High School Credentials for the Adult Learner: Alternative Pathways to High School Completion

Running Head: HIGH SCHOOL CREDENTIALS FOR THE ADULT LEARNER

High School Credentials for the Adult Learner: AlternativePathways to High School Completion

Marlana Schnell

A capstone defense submitted to the graduate facultyIn partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Major: Education (Education Leadership and Policy Studies)Community College Leadership

Program of Study Committee: Major Professor Jan Friedel

Larry H. EbbersFrankie LaananSoko Starobin

Jan Westerman-Beatty

Iowa State UniversityAmes, Iowa

HIGH SCHOOL CREDENTIALS FOR THE ADULT LEARNER 2

Abstract

For almost seventy years, the only option available to adult

students seeking a high school equivalency was the General

Equivalency Development exam, the GED. Students who leave high

school without a diploma or equivalent face an uphill battle in

obtaining employment, entering the armed forces or entering

college programs. The state of Iowa is interested in identifying

options to earning this credential, outside of three tests

currently available.

This literature review and state high school equivalency

information covers every state, and is a tool to inform policy

decisions considered by the state of Iowa.

Federal funding for adult education is trending downward, and

states must make difficult budget decisions. At the same time,

the need for increasing options for completion of high school

equivalency is at an all-time high. President Obama’s College

Completion Agenda and workforce skills shortages are driving the

push for more completers. For students enrolling in adult basic


education, the decision to enter diploma programs is fraught with

multiple obstacles.

High School Credentials for the Adult Learner

Alternative Pathways to High School Completion

Recent data indicates that nearly 39 million adults in the

United States do not have a high school diploma. According to the

US Census Bureau (2012) over 223,688 Iowans’ over eighteen do not

have a high school credential. Individuals lacking a high school

equivalency diploma face the highest unemployment rates and the

lowest annual wages as compared to all education level groups.

(Census Bureau, 2012). Iowa Department of Education, Division of


Community Colleges is in the unique position of changing the

landscape in Iowa for adult students seeking a high school

credential. Iowa Administrative Code 260C-1 designates Iowa

community colleges as the provider of education and support for

adults over the age of 18, in need of a credential.

History and changes for high school equivalency

Iowa was the birthplace of the General Equivalency Diploma

(GED) (NPR & WAMU, 2013). In the 1940’s, Everet Franklin

Lindquist was a professor and researcher at University of Iowa.

He served as an advisor to the United States Armed Forces

Institute and to the American Council on Education (ACE).

Lindquist played a major role in formulating policies with

respect to granting academic credit for general educational

growth during military service. These policies resulted in the

development of the General Educational Development Test (GED).

Lindquist oversaw the creation of the initial forms of the GED,

modeled after the Iowa Test of Educational Development.

In 1959 Lindquist and Ted McCarrel, registrar at the

University of Iowa, cofounded the American College Testing


Program (ACT) as an alternative to the College Entrance

Examination Board. Lindquist was personally responsible for the

design and development of the early editions of the ACT tests.

All of these tests continue to be the standard requirement for

college admission in the early twenty-first century.

The first generation of GED tests, developed in 1942,

reflected an industrial era when a high school education was

sufficient for many jobs. Initially, completing GED tests

provided a credential to those entering or leaving the military,

specifically, World War II era veterans. (GED, Testing, &

Service, 2013). The GED covers five subject areas, language arts-

comprised of two separate reading and writing tests, social

studies, science, and mathematics. Taking the GED test was

initially limited to soldiers and adults over the age of 18.

Eventually, many states authorized the test in lieu of high

school completion for students 16 and over, who dropped out of

traditional high school. Oversight of the GED was originally

provided by the American Council on Education (ACE) and ACE

implemented significant changes in test design, 1978, 1988 and

2002. The test grew more applicable to real-life and the


developers provided greater emphasis on inclusive language that

reflected the more diverse pool of test takers. ACE added

writing samples and developed questions that demonstrated

critical thinking and problem solving skills. (GED et al., 2013)

The biggest change, however, occurred in 2011, when the American

Council on Education (ACE) and Pearson VUE joined to create a new

public-private partnership known as the GED Testing Service that

drives the future direction, design, and delivery of the GED®

testing program. Nearly 800,000 GED Tests are taken each year,

and in 2011, more than 453,000 individuals were awarded their

high school credential. (NPR & WAMU, 2013; Pearson, 2013;

Sieben, 2011). The public-private venture doubled the price of

the GED from $60 per assessment to $120. GED/Pearson VUE defends

the higher price by providing a comprehensive suite of services,

such as transcripts and practice tests that purport to offer more

value. (Elmer, 2013). Also compelling the shift in price is the

transformation of the GED to conform to K-12 common-core

standards for the subject areas. While ACE touted the shift as a

necessary step in improve the GED and provide better service to

students in common core knowledge areas, the announcement sparked


a national dialogue regarding the costs, options, and validity,

of general testing for high school equivalency. (Fain, 2013) ACE

also eliminated the paper and pencil exams and required complete

transition to computerized testing and scoring. The changes shook

the foundation for education providers that depend on this

service to remediate high school dropouts. The announcement

spurred competition in this arena for the first time in United

States history.

For clarity sake, a brief description of the two test

alternatives follows, because education leaders across the nation

first had to consider the testing options. (Fain, 2013) The Iowa

Department of Education opened a competitive-bidding process to

review the options. In addition to GED, two other testing

platforms surfaced, the High School Equivalency Test (HiSET), and

Test Assessing Secondary Completion (TASC). (Fain, 2013) One

assumption of this research is that there are viable options to

earn a high school equivalency outside of the three tests in the

United States that are replicable. Furthermore, the client does

not have an interest in research focused on the newly emerging

competitors for GED.


The HiSET exam was developed and promoted by Education Testing

Service, ETS (2013) in Iowa City, Iowa. ETS developed and

administers the Graduate Record Examination, (GRE), and Advanced

Placement, (AP), tests nationwide, so there is a great deal of

name recognition and credibility about the organization. The

HiSET test is modular, so that students can take test subjects

separately, and HiSET covers the same subject areas as GED;

mathematics, reading and writing (referred to as language arts)

social studies and science. The HiSET offers pencil and paper

exams, English and Spanish versions and the cost per test

administration for both the paper- and computer-delivered

versions is $50 for the full battery and $15 for a single

subtest.

CTB/McGraw Hill (2013) developed the Test Assessing Secondary

Completion, (TASC), which too, covers the core five subjects.

(Hill, 2013). According to McGraw Hill, TASC looks like GED,

claiming to measure examinees' levels of achievement and

readiness for college and the workforce as outlined by the Common

Core State Standards1. This exam is also available in English and

1 The state-led effort to develop the Common Core State Standards launched in 2009 by state leaders, including governors and state commissioners of


Spanish. The vendor advertises immediate scoring for computer-

based tests while paper-based and writing tests scores are

available through mailing to CTB/McGraw-Hill. The price for this

exam is set at $54.00, in January 2014, which includes materials

and scoring.

Upon completion of the competitive bidding process, Iowa

Department of Education chose the HiSET, based on the price, the

availability of paper-pencil testing materials, and the support

for an Iowa-operated enterprise.

Ultimately, this project represents a response to Iowa

education leaders who are interested in offering multiple

pathways to demonstrate high school proficiency, in order to

increase the number of completers.(Skills2Compete, 2013) The

report intends to provide:

education from 48 states, two territories and the District of Columbia, through their membership in the National Governors Association Center for BestPractices (NGA Center) and the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO).State school chiefs and governors recognized the value of consistent, real-world learning goals and launched this effort to ensure all students, regardless of where they live, are graduating high school prepared for college, career, and life. http://www.corestandards.org/about-the-standards/development-process/

http://www.corestandards.org/about-the-standards/development-process/


1. Complete review of literature regarding options for basic

education and literacy as it relates to high school

completion for adults ages eighteen and over.

2. Discover high school completion options used in the United

States, outside of traditional assessments (GED or HiSET or

TASC) and develop a table to provide as much detail as

possible, such as costs, staffing requirements, training

requirements, issuing authority, contact information,

methodology and outcomes.

3. Prepare materials to present to designated officials,

representatives, and task force, regarding these topic

issues and reporting to Department of Education.

Problem Statement

The adult education system faces monumental financial and

policy challenges, just when higher education and credentials are

becoming more important than ever for individuals and the

economy. (M. Foster, McLendon, L. , 2012; Strawn, 2007).

According to Iowa’s state Administrative Code, 260C.1,

community colleges are the authorized provider of secondary


credentials for adults in Iowa. (IDOE, 2013). Most students in

Iowa successfully receive a high school diploma, given the 92%

graduation rate reported by the state.(Chronicle.com, 2014). All

50 states calculate graduation rates in the same manner, a result

of a National Governors Association agreement in 2009. The first

report from all 50 states started reporting the same way occurred

in 2010-2011, where 26 states reported lower graduation rates and

24 states reported unchanged or increased rates, compared to

their prior reporting practices. (Chronicle.com, 2014).

Unfortunately, according to (Ryder, 2013) if a student drops

out of high school, the chance that he will complete an

equivalency exam is extremely low. Research suggests students

need an average at least 100 hours of instruction to advance a

grade level and 110 hours to move up one level in English

ability. (Strawn, 2007). Conversely, Strawn (2007) also reports

that most students who enroll in adult basic education courses

complete less than fifty hours of adult basic education before

dropping out. In the GED Testing Service annual report for 2012,

data indicates only .8% of eligible Iowa dropouts actually passed

a GED test. This demonstrates need for alternatives for this


population. It also begs the question: why do not more students

participate in programs to increase their education attainment.

When less than one percent of the population participates in the

only available option, institutions need to consider different

options. Numerous researchers report that students who do not

complete a high school equivalency are at great risk of never

completing any educational program. (Strawn, 2007) (Ryder,

2013).

One benefit of completing a high school credential widely

reported is the increase in lifetime wages. Additionally,

students who successfully complete a high school equivalency

report increased enrollment and persistence in postsecondary

education. States also benefit from the increased tax revenues,

reductions in request for state and federal assistance programs

and increased education outcomes for future generations of

students. Human capital theorist would agree in the generational

gain for families who seek higher education. (J. J. Heckman, J.

E. Humphries, & N. S. Mader, 2010; Ryder, 2013; Strawn, 2007).


Iowa joins many states and countries around the world in the

need for building and maintaining an educated workforce.

According to a policy report presented by Iowa Skills2Compete

Coalition, by 2020, 85 percent of jobs in Iowa’s labor market

will require a high school diploma or equivalency and beyond,

demonstrating a robust demand for skilled workers. The

Skills2Compete Coalition is a statewide partnership of Iowa’s

business, community, education, legislative, and workforce

development leaders that serve as a voice for skills and build

policymaker support for state policies that grow Iowa’s economy

by investing in its workforce. (Skills2Compete, 2013).

This work coincides well with President Obama’s ambitious

agenda to encourage states and institutions to increase the level

of college completers across the United States. The

administration announced the 2020 College Completion Agenda,

committed to increasing the number of community college students

completing a degree or other credential by 50% upwards of 5

million students by the year 2020(Whitehouse.gov, 2013). The

reality is that the United States lags as compared to many

industrialized nations in the global market for education


achievement. National and state economies stand to improve with

an educated workforce. (Assistance, 2012; 2013). Additionally,

employers are already facing a skills shortage that has the

potential to reach endemic proportions. (Manpower, 2013).

A study by Federal Reserve economists examined the factors

contributing to greater state prosperity over a 65-year period

and found that a state’s high school and college attainment rates

were important factors in explaining its per capita income growth

relative to other states between 1939 and 2004 (Bauer,

Schweitzer, & Shane, 2006). The authors reflect on a states

“knowledge stock,” or the proportion of the population with at

least a high school degree, the proportion of the state’s

population with at least a bachelor’s degree, and the stock of

patents held by people or businesses in the state.

A state’s stock of knowledge is the main factor explaining its

relative level of per capita personal income. If state

policymakers want to improve their state’s economic performance,

then they should concentrate on effective ways of boosting their

stock of knowledge.


Ultimately, to grow Iowa’s knowledge stock, we must increase

the number of high school graduates. The problem statement is

two-fold. Iowa needs more students to earn a high school

equivalency diploma, for all of the aforementioned reasons, and

adult basic education providers need to identify multiple

effective pathways to motivate students to completion.

Literature Review

Providing multiple options to complete a high school

credential can pave the way for more students to attend

postsecondary education. In conducting this review of

literature, the objective is to identify options that work and

that effectively move students toward completing a high school

credential. In order to serve this population, practitioners and

funders need to understand what is lacking in programs and how

the existing programs can be improved.

Unfortunately, the majority of high school dropouts in the

United States do not earn a high school equivalency diploma, even

over the long run. While longitudinal studies that track adult

education student outcomes over several years are rare, those


studies that do exist reveal that most adult education

participants do not participate beyond a few months and typically

70 percent or more do not earn a GED (Bos, Scrivener, Snipes, &

G., 2002). In Iowa, among 11,675 Iowa high school dropouts who

enrolled in the General Education Development (GED) preparation

program during the 2003-04 fiscal years, less than a third (31.5

percent or 3,680) earned a GED by the end of the 2009 fiscal

year. Just 12.9 percent of them (1,504) went on to enroll in

community college, and only 2 percent (229) completed a community

college credential by the end of June 2010. (Bos et al., 2002);

(Ryder, 2013).

Profiling needs of the adult basic education student

Adult secondary education focuses on the courses and

curriculum designed to remediate students who did not complete a

high school education or have completed a diploma but need

remediation that is not credit bearing or college-level, in one

or more areas to achieve academic success. (Ryder, 2013)

Generally students are seeking assistance to pass tests, GED in

the past and now HiSET, in Iowa. Some non-native students need


English language remediation, regardless of the level of

education they received in their country of origin, as the

language barrier is one that prohibits them from moving forward

in their goals of higher education or employment in the United

States.

This paper will focus on serving adults that seek a high

school diploma or equivalency. Many of the recent research

articles define the end goal as transition to postsecondary

institutions. (Ryder, 2013; Strawn, 2007; Tighe, Barnes, Connor,

& Steadman, 2013)Most of the research conducted with adult

learners focuses on literacy or numeracy gains, teaching

strategies and attempts to improve persistence or retention.

(Ritt, 2008; TEAL, 2011)

Students seeking adult education generally have one of two

goals in mind, employment or high school completion. A 2003

national survey of adult learners conducted by the GED Testing

Service found that 44 percent had “high school completion” as a

goal and that another 34 percent were seeking “a better job.”

Among those taking the GED test in 2010, 30 percent were taking


the test for “employment” goals, while 66 percent had the goal of

“further education.” (T. S. GED, 2013).

At the same time, adult students face multiple barriers to

success. Adult learning theorist and researcher, Patricia Cross

(1981), categorized three clusters of barriers that typically

play a critical role in adult learners’ participation or non-

participation in educational programs. Since these are widely

accepted and minimally modified throughout the literature, these

three clusters helped to inform and organize the content of this

study. (Cross, 1981).

Institutional barriers, consisting of those systemic

barriers typically created by the educational institutions

themselves—geographic inaccessibility, “red tape,” credit

transfer issues, ineffective teaching, educational costs,

and others.

Situational barriers, comprised of barriers in home and life

situations—lack of family support, lack of childcare,

illness, lack of transport, pregnancy, and others.


Dispositional barriers, referring to individual perceptions

as developed through experiences, which, in this case,

influence participants’ views of formal education. These can

create, for instance, concerns over the ability to succeed

in education, distrust of teachers/administrators, concern

over large classes, doubts about the real value or relevance

of formal education, and others.

Through this grouping, policy makers and leaders can adjust

their focus based on the student or institutional needs.

Institutional Barriers

Funds are tight, and federal funding for adult basic

education decreased steadily over the past four years. In 2010,

Adult Education-Basic Grants to all states were at an all-time

high of $628,221,000.00, and by 2013, the Department of Education

awarded only $563,954,515. This represents a decrease in federal

funding of $64,266,485 (or 10%.) (Ed.gov, 2013). Iowa’s piece of

the federal pie was $3,639,113 in 2010 decreasing to $3,511,118

by 2013, a difference of nearly $128,000 (almost 4%). These lost

funds might equal reduction in force of two or three full-time


teachers in a basic education program. Conversely, that reduction

could mean fewer hours of classes offered at several institutions

across the state.

Do increases in funding equate to better outcomes for

students? The answer, according to most researchers, is yes,

especially in higher education. Research conducted by Wolff,

Baumol, & Saini, (2014) contends that America funds education at

a rate higher than most comparable nations, with significantly

lower outcomes in primary and secondary school cognitive testing.

Wolff, et.al (2014) also points out that while America puts forth

a great deal of funding into the education of its citizenry, the

funding does not grow at the same rate at which the growth is

seen in other sectors of society. In fact, after a thorough

review, the Wolff, et.al, (2014) points out that the United

States is increasing funding for education at one of the slower

paces observed around the world. Human capital theorists

maintain that higher investments in education result in increased

benefits to the society. (Becker, 1975) Economists tend to agree;

based on recent literature and research on endogenous growth

theory, modest investments by governments in education can revive


or encourage development of a society’s economy. Public spending

on higher education has a positive and significant effect on

increasing college enrollment. Unfortunately, investment in

primary and secondary education does not show the same effect for

college enrollment. (Yang & McCall, 2014)The economy fluctuated

wildly during that (2010-2013) period, in fact, real estate

prices went up, community college enrollment went down, (NSCRC,

2014), unemployment went down, the cost of living increased

significantly. The impact on programs that serve students who are

at the lowest education levels is unknown, as national and state

data on enrollment for ABE programs is scarce.

Assessment needs

Every adult participates in an assessment before embarking

in a high school equivalency program in Iowa. Literacy and

numeracy assessments, (CASAs in Iowa) assist instructors in

determining placement for adult education. Community colleges

also use other assessment tools for college enrollment like

COMPASS, while workforce centers might use the Test of Adult

Basic Education (TABE). These assessments serve a specific


purpose, as the student and the instructor need to know where to

begin class work. Assessments cost money for the community

colleges that administer them. A quick look at the 2014 CASAS

catalog itemizes 100 answer sheets for $58.00, 10 different level

tests for reading, each costing $75.00 for a packet of 25 tests

(which are reusable, since students use the answer sheets) and 8

different level tests for math, also costing $75.00 each for a

set of 25. There is a writing assessment requirement, for which

CASAS details a starter kit for $360.00. There are also costs for

manuals and training for the assessor. Totaling costs for this

assessment tool kit in a general testing center at a community

college reveals expenses of over $2000.00. Some of those

materials are reusable, but others reflect costs that only serve

the first 100 students. In addition, there are the cost of

infrastructure, facilities, staff, and equipment. GED Testing

Service (2012) reported over 5200 students tested for GED in

Iowa, 2012. It is likely that thousands more students entered the

doors of Iowa’s forty-two testing centers and took CASAS at a

significant cost to the state and the institutions that serve

these students. Assessment is necessary and the expenditure is


necessary. In addition, students entering testing centers

complete the TOPSPro assessment, which is an intake tool

providing necessary demographic data so that the state can

monitor the number of students engaging in adult education

assessments and have a benchmark with which to determine growth

and needs. TOPSPro is a tool that ensures Iowa receives funding

for serving its students. State administrators submit the data to

the National Reporting System, (NRS) to prove eligibility to

receive the Adult Education Basic Grants from the US Department

of Education. (IDOE, 2013)

Obviously, a quality literacy assessment is a very important

tool for administrators and providers of adult education, but

another type of assessment arose in the literature: should

programs focus on assessing cognitive (literacy and numeracy

skills) or noncognitive (softer skills, life skills, ability to

persist) functioning? Cross (1981) refers to students facing

dispositional barriers, mentioned earlier in this review.

Noncognitive skills , sometimes referred to as soft skills,

include those personality traits, persistence, motivation and

charm that matter for success in life.(J. Heckman, 2010).


Dispositional barriers have similar characteristics to the

description of noncognitive skills. Much research in the last

twenty years indicates a need to focus on noncognitive

development for nontraditional students. Sedlacek (2004) builds

a case for assessing noncognitive skills because these skills are

not academic (cognitive) and they are not assessable through

commonly administered cognitive tests such as CASA’s, COMPASS,

TABE or SAT. Additionally, students who completed GED’s do not

perform in earnings and educational pursuits any better than

their counterparts who never finished a diploma. According to

research conducted by Heckman et al., (2010)

GED (recipients) fail to perform at the level of high school

graduates. We show that noncognitive deficits, such as lack

of persistence, low self-esteem, low self-efficacy, and high

propensity for risky behavior explain the lack of success

for many GEDs.

Heckman conducted research specifically on GED students and

the correlated economic gains or losses through acquiring this

credential. He claims that GED completers score comparable to


their high school diploma counterparts in cognitive ability.

However, the GED completers do not have the same social outcomes

as high school completers. This begs the question: If the GED

student had the same academic skills, why is he not reaping the

same social benefits as the high school completers? Terminal GEDs

and uncredentialed dropouts have nearly identical distributions

of noncognitive ability while high school graduates demonstrate

significantly higher levels of noncognitive attributes. (Heckman,

2010) Much of Heckman’s work provides in-depth analysis of the

noncognitive attributes of those high school and GED completers.

His research is important to this review since so many students

who need adult education do not pursue it. Is the high school

dropout that avoids education opportunity a by-product of

institutional barriers, extensive academic needs or lack of

noncognitive skills (or a combination of all three?) Research on

noncognitive traits holds that social investments in the

development of noncognitive factors yield high payoffs in

improved educational outcomes as well as reduced racial or ethnic

and gender disparities in school performance and educational

attainment.((Farrington et al., 2012); (J. Heckman, 2010)).


While developing or possessing noncognitive characteristics is

useful for all students, they are particularly critical for

nontraditional students, since standardized tests and prior

grades provide only a limited view of their potential. (Sedlacek,

2004)writes, "Traditional tests do not give us information on a

range of attributes that are crucial to those who have not been

socialized in traditional ways." (p. 141) Adults seeking high

school credentials are not traditional students. Sedlacek advises

an evaluation in eight critical areas: (see Table 1. Appendix I)

these areas illustrate what is important in assessing

noncognitive traits as administrators consider options to assist

nontraditional students in the development of skills for

education endeavors.

Methodology

The empirical framework for this study draws upon the

“perfect timing” of rapid changes in the structure and

dissemination of information in the United States since GED

privatized in 2011. (T. S. GED, 2013) Upon announcement of the

change, purveyors of the GED had to notify the student population


and those that utilize the assessments of the changes forthcoming

and all states had to evaluate their decision to keep the GED

test in its newer form or to adopt other options. The author

went to every state website for high school completion,

(workforce development offices, departments of education, or

combination therein) and scrutinized each of those offices to see

if they had notified students of the impending changes. One

hundred percent of the fifty states reported that GED had changed

and/or that the state was adopting new options. In some cases,

(i.e., HI, MA, WI) there were options for students prior to the

GED announcement, and it was still evident that the state had

updated their contacts and information. Some states, (i.e., HI,

NJ, and WA) documented the changes in memos that were public

documents accessible on the web. Because this change affects

every state of the union, this was a rare opportunity to document

how the states responded to this change. Documentation of their

response is included in Appendix 2 and when state offices did not

have extensive office information, they were contacted by phone

to verify state leads or changes in leadership.


The initial document and information yielded almost fifty

pages of excel spreadsheets which was cumbersome to review and

difficult to print. The author narrowed the descriptions of the

high school options to condense the document, while keeping the

extensive detailed information on file, should readers require

more information than provided in the appendix, the information

is available from the author, just as a qualitative researcher

would keep his/her transcripts from interviews with study

participants.

Promising Practices a Scan of the 50 States

Adult basic and secondary education has not changed very

much in over fifty years. Teaching theory continues to change

through the years, but achieving a high school equivalency

diploma has not changed (Broadus, 2013). GED, serving as the only

option for fifty years, experienced continuing growth in both

participation and numbers of completers. (Sieben, 2011) Recent

efforts to create a more dynamic experience for students seeking

adult education include more classroom participation and less

self-directed work. Unfortunately, little research is available


on programs that are utilizing noncognitive assessments to

determine fit for high school equivalency options.

The information available on individual States’ adult

education web sites indicate that adult education providers are

moving toward increasing advising and mentoring with their

students. Education for adults is beginning to shift. Few

states offer a menu of options for the adult learner, but more

states are moving in that direction than witnessed in the past.

(Future, 2013; Robert Balfanz, 2009) GED held a monopoly for

adult high school equivalency in America for almost 70 years.

Even before ACT announced its intention to change structure and

funding, organizations around the country were beginning to look

at this population as having untapped potential. (Rumberger &

Lamb, 2003; Skills2Compete, 2013)The prediction of a baby-boomer

workforce coming into retirement age sent workforce strategists,

business and education leaders into problem-solving mode.

Evaluating state and regional policy as it pertained to

prospective employees led a direct path to the hundreds of

thousands of Iowans who do not possess a high school credential.


In recent years, the focus on workforce needs and economic needs

appears to be driving change in adult education.

Included in Appendix 2 is a scan of all 50 states with their

respective testing, alternative programs and contact information.

Some strategies are too new to document without longitudinal data

or research to verify outcomes. Some of the most promising

strategies show potential because they integrate interventions

grounded in existing research. It is with this lens that the

author reviews several alternatives.

The most common option observed in the States are adult high

school equivalency programs that become centers for adult basic

and secondary education, equivalency assessments (GED, HiSET and

TASC) and classes, English as a Second Language (ESL/ESOL) and

other continuing education or workforce offerings. Most fall

under the administrative umbrella of state departments of

education, while departments of workforce development operate

others. Notably, three states (Indiana, Maryland, and Texas)

moved their adult education from “department of education” to

“departments of labor or workforce development” in the last five


years. This is probably due to the receipt of funds funneled

through federal Department of Labor-Workforce Investment Act

funds, which assist in funding remedial education as a part of

workforce development, provided to States since 1998. Students

that demonstrate eligibility can use this funding to support

obtaining a high school credential. According to the Act: “(1)

Adult education. The term “adult education” means services or

instruction below the postsecondary level for individuals--

(A) “who have attained 16 years of age,(B) who are not enrolled or required to be enrolled in secondary school under State law; and

(C) who (i) lack sufficient mastery of basic educational skills to enable the individuals to function effectively in society; (ii) do not have a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent, and have not achieved an equivalent level of education; or

(iii) are unable to speak, read, or write the English language.”

In 2013, Iowa received $3,365,888 for adult activities

funding from WIA (Department of Labor) and $4,479,610 in funding

for dislocated workers. These are considered Title I funds.

Fifteen state workforce regions manage the federal funds received

by Iowa Department of Workforce Development. It appears that in


the states where the adult education function has moved to

department of workforce or labor, the states have effectively

combined administration of Title I and Title II funds. According

to “An Analysis of Adult Education (Title II) Provisions in WIA

Reauthorization Proposals” CLASP report in (2012),

Collaboration between workforce and adult education partners

is difficult, and they have few strong incentives to work

together. Even when state and local partners take great

strides to collaborate, they encounter significant barriers.

These include different and conflicting performance measures

… (and) lack of unified state plans requiring collaboration.

Most states promote testing with GED and some have

switched to HiSET and/or TASC, and provide free or low-fee

remedial course work as a means to obtaining the secondary

credential.

Many states also provide coursework and testing to obtain an

adult high school diploma; CA, CT, DE, FL, HI, IL, IN, IA, ME,

MA, MI, MS, OR, NV, NC, SC, TN, TX, UT, VT, VA, WA, are among

them. Often operated by community colleges, these centers

provide a one-stop shop atmosphere, assessing the students’


academic needs and referring to the appropriately leveled courses

for the student skill levels. Most charge tuition, yet others,

such as ME, TN and VT, reportedly offers free high school level

courses to adults seeking a diploma. This option works well for

students who have already earned significant credits. In many

cases, including Iowa, the course offerings at community colleges

are available year-round, but the adult students pay tuition.

Some states, like CA, IN, MA, NJ and SC, still require completion

of state-mandated exit exams after completion of high school

level coursework. In Iowa, students enroll in high school

completion courses; Kirkwood, Iowa Lakes and Des Moines Area

Community Colleges (DMACC) offer these, designed as independent

study courses. The cost in Iowa, however, can be prohibitive,

adult high school course tuition at DMACC starts at $100 per

credit. A student without financial means might avoid this option

even if the individual only needed five credits ($500) to

complete. That expense helps cover the administrative work of

evaluating transcripts and offering instruction, but the student

pays considerably for the class, books and any necessary fees.

Unfortunately, this disincentive prohibits many students from


seeking a high school diploma and opting for the much less

expensive testing option through GED or HiSET, etc. The states

that offer free courses are often using Department of Labor

Workforce Investment Act (WIA), Title II funds, designed to

assist nontraditional students in obtaining an alternative high

school diploma. (Appendix 2)

Several states, CT, DC, HI, MD, MA, MN, NY, RI, UT, VA, VT,

and WI are offering adult high school equivalency diplomas that

combine credits with work experience, life experiences, and other

competency-based measures to earn the credential. The detail for

each state option is in the all-state scan. (Appendix 2). Some

are opting to use the model designed by CASAs called National

Equivalency Diploma Program (NEDP). The program is self-paced,

flexible and has no timed tests. Students meet weekly with

assessors to demonstrate high school level abilities by applying

them in simulated, real-life situations. This program is for

self-directed adult students who are comfortable working

independently at home for several hours a week. The program takes

an average of three to twelve months to complete and yields a

high school diploma, which can lead to college, advanced job


training, or military service. Costs are more for those that

administer this program; the assessment costs are $100 for all

assessments and site fees are $850 per year. Staff costs may

increase temporarily due to the learning curve that learning a

new system entails, and research indicates the caseload for an

advisor to student is about 1:6 on average. This is more

expensive to operate than the traditional testing program, as

most adult education classes in Iowa average 1:15. Data on

outcomes is largely unavailable, as this program rolled out

nationally in 2012. The research to provide options is clear and

states are attempting to administer programs that provide a more

balanced approach to competency-based learning and assessment.

The benefit to students can be significant, Maryland, for

example, charges $200.00 to students who select this option.

Of those mentioned above that are creating competency-based

diploma options, HI, MA, VT, VA, WA and WI have created their own

individual hybrid competency-based options. Hawaii’s program,

referred to as Competency Based Community School Diploma (CBCS)

promotes two phases, the academic and the career phase as

follows: (Hawaii Department of Education website, 2013)


Academic — Phase 1

1. Students must attend classes regularly. Each student mustbe present at a minimum of 75 percent of the total number ofclass sessions for each unit in order to fulfill this requirement.

2. Students must complete the required number of student tasks before taking the Unit Test in any of the five knowledge areas.

3. Students must score 70 percent or better on the Unit Testin order to pass each unit.

4. Students must score 70 percent or better on the CBHSDP Mastery Test as the final requirement to pass Phase I.

Career — Phase 2

The student must decide before the end of the first unit, which of the career choices he/she intends to pursue.

1. Advanced Academic: The student must be enrolled in an accredited post-secondary school.

2. Occupational/Vocational: Employment: The student must be gainfully employed on a regular basis for not less than 100 hours over a period of at least three months. A letter verifying employment must be submitted to the school.

◦ Obtain or possess a marketable skill: The student must submit a state license, certificate of completion or other official document indicating that he has a marketable skill or is enrolled in an acceptable training program.

3. Home Management: After passing the Mastery Test, the student must demonstrate to a Board of Examiners, by means of an oral examination, whether he has acquired the skills necessary to manage a household effectively (including nutrition, first aid, personal hygiene and good health practices, family care, household legal issues, etc.).


4. Life Management: Upon passing the Mastery test, the student must pass an oral interview administered by a panel of examiners demonstrating that she possesses the ability and skills to manage her life (including issues involving, health, consumer economics, time management, anger management, goal setting, etc.).

Wisconsin, has been offering hybrid diploma options for the

longest period. The state statute that provides this system

provides a waiver for adult pathways to a regular diploma.2 A

school board may grant a high school diploma to a pupil who has

not satisfied the credit requirements if the student is enrolled

in an alternative education program and demonstrates a level of

proficiency in the subject’s credit areas.

Competency Based

Project Based

GED Option #2

Conversion of HSED to a regular diploma

This provides Wisconsin Department of Education the

flexibility to create ways for the student to demonstrate

2 See (Wisconsin State Statute) §118.15 (1) (b) (c) (d) Stats. For complete description, (d) A school board may grant a high school diploma to a pupil whohas not satisfied the requirements under par. (a) If all of the following apply: 1. the pupil was enrolled in an alternative education program, as defined in s. 115.28 (7) (e) 1.2. The school board determines that the pupil has demonstrated a level of proficiency in the subjects listed in par. (a) Equivalent to that which he or she would have attained if he or she had satisfied the requirements under par. (a).


competency. There is extensive documentation and regulation

behind the options that Wisconsin provides, all of which is

available through the state website, but would be too lengthy to

add to this review.

Additionally in Washington State, officials are creating a

high school equivalency program that is competency-based for

adult learners 21 and older who do not have a GED or high school

diploma called “HS21+”. Adults demonstrate competencies in

reading, writing and math contextualized in science, history,

government, occupational studies and digital literacy. Many

options are available to demonstrate competency: high school and

college transcript credits, work, life, military experience,

prior learning portfolio, credit for testing, etc. This program

intends to expand HS completion options already offered by

community and technical colleges to include a comprehensive

approach that aligns with adult learning styles and includes

competency-based assessments that demonstrate the academic,

career and personal competencies needed in further

education/training and/or employment. Students are eligible for


basic skills tuition, $25.00 per quarter. This work is newly

emerging; the proposal to begin work on HS21+ in Washington began

in 2013 and is still in the construction phase. Washington State

Board of Community and Technical Colleges developed a google site

to store their education rubrics and work plans.

(https://sites.google.com/site/adulthighschooldiploma/)

Texas is also in the process of building a hybrid adult high

school diploma, in addition to an Industry Certification Charter

School Pilot Program for adults ages 19-50. Texas SB 1142 by Sen.

Robert Duncan creates a drop out recovery pilot program for

adults ages 19 to 50. The program will allow adults up to age 50

to obtain a high school diploma while pursuing career and

technical education in a high-demand occupation. At the end of

the 2013 legislative session, Texas announced passage of SB 307

establishing a new adult education advisory committee to develop

a statewide strategy for improving student transitions to

postsecondary education and career and technical education

training. There is a great deal of change expected as Governor

Rick Perry, TX, moved authority of adult education from the Texas

https://sites.google.com/site/adulthighschooldiploma/


Education Agency to the Texas Workforce Commission in the fall of

2013.

Many states are offering distance learning or online

remediation and coursework to provide around the clock services

to nontraditional students, (FL, IL, KS, MI, MD, NE, NC and OK,

TX). Costs vary in each state and online offerings are stronger

in some states than others. Unfortunately, providers recognize

that with the changes in testing assessments in the last 12

months, much of the online assistance offered by previous

providers is outdated and not revised to reflect the new

assessments. Iowa does not have an adult basic education online

offering since changing from GED to HiSET. Texas, however, and

other states that have maintained their agreements with GED, have

increased their online offerings and even developed entire high

school completion options online. One would expect decreased

overhead when offering online courses, as there is a decrease in

the need for numbers of teachers, physical location, and even

materials costs, via online websites. However, a high school

education with University of Texas (UT) Online High School can be

an expensive option for adult students looking to complete a


diploma. In Texas, traditional high schools are publicly funded

based on student daily attendance. UT does not receive public

funding and is funded through the course tuition that students

pay. An estimated cost for a student entering as a ninth grader

without any high school credits is $9,000 plus textbooks and some

additional fees, such as lab kits, when enrolling in science

courses. For students that do not have a financial problem paying

those fees for services, students over the age of 21 can register

from any city, state, or country. The UTHS is similar to Texas

public schools in that, students must satisfy the same graduation

requirements (number of credits, courses, and Texas Assessment of

Knowledge and Skills exam) before a diploma is issued.

Another strategy that states promote are scholarships and

incentive-based, such as New Mexico, West Virginia and Wyoming:

where they offer scholarships to attend in-state two-year or

four-year universities upon successful completion of high school

equivalency.

In Pennsylvania and Washington State, earning college

credits can earn a student a high school diploma. Pennsylvania


requires at least 30 approved credits from an accredited college,

and in Washington State, those that earn an associate degree can

request to receive a high school diploma, even if they have not

otherwise met the high school graduation requirement. This might

work well for non-natives who come to the country to complete

higher education options. According to federal guidelines for

financial aid, this too, would be difficult for students from

poverty, as they would have to finance their entire degree on

their own. Current federal policy is such that students are not

eligible for federal financial aid without completing a high

school credential.

Construct the alternatives

Given the state’s general interest in student success

and the workforce development and economic underpinnings that tie

higher education with improved earnings for the individual and

improved outcomes in the economy at large, the theoretical

framework used to explore the data falls under human capital

theory. Earnings are influenced by many factors other than

education, including experience, compensating wage differentials


for job characteristics or employee benefit levels, and luck.

Those who make educational investments expect a return, in terms

of either money or utility, and they will not invest if the

expected returns are too low (Heckman, et.al, 2010; Becker,

2009). Tinto, Bandera and Beder all write extensively with regard

to adult persistence in higher education. Persistence theory for

adult learners – a theory from the higher education literature

used to explain how adult learners decide to enroll in and finish

a college program or choose to stop-out or dropout of

postsecondary education, will be a lens with which to examine the

efficacy of alternatives from the perspective of the participants

therein. Considering the state has a stake in improving outcomes

for the participants of adult education, focus on the

relationships between students’ backgrounds, academic

performance, personal circumstances, goals, and satisfaction and

their intent to persist to completion or leave will be an

integral piece of determining successful program options.

While we know that more students need to complete their

diploma and more options are necessary, the question remains,

which options are the best for the state of Iowa? Because the


options described are so new, there is minimal information

available to the outcomes they yield. As noted, it might behoove

administrators to consider additional assessments to promote fit

and functionality for students. Completion of a GED has

historically yielded less positive outcomes than completion of a

high school diploma. (J. Heckman, J. Humphries, & N. Mader,

2010). Individuals’ lack of noncognitive skills is a predictor of

problems with persistence and completion. State administrators

and education leaders should discuss the value of adding

noncognitive assessments to better place students seeking a

secondary credential. The bulk of options available in the US

are of these five categories:

Testing-GED, HiSET or TASC, already exists in Iowa

High school completion- already exists in Iowa; but pricey

and largely independent study. This option requires

completion of necessary high school classes to complete all

necessary requirements of high school to earn a diploma.

Hybrid Diploma options-blending work experience, college

courses, life experiences and coursework and assessments to


demonstrate competency of skills and applies toward a

diploma. (two states offer diploma for college credit)

Incentives to complete-state sponsored scholarships and

career certifications as a result of high school completion

Online high school-national vendors available, students

would have to work with community college system in Iowa or

local school districts and work independently

One problem exists in Iowa that is different from most

states in the Union. In Iowa, state administrative code dictates

that school or school districts must require the following as

part of its graduation requirements: 1) one-half unit of United

States government, 2) one unit of American History, and 3)

student participation in physical education for one-eighth unit

in each semester of enrollment in high school. Further, each

district shall include four years of English and language arts,

three years of mathematics, three years of science, and three

years of social science. Any additional graduation credits or

units are locally determined. Criteria established for early

graduation are locally determined. Every district in Iowa can


calculate credits differently, so evaluation of transcripts

varies across the state. (IADOE, 2014)

It might be necessary for the state of Iowa to develop a

statewide measure for completion that would be acceptable for

community colleges or districts to approve necessary coursework

or competencies for completion. Even at community colleges,

the diploma requirements differ vastly; DMACC’s high school

completion webpage promotes these requirements.

EnglishMathScienceAmerican GovernmentUS HistoryElectives

6 semester credits3 semester credits2 semester credits1 semester credit2 semester credits18 semester credits

Total 32 semester credits


Conversely, Iowa Lakes Community College advertises these

requirements on their High School Diploma webpage:

Communications (may include speech)MathScienceAmerican GovernmentUS HistoryElectives

8 semester credits4 semester credits4 semester credits1 semester credit2 semester credits17 semester credits

Total 36 semester credits

An initial step in providing a statewide diploma option

could be the development of a high school equivalency policy

uniformly accepted by providers. The simple illustration above

merely illustrates the difference between two community colleges.

The differences among individual high school districts in the

state of Iowa add to the confusion of this design challenge. Des

Moines Public Schools, for example, requires a student to

complete 23 credits for graduation. Why does Iowa Lakes require

13 more credits for a diploma than the largest high school

district in the state?

Beyond the agreement with diploma requirements lie costs for

programs. In most cases, States do not mandate fees and tuition.


Districts and regions look at the multiple options and base their

decisions on funding streams available at any given time. For

students, costs are undeniably inconsistent. Throughout the

literature review, research determined that dropouts, adults

without a high school credential, are paid the least, and

experience the highest unemployment rates observed across the

nation. Students in high school equivalency programs are the

most likely to be penniless and without resources from which to

draw upon, whether they need childcare, transportation or the

fees for taking an assessment or class. (Brock, 2010; Cunham &

Heckman, 2007). Alternatively, research has also justified

returns on investments of education. (J. J. Heckman et al.,

2010). In Iowa and many states, there remains a huge disconnect

between the need for education options and the accessibility of

those options to students who have no resources. To do so, this

work indicates that we need to start by helping the student

identify those situational and dispositional barriers, evaluating

and assessing strengths and weaknesses on a cognitive and

noncognitive basis; then addressing the institutional barriers,


to include cost, access to options, and policy or rules and

regulations, that make options more difficult to attain.

The state might start by considering a pilot program of the

National Equivalency Diploma Program, (NEDP). Previously

discussed in this review, this high school completion program is

available from CASAS. The state of Iowa already has a

relationship with this vendor as the primary provider of

assessment tools for adult education throughout the state. The

state might decide instead to develop administrative rules about

what constitutes high school equivalency and competency-based

assessments, similar to Hawaii, Texas or Washington borrowing

significantly from their experience and processes. If the state

of Iowa has an interest in promoting a competency-based diploma

without starting from scratch, the existing program provided by

CASAS might be a good place to start. A needs assessment could

determine the best region for pilot and study the process to

analyze costs, effectiveness and outcomes.

Another simple, inexpensive and currently unavailable in

Iowa is to increase the number of students who have a diploma is


to consider the college credits completion option, such as the

one in Pennsylvania. Students who have 30 or more college credits

are able to apply for a state-issued equivalency diploma. The

student has already demonstrated the ability to successfully

complete college-level work and after a year of work (assuming 30

credits is the near equivalent of two full time semesters of

college), the student demonstrates competency of first year of

college, ready to move into the second year. Pennsylvania

education system awards the student for work of a high school

graduate, but a mandated state assessment could clarify this to

be certain. This option costs the least to implement yet, would

only apply to a small percentage of the diploma-seeking

population.

The field of adult education is changing, and with it,

financing and tuition policies are shifting to meet new

priorities. (M. Foster & McLendon, 2012) States should ensure

that policies support, rather than discourage, programs that

expand economic opportunity to lower-skilled adult students and

English language learners. Iowa’s youth are neither enrolled in

school nor participating in the labor market –they are neither


accumulating human capital in school or college nor accumulating

labor market skills by working. (Belfield, Levin, & Rosen, 2012).

Implications of Policy alternatives and need for future study

The reality is that it does cost more to state budgets to

assist adults lacking a high school credential in terms of staff,

resources, effort, and the longer term pay-off is excruciating

slow. (i.e., higher individual wages, increased tax revenues,

decrease in crime and decrease in dependence on social

service/federal and state programs.)(Bos et al., 2002; Broadus,

2013; Ryder, 2013). However, the research indicates that the

returns on the investment are worth it. Policy-makers,

institutions and practitioners, tend to react to immediate needs

rather than promote policy or change that proactively responds to

issues deeply entrenched in the culture of poverty. (Kraaykamp &

Eijck, 2010) Current trends are based on the knowledge that

America needs a skilled workforce to compete in a global economy.

At a time when many states are decreasing funds to adult

literacy, Iowa joins several states that are actually increasing

their investment. (Skills2Compete, 2012) The state will need to


determine if it is feasible to create a more unified message

about high school credentials. Even if it is not possible at the

K-12 district level, community colleges might be able to agree on

those courses and elective credits that would be appropriate for

a high school credential.

Ultimately, it takes a collective interest, among policy

makers, education systems, public welfare interests and workforce

and economic interests all moving in concert to garner attention

and funding for issues that yield so few immediate gains, but do

reap long term benefits.

There are some limitations to this work, for example, most

of the research to date, about assessment strategies and

promising practices, has a focus of completion of the GED as the

end goal. The literature is limited in demonstrating best

practices in delivery of education that has alternative testing

or credit-bearing potential. Whether an adult high school diploma

or work-based learning experience leads to the credential, most

of these are so new to the field of adult education, little

research exists to explore all of the outcomes and ramifications.


The notion of assessing noncognitive abilities begs the

question of what interventions go into place when educators are

aware of deficiencies. While Heckman’s work (2010) was effective

in implementing strategies in early childhood education models,

little quantitative research is available that describes

effective interventions for adult learners. This area demands

greater emphasis and research.

Glossary

Adult Education, Adult Basic Education and Adult Secondary Education (AE, ABE and ASE): Adult Education is the umbrella termfor education that does not lead to a terminal degree or certificate, or is remedial in nature. ABE Programs and services target adults functioning below the ninth grade level based on anapproved assessment. ASE serves adults who function above the ninth grade level and seek to remediate for purposes of diploma or certification.


Adult High School Diploma: An option that enables an adult no longer enrolled in public education to complete the required courses/activities to earn an Adult High School diploma, with thelocal high school scheduling classes and determining course requirements in accordance with standards established by the state.

Adult Secondary Education (ASE): Programs and services that target adults functioning at or above the ninth grade level basedon an approved assessment

Assessment: Methods of measuring learner progress, including state approved assessments, non-approved testing, staff evaluation, and self-reporting of learners.

Basic skills: refer to remedial reading, writing, mathematics, orother skills typically below the level necessary to complete a high school equivalency. Students participate in an assessment initially, to start improving basic skills. Iowa utilizes a base assessment tool, Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment Systems (CASAS) to determine need and starting point of education. All data regarding involvement and progress is reported in “Tracking of Programs and Students” (TOPS) system. CASA's is administered in conjunction with enrollment for HiSET, as well.

CASAS- Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment System, the assessment used in Iowa to determine baseline cognitive abilitiesin order to place an adult student in remedial coursework, towardhigh school completion or simply to improve reading/literacy or numeracy skills. Improvement (or lack of) is necessary for institutions to receive federal funding for their adult basic education programs. Students take the CASAs prior to enrolling in adult education, English as a Second Language coursework or tocomplete GED or HiSET testing.


Disadvantaged Adults—Low-income and hard-to-serve adults who demonstrate basic skills deficiency below the eighth-grade level.Adult education provides basic skills training, preparation for the General Educational Development (GED) test, preparation toward earning a high school diploma, and job skills training opportunities.

Distance Learning: The learner is matched with a teacher, tutor, or volunteer with whom he/she has regular interaction with regardto the content of the distance-learning curriculum, and who provides support throughout the distance learning experience.

English as a Second Language (ESL): These classes and programs target those limited English proficient learners who have a focuson improving English communication skills in the instructional areas of speaking, reading, writing, and listening.

External Diploma Program (EDP): A program developed for adults, 21 and above, who have not had recent schooling or test taking experience but now have acquired high school level academic skills in other than curriculum-based programs. It is an adult applied-performance, competency-based assessment program that awards an adult high school diploma to skilled adults who have acquired many of their high school level abilities in a series ofsimulations that parallel job and life situations.

Nontraditional Student: Most commonly, these are students over the age of 25 seeking postsecondary college enrollment. In this work, the nontraditional student will have attributes of lacking a high school credential, dependence on public funds for financial assistance, or faces difficulty in class times and locations designed for traditional students. In a frequently cited definition used by the National Center for Education Statistics, a student is nontraditional if he or she exhibits anyof the following characteristics:

delays enrollment into postsecondary education


attends part-time and is financially independent of parents

works full-time while enrolled has dependents other than a spouse is a single parent lacks a standard high school diploma

Post-secondary education or training: The learner enters another education or training program, such as a community college, tradeschool, a four-year college, or university.

Tests of high school equivalency- Instruments provided to students in order to assess high school equivalency. Three are currently available in the United States, GED, TASC, and HiSET, all of which cover five subject areas, (math, reading, writing, science and social science).

Workplace literacy programs: A program designed to improve the literacy skills needed to perform a job and it is at least partlyunder the auspices of an employer.

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Appendix 1

Table 1 Description of Noncognitive Variables

Variable

No.

Variable Name

1 Positive Self-Concept


Demonstrates confidence, strength of character, determination, and independence.

2 Realistic Self-Appraisal

Recognizes and accepts any strengths and deficiencies, especially academic, and works hard atself-development. Recognizes need to broaden his/her individuality.

3 Understands and Knows How to Handle Racism (the System)

Exhibits a realistic view of the system based upon personal experience of racism. Committed to improving the existing system. Takes an assertive approach to dealing with existing wrongs, but is nothostile to society, nor is a "cop-out." Able to handle racist system.

4 Prefers Long-Range to Short-Term or Immediate Needs

Able to respond to deferred gratification, plans andsets goals.

5 Availability of Strong Support Person

Seeks and takes advantage of a strong support network or has someone to turn to in a crisis or forencouragement.

6 Successful Leadership Experience

Demonstrates strong leadership in any area of his/her background (e.g. church, sports, non-educational groups, gang leader, etc.).

7 Demonstrated Community Service

Participates and is involved in his/her community.

8 Knowledge Acquired in or about a Field

Acquires knowledge in a sustained and/or


culturally related way in any field.Note. Adapted from: (Sedlacek, 2008). Using noncognitive variables in K-12 and higher

education. In University of Michigan summit on college outreach and academic success: Summary report from meetings at the School of Education, August 11-12, 2008. (pp. 35-42). Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Appendix 2

50 State Scan of High School Equivalency Options

High School Credentials for the Adult Learner: Alternative Pathways to High School Completion

Documents

Transcript of High School Credentials for the Adult Learner: Alternative Pathways to High School Completion