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Destiny and Fate and Homer

‘Come, I will speak my mind; and in the name of Destiny and the

Fates take not my candour amiss. If the case stands thus, if the Fates

are mistresses of all, and their decisions unalterable, then why do

men sacrifice to you, and bring hecatombs, and pray for good at your

hands? If our prayers can neither save us from evil nor procure us

any boon from Heaven, I fail to see what we get for our trouble.’ 1

It would be remiss to take Lucian’s satire too seriously but it does

highlight a valid point regarding the gods and fate of Homer, and

Lucian’s famous cross examination of Zeus sums up the problems

inherent in understanding these roles of fate, the divine and

individual free will. Although it was written over 800 years after

1 Lucian, Zeus Cross-examined in The works of Lucian, Trans. Fowler, H. W. and Fowler F.G.

(London, Oxford University Press, 1949)p.73 Cyniscus to Zeus.

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Homer in the second century AD, the problem of the extent of the

roles of fate, man and the divine was still relevant and unresolved.

It seems the antithesis of performance-led literature to sit and

catalogue the instances of fate, free will and the will of the Gods in

Homer; there is always the nagging suspicion when one approaches

Homer in this manner that this is rather missing the point. 2 Homer

was written for performance and entertainment and to subdue the

text through the rather dry activity of cataloguing and close reading

is an activity at odds with the work’s original purpose. Nevertheless,

for many Greeks, Homer stood alongside Hesiod in setting the

theological backdrop to the Classical world: thus Xenophanes ‘Since

from the beginning all have learned according to Homer’. 3

Herodotus also emphasised the organising role Homer and Hesiod

2 Ruth Schodel, ‘The Story-teller and his audience’, in The Cambridge Companion to Homer, Fowler, R. (ed), (New York, Cambridge

University Press, 2008) p.45-46

3 Xenophanes of Colophon: Fragments: A text and translation with commentary, ed. Lesher, J.H. (Toronto, University of Toronto

Press, 2001) p.81 Fragment 10.

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had in the relatively late fixing of the gods’ powers, offices and titles

and because of this, some manner of investigation is worthwhile. 4

Homer contains many differences in the way his work represents the

relationships between the gods, men and destiny. It is the purpose of

this paper to investigate the ways in which fate, the will of the Gods

and individual human action are explored in Homer and whether

Homer shows any consistent methodology in dealing with these

subjects.

One of the main influences in the plot of the Iliad is the will of Zeus

the famous Dios Boule. From line 5 of the first book and throughout

both the Iliad and The Odyssey there are many circumstances in

which gods intervene on human affairs, the so called divine

machinery. However it is Zeus and his Plan (Dios Boule) that is a

strong driving force behind the plot of the Iliad.5 At some point it is

strongly implied that it is Zeus who had the power to stop the Trojan

4 Herodotus, The Histories, trans. Aubrey De Selincourt,(London, Penguin Classics, 2003)2.53 5 Homer, The Iliad, Trans. Lattimore, R. (London, The University of Chicago Press, 1961) Il. 1,5.

Homer, The Odyssey, Trans. Lattimore. R. (New York, Harper and Row, 2007)11.297

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War. 6 For example, Hera speaks out in anger against his suggestion

they could end the war, Zeus capitulates and by demanding a city of

Hera’s in return for the destruction of Troy, Zeus subsequently lets

the war carry on.7. He instructs the gods to descend into battle and

gives them the choice of which side to fight on:

‘I shall stay here upon the fold of Olympos sitting still, watching, to

pleasure my heart. Meanwhile all you others go down, wherever you

may go among the Achaeans and the Trojans and give help to either

side, as your own pleasure directs you.’8

Zeus gives this order as he fears ‘against destiny’ Akhilleus will storm

the fortress but also admits to garnering pleasure from the

slaughter.9 Therefore it would seem that Zeus and the gods are

concerned with and have the power to assist in the correct path of

destiny for men. Whether this means destiny is the same as the will

of Zeus is unclear. It would seem that the destiny of Troy and the 6 Homer, The Iliad, 4.14-19 7 Homer, The Iliad, 4.70-72

8 Homer, The Iliad,20.22-25 9 Homer, The Iliad,20.30

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men fighting for it were in the hands of Zeus. This is interesting in as

much as it gives rise to the possibility of interpreting the will of Zeus

as the entity that controls or drives most of the plot with Homer,

especially concerning the Iliad.

There was an ancient tradition relating to the seventh century BC

epic the Kypria that believed that Zeus willed the Trojan War in order

to reduce the world population:

`There was a time when the countless tribes of men, though wide-

dispersed, oppressed the surface of the deep-bosomed earth, and

Zeus saw it and had pity and in his wise heart resolved to relieve the

all-nurturing earth of men by causing the great struggle of the Ilion

war, that the load of death might empty the world. And so the

heroes were slain in Troy, and the plan of Zeus came to pass.' 10

10 Scholiast, The Cypria, Hesiod, The Homeric Hymns and Homerica, Trans Hugh G Evelyn-White (BiblioBazaar,LLC, 2007) Fragment #3 --

Scholiast on Homer, p489

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In his summary of the Kypria , Proklos, who is most probably the

second century grammarian Eutychius Proklos instructor to the

Emperor Marcus Aurelius, stated that Zeus, alongside Thetis, not

only brings about the punishment of the Greeks for the slight shown

to Akhilleus but that they bring about the whole of the Trojan War:

‘Zeus plans with Thetis to bring about the Trojan War’ 11

How best to approach this? Is the will of Zeus being portrayed as the

origin of the Trojan War? If it is, this would mean that Homer

represents the individual will of man and destiny as subordinate to

the will of Zeus, such as Zeus’ role in the quarrel between

Agamemnon and Akhilleus. Agamemnon blames Zeus for ‘stealing his

wits away’ when Agamemnon turns on Akhilleus and demands

Briseis from him.12 If this is not just a ploy by Agamemnon to avoid

responsibility, one can only suggest that he believed Zeus capable of

wreaking havoc and death upon the Greeks as well as the Trojans. 11 Proklos, , Chrestomathia, : Hesiod, The Homeric Hymns and Homerica, Trans Hugh G Evelyn-White (BiblioBazaar,LLC, 2007)

Fragment 1 p.489.

12 Iliad 9,8-88

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For what other reason would Zeus steal the Greek leaders’ wits away

and cause such problems for the Achaean camp? This theory

regarding the will of Zeus is also supported in Book 8 of the Odyssey

where Zeus is described as ‘conjuring up great waves of disasters for

both Greeks and Trojans Alike “13

Following this logic it would seem that Zeus can be blamed for the

war itself and the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilleus, in

essence the plot of the Iliad is the will of Zeus. This is unsatisfying, as

not only does it remove any need to censure an individual’s actions

but it removes the need or possibility of heroic or moral behaviour.

Book 1 of The Iliad clearly places Agamemnon’s personal choices and

actions as the driving force behind the plot of Book.

Another problem encountered is that, although the will of Zeus is

mentioned in line 5 of the book, it is in the passive sense of the

13 The Odyssey 8.81-82

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narrator’s introduction. The first active role the character of Zeus

makes is his promise to Thetis, which occurs at the very end of Book

1. It is Apollo who sends the plague upon the Achaeans after the

pleas of his priest Chryses.14 And Athene who intercedes between

Agamemnon and Achilles and she stops them, not on behalf of Zeus,

but rather Hera who ‘loves you both’ 15 If we are to believe Zeus

willed the war in the first place, a more active and timely appearance

by the main protagonist would be expected; Zeus does not become

an part of the story until after the actions of others. As it stands, it is

Athena and Apollo who are the defining Gods in the events that

unfold in Book 1.

Further, there would be no reason to Homer detailing these

individual actions and decisions of both the gods and men if they

were not relevant to the plot. To give the whole plot of Homer over

to the will of Zeus, is to ignore the considerable depth Homer gives

14 Homer, The Iliad 1.43-53 15 Homer, The Iliad, 1.208-10

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to his main protagonists. J. Wilson reconciles these issues by

proposing that it was epic tradition that necessitated Zeus starting

the war and, by positioning Zeus this way Homer, ‘affirms his

membership in the tradition.’16

If one accepts Wilson’s view, the will of Zeus must pervade the entire

plot of both books. If there is no room for any character

development or chance happenings because all must follow the will

of Zeus, the entire plot must be the will of Zeus. It would follow that

the will of Zeus must also be the will of the poet. For what else is left

once one attributes all to Zeus but to therefore attribute the actions

of the God to the author, unless one wishes to attribute authorship

to Zeus?

“The logical upshot of such coordination is that nothing within the

work can truly lie outside the plan of Zeus.”17

16 Wilson, J., ‘Homer and the Will of Zeus’ College Literature Vol 34.2 [Spring 2007] p150

17 Wilson, J., ‘Homer and the Will of Zeus’ College Literature Vol 34.2 [Spring 2007] p154

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Wilson asserts that Homer tells a story that is well known, as is the

role of Zeus and what Homer does in ostensibly transferring some of

that will or divine purpose to others is to add another dimension of

drama to the epic.

However, it would seem entirely too simplistic to attribute all to the

will of Zeus when Homer provides so many instances when gods and

men act apparently autonomously of Zeus in a way that also drives

the plot, such as Agamemnon in Book 1. Even if Homer is using divine

will for dramatic purpose, it serves no purpose to have to ultimately

transfer all the other gods divine will and individual choices of the

heroes in Homer to the will of Zeus. This would seem to weaken the

dramatic tension and character development, as once we realise

Zeus’ will pervades everything, the actions of the others lose their

impact. What is the point in following the individual character’s

journeys towards decisions, if those decisions are simply the will of

Zeus?

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For example, there are many occasions when the other gods change

the course of the plot or make sure the plot runs true; barely a

hundred lines go by in the Iliad without some god or goddess

intervening and changing the course of the battle or saving their

favoured hero. 18

Athena tells Telemachos that all things ‘are lying upon the gods’

knees’. 19Odysseus was suffering through ‘the destructive plan of the

Gods’ and in both works there are examples of gods being blamed or

appointed a role in the fate of men, Odysseus’s suffering, the death

of Patroklos and the violent and painful struggles of the Trojans and

Greeks were all ‘the will of the gods’20 The plague on the Achaeans

was sent by Apollo in Book 1, Paris is rescued by Aphrodite and

Achilleus tells Priam; ‘Such is the way Gods spun life for unfortunate

mortals’21

18

Two examples of this intervention are Iliad 3.38 5.445 19 Odyssey. 1.267) 20 Iliad 19, 9, Odyssey 7.214, 12.190, 17,119, 11.276 21 Iliad 1. 9 , Il 3.380-383, Il 24.525

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These gods act with a purpose and reason and although the extent of

the gods sense of duty is not of importance in this discussion, what is

of importance is that the gods can be clearly seen as acting in an

independent and reasoned manner. This shows a marked difference

with the theory that it is Zeus who willed the destruction of the men

in the Trojan War.

In the background of Homer, there also appears to be force acting on

the outcome of men’s and gods lives. This force, which has various

terms to describe it, does not have a discernable schema. Moira is

often used throughout to signify what is fated for man. Ares uses it

to state that it is not fated for him to die by the bolt of Zeus.22

Sarpedon was fated to be killed by Patroklos.23

22 Iliad 15,17 23 Iliad 16,434

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There was a tradition that personified fate such as in Hesiod where

they are described as the daughters of night, the birth goddesses

‘Klotho, Lachesis and Atropos, who give men at their birth both evil

and good to have’24 Later in the Theogony, Fate is, alongside the

Horai, the daughter of Themis and Zeus, with the power to

administer both good and evil.25Although it is never stated in such

equally strong terms in Homer, Moira is possibly personified when

Apollo states to the other gods that. ‘...the destinies put in mortal

men the heart of endurance’26 Moira is again personified in

Andromache’s suggestion that she sit in the palace and weep at ‘the

way at the first strong Destiny spun his life line when he was born’27It

generally has a negative implication.

Aisa is used in a similar manner to Moira. It usually refers to a part or

portion in relation to the destiny. It is used when Thetis says to her

24 Hesiod, 'Theogony, Works and Days', Trans M.L. West (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) 217-212

25 Hesiod,Theogony,Line 907 26 Iliad 24.49 27 Iliad 24,209-210

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son ‘To a bad destiny I bore you in my chambers’28 Aisa is also used

when Apollo restrains Patroklos telling him it is not his destiny to

destroy Troy.29 It is used twice in Homer in a way that suggests

personification, Hera regarding Akhilleus and his suffering die to the

strand woven for him by Destiny and when Alcinous refers to fate

spinning the destiny of Odysseus the day he was born.30

Throughout the texts there are numerous examples of destiny

controlling men. Thus the Trojans: ‘...though it be destined for all of

us to be killed here over this man, still none of must give ground

from the fighting’31 Akhilleus declared that even Herakles was

destroyed due to Hera and his fate and Akhilleus acknowledges the

power of fate to control his life.32 Patroklos appeared to Akhilleus as

28 Iliad 1.416. 29 Iliad 16.707 30 Iliad 20,128, Odyessey 7,197 31 Iliad 17.421

32 Iliad 18.117-120

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a ghost, it is ‘bitter destiny’ that laid him low and he warns Akhilleus

that ‘...you Akhilleus, like the gods have your own destiny’33

There are two very interesting examples of the powerful role of fate

in the Iliad, one concerning Sarpedon and the other in Book 22

involving Hektor. The first is in Book 16 and concerns Sarpedon and

could be, the son of Zeus; ‘Ah me that it is destined that the dearest

of men, Sarpedon, must go down’34

If destiny or fate is personified in Homer this could mean that he

does not mean them to be a separate power to the Gods but that

they are part of the divine genealogy. If this is the case Homer would

present his Gods and fate as behaving in an interchangeable manner

and indeed Homer offers many examples when fate and the gods will

are presented as such. Proteus tells Menelaus that, ‘It is not your

destiny not to see your people and come back’ but Menelaus needs

to perform sacrifices to the Gods and then ‘the gods will grant you

33 Iliad 23.78-80 34 Iliad 16.433-5

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that journey that you so long for.’35 This suggests some close relation

between the actions of the gods and destiny.

However, there are also occasions in which the Gods act in a

separate sphere to fate.

This point is made when Zeus ponders on whether he should save his

son Sarpedon from his destined death at the hands of Patroklos.36

Hera does not rejoin that is not possible for Zeus to do this, just that

it will be an action that the other gods will not approve of. Homer

repeats this suggestion when Zeus asks the other gods whether they

should save Hektor.37 Athene is astonished that he would wish to

save ‘one long since doomed but his destiny,’ Athene acknowledges

that Zeus is quite capable of saving Hektor but warns that the other

gods will not approve if he does so. Homer gives Zeus the power to

change a man’s destiny but not necessarily the right to do so. This is

35The Odyssey. 4.475-480 36 The Iliad .16.435-40 37 The Iliad,22.175-181

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similar to the rebuke of Zeus to Aphrodite when she strays from her

traditional role to fight in the battle;

‘No, my child, not for you are the works of warfare. Rather concern

yourself only with the lovely secrets of marriage, while all this shall

be left to Athene and sudden Ares’38

This suggests that there is sometimes a distinction between fate and

Zeus. These apparent contradictions make it difficult to ascertain the

exact relationship between Gods and fate. Perhaps Homer never

intended there to be a definitive answer to this and simply utilised

the two as the drama required.

Mortals in Homer are not averse to blaming the gods for their woes.

Agamemnon holds Zeus’ daughter Delusion responsible for his error

in taking the slave woman from Akhilleus.39

Odysseus on one hand blames Zeus or the gods for all his sufferings

but when it comes to the destruction of the suitors he gives the

38 Iliad 5.268-270 39 Iliad 19.88-95

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suitors equal hand in their doom, ‘These were destroyed by the

doom of the gods and their own hard actions’ 40

It is difficult to argue forcefully that Homer does not allow any free

will for his Heroes, Zeus himself refutes this:

‘Oh for shame, how the mortals put the blame upon us gods, for

their evils come from us, but it is they, rather who by their own

recklessness win sorrow beyond what is given” 41

Clearly this implies that mortal men are assigned some portion of

destiny as Andromache asserts, but that they do have some degree

of control over their destiny. 42

Homer presents a world in which divine will, fate and individual

freedom exists. When Athene compares Aegisthus’ deserved doom

with the blameless sufferings of Odysseus, Zeus reminds her that

40 Odyssey 22.413 41 Odyssey. 1.32-34 authors own emphasis 42 Iliad 24.209

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Odysseus played his part in his suffering when he blinded

Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon:

‘It is the Earth Encircler Poseidon who, ever relentless, nurses a

grudge because of the Cyclops, whose eye he blinded’43

Zeus sends Hermes to warn Aegisthus against killing Agamemnon

and marrying Klytaemnestra and even warns him of the revenge that

would be visited upon him by Orestes if he did:

‘...for we ourselves had told him, sending Hermes, the mighty

watcher, Argeiphontes, not to kill the man, nor court his lady for

marriage; for vengeance would come on him from Orestes’44

If predestination reigned in Homer’s world, there would have been

no point in Zeus warning Aegisthus. If Homer had not allowed

mortals to have any control over their fate there would be no room

43 Odyssey 1.65-70 44 Odyssey. 1.37-39

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for the Hero because, if the gods were controlling everything or

destiny had already completely set in stone the final outcome of

their lives, it would be difficult to attribute courage and great feats of

skill to such puppets of fate and this would result in no dramatic

tension. The audience is aware that Akhilleus is doomed to die

young; his own mother refers to him as ‘short-lived’ but by Book nine

Homer gives Akhilleus the power to choose between the short and

glorious life or the long life without nobility.45

This gives a certain amount of autonomy to Akhilleus, but to what

extent these individual choices can be construed as genuine

observation about men’s role in the control of their own destiny

difficult to ascertain. This choice could simply be a literary conceit.

For, if the choice had not been given to Akhilleus on the outcome of

his life, the audience would miss an interesting insight into the mind

of a Hero. This moment of decision adds depth to a main character in

45 Iliad 9.410-15

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a story most of the intended audience would have known well. It is

this type of difficulty in separating the dramatic from the religious

that can make determining any theological certainty from Homer

problematic.

Lucian’s witty and relevant satire this paper began with summed up

the problems the ancient writers had in dealing with the issues of

fate, individual will and the will of the Gods in Homer. The

interceding two thousand years has done little to remedy this issue,

thus Ford;

‘After reading the Homeric poems, and indeed after reading

interpretations of them, I cannot help asking about Homer and

wondering what he thought he was doing.’46

46 Ford, A. Homer: The Poetry of the Past. (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1992)p. 1

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There are many theories and explanations on what Homer was doing

but no satisfactory conclusive solution to the contradiction regarding

fate, divine and individual will has yet been published. Perhaps this is

because the problem is not that the contradiction exists; the

problem is whether that contradiction was theologically meaningful

or simply the offspring of plot and dramatic device.

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