (Pew Research Center,

2010), yet there is little research available about Muslims, particularly women, who have chosen

to embrace their Islamic identity while pursuing higher education in the United States (Cole &

Ahmadi, 2010). Similar to everyone else, Muslims represent an essential part of a diversity-

enriched campus community (Cole & Ahmadi, 2010). It is surprising, therefore, that the research

is lacking. Nasir and Al-Amin (2006) also wondered why the literature is lacking especially

since religion is integral to the identity of students. Nasir and Al-Amin state that “religion not

only defines us in terms of our participation in practices and membership in certain communities

within the context of our societies, but it also defines us in relation to God and the universe” (p.

23). Furthermore, Bowman and Smedley (2012) mentioned that “university student satisfaction

is related to the social status of one’s religion (or lack thereof)” (p. 756).

Additionally, in recent years, Muslims have been portrayed in a negative light which has

incited fear amongst both Muslims and non-Muslims alike (Suri & Wu, 2017). Possibly due to

negative media attention, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has reported a rise of

Islamophobia and hate crimes against Muslims in recent years. College and university campuses

are not immune to exposure to hate crimes (“Hate Crimes,” n.d.). In fact, the United States

Department of Justice mentioned that, currently, there is not a single campus that is protected

from hate crimes (“Hate Crime Laws,” 2017). According to Suri and Wu (2017), after

September 11, 2001 when a terrorist attack committed by Al-Qaeda in the United States, Sikh-

American groups have faced an increased number of incidents of discrimination since their

turbans and long beards make them more visible than other groups of minorities (Suri & Wu).

Similarly, this may also impact Muslim women since they are easily identified by their religious

1

dress, and they often experience discrimination more than men do (Hyder & Hussain, 2015).

Therefore, studying the experiences of Muslim women is of vital importance in order for

university and college administrators to maintain a more tolerant and informed college

environment.

This chapter presents background related to the college experiences of women in higher

education who have chosen to maintain their Islamic identity. This chapter will also address and

identify problems related to this area of research as well as its significance and purpose which

helped guide my research questions. It will then continue with the theoretical foundation and the

nature of the study followed by definitions, assumptions, scopes, and delimitations. Finally, the

chapter will conclude with the limitations and significance of the study.

Background of the Study

Even though Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world (Lipka, 2010), it is often

ignored and widely misunderstood (Callaway, 2010). According to Calloway,

misrepresentations about Islam have caused many non-Muslims to have negative perceptions

about Muslims and Islam, particularly in the wake of September 11, 2001, and the Boston

Marathon bombing, which was a terrorist attack in America that occurred on April 15, 2003

(“Boston Marathon Bombing,” n.d.), both of which have incited fear among non-Muslims and

Muslims alike. As a result of these two events, Muslims have been portrayed negatively in the

media, and many Muslim Americans have felt the repercussions of religious profiling and

Islamophobia (Shammas, 2015). In his research, Love (2009) explored the roots of

Islamophobic discourse and described it as being racially motivated discrimination and bigotry

directed towards Muslims and those who resemble Muslims.

2

Additionally, unfavorable portrayals of Muslims in the media have left many feeling

discriminated against, alienated, and rejected by non-Muslims in the United States and in other

western countries (Bassiouni, 2015). The media often portrays Muslim males as terrorists, and

Muslim women are generally negatively stereotyped as being oppressed. As mentioned by Al-

Wazni (2015), on account of these negative portrayals of Islam, Muslims are often victims of

discrimination and violent hate crimes, which lead to feelings of insecurity. Similarly, Cole and

Ahmadi (2010) stated that as a result of events such as the attack on September 11, 2001, and the

political climate in the United States, Islamophobia and xenophobia have increased and have

become more frequent in American society.

Unfortunately, the rise of discrimination has been encountered by many Muslims and

“Muslim-like” people around the nation (Love, 2009, p. 402). In a comprehensive research

study about Muslims with nearly 60,000 Muslim Americans in their sample of participants, the

Pew Research Center (2007) reported that over 50% of their respondents felt it was difficult to be

Muslim in the United States, particularly after the attacks on September 11th. In another study

about perceived discrimination using a sample of 177 individuals who were of Arab or Middle

Eastern descent, a staggering 77% of the participants reported having been subjected to offensive

comments simply because of their ethnicity (Awad, 2010). Hodge, Zidan, and Husain (2016)

reported that Muslims who have been called offensive names are more likely to suffer symptoms

of clinical depression compared to those who have not been called offensive names.

Furthermore, perceptions of Muslim women in America have dramatically changed since

September 11, 2001. According to a study of Muslim women’s experiences in the American

workplace, since September 11, 2001, Muslim women living in the United States are continually

subject to subtle acts of discrimination and prejudice such as menacing looks or intentional

3

avoidance (Hyder, Parrington, & Hussain, 2015). To further complicate the matter, the study

also indicated that Muslim women are easily identified because of their religious dress, and they

often experience discrimination at a higher rate than men.

Although there is not a concrete estimate of the number of Muslims living in the United

States, the Pew Research Center (2011) reported that there are almost 2.6 million Muslim

residents. As Islam grows, the number of Muslim women pursuing higher education also

increases; it is, therefore, not unusual to find Muslim women on many university campuses in the

United States (Calloway, 2010). In fact, according to Calloway, the Muslim presence in

universities is vital to a diversified university student body. Thus, Muslims are an essential part

of universities all over the nation, yet campus life has been challenging for some Muslim

women, particularly for those who maintain their Islamic identity (Seggie & Sanford, 2010).

Surprisingly, the literature is lacking in research centered on Muslim women who maintain their

religious identity while studying in universities (Cole & Ahmadi, 2010).

Problem Statement

The research on Muslim women in higher education is essential, especially since

September 11, 2001, the Boston Marathon bombing, the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, and the

rise of the current political climate. On account of these events, many Muslim Americans have

felt the ramifications of religious profiling and Islamophobia (Shammas, 2015). According to

Mishra and Shirazi (2010), due to media misrepresentations of Islam, Muslim women in the

United States are not only stereotyped but are oftentimes seen as victims of oppression, which

leads to feelings of confusion related to openly expressing their faith by wearing the hijab. The

media has also represented Muslims as terrorists, and “the image of the veiled Muslim woman

became the symbolic image of oppression and violence” (Al-Wazni, 2015, p. 326). As

4

mentioned by Al-Wazni, on account of these negative portrayals of Muslims, they are often the

targets of hate crimes by non-Muslims, which results in feelings of insecurity.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative study is to identify and understand how female Muslim

college students who choose to embrace their Islamic identity while in college receive support.

To restate Cole and Ahmadi (2010), since Muslim women who practice hijab in higher education

are increasing, this study may allow an opportunity to understand their perceptions as minority

students, especially considering the current political climate. This is necessary in order for

school officials and policymakers to ensure a tolerant and safe environment for all students.

Research Questions

The focus of this study is to examine the support offered to, or needed by, female Muslim

students who choose to maintain their Islamic identity while in college. According to an article

written for BBC, maintaining Islamic identity requires females covering their hair with hijab and

to wearing loose-fitting clothing which covers all of the body, except for their hands and face

(“Hijab,” 2003). Challenges faced by these students will be identified in hopes of helping

administrators and school officials become more informed so they can work towards ensuring a

safe and tolerable educational environment. Therefore, this study will focus on three research

questions:

RQ1: How well do Muslim female college students who maintained their Islamic

identity perceive they were supported while in college?

RQ2: How do Muslim college students who maintained their Islamic identity perceive

they have not been supported while in college?

5

RQ3: In which ways do Muslim female college students who maintained Islamic identity

perceive colleges can better support them?

Theoretical Frameworks

Social identity theory suggests that the self-identity of individuals is informed by their

peers and those with whom they associate (Turner and Tajfel, 1986). Turner and Tajfel explained

that people do not have personal selfhoods; rather, they have multiple selves and identities

depending on the peer group(s) to which they belong. Consequently, in varying social contexts,

individuals may act differently depending on with which group they are associated. College and

university campuses nationwide have students who belong to many groups and often struggle

with having more than one identity. This theory can provide insight and understanding into the

complexities and challenges faced by minority students in higher education in the United States.

For example, the female Muslim students in America not only belong to their religious group but

also to the group of their nationality and to their student communities. Finding the balance of

their multiple identities as Muslims and Americans could present struggles and internal conflicts

as college university students (Mir, 2011; Vyas, 2008; Sallee, 2013; Zimmerman, 2014).

Along with Turner and Tafjel’s (1986) social identity theory, Turner’s (1985) self-

categorization theory is similarly relevant to this particular study. The self-categorization theory

posits that a person can identify both as an individual with his/her own set of unique personality

traits and also as a member of a social group by taking on the characteristics associated with that

group (Turner & Reynolds, 2012). As female Muslim students enter college, they identify both

as individuals and with the groups to which they belong, whether those are familial, cultural, or

religious. As college students, they start identifying with even more groups, such as the clubs to

which they belong, honor societies, and/or sports teams. However, when value differences

6

among these groups surface, students may begin to feel conflicted internally. More about both of

these theories will be further discussed in Chapter 2 of this study.

In addition to Turner and Tafjel’s (1986) theories, this study also examines integrated

threat theory (Stephan & Stephan, 2000). This theory was of particular importance since it

suggested how prejudice arises among different social groups. The original theory consisted of

four parts which included realistic threats, symbolic threats, intergroup anxiety, and negative

stereotypes (Stephan & Stephan, 2000). Chapter 2 focuses on each of these threats and how it is

relevant to this particular study.

Collectively, all three theories help to explain the barriers that female Muslim students

face as college students. Both the social identity theory and social group theory help to

understand the complexities of Muslim female students who belong to multiple groups while

trying to maintain their individual identity. Integrated threat theory further helps to understand

and identify the prejudices faced by these students from other social groups. This creates a

framework for this study in order to recognize the struggles and challenges faced by female

Muslim students so as to identify where services could be improved or maintained to better

support these students.

Nature of the Study

This qualitative study was conducted by the researcher using the phenomenological

approach. The phenomenological approach was chosen in order to address the support needs of

a group of Muslim women in higher education who decided to maintain their Islamic identity by

wearing the hijab while in college. The Center for Innovation in Research and Teaching (CIRT,

n.d.) describes phenomenology as the attempt to comprehend and possibly explain the cultural

behavior of a group where the researcher can also identify areas of support offered and needed

7

by colleges. This approach seemed most fitting given that the researcher used a small sample

size.

In order to capture those experiences, participants were selected from members of

Muslim Student Associations (MSAs) at multiple public universities in the Western United

States. They consisted of undergraduate students who maintained their Islamic identity while

practicing hijab and dressing modestly. Interviews were conducted by the researcher, who was

also a Muslim female and who similarly maintained her Islamic identity. She used a semi-

structured approach when interviewing her participants. In order for students to be able to

respond authentically, the participants of the interviews were assured anonymity and

confidentiality, and the researcher avoided asking questions that were leading or biased. The

interviews were conducted in person in a convenient and comfortable setting. Finally, the

interviews were transcribed, coded, and examined in order to find common themes and to

classify them using a phenomenological approach.

Definitions

This section defines words used in the literature review. The words are presented in the

context understood by most Muslims. The Arabic words are translated and defined according to

the usage of the terms by the researcher who is also a practicing Muslim.

College: This term will be used for 4-year colleges and/or universities.

Hadith: According to the online edition of Encyclopedia Britannica, hadith has been

defined as a:

record of the traditions or sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, revered and received as a

major source of religious law and moral guidance, second only to the authority of

the Qurʾān, the holy book of Islam. It might be defined as the biography of Muhammad

8

perpetuated by the long memory of his community for their exemplification and

obedience. The development of Hadith is a vital element during the first three centuries of

Islamic history, and its study provides a broad index to the mind and ethos of Islam

(Cragg, 2017, para. 1).

Hijab: A veil or headscarf worn by many Muslim women (Galadari, 2012). According

to Hyder and Hussain (2015),

Traditionally and in the Qur’an, hijab means a covering or veil that not only covers parts

of the body but also metaphorically is a covering for the eyes and heart for both men and

women. Hijab of the eyes and heart means that men and women cannot look at each other

(other than their own spouse) in a lustful way. Traditionally, hijab is meant to harbor

respect among and between men and women (p. 173).

Islam: The religion of Muslims which is comprised of about 2 billion people. It has been

identified as the second largest religion in the world following Christianity. According to an

article entitled “Islam” (2018), the religion was revealed to Muhammad and began in the 7th

century in Makkah, which is in modern-day Saudi Arabia. Lipka (2017) has identified Islam as

the fastest growing religion in the world.

Islamophobia: According to the United Kingdom’s Runnymede Trust Report (1991),

which first published the term, “Islamophobia refers to unfounded hostility towards Islam. It

refers also to the practical consequence of such hostility in unfair discrimination against Muslim

individuals and communities, and to the exclusion of Muslims from mainstream political and

social affairs” (p. 1).

Qu’ran: The holy book of the Muslims revealed by Angel Gabriel to Prophet

Muhammad.

9

Assumptions

In order to conduct a meaningful study, there were several assumptions that had to be

made. The first assumption was that the participants were willing to openly discuss and provide

their honest responses when asked about their personal college experiences. Included in this

assumption was that the participants would feel at ease since the researcher who was conducting

the interviews similarly maintained her Islamic identity through modest clothing and hijab. This

assumption was necessary in order to ensure that the participants could candidly discuss their

experiences without feeling that they were being judged. The next assumption was that students

understood that their participation was voluntary and of their own free will. This was to ensure

that students realized that they were not obliged to be a part of the study, and they could if at any

time they wanted to, opt out. The final assumption was that the participants’ feedback from the

interviews in the study would be beneficial in order to inspire and implement positive changes so

as to create a more tolerant and safer environment for all students.

Scope and Delimitations

In order to study the college experiences of female Muslim students who choose to

maintain their Islamic identity by wearing hijab and dressing modestly, this study was comprised

of traditional-aged undergraduate students of full-time status studying at public universities in

the Western United States. All students were Muslim who maintain Islamic identity by wearing

hijab and dressing modestly. The criteria for dressing modestly was that the participants’ bodies

were covered, and only their faces and hands were apparent to the opposite gender. The

participants selected were all citizens of the United States, fluent in English, and had already

completed at least one semester in their university. Ethnicity was not considered as long as the

student practiced the Islamic faith.

10

The scope of this study was limited to a specific type of student in order to meet the

needs of the study’s research questions. Male students were excluded from this study since

female students are more recognizable as Muslim because of their religious attire. Additionally,

it is beyond the scope of this study to investigate international students or graduate students

because the focus of the research is targeting traditional college-age students and their

experiences as undergraduates. Also, for convenience, only students from a few universities in

the Western United States were included.

Limitations

Limitations of this study include the small sample being collected from only a few state

universities in the Western United States. Therefore, these women may not be representative of

the entire population of Muslim females in the United States who maintain an Islamic identity.

These students voluntarily participated and seemed to have confidence and pride in their faith.

They understood that they were providing their own experiences as college students and were

asked not to generalize their experiences.

An additional limitation is that this study was inspired by the researcher’s own

experience as a Muslim college student. She did not start wearing hijab until her final year in

college, and she noticed that her college experience changed from when she was not wearing

hijab. However, the results of this study were based solely on the experiences and perspectives

of the participants, and the researcher made sure to set aside any biases in order to engage in and

receive authentic responses during the course of the interviews.

The researcher as the interviewer may similarly have added a further limitation. Since

the researcher was also a Muslim female who maintained her Islamic identity, her presence may

have influenced her participants’ responses. As a result, the researcher had to be cognizant of

11

potential acquiescence response bias, which is the tendency to respond in agreement (Newby,

2014). Hence, the researcher avoided yes/no questions and used open-ended questions in her

interview protocol.

Significance of the Study

After both September 11, 2001 and the Boston Marathon bombing, there has been a rise

of hate crimes against Muslims. College campuses were not immune. Just recently, an online

news article by WCPO Cincinnati (2018) reported that a Muslim student at Metropolitan

Community College in Kansas City was allegedly both verbally and physically assaulted in what

was described as a potential hate crime. Since women who wear hijab are easily identified as

Muslims, it is imperative that a study of this nature is conducted in order to understand any

barriers Muslim women may face while attending college. This will allow both policy-makers

and college administrators to ensure a well-informed, safe, and tolerant learning environment

where Muslim women can have similar college experiences and opportunities as the rest of the

student body.

Additionally, it is also vital to recognize and study the presence of Muslim women on

college campuses, especially those who maintain their religious identity while attending their

university since they represent a unique and often misunderstood minority. Not only do they

have to break down stereotypes and negative perceptions, but they also have to face challenges

not faced by other women in universities. Furthermore, with Islam on the rise in the United

States, the experiences of Muslim women on college campuses cannot be ignored. Additionally,

this will add to the literature that is currently lacking on the experiences of Muslim women who

wear the hijab while studying in their universities.

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Summary and Transition

The beginning of this chapter presented the background of the study. It identified the

struggles Muslims have faced after September 11, 2001, and the Boston Marathon bombings in

order to present the problem statement, which included that there was a huge gap in the literature

in regards to the experience of Muslim women in college. The chapter then discussed the

purpose of the study which entailed informing college administration and policy-makers on how

to ensure a more tolerant and safe campus environment for all students. Research Questions

were posed followed by an introduction of the theoretical frameworks used to guide this study.

In addition, the nature of the study was described and definitions significant to the study were

provided. Finally, the assumptions, scopes, delimitations, and limitations of the study were

presented and explained.

In Chapter 2, the literature review will focus on the experiences of Muslim women who

attend college or university. The literature will be relevant to Muslim women who both do and

do not practice the wearing of the hijab (Islamic veiling) while pursuing higher education. The

primary focus in this review will be of Muslim female college students, their experiences, and

the challenges they may encounter.

13

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

With Islam on the rise (Lipka, 2017), the presence of female Muslim students has become

more visible on college and university campuses. Unlike people of other faiths, this particular

group of students are commanded to wear their identity through their modest attire and hijab. As

the literature suggests, although this has many benefits, such as being protected from sexual

advances, wearing hijab can also conjure up negative impacts. The literature mentions that

students have faced discrimination, been targeted by hate crimes, and even struggled with their

own identity (e.g., Rauf, 2016; Awad, 2009; & Muedini, 2009). Although colleges and

universities value diversity, they are challenged in trying to guarantee that their diverse student

body is protected from prejudice and hate crimes. With very little research available about the

female Muslim presence on college campuses, this study becomes necessary in order to be more

informed and to protect the college experiences of these young women.

In this literature review, the college experiences and perceptions of Muslim women will

be examined in order to understand the struggles they may face. The literature review will focus

on Muslim women primarily, but particular attention will be given to women who practice hijab

as they are easily identifiable and face more struggles than Muslim women who choose not to

veil. The literature review begins with theoretical frameworks followed by eight sections which

include factors that are related to the college experiences of Muslim women, which entail: 1) the

history of the minority experience in the United States, 2) female challenges in college 3) how

Muslims are perceived in the West, 4) why Muslim women choose to wear hijab, 5) how hijab is

defined, 6) how Muslim women perceive themselves, 7) the college experiences of female

Muslim students, and 8) support for underrepresented college students.

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Review of Literature Pertaining to the Theoretical Frameworks of the Study

Social Identity Theory

Social identity theory explains an individual’s sense of self, based on which group he or

she belongs to (Turner and Tajfel, 1986). This theory helps to understand the American female

Muslim and how she may identify herself by the groups she is affiliated with. Opposing values

within groups may cause students to feel conflicted. Haddad, Smith, and Moore (2011)

addressed this theory in their book about the challenges of Islamic identity in America that

Muslim women sometimes face. They found that Western culture and Islamic values may not

always agree, and Muslim women have to figure out a way to negotiate these opposing identities.

Turner and Tajfel also proposed that a person may try to elevate the status of the group they

belong to in order to increase his or her self-image. However, this can start to cause issues,

especially when it comes to groups that are not affiliated with or do not share the same values as

the individual’s group that they belong to. Turner and Tajfel described this as the "us" versus

"them" mindset. As Muslim students enter college, especially for those who have spent their

elementary and secondary education in private Islamic schools, they may feel like they do not

belong and may begin adopting the “us” versus “them” frame of mind. Moreover, with

Islamophobia on the rise (Lipka, 2017), Muslim students may begin to seek out other Muslims as

they may feel that that is the group they feel that they safely identify with the most.

Social Categorization Theory

When discussing a student's identity, social categorization theory, which was also

proposed by Turner and Reynolds (2012), should also be considered. This theory provides

insight into how the American Muslim woman chooses to identify herself. Turner and Reynolds

described this theory as a continual shift between the self and with the group a person is

15

affiliated. In other words, sometimes a person can identify him or herself as an individual

person; whereas, other times, the same person will identify themselves as the group they belong

to. Also, many times people belong to multiple groups. This may lead to internal conflicts and

struggles, especially with Muslim Americans, who identify with being both Muslim and

American. Zimmerman (2014) identified this struggle in her study about young Muslim

American women. She discusses their desires to fit in but also to practice their religious

obligations. This may, in fact, be a struggle for many young female Muslim students attending

college or university.

Integrated Threat Theory

Integrated threat theory, which is also commonly known as intergroup threat theory, was

proposed by Stephan and Stephan in 2000. This theory is relevant to this study since Muslim

students represent a minority group across colleges in the United States. According to the theory,

some social groups may feel threatened, although these threats are often perceived rather than

actual threats.

Stephan and Stephan (2000) have explained this theory using four components of an in-

group (the group that one belongs to) and out-group (any group that does not belong to the in-

group). The first component of the integrated group theory deals with realistic threats. These are

threats that may cause harm or danger to the people in the in-group. In the case of Muslim

students, it could entail physical threats to their health and safety. The second component deals

with symbolic threats. This is of particular concern to Muslim students since Stephan and

Stephan (2000) describe this threat as a perceived threat when the values and worldviews of the

in- and out-groups are conflicting. This conflict could make the in-group feel that the out-group

poses a threat to not only their beliefs but also their morals and attitudes. The third component

16

of the integrated threat theory suggests that a negative experience will be the result of interacting

with people outside of the social group they belong to. Stephan and Stephan (2000) refer to this

as intergroup anxiety. This is of particular importance to this study because Muslim students

may feel like they are being judged by members of the out-group or even members within their

own group if they begin interacting with other social groups. They also may feel unsafe dealing

with members of the out-group. The final and fourth component of this theory involves negative

stereotypes which arise from pre-set judgments. This is concerning because of negative

perceptions of Muslims by non-Muslims which will be mentioned in the literature review.

Stephan and Stephan (2000) mentioned that these pre-set judgments can lead to prejudice.

Bassiouni (2015) demonstrated the importance of integrated threat theory in his study.

He identified how Muslims have felt threatened and suffered resulting from negative perceptions

about Islam by people in western countries such as the United States. The examples he used

have affected Muslims worldwide, particularly through the use of torture against Muslim

civilians in Afghanistan and Iraq. He also cited examples of torture tactics on Guantanamo Bay

prisoners who are Muslim as well as drone attacks in Pakistan and Afghanistan since 2003.

Additionally, he mentioned the belittling of Islamic symbols in cartoons which were done in the

name of freedom of speech. Muslims in the United States are not immune to these threats. In

fact, Bassiouni further explained that the media under-reports the numbers of Muslim deaths in

Muslim countries, but tends to over-report when Non-Muslims are killed by Muslims. He

illustrated the example of the Charlie Hebdo attack which was sensationalized in the media, yet

Muslim deaths in Muslim countries are much greater in number than those who died in Paris but

often times completely ignored in the media. He concluded that this type of unbalanced media

attention heightens hostility towards Muslims in the West, particularly amongst the youth.

17

Therefore, Muslims students, specifically those who are visible, may be perceived as a threat by

some in other social groups. Fowler (2013) explained that “although diversity enriches society,

some find it threatening” (p. 11).

Literature Review

History of the Minority Experience in the United States

In his book Deculturatization and the Struggle for Equality, Spring (2007) clearly

articulated the minority experience in the United States. Spring described the educational

methods that minority students encountered from the time the pilgrims landed in America. He

began with the Native Americans in the late 1700s, who were surprisingly considered foreigners

and were taught Christianity in order to strip them of their culture and religion. Moreover, by the

early 1800s, education was considered the key to social control and improvement of society.

Tribal schools were taught by missionary teachers rather than by Native Americans to ensure that

the Native Americans would transform. To further deculturize Native Americans, many were

sent to boarding schools so that they would lose all ties to their culture. According to Spring, the

boarding school conditions were deplorable and the Native Americans were treated as slaves.

The Native Americans were not the only minorities who suffered in the United States.

Caldas and Blankston (2015) also discussed the adversities faced by African Americans. From

the beginning, slavery deculturized Africans. They were robbed of their identities and had to

endure harsh working conditions. According to Spring (2007), slaves were not allowed to learn

how to read, and they were often taught only what their masters wanted them to learn. Similar to

the Native Americans, often times they were taught Christianity. Many African Americans

secretly learned how to read; however, if their masters found out, they often endured severe

consequences. Although some slaves tried to flee to the North, life still did not improve for

18

many even though there was freedom. Spring mentioned that African Americans were still faced

with discrimination. This was evident during the famous 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson case which

required that schools be separate but equal. Caldas and Blankston (2015) reminded us that if the

schools for white and black children were compared, they were clearly not similar. In fact, the

inequality in segregated schools was extremely apparent. It was evident that black schools were

receiving an inferior quality of education, subpar school accommodations, and limited resources

compared to white schools.

Spring (2007) explained that Asian Americans also suffered when they originally

immigrated to the United States. They, too, had to deal with segregation and were even denied

nationality. In fact, after the Chinese came to California in search of gold in the late 1800s, they

were forced out of the mining camps and had to resettle in other parts of California. As a result

of the Chinese Exclusion Act, they were not allowed to work or to immigrate to the United States

as laborers (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). According to Spring, this resulted in the media and

cartoons portraying them as deviants. Similar to the Chinese, Japanese Americans faced

discrimination after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Spring mentioned that from 1942-1945,

Japanese Americans were placed in internment camps. During this time, the Japanese were

considered deviants, but the Chinese were suddenly praised. Spring also mentioned that the

educational experiences of Asian Americans in their early years of immigration were similar to

the Native Americans since they were either denied education or segregated. However, later,

Asian Americans were labeled as the model minority. Spring explained that it was a way to put

down African and Latino Americans by saying if Asians could achieve economic success as

minorities than anyone could.

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Female Challenges in College

Throughout history, women have faced challenges in obtaining a higher education in the

United States. In fact, in the 18th and 19th centuries, it was considered a waste of time for women

to desire a college education (Kelly, 1987). Additionally, it was considered socially

unacceptable. According to Kelly, during the 19th century, women’s place was in the home, and

they were also considered too frail to study. An additional barrier, described by Kelly, included

lack of academic preparedness for girls because schools in the 19th century did not provide the

adequate education needed for girls to enroll in college. Since the entrance exams were equally

rigorous for the female applicants as they were for the male applicants, only females who could

afford private tutoring were fully prepared to enter college. Furthermore, female college students

faced a lack of encouragement in coeducational colleges and universities. For instance, Kelly

explained that the male students enrolled at Cornell University resented female students and felt

that they had no place being there.

However, over the years, the number of female students admitted to college increased

greatly. According to the Women's International Center (WIC) (n.d.), in 1870, one-fifth of

college and university students were female, and by the year 1900 the number of female

enrollees increased to more than one third. By the early 20th century, 19 percent of all college

undergraduate degrees were obtained by women, and by 1984, the percentage increased to 49

percent (WIC). Presently, women outnumber men in college (Wyer, 2008). Despite the increase

in women in college, challenges still persist for some. Wyer wrote about a study that reported

that more women from a lower socio-economic class attend college than men do. Wyer also

stated that despite women earning higher grades than men, their academic confidence is

significantly lower. She further suggested that women perceive that professors do not take the

20

comments of female students seriously, and those women who do challenge their professors tend

to exhibit higher levels of stress than men who challenge their professor do. Finally, the study

also reported that female students tend to have lower self-ratings of their psychological well-

being than men do. Wyer mentioned that 38 percent of women reported being overwhelmed by

their responsibilities compared to only 17.3 percent of men.

How Muslims Are Perceived in the West

Research has shown that similar to other minorities, Muslims are not always perceived

positively (e.g., Barzegar, 2011; Nadal, Griffin, Hamit, Leon, Tobio, & Rivera, 2012; Rauf,

2016). In fact, the media has largely contributed to the misconceptions and negative perceptions

of Muslims in the United States (e.g., Awad, 2009; Kalkan, Layman, & Uslaner, 2009).

According to Muedini (2009), who conducted a qualitative study with 20 Muslim students

studying in the United States, a majority of the participants felt that the media portrayed Muslims

and Islam negatively. One of the participants of the study even felt that the media portrayed

them as “animals” (p. 51). In another qualitative study regarding Muslim women who

voluntarily wear hijab in the West, Al Wazni (2015) mentioned that after September 11, 2001,

Muslim men have generally been depicted as terrorists in the media, while Muslim women are

normally portrayed as subservient and oppressed. However, Kalkan et al. (2009), who used pre-

existing data from the 2004 American National Election Study (NES) and Pew surveys from

2000 to 2007 to explore the roots of American perceptions of Muslims, suggested that even

before the September 11th attacks Muslims were viewed as the “suspicious other” (p. 861).

Moreover, as reported by Bassiouni (2015) in a current content analysis regarding

misconceptions of violence in Islam, Muslims are misunderstood because they have not been a

major part of Western culture. The article added that negative perceptions of Muslims have

21

increased because of the abhorrent acts of a few bad people who happen to be Muslim.

Similarly, Callaway (2010) suggested in his review about Muslim students that fearful images of

Islam and all those practicing Islam have been created because of the tragic incidents that took

place on September 11, 2001, the suicide bombers in Israel, and the Taliban regime in

Afghanistan. He also attributed these fearful images to misconceptions about Muslims regarding

cultural, regional, political, and/or tribal differences. Consequently, Barzegar’s (2011) review of

Islamic discourse pertaining to Muslim diversity and Islamic traditions in America suggests that

Muslims are often scrutinized about their loyalty as American citizens and are often the subject

of federal investigations.

Furthermore, studies regarding Muslim women have also shown that Muslim women are

portrayed undesirably, which consequently leads them to be perceived negatively (e.g., Mir,

2011; Zempi & Chakraborti, 2015). For example, an in-depth qualitative study was comprised of

20 focus group interviews and 60 individual interviews. The study looked at the impacts of

Islamophobia towards veiled Muslims and revealed that veiled women were not only viewed as

being oppressed but also as culturally dangerous to the Western way of life and a threat to public

safety and security (Zempi & Chakraborti, 2015). In another study regarding Muslim women in

the Western mass media, Navarro (2010) analyzed the image of media text. Findings suggested

that Muslim men were portrayed to be aggressive and authoritarian whereas Muslim women

tended to be shown as submissive and weak, and those wearing a headscarf were in need of

salvation. In Stegmeir’s (2017) article that suggested how Muslims should deal with rising

intolerance, he also pointed out that misperceptions and stereotypes about Muslim women who

wore hijab included the belief that Muslim women were uneducated and did not have control

over their own lives. Similarly, Mir (2011) conducted a study of Muslim American

22

undergraduate students’American identity. In her study, which consisted of 26 participants using

in-depth interviews and participant observations, she concluded that, because of their attire,

Muslim women are viewed as objects of pity and fear and seen as immobile and helpless.

Moreover, many people believe that Muslims are not American at all—or at least not American

enough. For instance, an American Muslim participant who wore hijab in Lamont and Collet’s

2013 study about Muslim American university students expressed that people would assume she

was not American and was from a different country.

What is Hijab?

Origin of Hijab. In order to understand the definition of the hijab, one has to understand

how the hijab originated. This could be found in religious texts. For instance, there are three

verses in the Qur’an which speaks of the importance of the hijab and women guarding their

modesty. In the first verse, the Qur’an mentions:

And tell the believing women to reduce [some] of their vision and guard their private

parts and not expose their adornment except that which [necessarily] appears thereof and

to wrap [a portion of] their headcovers over their chests and not expose their adornment

except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands' fathers, their sons, their husbands'

sons, their brothers, their brothers' sons, their sisters' sons, their women, that which their

right hands possess, or those male attendants having no physical desire, or children who

are not yet aware of the private aspects of women. And let them not stamp their feet to

make known what they conceal of their adornment. And turn to Allah in repentance, all of

you, O believers, that you might succeed (24:31, Sahih International edition).

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In another verse, it states:

O Prophet, tell your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers to bring

down over themselves [part] of their outer garments. That is more suitable that they will

be known and not be abused. And ever is Allah Forgiving and Merciful. (33:59, Sahih

International edition).

In the final verse, although the hijab which we know as a headscarf and garment is not

expressed, a different type of hijab is mentioned which is a veil or barrier between men and

women. According to Islam Foundation UK, this verse was revealed before women were

commanded to veil themselves (“Towards Understanding the Quran,” n.d.). This signified the

importance of women not being seen by men without being modestly covered. The verse states:

O you who have believed, do not enter the houses of the Prophet except when you are

permitted for a meal, without awaiting its readiness. But when you are invited, then enter;

and when you have eaten, disperse without seeking to remain for conversation. Indeed,

that [behavior] was troubling the Prophet, and he is shy of [dismissing] you. But Allah is

not shy of the truth. And when you ask [his wives] for something, ask them from behind a

partition. That is purer for your hearts and their hearts. And it is not [conceivable or

lawful] for you to harm the Messenger of Allah or to marry his wives after him, ever.

Indeed, that would be in the sight of Allah an enormity. (33:53, Sahih International

edition).

The Qur’an is not the only Islamic religious text which spoke about the hijab. There are

also a few hadiths (traditions or sayings from Prophet Muhammad) that mentioned the

importance of Muslim women wearing the hijab. In the first example, although the religious

24

dress is not mentioned, a curtain is used as a veil to protect men from seeing women. The hadith

narrated by Anas ibn Malik stated:

I know (about) the Hijab (the order of veiling of women) more than anybody else. Ubay

ibn Ka'b used to ask me about it. Allah's Apostle became the bridegroom of Zaynab bint

Jahsh whom he married at Medina. After the sun had risen high in the sky, the Prophet

invited the people to a meal. Allah's Apostle remained sitting and some people remained

sitting with him after the other guests had left. Then Allah's Apostle got up and went

away, and I too, followed him till he reached the door of 'Aisha's room. Then he thought

that the people must have left the place by then, so he returned and I also returned with

him. Behold, the people were still sitting at their places. So he went back again for the

second time, and I went along with him too. When we reached the door of 'Aisha's room,

he returned and I also returned with him to see that the people had left. Thereupon the

Prophet hung a curtain between me and him and the Verse regarding the order for (veiling

of women) Hijab was revealed. (Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:65:375 & Sahih Muslim, 8:3334)

In another hadith, hijab is clearly mentioned when Umm Salama Hind bint Abi Umayya, Ummul

Mu'minin narrates a hadith that was classed as authentic by Abu Dawud, “When the verse 'That

they should cast their outer garments over their persons' was revealed, the women of Ansar came

out as if they had crows hanging down over their heads by wearing outer garments." (Sahih

Muslim, 32:4090). Similarly, the last hadith speaks of the full hijab when Safiya bint Shaiba

narrates, “Aisha used to say: 'When (the Verse): "They should draw their veils (Khumur) over

their necks and bosoms (juyyub)," was revealed, (the ladies) cut their waist sheets at the edges

and covered their faces with the cut pieces.'" (Sahih al-Bukhari, 6:60:282 & 32:4091).

25

How hijab is perceived. In order to understand why Muslim women choose to wear

hijab, one must understand what hijab is and what it means to Muslims and non-Muslims alike.

In his research, Baerveldt (2015) was trying to understand why women choose to wear the hijab,

and he described the hijab as one of the most controversial expressions of culture worn by

Muslim women. According to Galadari (2012) and Solihu (2009), the hijab is a headscarf

and/or other modest attire worn by Muslim women to cover the body. Al Wazni (2015) describes

the hijab as a symbol of piety and a commandment from Allah (God).

For some, hijab is a symbol of their Muslim and/or cultural identity (Galadari, 2012).

However, Mohibullah and Kramer (2016) stated that hijab can express many different meanings.

They indicated that the hijab can represent political stances, religious convictions, or even a

person’s fashion sense. Unfortunately, for some in the West, it is a symbol of oppression and

subjugation; thus, in a study conducted by Solihu (2009), in which she tried to understand the

hijab in Western societies, she described the hijab as “a dangerous, provocative symbol that

challenges a way of behaving that is considered normal and usual in contemporary secular

Western societies” (p. 25).

Why Muslim Women Choose to Wear Hijab

Regardless of how hijab is defined, research studies have indicated many reasons why

Muslim women choose to wear hijab. Mishra and Shirazi (2010) conducted in-depth interviews

with 26 respondents regarding the identity of American Muslim women. In their study, they

found that although not all the Muslims chose to wear hijab, those who did did so out of personal

choice and were not imposed upon by anyone to wear hijab. Hyder, Parrington, and Hussain

(2015) conducted a similar study where they found that there were various reasons why women

chose to wear hijab. They mentioned that some wear hijab for political reasons, such that the

26

hijab was a way to positively advocate for Islam due to its negative image. Additionally, other

reasons cited in their findings included that it was a religious obligation because peers were also

wearing hijab, as a calling from within, and/or because they found out they were pregnant with a

baby girl and wanted to show their daughters the correct path. Yet another study about hijab

found that for some Muslim women, hijab was not a religious obligation; rather it was a part of

their culture; yet, for others, the hijab was simply worn as an accessory as a fashion statement

(Baerveldt, 2015). This study also concluded that the wearing of the hijab was contradictory for

some because, even though it was considered to be highly fashionable, women still insisted they

were wearing it because of their commitment to Islam. Finally, in another study about Muslim

women, there were some Muslim women who had no explanation as to why they wore hijab

because they had no idea (Namou, 2010).

How Muslim Women Perceive Themselves

Positive perceptions. Although many in the West view Muslims negatively, Muslim

women generally view themselves positively. For example, Namou (2010) conducted a study

with three Muslim women and each of the women expressed that they felt empowered as

practicing Muslims. One of the women from the study who wore hijab stated that she was proud

to be Muslim and felt that the hijab allowed her to have a voice while taking off the hijab would

mean denying her religion. Also, ten students participated in another survey for a qualitative

study about navigating their Muslim and American identities. The Muslim women who took the

survey felt proud of their Muslim identity. Thus, they felt it was their responsibility to fight

stereotypes and help non-Muslims better understand their faith (Zimmerman, 2015).

Research studies have indicated that positive perceptions about hijab have led some

Muslim women to feel safe. For instance, in the study conducted by Mohibullah and Kramer

27

(2016), a participant said she felt “protected” from the “sexual appetites of men” while in her

hijab (p. 110). In another study which surveyed 1,847 Muslim American women from 49 states

who wore hijab, Westfall, Welborne, Tobin, and Russell (2016) found that, because of the hijab,

women were dressed more modestly, and this offered them protection from sexual assault.

Westfall et al. (2016) also indicated that wearing the hijab allowed the participants to

represent Islam, which was indicative of religious expression and freedom of religion.

Furthermore, in a study called “American Muslim College Students: The Impact of

Religiousness and Stigma on Active Coping,” 120 American-born Muslim undergraduate

students were asked to complete surveys. The findings of the study indicated that religiousness

provided active coping strategies despite the negative stigma attached to being Muslim (Herzig,

Roysircar, Kosyluk, & Corrigan, 2012).

Negative perceptions. Although Muslim women in the United States generally perceive

themselves positively, they still struggle with being Muslim and living in America (Ali, 2011).

In Ali’s study which analyzed how the self-image and representation of American Muslims are

constructed, one of the participants felt that she did not really fit in and felt like an outsider in

America, particularly after September 11th. Another participant in the same study felt that she

had to defend her identity as a Muslim American who wears hijab, but prior to wearing hijab, she

felt more American.

Research also has indicated that negative perceptions of hijab lead to Muslim women

being negatively impacted as a result of wearing hijab, especially in the wake of September 11,

2001. One of the most damaging impacts of practicing hijab is Muslim women having to deal

with sexism and racism (Islamophobia). Navarro (2010) explained this in her study about

Muslim women in Western mass media. She explained that the media representations of Muslim

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women being submissive help reinforce stereotypes and also is a factor in why there are

intolerance and discrimination towards Muslim women. This is particularly concerning because

Hodge et al. (2016) found that discrimination can lead to depression in a study with a sample of

265 Muslims. In another study about Islamophobic hostility towards veiled Muslim women, the

participants reported that, at times, they feel unsafe and sometimes even feel like “prisoners in

their own homes” because of the recent rise in hate crimes which target Muslims (Zempi &

Chakraborti, 2015). A qualitative study of American-born Muslim girls who wear hijab

mentioned that even college students who reported that they feel “liberated” and “empowered”

as Muslim women wearing hijab sometimes feel uneasy in their secular society (Gurbuz,

Gurbuz-Kucuksari, 2009, p. 393). Moreover, Mohibullah and Kramer’s study (2016) comprised

of 16 Muslim girls born in the United States and attending colleges in New England had similar

findings. The study focused on conflict, change, and contradiction in the practice of hijab. One

of the participants in the study, who happened to be a model, expressed that she felt like an

“outsider” wearing hijab and that she was not “beautiful” enough, which caused her to stop

wearing the hijab (p. 113). Also, sometimes Muslim teens and young adults find it difficult to

practice hijab because of the peer pressure they face from the conflicting society around them

(Vyas, 2008).

College Experiences of Muslim Students

Positive experiences. For some Muslims, college presents a positive experience. For

example, a participant in a study about Muslim American college students stated that for some

Muslims, a college is a place where Muslims become closer to other Muslims and where they

also learn more about their religion (Muedini, 2009). It is also interesting to note that Muslim

students were far more integrated with the campus community than expected. Shammas's (2015)

29

study about Arab and Muslim college students showed that Muslims were likely to join clubs,

participate in college activities, study with other classmates, forge friendships, establish rapport

with faculty, and feel like they were a part of the college. In fact, Cole and Ahmadi's (2010)

study on campus diversity produced similar results. After surveying 66 students, their findings

indicated that Muslim students participate in more diverse activities on campus than their Jewish

and Christian peers. Additionally, although the transition to college could also be very

challenging for Muslim women, one study about American Muslim women in college concluded

that Muslim women who adhered to the Islamic dress code found that they adjusted to college

better than those women who did not (Rangoonwala, Sy & Epinoza, 2011). Perhaps this is

because “religiousness is positively associated with active coping” (Herzig et al., 2012, p. 40).

Challenges. Young students entering college will always face certain challenges.

However, being a young Muslim undergraduate at a typical university exposes Muslims to

experiences which may contradict their religious values. For instance, Muslim students may be

defined as “outcasts” for declining drinks at a party (Mir, 2011). In a similar study in which six

veiled female Muslim undergraduate students studying in universities were interviewed, the

women reported feeling marginalized and at times felt discriminated against (Seggie & Sanford,

2010). Another challenge faced by Muslim students in college is that students may have to battle

stereotypes and intolerance because of the misperceptions about Islam (Stegmeir, 2017).

Another common theme in the literature regarding Muslim college students is that some

of them feel divided as a result of being both Muslims and Americans and struggle with identity

issues, especially after September 11, 2001. Mir (2011) explained this in her qualitative

ethnographic fieldwork with 26 participants when she found that some of the students found it

difficult trying to be both American and Muslim. One of the participants in her study, in regard

30

to Muslim undergraduate students in America, provided the example of drinking. The

participants stated that as a Muslim, one cannot drink, yet as an American, it is normal.

Likewise, Vyas (2008) found that the participants in her study about young Muslim women in

America also struggled with identity issues as they were caught between two cultures. Vyas

further explained that the struggle entails developing their own identity and having to define

themselves during substantial social-political transformation. Stubbs and Sallee (2013) reiterated

the dual identity issue in their study where they sought to learn how Muslims balance their

expectations as Muslims and as university students. However, their findings indicated that

although their participants had to adapt to certain situations, they felt they were able to overcome

any cultural conflicts and were able to successfully maintain both of their identities, as Muslims

and as Americans. Zimmerman (2014) reiterated this in another study about Muslim women in

the United States. He found that his participants were able to develop coexisting identities which

allowed them to embrace both their social and religious identities.

Muslim Students Association. When discussing the college experience of Muslims, the

Muslims Students Association (MSA) must be mentioned. MSA is an organization where many

American and immigrant Muslim students meet (Barzegar, 2011) and hold events throughout the

year (Stubbs & Sallee, 2013). Zimmerman (2015) described the MSA as an important element

of a college campus that supports religious diversity and helps to create a positive college

experience. Many Muslim students participate in the MSA in order to forge relationships with

other Muslims and to create their own community within the college or university (Mishra &

Shirazi, 2010). Ragoonwala, Sy, and Epinoza (2011) conducted a study of the relationship of

college adjustment, Muslim identity, and the Islamic dress code for American Muslim women.

Their sample consisted of 53 Muslim female undergraduates in Southern California who

31

completed online surveys. They found that 21.6 % of their participants were highly involved in

their college’s MSA, 45.1% were moderately involved, 17.6% were minimally involved, and

15.7% had no involvement. Interestingly, even some Muslims who do not maintain their Islamic

identity or even outwardly appear to be Muslim find themselves joining the MSA (Mir, 2011). In

fact, according to Stubbs & Sallee (2013), joining the MSA sometimes is the only evidence that

these students are in fact Muslims.

Having an MSA on campus is tremendously valuable both to the college or university

campus and to the students. In fact, Berry, Bass, Shimp-Fassler, and Succop (2013) conducted a

study which aimed to explain the relationship between positive life outcomes and

religiosity/spirituality in first-year university students. In the study, all of the 124 participants

were incoming freshmen who were either Muslim, Jewish, or Christian. The implications of this

study suggested that faith-based organizations, such as the Muslim Student Association, were an

integral part of campus life. In fact, Berry et al. stated that faith-based organizations helped

protect students from participating in risky behavior, which was associated with positive and

healthy life outcomes. All of the American participants in Zimmerman’s (2015) study regarding

young Muslim women and their identities were involved in their college’s MSA. Zimmerman

found that many students felt that their experience in the MSA helped create a supportive

community, and their college experiences were much more positive than French students who

did not have an MSA-equivalent.

Support for Underrepresented Students in College

Underrepresented minorities may benefit tremendously from additional support offered

by their colleges or universities. A study that investigated the graduation rates of 979 first-time,

full-time freshmen who participated in student support services offered at Rutgers University

32

from 1980 to 1992 supports this. Some of their support services included academic advising,

career exploration, counseling, and tutoring. Their findings showed that these types of support

services, which were designed to better their persistence toward graduation, were a significant

factor in strong graduation rates (Thomas, Farrow, Martinez, 1998).

In addition to pre-existing services, research also identified areas where underrepresented

students may benefit from support from their colleges. In Obi's 2006 study pertaining to support

services for ethnically diverse college students with learning disabilities, several support service

needs were identified. For example, those with hearing loss may need a sign language

interpreter. Physical accessibility to a campus building was also mentioned. Additionally, Odi

mentioned other services such as accommodating students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity

disorder (ADHD). Such services may include a course load reduction or testing

accommodations.

In a study conducted by Rabrenovic, Levin, and Oliver (2007), 39 participants from a

large university volunteered to be a part of an experiment to determine if the impact of

cooperation and the fear of terrorism impacted support for Muslim students on campus. The

participants were placed in one of two experimental groups, where both groups had to call

Muslim students on campus and interview them about Muslim family life. Participants were told

that they would receive five dollars for each successful interview. However, the first

experimental group had a high level of cooperation where all the Muslims were easily reached,

whereas the second group had low-level or no-level cooperation where the Muslims were

difficult to reach or not able to be reached at all. The results of the experiment showed that when

the participants had received both high and low level of cooperation from Muslims, they were

more supportive than when they had no cooperation with Muslims. Rabrenovic, Levin, and

33

Oliver further suggested that colleges and universities create programs amongst diverse groups

of students so that they can offer each other support.

Summary and Conclusions

Chapter 2 began with a discussion of the theoretical framework introducing the social

identity, social categorization and integrated threat theories which were both used to help guide

this study. Then the literature review touched on the historical experiences of minorities in the

United States. It was then followed by the literature study which consisted of eight themes. The

first two themes discussed the minority and female experiences in education. The fourth theme

presented the perceptions of Muslims in the West. The literature demonstrated a negative

portrayal in the media which may have led to negative perceptions by non-Muslims. The

following theme shed some light on what the hijab is and what it means to Muslims according to

authentic Islamic resources such as the Qur’an and hadith. The literature review then focused on

self-perceptions of Muslims, which were surprisingly both positive and negative. Finally, it

concluded with the college experiences of Muslim students and support services needed for

underrepresented students.

Although the Muslim college experience was covered in the literature, questions arose

when the researcher compared her own experiences with those in the research. She realized that

her experience as a college student was unique because in most of her years in college, she had

not maintained her college identity, and nobody realized she was Muslim until her final year in

college when she began wearing hijab and embraced her Islamic identity. However, she did not

receive any additional support from her college as an easily recognizable minority student. She

recognized that college support services provided to women who chose to maintain their Islamic

identity on campus were missing from the literature. She wanted to know what support services

34

students were receiving and what additional support services were needed to better support this

small group of students. She also wanted to examine the experiences these students had after

embracing their Islamic identity in hopes to contribute positive changes on campuses in regards

to struggles they may face as unique students who wear their religion.

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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHOD

The purpose of this study was to identify the existing and needed support services offered

by colleges for Muslim women who maintain Islamic identity while attending college. Since

Chapter 2 demonstrated a lack of substantial research when it comes to support received by such

students, there was an impending need for this study since Islam is the fasting growing religion

in the world yet still underrepresented, especially on college campuses (Cole & Ahmadi, 2010).

This study was also imperative for policymakers and college administrators to understand so

they can become informed on the struggles faced by Muslim women and ensure a positive, safe,

and supportive environment to promote their success socially and academically.

Consequently, this study was to gain a better understanding of the support needed to

better serve conservative female Muslim college students by focusing on these three research

questions:

RQ1: How well do Muslim female college students who maintained their Islamic

identity perceive they were supported while in college?

RQ2: How do Muslim college students who maintained their Islamic identity perceive

they have not been supported while in college?

RQ3: In what ways do Muslim female college students who maintained Islamic identity

perceive colleges can better support them?

This chapter will cover the contents of the methodology. It will include the research

design, the justification of purposeful sampling, how participants were selected, how data was

collected, the role of the researcher, the qualitative data analysis plan, and ethical procedures.

Chapter 3 will conclude with a brief summary.

36

Research Design and Rationale

The data for this qualitative research study has been collected from Muslim women

attending universities in the Western United States. All of the students were undergraduates.

They each maintained Islamic identity, which entailed wearing a hijab and modestly covering all

their body except for hands and face. The students were asked to meet either on campus or at a

location near the campus such as a coffee shop. The students chose the times of their interviews,

which best accommodated their schedules.

The interviews were semi-structured, and each participant was scheduled to be

interviewed for about 30-45 minutes. The researcher decided to keep the interviews semi-

structured so that the participants were free to express their thoughts without being limited to

answering only-pre-constructed questions. Additionally, the researcher did a pilot interview to

test that the questions were easily and clearly understood and could provide insight into the

study. The interview questions (found in Appendix E) were guided by the research questions,

and participants were asked questions such as what support services did they currently receive

and what support services were needed to help better serve them. Follow-up questions, provided

in Appendix E, were based on the types of responses that the participants gave. Also, so as to not

take too much of the participants’ time, the interviews were limited to three questions with

probing and follow-up questions depending on their answers so that the participants could give

thoughtful responses without feeling inundated.

Methodology

Sampling and Sampling Procedures

To determine the sample of participants, the researcher had to estimate the number of

Muslim women attending the focal campus based on the fact that Muslims make up about 2.4%

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of the population in the United States (Cole & Ahmadi, 2010). Consequently, the researcher

chose a small sample of Muslim students who were undergraduates at university. The researcher

chose traditional college-age students, ages 18 to 24. Also, the students were of various

ethnicities to provide a more purposeful sampling which fairly reflects the population of Muslim

women in the United States attending college. In addition, the researcher chose all of the

participants to represent conservative Muslims who maintained Islamic identity by dressing

modestly and practicing hijab. In order to understand what dressing modestly means in Islamic

terms, the researcher turned to Islamic texts to find the answer. In a hadith narrated by Aisha,

she mentioned,

Asma bint Abu Bakr entered upon the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon

him, while she was wearing a thin garment which she presented to him. He said, “O

Asma, when a woman reaches the age of maturity it is not proper for her to show

anything except this and this.” He pointed to his face and hands. (Sunan Abu Dawud,

4104)

Additionally, an exegesis of the Qur'an from Ibn Kathir mentions, “It is possible that Ibn Abbas

and those who followed him intended by the explanation of the verse, “Except for what is

apparent…” (24:31) to mean the face and the hands, and this is the well-known opinion among

the majority” (Tafseer Ibn Kathir, verse 24:31). This meant that the participants chosen were

modestly covered, with only their hands and faced exposed. This was to ensure that the sample

fairly reflected the characteristics of conservative Muslim women attending colleges (Newby,

2014).

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Procedures for Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection (Primary Data)

The participants who were asked to participate in the study were selected from multiple

universities in the Western United States. The researcher chose eight participants from the focal

universities because of the diversity of the participants. According to the California State

University Fact Book (2014), this university system “educates the most ethnically, economically

and academically diverse student body in the nation” (p. 3). This is ideal because Muslim

women are not from one single race but span across all ethnic and racial groups, as it is the

fastest growing religion in the world (Cole & Ahmadi, 2010).

The researcher also sought to ensure that the students were nearby enough to be able to

meet with them for interviews at their convenience. Thus, students were chosen as participants

from three universities that have various lounges and are in close proximity to cafés and other

venues. This allowed the researcher to easily meet with the participants of the study without

having to disrupt their schedules or require them to travel long distances to meet for interviews.

It also made it more comfortable so that the participants would feel relaxed and be encouraged to

engage in open and honest dialogue.

Students were contacted by the researcher after she attended the Muslim Student

Associations at each university. She asked for the email addresses, names, and cell phone

numbers of those female students practicing hijab, or any other Muslim female college student

who practices hijab they knew on campus, who were interested in participating in this study. The

researcher made sure to identify the importance of this study and the benefit to all Muslim

college students. The researcher also assured them that all their information would remain

confidential, and if at any time they did not feel comfortable with the study, they were able to

withdraw without having any of their information used. After collecting email addresses and

39

phone numbers, the researcher contacted students and asked if they would be willing to

participate in an interview. The interviews gave the researcher an understanding of the students’

college experiences, how support services were successfully implemented, and areas that needed

more attention.

Role of the Researcher

The researcher chose this particular study because this was something that resonated

deeply with her as a former student who maintained Islamic identity before and after September

11, 2001. Although she did not experience any apparent acts of Islamophobia nor discrimination

during her years of study, she did encounter some struggles that her other Muslim friends who

did not maintain Islamic identity did not similarly face. With the current political climate and the

rise in Islamophobia and hate crimes, she wanted to see how this has impacted Muslim women

who were easily identifiable as Muslim in order to inform school officials and policymakers so

as to ensure a more tolerable and safe campus for all students. She also wanted to see if her

experiences were similar to the participants who embraced the hijab during their time in college.

Furthermore, she chose to select participants that she had never met before in order to not

create any biases and in hopes that the participants were more likely to answer honestly and

openly. She also had to put aside any biases to ensure that her questions were not leading the

students to answer a particular way. The semi-structured approach was chosen as a way for

students to freely add to the discussion and also allowed the researcher to add follow-up

questions as needed. The interview was led by the researcher and was done in a personal nature

and in a casual setting so that participants felt comfortable in sharing their personal perspectives

and experiences.

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Data Analysis Plan

The phenomenological data analysis approach was described by Moustakas (1994) as

“organizing and analyzing the data to facilitate development of individual textural and structural

descriptions, a composite textural description, a composite structural description, and a synthesis

of textural and structural meanings and essences” (p. 103). Using this approach, the researcher

interviewed her participants to gather her data. With the permission of the participants, the

researcher recorded and transcribed the data from the interviews. The researcher was guided by

Cresswell’s and Poth’s (2018) qualitative analysis approach. The analysis included coding and

finding common themes that helped to provide more insight into the research questions.

Common themes were then organized and linked together. The researcher was then able to

collect the results of the data to present it in a more meaningful manner.

Ethical Procedures

In order to obtain data from the participants ethically, certain procedures were followed.

First, the researcher sought permission from the universities following the established IRB

approval process. Although the participants were not subjected to any harm, IRB approval was

still obtained because Muslim females represent a very small minority in colleges and

universities. Students were informed of the objective, the potential benefits of the study, and

their rights as participants. They were informed that they would be able to opt out at any time

and that their participation was completely voluntary. All their data remained anonymous and

confidential. Any written or recorded data was kept secure by adding passwords to laptops that

had identifiable information participants. All emails and collected data were deleted at the

completion of the study.

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Summary

This qualitative research study hypothesized that Muslim women who maintain Islamic

identity need additional support from the colleges. Therefore, the researcher wanted to inform

and educate administrators, faculty, staff, and students about the factors that contribute to

Muslim students feeling they are in a supportive college environment. Additionally, in order for

school officials and policymakers to have an understanding of the struggles faced by Muslim

women in college, this research study was implemented with the hope that policies would be

made to ensure a more tolerant and safe learning environment for all students. To represent

Muslim female students fairly, the Muslims selected represented different cultures. The students

participated in one-on-one interviews at a venue and time that was most convenient for them.

After all the data was collected and analyzed, the researcher shared and reported the results of

the data.

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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

The purpose of this research study was to identify and understand how female Muslim

college students who choose to embrace their Islamic identity while in college received support

or where further support may be needed. Since Muslim females who practice wearing hijab

represent a unique minority, it is imperative that college administrators and policymakers

understand their experiences so as to create opportunities for a safe, tolerant, and encouraging

campus environment, especially during the current political climate and the rise of Islamophobia.

In order to understand whether the female Muslim students who maintain their Islamic

identity feel supported and where further support may benefit them in the future, this dissertation

was guided by the following three research questions:

RQ1: How well do Muslim female college students who maintained their Islamic

identity perceive they were supported while in college?

RQ2: How do Muslim college students who maintained their Islamic identity perceive

they have not been supported while in college?

RQ3: In what ways do Muslim female college students who maintained Islamic identity

perceive colleges can better support them?

This chapter will explain the data collection as well as the process of recruitment. It will

continue with the data analysis process. Also, the results of the study will be discussed, and the

chapter will conclude with a summary.

Data Collection

The initial methodology was outlined in Chapter 3 and indicated that in order to obtain

data, the researcher would conduct one-on-one interviews with eight participants. The

expectation was that each participant would honestly express her experiences by responding to

43

the interview questions pertaining to support received or needed by the public university she

attends. In Chapter 3, the researcher also discussed that she would conduct the interviews face-

to-face with participants from multiple public universities in the Western United States using a

semi-structured approach to interviewing. The data collection process began in March 2019 and

ended in April 2019, taking approximately one month to complete.

In order to collect data, the researcher obtained IRB approval in March 2019. She then

reached out to five public universities in the Western United States to obtain approval to recruit

students to participate in her study. When approval was obtained, she found that only four of the

five campuses had active Muslim Students Associations (MSA). Of the four campuses, she

emailed the presidents and advisors of the Muslim Associations with the introductory email

provided in Appendix A, and a response email was received from two of the four MSA

presidents. The presidents of those two MSAs then forwarded the introductory recruiting email

to female students who belonged to the MSA and met the criteria for participation. Only three

students expressed interest to participate. Two were from the same university and met the

criteria to be able to participate. However, the final student who expressed interest to participate

did not meet the criteria as she was a graduate student, and the study was limited to

undergraduate students.

To recruit the remaining participants in the study, the researcher also used snowball

sampling. According to Newby (2014), snowball sampling is based on a referral process and is

used to reach populations which are hard to access. The researcher reached out to those who

expressed interest in participating in the study to refer other students who would possibly be

interested. With the snowball sampling, the researcher found five more participants, two from

University A, two from University B, and one from University C. The final two participants

44

were approached by the researcher at University C as she went on campus looking to identify

potential participants to interview for the study.

Due to the difficulty of finding participants in this hard to reach population, three changes

to the original methodology were established. The first change was that the researcher expanded

her participant pool to include one international student who expressed interest in participating in

the study, which in turn, expanded the sample size from eight to nine. The second change

included one phone interview, rather than all face-to-face interviews, as one of the participants

was not available to meet in person since she was on spring break. The final change was the

duration of the interviews. The original methodology indicated that each of the interviews would

take about 30 to 45 minutes. However, the interviews ended up being about 15 to 20 minutes per

participant. All of these changes did not seem to make a distinct difference in the responses of

the participants and the essence of the interviews was still maintained.

Representation and Demographics

The sample consisted of nine participants from three public universities in the Western

United States. The participants were all practicing Muslims who maintained their Islamic

identity by dressing modestly and wearing hijab. All of the participants were undergraduate

students between the ages of 18-24 and have completed at least one full-time semester in their

university. Although in the original methodology, international students were excluded, the

participant pool was expanded to include one international student from Pakistan. The remaining

participants were U.S. students of Yemeni and Palestinian origin. All of the participants,

excluding the international student, were first-generation Americans. Of the nine participants,

only two were transfer students. Also, the participants’ grade levels in college varied with four

45

freshmen, two sophomores, one junior, and two seniors (See Table 1 below the next page for the

demographics).

Table 1

Participant Characteristics and Demographics

Pseudonym Age Ethnicity Student Type Year in Recruiting Public University Method University

Amira 21 Yemeni Transfer Junior MSA A

Bushra 19 Palestinian Non-Transfer Freshman Snowball A

Karima 19 Palestinian Non-Transfer Sophomore Snowball A

Dalia 20 Palestinian Non-Transfer Senior Snowball B

Eman 19 Palestinian Non-Transfer Sophomore Snowball B

Fatima 18 Pakistani International Freshman MSA A

Jenna 18 Yemeni Non-Transfer Freshman Snowball C

Haneen 18 Yemeni Non-Transfer Freshman Snowball C

Irum 24 Palestinian Transfer Senior Snowball C

Data Analysis

The researcher collected her data by interviewing nine participants. Eight of the

participants were interviewed face-to-face, and one was interviewed by phone. Each of the

interviews was recorded and then transcribed to her laptop. To ensure the accuracy of the

transcription, the interviews were played multiple times. After transcribing the data, the

researcher uploaded the data to an online qualitative data analysis software program called

MAXQDA. Codes were then assigned to capture significant statements and experiences shared

46

by the participants. The data was then coded and summarized using the software program, and a

24-page report was generated summarizing the segments of the interviews which were coded. A

summary of the coding segments is provided in Appendix F. After organizing and categorizing

the coded segments, the researcher was able to identify emergent themes for each of her research

questions.

Study Results

The research study was guided by three research questions, and probing questions were

used when necessary, using the interview protocol provided in Appendix E. The interviews were

conducted with nine female undergraduate Muslim participants between the ages of 18 and 24

who maintained their Islamic identity by dressing modestly and wearing hijab. They were

selected from three public universities in the Western United States. After coding and analyzing

the data which resulted from interviewing the participants, the results were organized into

categories for each research question after the researcher identified emergent themes.

Research Question 1: Perceptions of Support Received

The researcher sought to gain an understanding of how Muslim students who maintained

their Islamic identity received support while attending college. In order to identify that support,

the researcher asked her participants to describe the level and quality of campus-based support

they received and how they received that support. She also asked her participants to relay stories

of when they were supported in college. Two themes emerged from the participants’ personal

experiences, which included from whom they received support and how they received support.

Theme 1: From Whom Support Was Received. Many of the participants perceived

that their universities were extremely supportive. They also shared experiences of when they

were supported by their peers, faculty, and administration.

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For example, Irum mentioned,

I mean there's times where we have, like, World Hijab Day. And, a lot of the faculty will

be in line with a bunch of other students. And, they'll be asking questions and, like, trying

to get to know more about the hijab. And, some of them actually do wear it around or

they will wear, like, a little pin that says World Hijab Day. The faculty is actually going

out of their way to learn more about their Muslim students, rather than just, like,

assuming they know, or just assuming, like, stereotyping the girls in hijabs.

Amira also felt the support of her professor when he played a video about Muslims. She

mentioned,

I've taken classes where they talk about ethnicity. They talk about being different,

especially. I took an ethnic studies class, and he kind of played a video about girls

talking about keeping their identity in wearing the hijab. Some of them wear the niqab

[face covering] and everything. So, I kind of thought that was a really good video to

show all the students that’s why we wear it and everything because, in high school, they

never played anything like this.

Karima, a 19-year-old sophomore, also relayed a story about when her professor was

discussing media bias. The focus of the discussion shifted to illegal immigration, and Karima

worked up the courage to raise her hand and offer her point of view based on her perspectives as

a Muslim. Even though she was initially afraid to share her opinion, she felt the support of her

peers and professor and stated,

After that, I was so much more comfortable to, like, raise my hand and to talk about

things like that. So, I did. I felt like I was so supported. And, I felt like people actually

wanted to hear that kind of thing, and even my friend who was sitting next to me who

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has, like, a Mexican background, and she was telling me, she's, like, “Wow, I never

thought about it like that.” She was like, “I'm really glad you said that.” And, so I was,

like, you know, it made me feel good about it.

Additionally, some of the other participants also perceived support from their peers.

Eman expressed this support when she said, “I do have a lot of supportive friends who also help

with enhancing the Muslims on campus and influencing other people too, which is really cool.”

She also expressed that she was supported by her peers during the times when she had to offer

her obligatory prayers. They would accompany her to the prayer room and keep an eye on her

personal belongings while she prayed. She also educated them on the Islamic prayer, and stated,

“It was really nice to see them supportive of that and not judgmental.”

When it came to receiving support from administration, Karima expressed the support

she received from the president of her university. She said,

I would say that it's actually very supportive. And this semester, they actually sent out,

the president himself, sent out emails to us, and he had us answer questions to a survey

describing, like, our environment, how comfortable we feel on campus. And it seems like

they actually, they really do care about how we feel.

Bushra similarly expressed the support received from the president of her university after a

terrorist killed 50 Muslims in a New Zealand mosque. She mentioned, “Another time I felt

supported was when, recently, our president sent out an email expressing his condolences for

what happened in New Zealand. I also felt a sense of support from that.”

Theme 2: How Support Was Received. In addition to emails being sent out by the

president during times of crisis, the participants also felt they received support when their

colleges sponsored events regarding the recent terrorist attack in New Zealand. Fatima stated,

49

Okay, so I didn't really come across much discrimination, but then, you know, about the

terrorist attack that happened in New Zealand. And there are many events being set up

about it. So there have been about three events till now that have been set up to, you

know, talk to someone, and, you know, want that relaxation, if you're depressed, and just

you know. I did not personally attend that. But then I felt really good that they are doing

something to actually, you know, make us feel good, make us feel like, no, we're not

alone. Like, there are many other people as well. And yeah, that feels really good. You

know, listening, it is there.

Jenna also reported, “There was an event where students all got together to, you know, put out

a . . . what's the word I'm looking for? . . . You know, to tribute, the innocent lives that were lost,

you know?”

Karima also spoke about the events on her campus. She said,

And they try to include, like, different events, and like, so they could bring people

together and not just, like, people from those specific groups, but they want other people

to join so that we mingle and we communicate with one another. And, so, like, we

become, like, more accepting of one another. So people, like, are more informed of the

different cultures. And it is, I do feel, very comfortable on campus. And I feel like people

are open to my ideas and my thoughts. And I do feel like I'm open to those as well. So

it's, like, there. I do feel comfortable, I would say.

Additionally, participants perceived that they received support by their colleges

embracing and welcoming diversity. Eman stated, “I think, overall, our campus, as a whole, is

very supportive of Islam and has different extracurriculars that support Islam as a whole too.”

Amira also stated, “I feel well welcomed here because of my identity.” Also, she shared a story

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of when she replied to a direct message on social media asking if she felt a sense of belonging on

her campus. She told the researcher,

And then I get a DM (direct message) back saying that the lady that does the newsletter

in the magazine was interested in getting me involved in her story about inclusion. So I

did a quick interview on the phone, just how I feel in my university and everything, and

that kind of felt like they're reaching out to, like, someone to feel, like, included in the

school and everything, you know?, I was excited. They told me they will take a photo

shoot, and they put me in the magazine. So I was kind of excited. I felt, like, more

welcomed here that I'm going to be out there kind of and just, like, express my

experience in the school. So that's kind of, like, I felt that kind of support because the

ladies when they were asking me questions, they're kind of supportive of having students

to be included, no matter what ethnicity, what race, or what they look like.

Bushra also shared how diversity on her campus made her feel supported. She said,

Just attending a campus like ours, to begin with, I feel like it’s very diverse, and the fact

that I never feel uncomfortable or feel like an outcast when I'm on campus just because it

is more diverse. Like I said, the campus is diverse with students, teachers, and faculty.

So I never felt necessarily discomfort.

Bushra’s sentiments were shared by other participants in the study. Karima mentioned, “The

campus is so diverse. And I know for a fact, there's, like, more people that are accepting than

people who are, you know, hard-headed or close-minded.” She further expressed,

And also, I think, because this area is so diverse, they have to be supportive because

there's so many Muslims on campus, many people from so many different backgrounds.

So it's, like, if you're not in support, there's no majority, you know what I mean, because

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we, you know, like, in some areas, white might be in the majority, or, you know, Latinos

might be the majority, but I feel like on campus, there are so many ways that they support

us and just by [?] I feel like they have a lot of, like, groups, a lot of clubs like Arab

Association club or Pakistan Association club and then like an Afghan Association club.

And, so, like, there's different clubs where people can feel, you know, that connection

with people that they share backgrounds with. But also they're on campus, and they're

around other people from different backgrounds, so it's nice because you feel like you're

at home when you're around people that you know, share something with, and then you

also feel like you can share what you come from with others who don't come from the

same background.

Dalia affirmed that diversity played a role in how she was supported in college which

made her feel safe and comfortable. She said, “We're very diverse. And there's not a lot of, like,

stares or hatred I get.” Similarly, Eman said, “Honestly, our campus is very diverse, I think it's

like one of the most diverse in the area, which is really cool.”

Bushra felt supported when the college reached out to students to ask how their diverse

student body felt represented on campus. She said,

I felt a sense of support when a survey went out not too long ago, actually like a month

ago, asking students to fill out an anonymous survey about how represented they feel on

campus. And, in terms of, like, how they feel the support either from, I forgot what the

title of it was, but it was a survey conducted asking questions about how minorities feel

or, like, people of color feel on campus feel and how they feel they are treated around

people who aren’t of color and who their friends are. They’re normally typically friends

with people color and not of color, and I just felt like that was a step in the right direction.

52

To make the campus feel with people, like, even more inclusive than it already is. And

maybe, you know, just, like, steering in the right direction to making it even better.

Research Question 2: Perceptions of Support Not Received

In addition to wanting to understand where female Muslim students who maintain their

Islamic identity received support, the researcher also wanted to comprehend where support was

lacking. Two themes emerged when analyzing the responses from the participants who were

asked to discuss when they felt they were not supported by their college.

Theme 1: Microaggressions. Surprisingly, some of the participants in this study were

subjected to subtle acts of discrimination and marginalization. In fact, Dalia reported,

It was right after Trump got elected. Yeah, so we were sitting in the university union,

and he just like, unzipped his jacket to show he was wearing, like, Trump. And, he, like,

looked at me. And it's like, it doesn't bother me, like, you know, you do you, you know,

it has nothing to do with me. And like, I just smiled at him.

Another student, Irum, actually felt verbally attacked by her professor. She recalled,

So I was in it was like, my first semester, and I was taking a political science class. And I

was wearing nail polish that day. And my professor was like, to me, “Oh, you're allowed

to wear nail polish.” And I was like, “What?” I was like, “Yeah.” He was like, “I didn't

know you were allowed to wear that.” Like, he walked up to me. And then I was like, I

didn't think anything of it. And like, later on, he's standing in front of the class. And he

was like, “Okay, so in Muslim countries, if you were in your country, wouldn't you get

beat for wearing nail polish?” And I was, like, “no.”

Coincidentally, two participants both received discriminatory behavior from a barista in

their campus coffee shop. Dalia described her experience when she said,

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I had actually an incident at our university coffee shop, my freshman year, so long ago.

There was a hijabi, because we do get a lot of transfer Saudi students, and she didn't

really know English really properly. And she would wear abaya [Islamic gown] and this

barista, she was like, “I don't understand you,” and she was getting frustrated with her.

Then she left. And I was just like, okay, that's not right. And, then it was my turn.

Before I could speak, she was like, “sorry, we don't have that.” And I was like, “I didn't

even speak yet.” And then she was shocked. She was like, “Oh, wow, you speak, like,

perfect English,” basically. And I was like, “Yeah, I speak English. Well, I was born and

raised here, you know?” and it just was really bad. And then I called, like, our

university’s manager of the food services. And he was, like, “That's not right.” And, like,

he talked to her. So I was happy I took initiative because I saw that girl, and I don't know

how many other girls get that, too.

Eman’s experience was quite similar, and she stated,

Yeah, actually, last semester, I had an incident where I went to the university cafe, and the

lady there, the barista that works there. Also, everyone there are students, too. I would

go there often because I'd have a break. And every time she would see me, her tone of

voice would change towards me than it did towards someone else ahead of me. And, so I

kind of, like, picked up on it. And then one time, we got into a little incident where one

of her friends is in my class. And during that subject of the class, we were talking about,

like, scenarios on campus, and I had the opportunity to share that scenario of how I felt

like I was being kind of, like, racially discriminated. And so one of her baristas, which is

also her friend, recorded my voice. Yeah. So it got really, really deep. And I met with

some counselors and I met with her manager, and it turned out that she's been reported a

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few other times by other students. Well, so the manager of Starbucks is like, “It's not a

‘you’ problem. It's on her for sure.” So they spoke with her. And after that, I actually

haven't seen her, but I'm not sure.

Fatima also expressed times when she felt that she was discriminated against subtly.

Both times were on her commute to school when she would have to take the bus. One time, she

expressed that she received awkward looks from another female passenger, which made her feel

uncomfortable. She also describes a conversation she had with another passenger who was also

waiting for a bus. She recalled,

And there was this man was actually looking out for me, but then he just passed by, and

he was like, “You know, be careful in this America, people can be very rude. And tell

them you're American,” although I'm not. But then I was, like, “Okay.” But that made

me feel really, like, am I really different from everyone else? So, I was like, “Why?”

Why did he say this to me? And then that whole time, I was, like, “Okay?”

Theme 2: Lack of Representation. Participants also felt that representation was

lacking when it came to female Muslims who maintain their Islamic identity. Bushra expressed

her perception of the lack of Muslim representation when she said,

[What] I came across was the fact that I was trying to advocate for something like the fact

that Middle Easterners are identified as Caucasian, and I don’t agree with that because of

the fact that we are not represented equally as minorities, by having our race or our

ethnicity identified as White or Caucasian, so that's just another example of something, but

to have all minorities and people of color represented equally. Either jobs on campus being,

like, hiring equally. You know not looking at things like color or race or religion.

Eman also felt her religion was not represented enough, and she stated,

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Definitely, I think, like, having or hiring more Muslim employees, or just having, like,

signs that say, “Islam is peace,” or just the way they have, like, they have a guy come talk

about Christianity and Jesus and things like that, which is cool, because, you know, that's a

cool religion as well, but I wish I had more support for us.

Amira spoke of the lack of representation of Muslim women who maintain their Islamic identity.

She conveyed, “When I go there, there's not much hijabi girls, which is I see them all over the

school. But as in, like, seeing them in the program, there's not a lot. I'm not sure if they're not

part of it.”

Research Question 3: Perceptions of Needed Support

When trying to identify how Muslim students who maintained their Islamic identity

needed further support from their colleges, the researcher asked them what their college could do

to better support them and to describe what a supportive college looks like. Five themes

emerged from this research question.

Theme 1: Muslim Student Association (MSA). The most common theme that was

discussed by all the participants in this research study was a need for a better and more

supportive MSA. In fact, Karima stated, “A supportive campus would be a campus that includes

an MSA.” Likewise, Eman claimed, “Our MSA sucks. I wish we had a better MSA.” Dalia

expressed similar sentiments when she said,

I think our college needs a better MSA. It's not very out there. There's like four people,

and they're all men. So it's not really as like a Muslim Student Association as you think it

would be. It's not as big as you think it would be. It's, like, brushed off; it's not really, like,

getting, like, ads and, like, you know, they just target Muslims. I guess, like, “Come to our

MSA,” not, like, really put it in a newspaper where the other groups are in, like, business

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groups you will see, you know, if we can have a better MSA for us to show.

Eman also addressed her desire for a better functioning and more active MSA when she said,

I think, definitely, like another campus compared to ours. They have a really, really well

established MSA with like 50 plus students, and they always do extracurriculars outside of

school and involve other people that aren't students. So I think, like, that's really nice to

have just, like, kind of when you're on break or something in between classes, like, “Oh, let

me go to my MSA” or “I'm going to go to the prayer room.” I feel like that would be a

really good college that enhances Islam really well. This kind of, like, opened my eyes

about the school overall, now that I talked about it.

Haneen also shared her thoughts about her campus’s MSA when she said, “It's kind of, like,

there's not much here on campus. All we have is, like, the MSA, and even the MSA, it's not

really, like, that known.” Finally, Jenna suggested that a supportive campus should include an

“MSA club, specifically for Islamic students that show off their religious events, such as Eid and

Ramadan.”

Theme 2: Prayer Space. The participants further perceived a need for a sufficient prayer

space on campus. Although two of the campuses had meditation rooms, some of the participants

did not feel the space offered was adequate in size. Amira described it as being small. Bushra

also stated,

I heard some people talking about that they wanted to expand the prayer room. We have a

prayer room. It's really small. And, it's just called the meditation room. So, I would love

to see an expanded in them focus more on, you know, making it bigger and like a better

environment and space for the Muslims there just because there is such a large Muslim

community there. I feel like if they were to move on that quicker, that would make it better.

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She further commented that it was important to have a prayer space for the students who wanted

“to worship and practice their worship or religious practices in private and feel comfortable

while doing so.”

Karima also added,

Well, one thing I would really love is, if we had more prayer rooms, I would really love

that, because we only have one on campus. But it's like, I guess there's not a lot of room for

them, but there was one thing that, I mean, they can be much more supportive in that way.

And I like they want us to, like, practice our religion in the best way possible.

Jenna also stated, “I feel like they should set up a Muslim prayer room. You know, so we could

perform our prayers, right? Since it's a requirement. It's not like it's, there's time limits.” She

further stated that a supportive college should “provide for us a praying room.”

Theme 3: Inclusion. Inclusion was another emergent theme that resulted from the

study. Karima expressed the need for inclusion of practicing Muslim females who maintain their

Islamic identity when she stated,

I would also say that by including more, because we have a lot of programs that have to

do with, like, struggles, like, the pride struggles like with the Black Lives Matter

movement. So, we have a lot of programming events to do with those. And I'm not

saying there shouldn't be any, but it would be nice to have a little bit more of like Islamic

events also intertwined. So, like, for example, the last shooting that occurred in New

Zealand, it'd be really great if we, like, raise more awareness towards that. And, so

maybe, like, you know, made a panel where people, like, are able to talk with one

another, and, you know, like, show what Islam is really about things like this, maybe, I

mean, it can't really be that effective, but it can also inform people what their religion is

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about. So, things like that because I noticed that we do have a lot of events that serve and

support people who are going through struggles and, like, certain groups, but it'd be nice

to have more about, you know, Islam.

Similarly, Dalia mentioned,

I think a supportive college looks like, when it involves Islam to as a way they have, like,

those stands for the Bible',s, like, come learn about Jesus and we'll have people that will

come around and [talk] about it where we should have somebody, like, take a minute to

know that Jesus is a part of Islam too, maybe to get people a part of it, you know, where

we don't really have that, like, if you ask people, like, “Oh, do you know anything about

Islam,” they’re, like, “No,” or they just think, like, terrorists right away and don't really

know. So, if we have more, like, I guess, like, classes too because we really don't have a

lot of Islamic classes but when I do look at it, there is a lot about like Christian classes

and all that. So, just have the word spread out more to students would be better.

In a similar manner, Amira stated,

Just in general, I would say just having everyone involved. For example, events

encouraging everyone to go so like everyone from different races, and I feel like they

should do at least an event where all different races like ethnicities: girls, guys,

everything, just show up and kind of have a community just like to get to know each

other and get to know about different races because I personally don't know anything

about different ethnicities, like girls, and how they identify themselves and everything. I

feel like it is the school’s responsibility because I don't think just one student will stand

up and just say, “Hey, let's do this, everyone,” no one's going to, like, follow them.

Fatima expressed that inclusion would make her feel more connected with the other

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students. She stated,

I feel like there should be more people actually participating and looking out for us, for

example, like not only Muslim students should be, you know, part of that. I feel like non-

Muslim[s], like, the ones who are from here, they should also participate and, you know,

make us feel more connected with them. Like, they're, they're really good with us, like

they communicate, well, they do everything, but then I feel like, you know, that extra

support won’t hurt, so yeah.

Theme 4: Islamic Understanding and Awareness. Another theme that emerged was

that participants perceived a need for more Islamic understanding and awareness. Jenna

addressed this when she stated

I feel like Islam should be further more understood by others so that people can get an

insight of what the religion is because of how the media describes it. It's the perception

of it is different once you look at it from a Muslim and from media [perspectives], so I

feel like people should get an insight of what the religion actually is. So people can, you

know, not judge a book by its cover, basically.

Haneen also expressed the importance of understanding Muslims and Islam when she said,

They don't know everything that us, Muslim women, go through. So they're not very,

like, we don't know how to explain, like, our life compared to, like, everybody else. So I

don't know if they would be able to understand, like, the support, we kind of need. I feel

like we need to be more open, explain to them what we need or looking for, and then

they'd be able to help us better. Because right now, I feel like if I were to explain, like,

you know, what goes on in my house is obviously different than an average American girl

that will, you know, live as an American. I was born an American. I have, you know, my

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Yemeni culture at home, so like, anything I go through isn't the same thing. So if I were

to, like, ask for support, they wouldn't really know how to, like, support in a Muslim

woman because it's just so different.

She further mentioned,

It's just kind of hard to explain situations because then I am looked at funny..Like, it's not

the same; they don't know what the heck I'm talking about, when the heck, you know,

what, why am I doing going through this when other girls are going through boyfriends?

You know, and to me, it's more like, you know, like, life and responsibilities in school and

getting to experience school as a Muslim woman, especially because it's not really, like,

it's kind of frowned upon. I feel like I want them to kind of go out of their way to

understand what we're going through and like, I know they're all about, like, for example,

they're all about, like, first time students and to us, it's kind of like, different, like, I know,

especially as a girl, and like, as a Muslim woman, it's way different than like a Muslim

man. Right? So it's like, I kind of want them to be more accustomed to, like, the girls

and, like, realize that sometimes that is, you know, different. And to just realize that

when we're talking about some things that go on at home, it's like way different and not

look at us funny, and be able to understand, like, religious beliefs or stuff like that.

Comparably, Irum expressed that

A supportive college is a college who puts awareness out, someone like, I mean, like,

they talk about it more, and it's not just like, “Oh, there's these students, and there's those

students, right?” Because I know that there's a huge Christian student group on campus,

and they bring in speakers. And, I was thinking, I was like, why doesn't the Muslim, like,

through MSA do that? Like, we need to get our voice out there. And, you know, if the

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dean or someone turns it down, then you would have to fight for that. Yeah. But I'm sure

if we were to go to the dean and ask him to bring in speakers, for other people, not just

for Muslims, then we would raise awareness.

Theme 5: Being Able to Reach Out for Support. The final theme that emerged from

the data was that the participants wanted to be able to reach out for support as Muslim students.

Irum mentioned.

You know, how they have, like, information where you could go for, like, let's say, if

someone was to sexually harass you, or if someone was to do anything wrong towards

you. They have people on the website for the school. There'll be a bunch of, like,

questions and, like, information, like, hotline answers. I feel like they should have that

for students who are being targeted for what they wear on their heads or their religion. I

feel like they should have someone you could talk to about that, like a counselor or, like,

someone who can give you information on what to do. Just like a support person, like,

someone who could support you, and you could talk to it, right? Because let's say

something does happen to you, and you want to talk to someone, but a counselor does not

understand you. You need someone who understands you and what you're going through.

Bushra also expressed similar sentiments when she said,

A supportive college to me, I would say, is one that has all the necessary resources for

students to, like, reach out to someone for support in terms of financial,

enrollment,. . .just any type of support where they can reach out to people to get help

from. I think it is really important for students to have the option to reach out to people

for help and support in any way and to always have someone to go to whether it be a

professor or an advisor, peer mentors to help support, but, you know, just general support

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and help. Yeah, that's pretty much it, just being understanding in terms of working with

the students to cater towards their needs as students and people in general, allowing them

to feel safe and feeling comfortable doing so.

Haneen also shared her perception of how she wanted someone to be able to reach out to when

she needed help. She stated,

It may be something that I don't know, like, maybe when I need help, I'd be able to

receive it, and then receive the exact help that I would want. Like, maybe someone to

talk to, like, someone to vent to, like, you know, life is kind of different as you know, as a

woman, so it's like you're . . . there's a lot of things that are . . . you’re kind of expected to

do and know and sometimes just kind of want to vent about it. Like, I don't want to have

to do be able to, you know, do everything that I want to do, so I want to be able to vent to

someone like a counselor, you know, like, someone that just knows what it's like, maybe

someone that has background, has information, so they just know, like, the differences,

like, what I'm like. I kind of like when I explain someone else, not someone that's like

most of them. It's hard for them to grasp what I mean. A lot. So, like, a supportive

college would be, like, somewhere that I can just do that: talk about my life and then not

have to worry about being looked at weird and not, you know, like, the differences and

cultural stuff and religious.

Summary

The results of the interviews were based on the three research questions, which were

guided by the corresponding interview questions. The data that was collected was coded and

analyzed to find meaningful themes which emerged from the coded segments. The results were

then organized and presented in Chapter 4.

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RQ1 addressed where and how Muslims students who maintain their Islamic identity

received support as college students. The data resulted in two emerging themes which addressed

from whom the support was received and how that support was received. The data showed that

the support was received from students, peers, and faculty. It also showed that the support was

received via emails, surveys, and events sponsored by the college. The participants further felt

supported because of a welcoming and diverse campus.

RQ2 did not provide as many themes as expected but did offer perspectives of where

students felt they were not being supported. Two themes emerged from the data regarding this

specific research question. The first theme suggested that students were facing

microaggressions, and the participants articulated times where they felt they were discriminated

against. The second theme focused on the lack of Islamic and Muslim representation in their

colleges.

Interview questions correlating toRQ3 produced the largest number of themes which

dealt with further areas of future support needed for the female Muslim college student who

maintains her Islamic identity. Five themes emerged related to this particular research question.

The first theme that emerged was that participants felt that they needed an MSA as an area to

offer them more support. Another emerging theme was that participants felt that prayer spaces

would better support them as Muslims. Participants also expressed a need for more inclusion,

and another request was for Islamic awareness when it came to Islam and Muslim students. The

final theme was that the participants expressed a need to be able to reach out to someone who

understands their situation for support.

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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this study was to identify the college experiences of practicing Muslim

American women of traditional age who attended three public universities in the Western United

States. This research was designed to assess where support for these Muslim women who

maintained their Islamic identity by wearing hijab was offered, needed, or lacking. The results

of the study highlighted the importance of a supportive college campus. Although the

participants of the study felt that overall, their campuses were supportive, there were times when

support was lacking or needed.

This chapter will focus on the interpretations of the findings by comparing them to the

literature found in Chapter 2. The chapter will go on to discuss the limitations of the study. The

researcher will also discuss recommendations as a result of the study. Finally, the researcher will

conclude with a summary of the findings and a final conclusion of the chapter, which will

include the implications of the study.

Summary of Findings

The interpretations of the research findings are organized according to the significant

themes that emerged from the data. Their relationship to the three dissertation research questions

will be discussed as well as their relationship to the three theoretical frameworks used to guide

this study. Additionally, the findings will be compared to the current literature review that was

presented in Chapter 2.

Research Question 1: Perceptions of Support Received

Overall, the students felt supported by their university. Perhaps this is because, according

to the literature, Muslim college students were likely to be integrated into their universities by

joining clubs, participating in college activities, studying with other classmates, forging

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friendships, establishing rapport with faculty, and feeling they were a part of the college

(Shammas, 2015). This study validates Shammas’ work by showing that how support received

from others in college can lead to a positive campus environment.

From a social categorical theory perspective, it seems that the participants saw

themselves as part of the out-group rather than the in-group. The use of terms mentioned by the

participants, such as “other students” and “Muslim students,” indicates the “us” versus “them”

mindset described by Turner and Turner (2012). However, this study also found that there was

an acknowledgment of peer support and a willingness to understand the Muslim students. For

instance, Karima discussed the support she received from her classmates when discussing a

controversial issue about immigration. When she shared her point-of-view based on Muslim

immigrants, she was surprised how positively her classmates responded. In fact, one of the

students encouraged her by saying, “Wow, I never thought about it like that. I am really glad you

said that.” In a like manner, Eman discussed how she felt her friends were very supportive and

were open to learning about Islam. She also perceived they were not judgmental when it came to

her religious beliefs. This type of acceptance from the social groups works to show the operation

of social identity theory (Turner and Tafjel, 1986), whereby the study participants identify with

the groups they associate with. As they begin to affiliate with more groups, their identity shifts

between their individual self and the group that begins to accept them. At times, they identify

themselves as being Muslim, but then in the classroom, they see themselves as being like the rest

of the student body as they gain acceptance and understanding from their peers.

The participants also discussed the support they received from the faculty and

administration. The type of support shown by administration and faculty was a willingness to

learn and educate about another culture and could be understood using the social integration

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theory. The social integration theory is the process in which minorities are integrated into the

dominant cultural group of society (Blau, 1960). For instance, Irum discussed how the faculty

participated in World Hijab Day. Amira similarly perceived support from her professor when he

played a video about girls who maintain their Islamic identity by wearing hijab. Also, Bushra

expressed how she felt supported when the president of her campus offered his condolences after

a terrorist in New Zealand killed 50 Muslims. Karima also felt supported by the president of her

campus when he emailed a survey asking the students about how comfortable they feel on

campus. She said, “It seems like they really do care about how we feel.” In addition to who

support was received from, the participants conveyed how they received their support. Students

perceived support when they were included in school-wide events, particularly during times of

crisis. After the terrorist attack in New Zealand, many events had been set up for students to

come together. Fatima commented that the events made her feel like Muslims were not alone.

So, while integration may be occurring, these statements show that “us” versus “them” mentality

described by the social categorization theory (Turner and Reynolds, 2012), as evidenced by the

usage of terms such as “they”, “we” and “alone,” is still operating.

Although the literature suggests that some people find diversity threatening (Fowler,

2013), this study indicated that diversity is integral to a supportive campus. Most of the

participants in the study reported that their campus was supportive because they welcomed

diversity. This is in agreement with the literature which suggests that Muslim students seek out

diversity (Cole & Ahmadi, 2010). Also, the nature of prejudice theory suggests that contact

reduces prejudice (Allport, 1954). For instance, Bushra stated how her diverse campus of

students and faculty never leaves her feeling uncomfortable or like an outcast. Karima shared

her sentiments by stating that because her campus is so diverse, she feels accepted. Therefore, in

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order for students to feel a sense of belonging in their university, diversity should be valued and

accommodated by all colleges and universities. Encouraging and embracing diversity in college

may also help reduce prejudice and may help students become more empathetic towards people

of other cultures or backgrounds.

To summarize, RQ1 discussed the perceptions of where and how Muslims students who

maintain their Islamic identity received support as college students. The data demonstrated that

students perceived support from their peers, faculty, and administrators. It also showed that

students felt welcomed in their diverse environment.

Research Question 2: Perceptions of Support Not Received

The integrated theory proposed by Stephan and Stephan (2000), suggested that some

social groups may feel threatened by groups that don’t belong to their group. This theory was

demonstrated by the data as the participants relayed times where they felt they were being

discriminated against. The study showed that female Muslim students who wore the hijab were

facing subtle acts of discrimination and microaggressions because of their faith, such as

receiving awkward glances, being stereotyped, or given subpar service.

The literature also details accounts of the adversities faced by female and minority

students (e.g. Spring, 2007 & Kelly, 1987). In fact, with the added element of being Muslim in a

time when Islamophobia is on the rise, Muslim women face additional challenges by battling

stereotypes and misconceptions (Stegmeir, 2017). Seggie and Sandford (2010) reported that

female Muslim undergraduate students studying in universities at times feel discriminated

against and marginalized. The findings of this study also suggested that Muslim students were

being discriminated against based on their appearance and their religion.

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This study indicates that Muslim women who maintain their Islamic identity do at times

face discrimination. Dalia faced this when a Trump supporter, who she deemed to be anti-

Muslim, unzipped his jacket to show that he was wearing a shirt that promoted him. Another

student stated that she was verbally attacked by her professor when he insinuated that Muslim

women were oppressed. Surprisingly, even the campus coffee shops were not immune to

discriminatory behavior towards Muslim students. Two participants perceived they were not

given adequate service because they were Muslim.

In addition to discrimination, the study indicated that the representation of Muslims and

Islam was lacking. Both Bushra and Eman felt that there should be more representation by way

of hiring more Muslim employees. Eman also stated that Islam should be represented on campus

the way Christianity is. Amira also felt that there needed to be more representation of Muslim

women who wear hijab. Although the literature did not explicitly discuss minority or religious

representation, it did indicate that Muslim students were integral to a diverse student body (Cole

& Ahmadi, 2010), which is definitely why Islamic and Muslim representation is vital to a college

or university.

To conclude, two themes emerged from the data regarding RQ2. The first theme showed

how students were facing microaggressions. The second theme discussed the lack of Islamic and

Muslim representation in their colleges.

Research Question 3: Perceptions of Needed Support

Since the literature has indicated that negative perceptions of hijab lead to Muslim

women being negatively impacted as a result of wearing the hijab (Navarro, 2010), it is

imperative that students receive the support they need to feel safe and comfortable on campus.

When analyzing the data for this particular research question, five themes emerged which may

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help Muslim students who maintain their Islamic identity feel better supported by their colleges.

The first emerging theme indicated that an active Muslim Student Association (MSA)

was needed to better support female Muslim students. In fact, all of the participants in the study

expressed that an MSA was vital to a supportive college. The social identity theory suggests that

the individual self identifies with the groups within which she associates (Turner & Tajfel, 1986),

while the social categorization theory implies that there is a continual shift between how a person

chooses to identify herself and with the group(s) a person is affiliated with (Turner & Reynolds,

2012). This research study supported both these theories as all the participants showed that

group identification and support is needed by way of an MSA. Muslim women needed a space

where they could reach out to other Muslims for support, especially if that support came from

people who belong to the same group. Most of the participants recognized the importance of an

organization that encompasses their values and beliefs. Therefore, having an organization or

club, such as the MSA may help these students be able to maintain their Islamic identity and be

supported as Muslims by others who share their faith. Moreover, Zimmerman (2015) described

the MSA as an important element of a college campus that supports religious diversity and helps

to create a positive college experience. Consequently, according to Mishra and Shirazi (2010),

many Muslim students participate in the MSA in order to meet other Muslims and to create their

own community within their college. In addition, the study also indicated that students need

prayer spaces, which was the second emergent theme related to this research question.

Another theme that emerged from the data was inclusion. Many of the participants felt

that a supportive college would include Muslims and Islam to bring about Islamic awareness.

Again, from a social identity perspective and the integrated threat theory, the students feel that

they are part of the out-group (Turner & Tajfel, 1986; Turner & Reynolds, 2012). By having a

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more inclusive college campus, the students may begin to feel less excluded and have a sense of

belonging. Amira felt that inclusion would help people to get to know each other and learn about

different races and cultures. Dalia felt that the inclusion of more Islamic courses would help

people understand what Islam is really about. In fact, this may dispel many of the

misconceptions and negative perceptions of Muslims in the United States (e.g., Awad, 2009;

Kalkan, Layman, & Uslaner, 2009).

The social identity and integrated threat theories also are relevant to the fourth emerging

theme related to this research question. They also wanted to be understood and not be treated

differently based on their affiliated group. However, they still wanted to be included in the group

of people who shared their faith and also in the larger group that included the entire student body.

The theme that a supportive college would promote Islamic understanding and awareness would,

again, help people to recognize and understand the Muslim students who perceive themselves as

being a part of the out-group. For example, Haneen perceived that other students do not truly

understand Muslims even though they are just like everyone else. Also, Jenna commented that

campuses need a better understanding of Islam as she perceived that people only knew about

Islam based on what they watched in the media. This is consistent with the literature which

suggests that Islam is not perceived positively because of negative portrayals of Islam and

Muslims in the media (Barzegar, 2011; Nadal, Griffin, Hamit, Leon, Tobio, & Rivera, 2012;

Rauf, 2016).

The final theme that emerged from this research question was that female Muslim

students who maintain their Islamic identity want to have people available to reach out to for

support. From a social categorization theory perspective, in addition to receiving support from

the group with which students are affiliated, it is important that the student is supported as an

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individual as well. This study indicated that as individuals, they needed to be able to reach out to

others for support, whether it be during times of crisis or just to gain information. This is evident

when three participants commented on how they would like to be able to talk to someone who

understands them. This is consistent with the literature which indicated that support services

which included academic advising, career exploration, counseling, and tutoring positively

impacted persistence and graduation rates (Thomas, Farrow, Martinez, 1998).

To sum up, RQ3 resulted in many themes which dealt with further areas of support

needed for the female Muslim college student who maintains her college identity. Five themes

were discussed related to this particular research question. The first theme was that participants

felt that they needed an MSA as an area to offer them more support. Another theme showed that

prayer spaces would better support them as Muslims. Also, participants mentioned a need for

more inclusion, and another request was for Islamic awareness when it came to Islam and

Muslim students. The final theme which was addressed was a need to be able to reach out to

someone such as a counselor who understands Muslims and Islam for support.

Limitations of the Study

The researcher identified some limitations of her study. The first was her small sample

size. The researcher recognized that the nine participants of her study may have not been fully

representative of the entire population of Muslim females in the United States. Additionally, the

sample of participants was not representative of all the different ethnicities and cultures that

Muslims represent in the United States. She also understood that the three public universities in

the Western United States which the participants attended may not have been representative

enough for the results to generalize all the female Muslim students in the United States. She also

took into account that recruiting participants from the Muslim Student Association (MSA) and

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her snowball sampling procedure was used as a matter of convenience and accessibility to

participants. Members of the MSA and the types of students who expressed interest in

participating in the study were most likely students who were generally outspoken and active on

their campus. Therefore, there were likely to be consistencies in their responses which could

have influenced the findings.

The second limitation was that the study was inspired by the researcher’s experiences as a

Muslim college student who maintained her Islamic identity. The researcher had to be cognizant

to make sure that the results of the study were based solely on the experiences and perspectives

of the participants and that her own personal biases were not interjected during the review or

while analyzing the data. It was imperative that, while interviewing, the researcher avoided any

leading questions or biased questions so as to receive authentic responses without the

researcher’s influence.

The researcher also realized that the succinct responses from the participants during their

interviews were a limiting factor. The interviews lasted between 15 to 20 minutes for each

participant although the researcher expected them to last for at least 30 minutes. The researcher

recognized that the interviews were shorter than anticipated, but she was confident in the quality

of the participants’ responses as evidenced by data saturation.

The final limitation was that the researcher was also a Muslim female who maintained

her Islamic identity, and her presence may have influenced her participants’ responses.

Consequently, the researcher had to be cognizant of potential acquiescence response bias, which

is the tendency to respond in agreement (Newby, 2014). Hence, the researcher avoided yes/no

questions and used open-ended questions in her interview protocol. She also made sure to avoid

adding her own opinions while interviewing the participants.

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Recommendations

As a result of the study, there are several recommendations that the researcher would

make to policymakers and school officials which could not only help female Muslim college

students who wear the hijab feel further supported by their colleges but could also benefit other

students as well. A few recommendations will be discussed based on the findings of this study.

Firstly, although many campuses have a meditation room, there need to be more

designated spaces that can adequately accommodate multiple students who want to gather and

pray together in congregation during their times of worship. These types of spaces would be

ideal for students to comfortably, conveniently, and safely offer their prayers or other acts of

worship, while on campus, without having to leave campus or find spaces which may not always

be suitable for the types of worship which need to be performed.

Secondly, all of the participants expressed that they wanted an active club or association

for Muslim students. School administrators should encourage students to organize clubs for their

specific groups that they associate with, whether they be faith-based, cultural, or even social. It

was evident from the study that students found comfort in having these types of clubs to feel

supported and to be able to socialize with those they identify with. Additionally, for institutions

which already have these clubs or associations established, administrators should help students

maintain these clubs or revive them when participation begins to dwindle.

Thirdly, policymakers and administrators should promote more awareness towards

misunderstood minority groups. It was evident from this study that students would feel more

comfortable if people had a better understanding of who they were as Muslims. They expressed

that, often times, the only understanding that people had of Muslims was through the media,

which was not very representative of who they truly were. If more effort was placed on getting

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awareness out, such as events like “World Hijab Day,” then there would be a greater

understanding of the experiences of Muslims and other minority groups. This would also

promote an inclusive environment. Moreover, perhaps this understanding would lead to a more

tolerant and safer campus.

Finally, students need additional resources where they can reach out to people who are

qualified to support them. In addition to having the professional qualifications with regards to

counseling and advising, they also need to have diversity awareness and be able to cater to

specific minority groups, as many participants expressed that they wanted someone who

“understood” them. Sometimes, the struggles faced by minority students are specific to the

group that they are affiliated with. Awareness of these minority groups would benefit students

tremendously, as they will know that the people supporting them also understand them and the

issues with which they are challenged.

Summary and Conclusion

This study examined the existing support received or needed by female Muslim students

who practice hijab while in college. The literature review detailed the complexities and

challenges faced by Muslims in America, including dealing with dual identities, negative

perceptions, and media bias. The literature also slightly touched on the college experiences of

Muslim students and support services for underrepresented students, including Muslims.

However, there was a gap in the literature for the Muslim woman who wears her identity in her

dress. Where and how was she being supported in college during a time of Islamophobia?

After interviewing nine students from three public universities in the Western United

States, the researcher found discernable outcomes which emphasize the importance of having a

supportive campus for all students. The results of this study indicated that Muslim students do

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feel supported in their schools, particularly from their peers, faculty, and administrators in their

diverse academic settings. They also have felt that events, especially during times of crisis, have

provided additional support. However, there were times when they felt unsupported in their

colleges. Often times, this resulted from discriminatory acts towards them or when they felt they

were not represented on their campus.

This study also identified areas where Muslim female students who maintain their Islamic

identities could be further supported. The data suggested that there is a need for a place for

students to pray, and a meditation room can serve that purpose for people of any faith so that

they may fulfill their religious obligations. This study also indicated that students the need for an

active organization for Muslim students to come together, such as the MSA. The results of the

study also showed that Muslim students wanted inclusion, Islamic awareness, and understanding

towards them and their religion. Finally, the study found that students need a safe place to go to

if they are feeling vulnerable or just need someone to reach out and talk to.

The implications for future practice must recognize that all students need support to have

a positive college experience. This will also ensure a tolerant and safe environment where

students will continue to feel accepted. Also, students will continue to need support and

understanding from their instructors as well as administrators because that may help to make

them feel welcome and to enjoy and continue their college experience. A supportive college

culture can provide an enriching experience to all students, which in turn will positively impact

the entire community.

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APPENDIX A: IRB APPROVAL LETTER

California State University, Bakersfield Human Subjects InstitutionalReview Board

FWA00013908 Date: March 12, 2019

To: Elizabeth Shah, Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership John Stark, Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership

cc: Chandra Commuri, IRB Chair

From: IsabelSumaya, University Research Ethics Review Coordinator

Subject: Protocol 19-112: Authorization Following Exemption from Full Review

Iam pleased to inform you that your Protocol, "How Do Female Muslim College Students Who Maintain Their Islamic Identity Receive Support?: A Qualitative Study,” has been approved, following exemption from full review. This research activity was exempted as defined in: Category 2. Research involving the use of educational tests (cognitive, diagnostic, aptitude, achievement), survey procedures, interview procedures or observation of public behavior,unless: (i) information obtained is recorded in such a manner that human subjects can be identified,directly or through identifiers linked to the subjects; and (ii) any disclosure of the human subjects' responses outside the research could reasonably place the subjects at risk of criminal or civil liability or be damaging to the subjects' financialstanding,employability,or reputation.

Authorization is based on the protocol received on March 12, 2019. This authorization will be valid until exact date March 12, 2020. Use of the Psychology Subject Pool is not authorized.

The PI is responsible for ensuring that all research personnel who participate in data collection and/or obtaining informed consent are Human Subjects Protection Training-Certified.

This authorization is strictly limited to the specific activities that have been authorized by the IRB. In conducting this research, the investigator must carefully review the final authorized version of the protocol to ensure that the research is conducted as authorized by the IRB. If you want to modify these activities, notify the IRB in advance so proposed changes can be reviewed. If you have any questions, or there are any unanticipated problems or adverse reactions, please contact me immediately.

Any signed consent documents must be retained for at least three years to enable research compliance monitoring and in case of concerns by research participants. Consent forms may be stored longer at the discretion of the principal investigator Elizabeth Shah.

The PI is responsible for retaining consent forms. If the PI is a student, the faculty supervisor is responsible for the consent forms. The consent forms must be stored so that only the authorized investigators or representatives of the IRB have access. At the end of the retention period the

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consent forms must be destroyed [not re-cycled or thrown away]. Please destroy all audio tapes after scoring if applicable.

IsabelSumaya, Ph.D. University Research Ethics Review Coordinator California State University, Bakersfield

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APPENDIX B: RECRUITMENT EMAIL

Dear __________,

My name is Elizabeth, and I am a doctoral student in educational leadership at CSUB. For my dissertation, I am doing a study on support services offered to or needed by female Muslim students who maintain their Islamic identity. I am looking to interview current female undergraduate students who are between the ages of 18-24, practice hijab, and have completed at least one semester at _____________. Would you be able to help me to recruit some participants for my study? The interview can take place in person or by phone, whichever is most convenient and should not take more than 30 minutes. Results of this study may benefit students in the future, and I would greatly appreciate if you can forward this email to students who may be interested in participating. They can call or email me if they have any questions regarding the study or if they are interested in participating.

Elizabeth Shah xxx-xxx-xxxx eshah@csub.edu

Thank you,

Elizabeth

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APPENDIX C: FACE-TO-FACE CONSENT FORM

CONSENT TO VOLUNTARILY PARTICIPATE IN A RESEARCH STUDY

[Authorized by the CSUB Institutional Review Board/Human Subjects Research: Protocol 19-112]

Protocol Number: 19-112

Title of the Project: How Do Female Muslim College Students Who Maintain Their Islamic Identity Receive Support?: A Qualitative Study

Principal Investigator: Elizabeth Shah, Doctoral Student in Educational Leadership, California State University, Bakersfield

Faculty Advisor: Dr. John Stark, Interim EdD Program Director, Associate Professor, California State University, Bakersfield

*This document begins the consent process in the participation of this research project. Below is all the information that you will need to know in order to make an informed decision about whether to participate. Please read every section carefully. At the end of the document, if you agree to participate, please sign in the presence of the researcher or representative.

Purpose of the research

My research project focuses on how Muslim women who maintain their Islamic identity by practicing hijab receive support and where additional support is needed. You will be asked to participate in an interview conducted by me at a time and place of your convenience. The interview will consist of a few personal questions and should take about 30 minutes. You can skip any questions you don’t want to answer. You can stop at any time.

Any reasonably foreseeable risks or discomforts to the subject

Your participation in this study may involve the following risk of emotional discomfort from being asked about or discussing sensitive issues. You may feel emotional or upset when answering some of the questions. Tell me at any time if you wish to take a break or stop the interview. Also, you may be uncomfortable with some of the questions and topics we will ask about. If you are uncomfortable, you are free to not answer or to skip to the next question. As with all research, there is a chance that

any emotional distress that may result from recalling sensitive issues. Their number is xxx-xxxx.

Any benefits to the subject or to others that may reasonably be expected from the research

You are not likely to have any direct benefit from being in this research study. This study is designed to learn more about Muslim women who maintain their Islamic identity while in college. The study results may be used to help other people in the future.

confidentiality of the information we collect from you could be breached – we will take steps to minimize this risk. You may also contact the University Counseling Center if you need help in coping with

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Confidentiality of records

Results of this study may be used in publications and presentations. Your study data will be handled as confidentially as possible. If results of this study are published or presented, individual names and other personally identifiable information will not be used. The informed consent forms will be stored for a period not less than 3 years in a locked container for at least 3 years in the office of the Faculty Mentor, and thereafter will be destroyed.

Who can I contact if I have questions or concerns about this research study?

John B. Stark, PhD California State Univ., Bakersfield Email: jstark@csub.edu Program Phone: (661) 654-3140 Office Phone: (661) 654-2323 Fax: (661) 654-2207

Elizabeth Shah [address] xxx-xxx-xxxx eshah@csub.edu

Who can I contact if I have questions or concerns about my rights as a research participant?

Dr. Isabel SumayaUniversity Research Ethics Review Coordinator Institutional Review Board/Human Subjects ResearchDepartment of Psychology California State University, Bakersfield Bakersfield, CA 93311-1099 (661) 654-2381 rerc@csub.edu

Voluntary Participation in the Study

Participation in this study is voluntary. You do not have to answer any question you do not want to answer. If at any time and for any reason, you would prefer not to participate in this study, please feel free not to. If at any time you would like to stop participating, please tell me. We can take a break, stop and continue at a later date, or stop altogether.

By signing this document, you are agreeing to be in this study. Make sure you understand whatthe study is about before you sign. The researcher(s) will give you a copy of this document for your records and will keep a copy with the study records for a period of 3 years and may bedestroyed thereafter. If you have any questions about the study after you sign this document, you can contact the study team using the information provided above.

Circumstances under which the participation may be terminated

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You may withdraw from this study at any time, and you will not be penalized in any way for deciding to stop participation. If you decide to withdraw from this study, the researcher will ask you if the information already collected from you can be used.

*Any additional costs

Participation in this study will involve no cost to you. You will not be paid for participating in this study.

*Number of subjects involved in the study

There will be about 8-12 participants involved in this study.

*Additionally, by signing this document and participating in the study, you are not exempt from:

(1) receiving emergency medical care, to the extent the physician is permitted to do so under applicable Federal, state or local law (including tribal law passed by the official governing body of an American Indian or Alaska Native tribe).

(2) local law (including tribal law passed by the official governing body of an American Indian or Alaska Native tribe).

I understand what the study is about and my questions so far have been answered. I agree to takepart in this study.

Printed Subject Name

Signature Date

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APPENDIX D: TELEPHONE CONSENT FORM

CONSENT TO VOLUNTARILY PARTICIPATE IN A RESEARCH STUDY

[Authorized by the CSUB Institutional Review Board/Human Subjects Research: Protocol 19-112]

Protocol Number: 19-112

Title of the Project: How Do Female Muslim College Students Who Maintain Their Islamic Identity Receive Support?: A Qualitative Study

Principal Investigator: Elizabeth Shah, Doctoral Student in Educational Leadership, California State University, Bakersfield

Faculty Advisor: Dr. John Stark, Interim EdD Program Director, Associate Professor, California State University, Bakersfield

Identify

Hello, my name is Elizabeth Shah. I am a student from California State University, Bakersfield.

Purpose of the research

My research project focuses on how Muslim women who maintain their Islamic identity by practicing hijab receive support and where additional support is needed. You will be asked to participate in an interview conducted by me at a time and place of your convenience. The interview will consist of a few personal questions and should take about 30 minutes. You can skip any questions you don’t want to answer. You can stop at any time.

Any reasonably foreseeable risks or discomforts to the subject

Your participation in this study may involve the following risk of emotional discomfort from being asked about or discussing sensitive issues. You may feel emotional or upset when answering some of the questions. Tell me at any time if you wish to take a break or stop the interview. Also, you may be uncomfortable with some of the questions and topics we will ask about. If you are uncomfortable, you are free to not answer or to skip to the next question. As with all research, there is a chance that confidentiality of the information we collect from you could be breached – we will take steps to minimize this risk. You may also contact the University Counseling Center if you need help in coping with any emotional distress that may result from recalling sensitive issues. Their number is xxx-xxxx.

Any benefits to the subject or to others that may reasonably be expected from the research

You are not likely to have any direct benefit from being in this research study. This study is designed to learn more about Muslim women who maintain their Islamic identity while in college. The study results may be used to help other people in the future.

Confidentiality of records

Results of this study may be used in publications and presentations. Your study data will be handled as confidentially as possible. If results of this study are published or presented, individual names and other personally identifiable information will not be used. The informed consent forms will be stored for a period not less than 3 years in a locked container for at least 3 years in the office of the Faculty Mentor, and thereafter will be destroyed.

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Who can I contact if I have questions or concerns about this research study?

John B. Stark, PhD California State Univ., Bakersfield Email: jstark@csub.edu Program Phone: (661) 654-3140 Office Phone: (661) 654-2323 Fax: (661) 654-2207

Elizabeth Shah [address] xxx-xxx-xxxx eshah@csub.edu

Who can I contact if I have questions or concerns about my rights as a research participant?

Dr. Isabel Sumaya University Research Ethics Review Coordinator Institutional Review Board/Human Subjects Research Department of Psychology California State University, Bakersfield Bakersfield, CA 93311-1099 (661) 654-2381 rerc@csub.edu

Voluntary Participation in the Study

Participation in this study is voluntary. You do not have to answer any question you do not want to answer. If at any time and for any reason, you would prefer not to participate in this study, please feel free not to. If at any time you would like to stop participating, please tell me. We can take a break, stop and continue at a later date, or stop altogether.

By signing this document, you are agreeing to be in this study. Make sure you understand what the study is about before you sign. The researcher(s) will give you a copy of this document for your records and will keep a copy with the study records for a period of 3 years and may be destroyed thereafter. If you have any questions about the study after you sign this document, you can contact the study team using the information provided above.

Circumstances under which the participation may be terminated

You may withdraw from this study at any time, and you will not be penalized in any way for deciding to stop participation. If you decide to withdraw from this study, the researcher will ask you if the information already collected from you can be used.

*Any additional costs

Participation in this study will involve no cost to you. You will not be paid for participating in this study.

*Number of subjects involved in the study

There will be about 8-12 participants involved in this study.

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*Additionally, by signing this document and participating in the study, you are not exempt from:

(1) receiving emergency medical care, to the extent the physician is permitted to do so under applicable Federal, state or local law (including tribal law passed by the official governing body of an American Indianor Alaska Native tribe).

(2) local law (including tribal law passed by the official governing body of an American Indian or Alaska Native tribe).

I understand what the study is about and my questions so far have been answered. I agree to take part in this study.

Printed Subject’s Name

Principal Investigator’s Signature Date

Researcher Notes:

• Date consent form was sent _____________

• Date telephone call was made _______________

• What was discussed during the call:

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APPENDIX E: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL

Introductory Protocol

To facilitate our note-taking, I would like to audio record our conversations today. For your information, I will be the only person listening to the audio recordings which will be deleted after they are transcribed. In addition, you must sign a form devised to meet our human subject requirements. Essentially, this document states that: (1) all information will remain confidential, (2) your participation is voluntary and you may stop at any time if you feel uncomfortable, and (3) this interview is not intended to inflict any harm. Thank you for agreeing to participate.

I have planned this interview to last no longer than 30 minutes. During this time, I have a few questions to cover. If time begins to run short, it may be necessary to interrupt you in order to push ahead and complete any remaining questions.

Introduction

You have been selected to participate in this study because you have been identified as someone who has a great deal to share about Muslim women on this campus. My research project as a whole focuses on how Muslim women who maintain their Islamic identity by practicing hijab receive support, as well as explore the degree to which where additional support may be needed.

Interview Questions

1. As a Muslim woman who maintains Islamic identity, how would you describe the level and quality of campus-based support you receive?

Probe: How do you receive that support?

Probe: Tell me a story about a time when you were supported by your college.

2. Tell me about a time when you felt you were not supported?

Probe: What support would have helped you?

3. In what ways do you think your college can better support you?

Probe: Tell me what a supportive college looks like.

Post-Interview Comments and/or Observations:

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APPENDIX F: CODED SEGMENTS Summaries with Coded Segments

Code Coded segments Summary

Open-mindedness

A time where Ifelt like Iwas not supported,that's kind of RQ2 hard. I don't know. I think the only thing I can think about is sometimes our perspectives can be different from other people's. So like, people might believe a certain thing, like, for example, like, Idon't know, I'm thinking like, for example, okay. When we were having a discussion about abortion, um, in my class we were discussing what abortion was. And it was kind of hard for me, because, like, my religious perspectives, it was kind of hard for me to understand where they're coming from. But I did remember that you need to be open minded. And it was like, Ifelt like if Irose my hand, and I said, Well, I don't believe abortion should be allowed and be allowed to everybody. But it should be allowed to certain group of people who are, you know, like, who've gone through, like, certain things where they ended up being pregnant from things that, you know, like, they didn't want, or they didn't, they didn't, you know, like, they didn’t give consent to. So, it was hard for me to say something like that because a lot of people were in support of anybody being allowed to have an abortion. So it was hard for me to raise my hand.But Imean, Idid. And I said, Well, I think, you know, in certain situations, abortion should be allowed. But in other situations, I don't think so. Because, you know, mistakes happen, but you have to deal with those mistakes, and you have to plan better and another person rose their hand was like, completely disagreed with what Ihad to say. And then from then, I was like, Okay, I don't think I should, you know, speak up. But I don't know, it was just I mean, that's the only instance that I can think about.

Ithink if somebody had told me,well,Iunderstand where RQ3 you're coming from, instead of saying, because he rose his hand and said, No, I don't agree. And he said “Ithink that's wrong.” And, Idon't think that certain people should have a right to something, while others don't. Right. And when he said that, I felt like when he's twisting my word, because it's not what I meant. I meant that, you know, like, people should be allowed, but it shouldn't be like, they have more power than the other.Yeah, it should just be like, in certain situations things happen, and it should be evaluated based on the way that they happen, it shouldn't be that you can't have one certain situation, and you have another situation, and that's completely different. And then you deal with them the

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same way. And, so that's what I was trying to say. But I guess they didn't understand it that way. Karima: 12 - 14 (0)

Resources Just the resources on campus, which is also another thing RQ1 Ithink,like,with,Ithink,just because nowadays,there's so many Muslims, there's so many jobs on campus and all that kind of thing. So just I think just knowing that us Muslims are just like any other people. So everyone just supports everyone the way they would support, but there are a few that just kind of hold that little grudge, but you know, what can you do? Eman: 12 - 12 (0)

Micro-aggressions

It was right after Trump got elected. Yeah,so we were RQ2 sitting in the university union, and he just like, unzipped his jacket to show who's wearing like Trump. And he, like, looked at me.And it's like, it doesn't bother me, like, you know, you do you, you know, it has nothing to do with me. And like, I just smiled at him. Dalia: 8 - 8 (0) RQ2

Ihad actually an incident at our university coffee shop, my freshman year, so long ago. There was a hijabi, because we do get a lot of transfers Saudi students, and she didn't really know English really properly. And she would wear abaya [Islamic gown] and this barista, she was like, “I don't understand you,” and she was getting frustrated with her. Then, she left. And I was just like, okay, that's not right. And, then it was my turn. Before I could speak, she was like, sorry, we don't have that. And I was like, I didn't even speak yet. And then she was shocked. She was like, “Oh, wow, you speak, like, perfect English,” basically. And I was like, “Yeah, I speak English. Well, I was born and raised here, you know,” and it just was really bad. And then I called like, our university’s manager of the food services. And he was like, “That's not right.” And like, he talked to her. So I was happy I took initiative because I saw that girl, and I don't know how many other girls get that too.

Yeah, it's probably not really me because I did get the support I needed. I think that because of my English skills, like, Ifelt like wow,subhanAllah. Iwas meant to see that because I didn't even have class that day. I was just on campus. And to see, like, that girl get treated because of the way she dressed,it made me think like all the other Saudi girls that are like her or foreigners like Asians that don't know how to speak because we have a lot of Chinese students as well. It's just like, you know, you never know like if I didn't say anything it would have kept going. Dalia: 10 - 11 (0)

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Yeah, actually, last semester, I had an incident where I went to the university cafe, and the lady there, the barista

RQ2

that works there. Also, everyone there are students, too. Iwould go there often,because I'd have a break. And every time she would see me, her tone of voice would change towards me than it did towards someone else ahead of me. And, so I kind of, like, picked up on it. And then one time, we got into a little incident where one of her friends is in my class. And during that subject of the class, we were talking about, like, scenarios on campus, and I had the opportunity to share that scenario of how I felt like I was being kind of, like, racially discriminated. And so one of her baristas, which is also her friend, recorded my voice. Yeah. So it got really, really deep.And Imet with some counselors and Imet with her manager, and it turned out that she's been reported a few other times by other students. Well, so the manager of Starbucks is like, “It's not a ‘you’ problem. It's on her for sure.” So they spoke with her. And after that, I actually haven't seen her, but I'm not sure. Eman: 11 - 11 (0)

Okay, so this incident happened to me, actually, two of these incidents. One was this, that when I was in college,

RQ2

Iused to take public transport to get back home. One day, I took the bus and then I just went and sat. And there was this woman was staring at me awkwardly, like really, weirdly, and I just passed a smile. But then she just got off the bus. And that made me feel really uncomfortable. But then I was like, it's okay. Because, you know, she has her own reasons. And the second one was this, that, while commuting over here, I have to catch another bus in the morning. And I have to stand at the stop for like, 5-10 minutes. And there was this man was actually looking out for me, but then he just passed by, and he was like, “you know, be careful in this America, people can be very rude. And tell them you're American,” although I'm not. But then I was like, “Okay.” But that made me feel really like, am I really different from everyone else? So, I was like, “Why?” Why did he say this to me? And then that whole time, I was like, “Okay?” Fatima: 10 - 10 (0)

In those situations,Ifeellike um campus is doing a lot of stuff to actually, you know, not make us feel separate. RQ2 But then, in those situations, I don't feel like anything could have been done, because they did not actually tell me anything wrong. Like the first incident, it was just like, it wasn't anything physical.So Idon't think Icould have reported it somewhere, you know, and then get something done. The second one, he was just looking at looking out for me.And Iwouldn't say that that was

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racist. But I would say that that was a bit uncomfortable when but then again, what could have I done? So, yeah. Fatima: 12 - 12 (0)

So I was in it was like, my first semester, and I was taking a political science class. And I was wearing nail polish that

RQ2

day. And my professor was like, to me, “Oh, you're allowed to wear nail polish?” And I was like, “What?” I was like, “Yeah.” He was like, “Ididn't know you were allowed to wear that.” Like, he walked up to me. And then I was like, I didn't think anything of it. And like, later on, he's standing in front of the class. And he was like, “Okay, so in Muslim countries,if you were in your country, wouldn't you get beat for wearing nail polish?” And I was like, “No.” This is my first semester. So like, I didn't know what to expect in school. And I was like, “No.” Like, the whole class was just staring at me now, and I was like, “Iwould not get beat in my country for wearing nail polish,” and I didn't know what to say. And I was like, shocked. So after class, I talked to him. And I was like, “That was very, like, arrogant,” like, “What you said was very, very wrong.” Iwas like, “You don't say that to a student. And you don't say that to anybody in front of a bunch of people who don't know anything about us now? And you're making me look like I'm like the bad person.”

Ifeellike if Ihad people to stand up for me at the time in RQ3 the classroom, or just say, like, oh, like, I know what you said was wrong. And I didn't have any of that. Irum:13 - 16 (0)

Imet some girl,the following semester,and she's not Muslim. And I was telling her about what happened. And RQ2 she was like, dude, that's wrong. She goes, You should have spoken to the dean about it. And I was like, I didn't know it was my first semester. Like, you know, how you don't really know what things you have that you can use? Like, I didn't know, like, there was nothing. I didn't know where to go at that time. Irum:17 - 17 (0)

Peer Support When I was supported by my college? It was actually one RQ1 time I was taking a class, and this was the time where there was some kind of incident that occurred, I don't

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know if it was a terrorist attack or something like that. And, Iwas taking a family consumers class,and the professor was talking to us about the media and the way people, like certain groups, are portrayed by media and how, you know, black people are associated with violence, and Mexicans are associated with, you know, like illegalimmigration or with drugs, and how Muslims are associated with, like, terrorism. So we were talking about that. And he was talking specifically about immigrants.And as we were taking part in the conversation, there was, like, so many people in that class lecture about like, 100 people in that class. And he asked the question, “do you think, do you agree with the perspective of the whole immigrants are taking, you know, Americans jobs, and are they're not contributing as much as we contribute, like, with taxes and stuff like that.” And, so I did feel like pressure to like, raise my hand because there were so many people in the class. And, Ididn't want to say something that people want don't agree with. But I did anyways, because I realized, like, the campus is so diverse.And Iknow for a fact, there's like, more people that are accepting than people who are, you know hard-headed or close-minded. So, I did, I rose my hand and I talked about how, when people immigrate, they come because they're seeking refuge because they want a better life, they're not coming because they want to, you know, cause any corruption or bring any damage, they just want to start better life. And the majority of people come with children and when they come with children, it's hard, it's hard immigrating with children, and you know, a lot of them die. So it's like they knowing that they still come because they know that what they're leaving is worse than what they're facing. So Irose my hand,Isaid that. And then Ialso mentioned that the media portrays certain people a certain way. So if you're living in a community or if you're living in a city where majority is,you know,for example,White and you're constantly hearing Muslims are terrorists and you know, terrorist Muslim like Islamic terrorists, you're constantly being fed that information and you're not exposed to people from, you know, like an Islamic background. So it makes it hard for them to really understand what Islam is and that is a peaceful religion. So because they're being fed all that information, they believe it. They believe Muslims are terrorists, they believe Muslims are hurtful people and they're violent people. So I told him that it all comes down to what the media tells people and how people believe the media, you know, it needs to be known that the media just tries to give people what they want to hear. And, so I told them that people need to know that they can't believe everything that they're told. And, so he responded by

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saying, well, he asked the entire class, and this is a class of 100 people. And he asked, “Well, are you telling me” am I telling him, “that they're all idiots, and that they believe everything that the media is saying.” And I said, “Yeah.” And then the rest of the class agreed 100%. Everybody said, “Yeah, yeah, we totally agree. Everything we hear, we believe.” And, so from that, I was like, wow, like, people actually understand where we're coming from, they really do realize what is going on a but not a lot of people are taking action against it, but Imean, it's a start for people to actually recognize, you know, what's happening. And,so from that, I felt like I'm able to talk to people without them being so close-minded. After that, I was so much more comfortable to, like, raise my hand and to talk about things like that. So I did, I felt like I was supported. And I felt like people actually wanted to hear that kind of thing, and even my friend who was sitting next to me who has like, a Mexican background, and she was telling me, she's like, “Wow, I never thought about it like that.” She was like, “I'm really glad you said that.” And, so I was like, you know, it made me feel good about it. Karima: 8 - 9 (0)

And I do have a lot of supportive friends who also help with enhancing the Muslims on campus and influencing

RQ1

other people too, which is really cool. Eman: 6 - 6 (0)

Ihave a group of friends and Ihad classes where Ihad like a break.And then Ihad a few classes where Iwould be late or early for prayers, so I would go to the prayer

RQ1

room, and I would be like, would you guys mind coming with me to go. I have to pray dhuhr or something like that? Yeah. And surprisingly, surprisingly, because I did choose a good amount of friends that were supportive. But they agreed to come and like hold my backpack while Iprayed and find like,and Itaught them about,like,the Qiblah and how, like, there's a specific direction and that kind of thing. But yeah, I felt very, like kind of home, you know, in a way, just a prayer room that had a side for men and a side for woman, so it was really nice to see them supportive of that and not like judgmental. Eman: 8 - 9 (0)

Okay, well, I feel like it's kind of neutral. Like, I don't have people coming, like, you know, when you feel that kind of like, people are like, oh, like, I'm with you.It's not like that. It's kind of just like, okay, like, I see your kind of people. And I've seen your kind of people on the news as well. So it's not like, people are like sitting there, like, with open arms saying, like, Okay, I'm there for you. Like, you never get that kind of support. Well, I've never

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gotten that kind of support at school. Irum:7 - 7 (0)

Comfortable Yeah, that's pretty much it, just being understanding in terms of working with the students to cater towards their needs as students and people in general. Allowing them to feel safe and feeling comfortable doing so. Bushra: 14 - 14 (0)

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Safe Yeah, that's pretty much it, just being understanding in terms of working with the students to cater towards their needs as students and people in general. Allowing them to feel safe and feeling comfortable doing so. Bushra: 14 - 14 (0)

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Understanding Yeah, that's pretty much it, just being understanding in terms of working with the students to cater towards their needs as students and people in general. Allowing them to feel safe and feeling comfortable doing so. Bushra: 14 - 14 (0)

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Ifeellike Islam should be further more understood by others, so that people can get an insight of what the

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religion is because of how the media describes it. It's the perception of it is different once you look at it from a Muslim and from media, so I feel like people should get an insight of what the religion actually is. So people can, you know, not judge a book by its cover, basically. Jenna: 15 - 15 (0)

They don't know everything that us, Muslim women, go through. So they're not very, like, we don't know how to

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explain like our life compared to like everybody else. So I don't know if they would be able to understand, like, the support, we kind of need, I feel like we need to be more open, explain to them what we need or looking for, and then they'd be able to help us better. Because right now, Ifeellike if Iwere to explain,like,you know,what goes on in my house is obviously different than an average American girl that will, you know, live as an American was born an American, I have, you know, my Yemeniculture at home, so like, anything I go through isn't the same thing. So if I were to, like, ask for support, they wouldn't really know how to, like, support in a Muslim woman because it's just so different. Haneen: 6 - 6 (0)

No, no, no, usually from like, you know, obviously from RQ2 like, other girls that are, you know, going to the same thing as me like other Muslim women around, you know, girls my age. It's just kind of hard to explain situations, because then I am looked at funny, like, it's not the same, they don't know what the heck, I'm talking about when the heck, you know, what, why am I doing going through

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this when other girls are going through boyfriends? You know, and to me, it's more like, you know, like life and responsibilities in school and getting to experience school as a Muslim woman, especially because it's not really like, it's kind of frowned upon, Haneen: 9 - 9 (0)

Reaching Out

Ifeellike,Iwant them to kind of go out of their way to understand what we're going through and like, I know, they're all about, like, for example, they're all about, like, first time students and to us, it's kind of like, different, like, Iknow, especially as a girl, and like, as a Muslim woman, it's way different than like a Muslim man. Right? So it's like, I kind of want them to be more accustomed to like the girls and,like, realize that sometimes that is, you know, different. And to just realize that when we're talking about some things that go on at home, it's like way different and not look at us funny, and be able to understand like, or, like, religious beliefs or stuff like that. Haneen: 14 - 14 (0)

You know, how they have like, information where you could go for, like, let's say, if someone was to sexually harass you, or if someone was to do anything wrong towards you. They have people on the website for the school, there will be a bunch of like, questions and like information, like hotline answers. I feel like they should have that for students who are being targeted for what they wear on their heads or their religion. I feel like they should have someone you could talk to about that, like a counselor or like someone who can give you information of what to do. Just like a support person, like someone who could support you, and you could talk to it, right? Because let's say you do something does happen to you and you want to talk to someone,but a counselor does not understand you. You need someone who understands you and what you're going through. Irum:19 - 19 (0)

A supportive college to me, I would say, is one that has all the necessary resources for students to like reach out to someone for support in terms of financial, enrollment, just any type of support where they can reach out to people to get help from. Bushra: 14 - 14 (0)

And Ithink it is really important for students to have the option to reach out to people for help and support in any way, and to always have someone to go to whether it be a professor or an advisor, peer mentors to help support, but, you know, just general support and help. Bushra: 14 - 14 (0)

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Iwould say that it's actually very supportive. And this semester, they actually sent out, the president himself,

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sent out emails to us, and he had us answer questions to a survey describing, like, our environment, how comfortable we feel on campus. And it seems like they actually, they really do care about how we feel. Karima: 6 - 6 (0)

Ifeellike there should be more people actually participating and looking out for us, for example, like not

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only Muslim students should be, you know, part of that. I feel like non-Muslim, like, the ones who are from here, they should also participate and, you know, make us feel more connected with them. Like, they're, they're really good with us, like they communicate, well, they do everything, but then I feel like, you know That extra support won’t hurt, so yeah. Fatima: 14 - 14 (0)

Okay, a supportive college, I would say that, for example, RQ3 again, this attack that happened, this tried to support us in every way possible.But that wasn't from the college that was from a club in the college. So I would say that, you know, throughout the campus, they should do something to actually make us feel good because that club itself, I know, like, we are part of it, and they are one of us, but then the other people, the other outsiders to our religion, they should also do something about it. They should also, you know, I don't know just be with us. Fatima:16 - 16 (0)

It may be something that Idon't know,like,maybe when I need help, I'd be able to receive it, and then receive the

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exact help that I would want. Like, maybe someone to talk to, like, someone to vent to, like, you know, life is kind of different as you know, as a woman, so it's like you're there's a lot of things that are your kind of expected to do and know and sometimes just kind of want to vent about it.Like, Idon't want to have to do be able to, you know, do everything that Iwant to do, so Iwant to be able to vent to someone like a counselor, you know, like, someone that just knows what it's like, maybe someone that has background, has information, so they just know, like, the differences, like what I'm like, Ikind of like when I explain someone else, not someone that's like most of them. It's hard for them to grasp what I mean, a lot. So like a supportive college would be like somewhere that I can just do that talk about my life and then not have to worry about being looked at weird and not, you know, like the differences and culturalstuff and religious. Haneen: 17 - 17 (0)

You know, how they have like, information where you RQ3

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could go for, like, let's say, if someone was to sexually harass you, or if someone was to do anything wrong towards you. They have people on the website for the school, there willbe a bunch of like, questions and like information, like hotline answers.Ifeellike they should have that for students who are being targeted for what they wear on their heads or their religion. I feel like they should have someone you could talk to about that, like a counselor or like someone who can give you information of what to do. Just like a support person, like someone who could support you, and you could talk to it, right? Because let's say you do something does happen to you and you want to talk to someone, but a counselor does not understand you. You need someone who understands you and what you're going through. Irum:19 - 19 (0)

Administration Another time I felt supported was when recently our president sent out an email expressing his condolences for what happened in New Zealand. I also felt a sense of support from that. Bushra: 9 - 9 (0)

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Crisis Another time I felt supported was when recently our president sent out an email expressing his condolences for what happened in New Zealand. I also felt a sense of support from that. Bushra: 9 - 9 (0)

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And so I would also say that by including more, because we have a lot of programs that have to do with like,

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struggles, like the pride struggles like with the Black Lives Matter movement. So we have a lot of programming events to do with those. And I'm not saying there shouldn't be any, but it would be nice to have a little bit more of like Islamic events also intertwined. So like, for example, the last shooting that occurred in New Zealand, it'd be really great if we, like, raise more awareness towards that. And so maybe, like, you know, made a panel where people like, are able to talk with one another, and, you know, like, show what Islam is really about things like this, maybe, I mean, it can't really be that effective, but it can also inform people what their religion is about. So things like that, because I noticed that we do have a lot of events that serve and support people who are going through struggles and like certain groups, but it'd be nice to have more about, you know, Islam. Karima: 16 - 16 (0)

Okay, so I didn't really come across much discrimination, but then you know, about the terrorist attack that

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happened in New Zealand. And there are many events

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being set up about it. So there have been about three events till now that have been set up to, you know, talk to someone, and you know want that relaxation, if you're depressed, and just you know. I did not personally attend that. But then I felt really good that they are doing something to actually, you know, make us feel good, make us feel like, no, we're not alone. Like, there are many other people as well. And yeah, that feels really good. You know, listening, it is there. Fatima: 8 - 8 (0)

Diversity

Ifeellike Ido get enough support,especially with the MSA being around. And how do you receive that support from the MSA with these student events going around with such as the New Zealand, what recently happened. There was an event where students all got together to, you know, put out a, what's the word I'm looking for? You know, to tribute the innocent lives that were lost, you know? Jenna: 6 - 6 (0)

Just attending a campus like ours,to begin with,Ifeel like it’s very diverse and the fact that I never feel uncomfortable or feel like an outcast when I'm on campus just because it is more diverse like I said the campus is diverse with students, teachers, and faculty. So Inever felt necessarily discomfort. Bushra: 6 - 6 (0)

But I did anyways, because I realized, like, the campus is so diverse. And I know for a fact, there's like, more people that are accepting than people who are, you know hard-headed or close-minded. Karima: 8 - 8 (0)

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And also, I think, because our area is so diverse they have to be supportive because there's so many Muslims on campus, many people from so many different backgrounds. So it's like,if you're not in support, there's no majority, you know what I mean, because we, you know, like, in some areas, White might be in the majority, or, you know, Latinos might be the majority, but I feel like on campus, there are so many ways that they support us and just by I feel like they have a lot of like groups, a lot of clubs like Arab associate Association club or Pakistan Association club and then like an Afghan Association club. And, so like there's different clubs where people can feel you know, that connection with people that they share backgrounds with, but also they're on campus and they're around other people from different backgrounds so it's nice because you feel like you're at home when you're around people that you know, share something with and then you also feel like you can share what you come from

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with others who don't come from the same background. Karima: 10 - 10 (0)

Iguess because we are in the --- Area. Like I said, we're very diverse. And there's not a lot of like stares or hatred

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Iget. Dalia: 6 - 6 (0)

Honestly, our campus is very diverse, I think it's like one of the most diverse in the area, which is really cool.

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Eman: 6 - 6 (0)

Awareness No, because I've taken classes where they talk about ethnicity. They talk about being different, especially. I

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took an ethnic studies class, and he kind of play a video about girls talking about keeping their identity in wearing the hijab. Some of them wear the niqab and everything. So I kind of thought that was a really good video to show all the students that’s why we wear it and everything because, in high school, they never played anything like this. Amira: 12 - 12 (0)

Iwould say Ijust feellike it needs more just like having, RQ3 just like having support,say,like,you know,how to say all women's and everything of thinking would be better if they have like, like hijabis. These are like, you know, that we stand out more Okay, I'm not sure if I'm saying so, like more representation Amira: 14 - 14 (0)

Just in general, I would say just having everyone involved. for example events encouraging everyone to go so like

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everyone from different races, and I feel like they should do at least an event where all different races like ethnicities: girls guys everything just show up and kind of have a community just like to get to know each other get to know about different races because I personally don't know anything about different ethnicities like girls and how they identify themselves and everything. I feel like it is the school’s responsibility because Idon't think just one student will stand up and just say, hey, let's do this. Everyone, no one's going to like follow them. Right? So if it's like something, everyone will participate just like when they have there's a singer coming or like concerts and stuff like that. So it needs to be like out there. Yeah, like marketing. Amira: 16 - 16 (0)

And they try to include, like, different events, and like, so they could bring people together and not just like people

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from those specific groups, but they want other people to join so that we mingle and we communicate with one

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another. And so, like, we become like, more accepting of one another. So people like are more informed of the different cultures. And it is, I do feel very comfortable on campus. And I feel like people are open to my ideas and my thoughts. And I do feel like I'm open to those as well. So it's like there, I do feel comfortable, I would say. Karima: 6 - 6 (0)

And so I would also say that by including more, because we have a lot of programs that have to do with like, struggles, like the pride struggles like with the Black Lives Matter movement. So we have a lot of programming events to do with those. And I'm not saying there shouldn't be any, but it would be nice to have a little bit more of like Islamic events also intertwined. So like, for example, the last shooting that occurred in New Zealand, it'd be really great if we, like, raise more awareness towards that. And so maybe, like, you know, made a panel where people like, are able to talk with one another, and, you know, like, show what Islam is really about things like this, maybe, Imean,it can't really be that effective, but it can also inform people what their religion is about. So things like that, because I noticed that we do have a lot of events that serve and support people who are going through struggles and like certain groups, but it'd be nice to have more about, you know, Islam. Karima: 16 - 16 (0)

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Ithink a supportive college looks like when it involves RQ3 Islam to as a way they have like those stands for the Bible's like, come learn about Jesus and we'll have people that will come around and talking about it where we should have somebody like take a minute to know that Jesus is a part of Islam too, maybe to get people a part of it, you know, where we don't really have that like, if you ask people like, “Oh, do you know anything about Islam,” they’re like “no.” or they just think like terrorists right away don't really know. So if we have more like, I guess like classes too, because we really don't have a lot of Islamic classes but when Ido look at it there is a lot about like Christian classes and allthat.So just have the word spread out more to students would be better. Dalia: 15 - 15 (0)

Definitely, I think like having or hiring more Muslim RQ3 employees, or just having like signs that say, “Islam is peace”, or just the way they have like they have a guy come talk about Christianity and Jesus and things like that, which is cool, because, you know, that's a cool religion as well, but I wish I had more support for us. I'm like, and our MSA sucks.Iwish we had a better MSA. Eman: 14 - 14 (0)

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Ifeellike Islam should be further more understood by RQ3 others so that people can get an insight of what the religion is because of how the media describes it. It's the perception of it is different once you look at it from a Muslim and from media, so I feel like people should get an insight of what the religion actually is. So people can, you know, not judge a book by its cover, basically. Jenna: 15 - 15 (0)

Ifeellike,Iwant them to kind of go out of their way to RQ3 understand what we're going through and like, I know, they're all about, like, for example, they're all about, like, first time students and to us, it's kind of like, different, like, Iknow, especially as a girl, and like, as a Muslim woman, it's way different than like a Muslim man. Right? So it's like, I kind of want them to be more accustomed to like the girls and, like, realize that sometimes that is, you know, different. And to just realize that when we're talking about some things that go on at home, it's like way different and not look at us funny, and be able to understand like, or, like, religious beliefs or stuff like that. Haneen: 14 - 14 (0)

Okay, well, I feel like it's kind of neutral. Like, I don't have people coming, like, you know, when you feel that kind of like, people are like, oh, like, I'm with you.It's not like that. It's kind of just like, okay, like, I see your kind of people. And I've seen your kind of people on the news as well. So it's not like, people are like sitting there, like, with open arms saying, like, Okay, I'm there for you. Like, you never get that kind of support. Well, I've never gotten that kind of support at school. Irum:7 - 7 (0)

My actual university? Not really. Imean there's times where we have like, World Hijab Day. And, a lot of the faculty will be in that line with a bunch of other students. And, they'll be asking questions and like trying to get to know more about the hijab. And some of them actually do wear it around or they will wear like a little pin that says World Hijab Day. But that's about it. Irum:9 - 9 (0)

Because they're, the faculty is actually going out of their way to learn more about their Muslim students, rather than just like, assuming they know, or just assuming, like stereotyping the girls in hijabs. Irum:11 - 11 (0)

A supportive college, I would say is supportive colleges, a college who puts awareness out, someone like, I mean, like, they talk about it more, and it's not just like, “Oh, there's these students, and there's those students,

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right?” Because I know that there's a huge Christian student group on campus, and they bring in speakers. And I was thinking, I was like, why doesn't the Muslim like, through MSA do that? Like, we need to get our voice out there. And, you know, if the dean or someone turns it down, then you would have to fight for that. Yeah. But I'm sure if we were to go to the dean and ask him to bring in speakers, for other people, not just for Muslims, then we would raise awareness. Irum:21 - 21 (0)

Inclusion Just recently, I answered a DM on a success story. It was “Do you feel a sense of belonging on this campus,” and I

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was just bored so I replied to it. And then I get a DM back saying that the lady that does the newsletter, the magazine she was interested in getting me involved in her story about inclusion. So yeah, so I did a quick interview on the phone, just how I feel in my college everything and that kind of felt like they're reaching out to like someone who is like, feel like included in the school and everything, you know, I was excited as well as like, they told me they willget into a photo shoot and they put me on the magazine. So I was kind of excited. I felt like more like welcomed here that I'm going to be out there, kind of, and just like express my experience in the school. so that's kind of like, I felt that kind of support because the ladies when they were asking me questions, they're kind of supportive of having at my college to be included of allthe students, no matter what ethnicity, what race, what they look like. Amira: 10 - 10 (0)

Just in general, I would say just having everyone involved. for example events encouraging everyone to go so like RQ3 (Events) everyone from different races, and I feel like they should do at least an event where all different races like ethnicities: girls guys everything just show up and kind of have a community just like to get to know each other get to know about different races because I personally don't know anything about different ethnicities like girls and how they identify themselves and everything. I feel like it is the school’s responsibility because Idon't think just one student will stand up and just say, hey, let's do this. Everyone, no one's going to like follow them. Right? So if it's like a score thing, everyone willparticipate just like when they have there's a singer coming or like concerts and stuff like that. So it needs to be like out there. Yeah, like marketing. Amira: 16 - 16 (0)

Ifelt a sense of support when a survey went out not too long ago, actually like a month ago, asking students to fill

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out an anonymous survey about how represented they

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feel on campus. And in terms of like how they feel the support either from, I forgot what the title of it was, but it was a survey conducted asking questions about how minorities feel or like people of color feel on campus feel and how they feel they are treated around people who aren’t of color, and who their friends are. They’re normally typically friends with people color and not of color, and I just felt like that was a step in the right direction. To make the campus feel with people like even more inclusive than it already is. And maybe, you know, just like steering in the right direction to making it even better. Bushra: 8 - 8 (0)

And they try to include, like, different events, and like, so they could bring people together and not just like people from those specific groups, but they want other people to join so that we mingle and we communicate with one another. And so, like, we become like, more accepting of one another. So people like are more informed of the different cultures. And it is, I do feel very comfortable on campus. And I feel like people are open to my ideas and my thoughts. And I do feel like I'm open to those as well. So it's like there, I do feel comfortable, I would say. Karima: 6 - 6 (0)

And so I would also say that by including more, because we have a lot of programs that have to do with like, struggles, like the pride struggles like with the Black Lives Matter movement. So we have a lot of programming events to do with those. And I'm not saying there shouldn't be any, but it would be nice to have a little bit more of like Islamic events also intertwined. So like, for example, the last shooting that occurred in New Zealand, it'd be really great if we, like, raise more awareness towards that. And so maybe, like, you know, made a panel where people like, are able to talk with one another, and, you know, like, show what Islam is really about things like this, maybe, I mean, it can't really be that effective, but it can also inform people what their religion is about. So things like that, because I noticed that we do have a lot of events that serve and support people who are going through struggles and like certain groups, but it'd be nice to have more about, you know, Islam. Karima: 16 - 16 (0)

A supportive college looks like, Well, when I when I'm at school, and the things that I like that I find just so supportive is when I go into the library, there are signs everywhere with girls who have hijabs on and say everybody's welcome here, or a supportive campus

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would be a campus that includes an MSA and a campus that is against segregation or against, I guess, hate towards one group and a campus that actually values our opinions. So when it comes to, you know, professors, because I know, I hear of a lot of instances where, like, certain groups of people will feel like offended by certain professors or they can sense racism from a certain professor. So a campus that really cares about and takes it into account when it comes to like evaluations at the end of the semester, and I think a campus that also supports us. Karima: 18 - 18 (0)

Ithink,overall,our campus,as a whole,is very supportive RQ1 of Islam and has different extracurriculars that support Islam as a whole too. Eman: 6- 6 (0)

Okay, so this is just my first year here, and I'm still trying to figure out stuff. But then, during like the first or second week, I joined the Muslim Student Association over here. Firstly, it is a very friendly campus because they do not discriminate. They are not racist. They don't say anything. They don't look at you, really. And after joining that group, it makes me feel more connected to everyone else. Because they set up events, they setup Juma prayers, they set up everything, so that makes me feel really good, because coming from Muslim country, that can be hard for me, especially because I have been feeling a bit homesick. But then after all of that, I feel like Iam kind of adjusting myself to the climate to everything. Because it is a pretty friendly campus, and they are doing as much as they can. They are putting in effort to actually make it more suitable for us. Fatima: 6 - 6 (0)

In those situations,Ifeellike um campus is doing a lot of stuff to actually, you know, not make us feel separate. But then, in those situations, I don't feel like anything could have been done, because they did not actually tell me anything wrong. Like the first incident, it was just like, it wasn't anything physical.So Idon't think Icould have reported it somewhere, you know, and then get something done. The second one, he was just looking at looking out for me.And Iwouldn't say that that was racist. But I would say that that was a bit uncomfortable when but then again, what could have I done? So, yeah. Fatima: 12 - 12 (0)

Ifeellike there should be more people actually participating and looking out for us, for example, like not only Muslim students should be, you know, part of that. I feel like non-Muslim, like, the ones who are from here,

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they should also participate and, you know, make us feel more connected with them. Like, they're, they're really good with us, like they communicate, well, they do everything, but then I feel like, you know. That extra support won’t hurt, so yeah. Fatima: 14 - 14 (0)

Okay, a supportive college, I would say that, for example, again, this attack that happened, this tried to support us

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in every way possible.But that wasn't from the college that was from a club in the college. So I would say that, you know, throughout the campus, they should do something to actually make us feel good because that club itself, I know, like, we are part of it, and they are one of us, but then the other people, the other outsiders to our religion, they should also do something about it. They should also, you know, I don't know just be with us. Fatima: 16 - 16 (0)

Prayer room They also have a meditation room. It's really small. But they expanded the union, which is part of the college,

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they have a bigger room for just meditation. Amira: 7 - 7 (0)

Yeah, having the meditation really encouraged me to go RQ1 pray more. Because in the community college I went to, they didn't have any kind of support at all. Not even like an organization or anything like that. So now over here, I have no excuse. Like, I can totally go to the room, pray, and just go on with my day. I love that part because I was already lacking with my like, prayers and everything. Yeah, so over here, there's no excuse. And I see like a lot of when I walk in there, I see people praying in there, and also there's other students, they're just meditating. And I kind of feel like the now looking at me weird because they know what is like praying and they just like, I'm just there praying. They're doing their meditation,no interruption.Nothing.Just everyone goes on with their day. Amira: 7 - 7 (0)

Also, they do Friday prayers, and it's held by the students. RQ1 Sometimes they would bring (for last semester was unable to go because Ihad to work) but they would bring like a shaykh from the actualmasjid and then they would come for the Friday prayers, but it's totally by the students. It’s a student that does the adhan and everything. I went to it twice already because I work at that time, but I feel like there's not a lot of girls that go to it.Idon't know if it's like they have work or something because I have work, and I was able to take two days excused from work, that way I can stay and pray because

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Ijust want to get to go to the Friday prayers more. I'm planning on having my supervisor to kind of schedule me from 2:30, that way I can stay for the Friday prayers. So that's kind of exciting. I just hope, like, more girls can go to it, and I think it's because they either go to the masjid. Because it's Friday, not a lot of people take classes like me. I decided to take a Friday class. Amira: 8 - 8 (0)

Iheard some people talking about they wanted to expand the prayer room. We have a prayer room, it's really

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small. And it's just called the meditation room. So, I would love to see an expanded in them focus more on, you know, making it bigger and like a better environment and space for the Muslims there just because there is such a large Muslim community there. I feel like if they were to move on that quicker, that would make it better but in terms of not feeling supported, I haven’t really thought of anything Bushra: 12 - 12 (0)

And then also, you know, the whole masjid thing having a place where people who want to worship and practice

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their worship or religious practices in private and feel comfortable while doing so. Bushra: 14 - 14 (0)

Well, one thing I would really love is, if we had more prayer rooms, I would really love that, because we only

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have one on campus. But it's like, I guess there's not a lot of room for them, but there was one thing that I mean, they can be much more supportive in that way. And I like they want us to, like practice our religion in the best way possible. Karima: 16 - 16 (0)

And our campus has a separate prayer room, which I think is really nice for other religions to come and pray to.

RQ1

Eman: 6 - 6 (0)

Ithink definitely,like another campus compared to ours. RQ3 They have a really, really well established MSA with like 50 plus students, and they always do extracurriculars outside of school and involve other people that aren't students. So I think like that's really nice to have just like kind of when you're on break or something in between classes, like “Oh, let me go to my MSA” or “I'm going to go to the prayer room.” Ifeellike that would be a really good college that enhances Islam really well. This kind of like opened my eyes about the schooloverallnow that I talked about it. Eman: 16 - 17 (0)

105

Okay, so this is just my first year here, and I'm still trying to figure out stuff. But then, during like the first or second week, I joined the Muslim Student Association over here. Firstly, it is a very friendly campus because they do not discriminate. They are not racist. They don't say anything. They don't look at you, really. And after joining that group, it makes me feel more connected to everyone else. Because they set up events, they setup Juma prayers, they set up everything, so that makes me feel really good, because coming from Muslim country, that can be hard for me, especially because I have been feeling a bit homesick. But then after all of that, I feel like Iam kind of adjusting myself to the climate to everything. Because it is a pretty friendly campus, and they are doing as much as they can. They are putting in effort to actually make it more suitable for us. Fatima: 6 - 6 (0)

RQ1 (Events)

Um, I feel like they should set up a Muslim prayer room. You know, so we could perform our prayers, right? Since it's a requirement.It's not like it's, there's time limits. And, um, just that. Jenna: 12 - 12 (0)

RQ3

Representation

So they provide for us a praying room. And a, like, such as the MSA club,specifically for Islamic students that show off their religious events, such as Eid and Ramadan. Jenna: 14 - 14 (0)

But when I go there, there's not much hijabi girls, which is Isee them allover the school. But as in like,seeing them in the program, there's not a lot.I'm not sure if they're not part of it. Or if they are but, as part of feeling supported I am like, I just like I'm happy to wear my scarf and everything because I feel I am not different. Amira: 6 - 6 (0)

Ifelt a sense of support when a survey went out not too long ago, actually like a month ago, asking students to fill out an anonymous survey about how represented they feel on campus. And in terms of like how they feel the support either from, I forgot what the title of it was, but it was a survey conducted asking questions about how minorities feel or like people of color feel on campus feel and how they feel they are treated around people who aren’t of color, and who their friends are. They’re normally typically friends with people color and not of color, and I just felt like that was a step in the right direction. To make the campus feel with people like even more inclusive than it already is. And maybe, you know, just like steering in the right direction to making it even better. Bushra: 8 - 8 (0)

RQ3 (Events)

RQ1, RQ2, RQ3

RQ1

106

Icame across was the fact that Iwas trying to advocate RQ2 for something like the fact that Middle Easterners are identified as Caucasian, and I don’t agree with that because of the fact that we are not represented equally as minorities, by having our race or our ethnicity identified as White or Caucasian so that's just another example of something, but to have all minorities and people of color represented equally. Either jobs on campus being like, hiring equally. You know, not looking at things like color or race or religion. Bushra: 14 - 14 (0)

And so I would also say that by including more, because we have a lot of programs that have to do with like, struggles, like the pride struggles like with the Black Lives Matter movement. So we have a lot of programming events to do with those. And I'm not saying there shouldn't be any, but it would be nice to have a little bit more of like Islamic events also intertwined. So like, for example, the last shooting that occurred in New Zealand, it'd be really great if we, like, raise more awareness towards that. And so maybe, like, you know, made a panel where people like, are able to talk with one another, and, you know, like, show what Islam is really about things like this, maybe, I mean, it can't really be that effective, but it can also inform people what their religion is about. So things like that, because I noticed that we do have a lot of events that serve and support people who are going through struggles and like certain groups, but it'd be nice to have more about, you know, Islam. Karima: 16 - 16 (0)

A supportive college looks like, Well, when I when I'm at school, and the things that I like that I find just so supportive is when I go into the library, there are signs everywhere with girls who have hijabs on and say everybody's welcome here, or a supportive campus would be a campus that includes an MSA and a campus that is against segregation or against, I guess, hate towards one group and a campus that actually values our opinions. So when it comes to, you know, professors, because I know, I hear of a lot of instances where, like, certain groups of people will feel like offended by certain professors or they can sense racism from a certain professor. So a campus that really cares about and takes it into account when it comes to like evaluations at the end of the semester, and I think a campus that also supports us. Karima: 18 - 18 (0)

RQ3 (Events)

RQ3

107

Definitely, I think like having or hiring more Muslim employees, or just having like signs that say, “Islam is

RQ3

peace”, or just the way they have like they have a guy come talk about Christianity and Jesus and things like that, which is cool, because, you know, that's a cool religion as well, but I wish I had more support for us. I'm like, and our MSA sucks.Iwish we had a better MSA. Eman: 14 - 14 (0)

MSA And, as an in support, there is only the MSA, which is where we get together and everything.

RQ1

Amira: 6 - 6 (0)

So I never felt necessarily discomfort, but in terms of, you know, like other additional support like clubs, I know

RQ1, RQ3

there’s an MSA or anything like that. There aren't really any clubs or programs that I know of that are designed or geared towards specifically Muslim women who are wearing hijab. Bushra: 6 - 6 (0)

Ithink our college needs a better MSA. It's not very out there. There's like four people, and they're all men. So it's

RQ3

not really as like a Muslim Student Association as you think it would be. Yeah, exactly. It's not as big as you think it would be. It's like brushed off. It's not really like getting like ads and like, you know, they just target Muslims, Iguess like come to our MSA, not like really put it in a newspaper where the other groups are in like Business Groups you will see, you know, if we can have a better MSA for us to show Dalia: 13 - 13 (0)

Definitely, I think like having or hiring more Muslim employees, or just having like signs that say, “Islam is

RQ3

peace”, or just the way they have like they have a guy come talk about Christianity and Jesus and things like that, which is cool, because, you know, that's a cool religion as well, but I wish I had more support for us. I'm like, and our MSA sucks.Iwish we had a better MSA. Eman: 14 - 14 (0)

Ithink definitely,like another campus compared to ours. They have a really, really well established MSA with like RQ3 50 plus students, and they always do extracurriculars outside of school and involve other people that aren't students. So I think like that's really nice to have just like kind of when you're on break or something in between classes, like Oh, let me go to my MSA or I'm going to go to the prayer room. I feel like that would be a really good college that enhances Islam really well. This kind of like opened my eyes about the school overall now that I talked about it.

108

Eman: 16 - 17 (0)

Okay, so this is just my first year here, and I'm still trying to figure out stuff. But then, during like the first or second

RQ1 (Events)

week, I joined the Muslim Student Association over here. Firstly, it is a very friendly campus because they do not discriminate. They are not racist. They don't say anything. They don't look at you, really. And after joining that group, it makes me feel more connected to everyone else. Because they set up events, they setup Juma prayers, they set up everything, so that makes me feel really good, because coming from Muslim country, that can be hard for me, especially because I have been feeling a bit homesick. But then after allof that, Ifeellike Iam kind of adjusting myself to the climate to everything. Because it is a pretty friendly campus, and they are doing as much as they can. They are putting in effort to actually make it more suitable for us. Fatima: 6 - 6 (0)

It's kind of like,there's not much here on campus,there's only all we have is like the MSA and even the MSA. It's

RQ3

not really like that known Haneen: 14 - 14 (0)

A supportive college, I would say is supportive colleges, a college who puts awareness out, someone like, I mean,

RQ3

like, they talk about it more, and it's not just like, “Oh, there's these students, and there's those students, right?” Because I know that there's a huge Christian student group on campus, and they bring in speakers. And I was thinking, I was like, why doesn't the Muslim like, through MSA do that? Like, we need to get our voice out there. And, you know, if the dean or someone turns it down, then you would have to fight for that. Yeah. But I'm sure if we were to go to the dean and ask him to bring in speakers, for other people, not just for Muslims, then we would raise awareness. Irum:21 - 21 (0)

Welcomed Ifeelwellwelcomed here because of my identity. Amira: 6 - 6 (0)

RQ1

Just recently, I answered a DM on a success story. It was, “Do you feel a sense of belonging on this campus,” and I RQ1 was just bored so I replied to it. And then I get a DM back saying that the lady that does the newsletter, the magazine she was interested in getting me involved in her story about inclusion. So yeah, so I did a quick interview on the phone, just how Ifeelin my college everything and that kind of felt like they're reaching out to like someone who is like, feel like included in the school and everything, you know, I was excited as well as

109

like, they told me they willget into a photo shoot and they put me on the magazine. So I was kind of excited. I felt like more like welcomed here that I'm going to be out there kind of and just like express my experience in the school. so that's kind of like, I felt that kind of support because the ladies when they were asking me questions, they're kind of supportive of having at my college to be included of allthe students, no matter what ethnicity, what race, what they look like. Amira: 10 - 10 (0)

110

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VITA

Elizabeth Shah is from Lodi, CA. She studied educational leadership and earned a

Bachelor’s degree in Organizational Communication from California State University, Stanislaus

and a Master’s degree in Teaching from California State University, Fresno. Her future plans

include continuing her leadership in higher education.

119