HAZARDS OF ADOLESCENCE

Physical hazards are now less numerous and lessimportant than psychological hazards, although they do exist. However, they are significant primarily be- cause of their psychological repercussions. Over- weight per se, for example, would have relatively little effect on the adolescent's behavior and thus on social adjustments, but it is a hazard because it can result in unfavorable peer attitudes.

less

of

ADOLESCENCE 253

BOX 8-11 CONDIONS INFLUENCING THE ADOLESCENT'S SELF-CONCEPT

Age of Maturing and want to develop a sirmilar personality Datte

If this person is of the same sex, the adolescent will

be helped to develop a sex-appropriate self-c Early maturers, who are treated as near-adults, de velop favorable self-concepts and thus make good adjustments. Late nmaturers, who are treated like

children, feel misunderstood and martyred and thus are predisposed to maladjusted behavior.

on-

cept.

Peers Peers influence the adolescent's personality pat

tern in two ways. First, the selt-concepts of adolee

cents are reflections of what they believe thei

peers' concepts of them are and, second, the,

come under peer pressures to develop personality

traits approved by the group.

Appearance Being different in appearance makes the adoles- cent feel inferior, even if the difference adds to

physical attractiveness. Any physical defect is a

source of embarrassment which leads to feelings of inferiority. Physical attractiveness, by contrast, leads to favorable judgments about personality characteristics and this aids social acceptance.

ty

Creativity Adolescents who have been encouraged to be

creative in their play and academic work as chil. dren develop a feeling of individuality and identity that has a favorable effect on their self-concepts.

By contrast, adolescents who have been forced to conform to an approved pattern since earliest childhood lack a feeling of identity and of individ-

uality.

Sex-Appropriateness Sex-appropriate appearance, interests, and behav- ior help adolescents achieve favorable self-con- cepts. Sex-inappropriateness makes them self-con- Scious and this influences their behavior unfavorably. Level of Aspiration Names and Nicknames

If adolescents have unrealistically high levels ofas- piration, they will experience failure. This will lead to feelings of inadequacy and to defensivereactions in which they blame others for their fail ures. Adolescents who are realistic about their

Adolescents are sensitive and embarrassed if

members of the peer group judge their names un-

favorably or if they have nicknames that imply rid-

icule abilities will experience more successes than fail ures. This will lead to greater self-confidence and

self-satisfaction, both of which contribute to better self-concepts.

Family RelationshipsAn adolescent who has a very close relationship with a family member will identify with this person

Physical Hazards Mortality as a result of illness is far less com-

mon during adolescence than in earlier years, al- though deaths due to automobile accidents increase. Adolescents are generally in good health, but they often discover they can avoid unpleasant situations by "not feeling well." Girls often use their menstrual periods as an excuse for not going to school (119,

America today (145). (Studies of adolescent suicide have disclosed that the median age is sixteen yeals and that more males commit suicide than temales (142,145). Many boys and girls who commit or a tempt to commit suicide have been socially isolate for a period of time before and many have experienc tamily disruptions and school problems (131,142,14 Physical defects that can be corrected, suc

130). Fai9e, 194 Ko9 d RCese 65 crooked teeth, poor eyesight, or hearing loss, a as

prevent adolescents from doing what their peds do. Suicide or attempts at suicide are becoming in-

creasingly common among today's adolescents. See Figure 8-12. It has been reported that suicide is the number two cause of death among adolescents in

rely

However, these may become psychological nd in the case of the adolescent who must weat which or a hearing aid, for example. Physical detec which

254 CHAPTER EIGHT

on a par with those of their friends, adolescents cannot take part in the games and sports that play such important roles in their social lives. This has a

serious impact on their social adjustments as well as on their self-concepts.

A sex-inappropriate body build is far more dis-

turbing to an 1dolescent than to a child. There are

two reasons for this. First, adolescents are judged more by their sex-appropriate appearance than chil- dren, and an ináppropriate build, such as excessive tallness in girls or excessive thinness in boys, leads to

unfavorable sotial judgments-judgments which af-fect social acceptance unfavorably. Second, adoles- cents are well aware of the fact that, once their growth is nearly complete, as it is when adolescence draws to a close, this will be their body build for life. There is nothing, for example, that a too-tall girl can do to make herself look shorter nor can a too-thin boy use padded clothes that will camouflage his lack of the sex-approved mesomorphic build.

To looks-conscious adolescents, perhaps the most serious of all physical hazards in homeliness. As was stressed earlier, adolescents who.are attractive looking find this an advantage in their schooling as

well as in their social relationships. While beauty aids can, to a limited degree, camouflage homeliness in girls, there is little that adolescent boys can do to

camouflage their homeliness. If homeliness is com- bined with a sex-inappropriate body build, adoles cents have an almost insurmountable physical hazard to cope with (1).

Just because physical attractiveness is an asset, there is evidence that adolescents who are too attrac tive have a physical hazard because their peers, espe cially those of their own sex, become jealous and en- vious. Girls who are very attractive are often thought of in terms of the stereotype of "beautiful but dumb" while very attractive boys are often accused of being conceited, selfish, and prone to let others do their

work for them (38). Donmen & 7hiel,

2500

2000

Male ages 20-24

1500

Male ages 15-19

1000

Female ages 20-24

500

Female ages 15-19

oLL L 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

FIGURE 8-12 The growing tendency for adolescents to commit suicide. (Adapted from a nationwide sur-

vey of suicides among the young from 1958 to 1975. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Edu cation, and Welfare, 1978. Used by permission.)

prevent the adolescent from doing what peers do, such as chronjc asthma and obesity, are physical as well as psychological hazards.

As a result of muscle growth during early ado-

lescence, strength increases. Because girls' muscles do not develop as much as boys' do, girls have less strength and tend to feel inadequate when theey parti- Cipate with boys in such sports as swimming and ten-

nis, a feeling that contributes to their growing sense of

inferiority.Clumsiness and awkwardness are more serious

Curing adolescence than at any other time during the

lite span. If their skills and motor development are not

Psychological Hazards The major psychological hazards of adoles-

cence center around the failure to make the psycholo- gical transitions to maturity that constitute the important developmental tasks of adolescence. In most cases adolescents fail to make these transitionsnot because they want to remain immature but be- cause they encounter obstacles in their attempts to achieve mature patterns of behavior. Some of the

ADOLESCENCE 255

most common and most serious obstacles adolescents encounter in their attempts to make the psychologicaltransitions to maturity are listed in Box 8-12.

If adolescents are to make good personal and sociai adjustments, it is important for them to show signs of increasing maturity with each passing year,

Some of the areas of immaturity which proclaim their

immaturity most loudly are explained below. Per formance in these areas determines whether personal and social adjustments will be judged as mature or

BOX 8-12 COMMON OBSTACLES TO MAKING TRANSITION TO MATURITY

Poor Foundations

Adolescents who did not establish good foun-dations during childhood will be unable to master the developmental tasks of adolescence. As Eisenberg has explained, "Optimal develop ment in adolescence depends on successful ac- complishment of the developmental tasks in in-

fancy and childhood (40). (1965)

emmature.

Social Behavior In the area of social behavior, im- maturity is shown in a preference for childish patterns of social groupings and social activities with peers of the same sex and in a lack of acceptance by peer groups, which in turn deprives the adolescent of the opportunity to learn more mature patterns of social behavior. Young adolescents, who are unsure of themselves and of their status in the peer group, tend to overconform; a persistence of this into late adoles- cence, however, suggests immaturity. Other common indications of immaturity in the area of social behav ior include discrimination against those of different racial, religious, or socioeconomic backgrounds; at-tempts to reform those with different standards of ap- pearance and behavior; and attempts on the part of adolescents to draw attention to themselves by wear-ing conspicuous clothes, speech, bragging and boasting, and making jokes at the expense of others.

Late Maturing

Late maturers have less time in which to master the developmental tasks of adolescence than early maturers or those who mature at the aver-age age. Many late maturers have barely com- pleted the puberty changes when adolescence is drawing to a close.

Prolonged Treatment as Children (

Adolescents who, because they were late ma- turers, are often treated as children at the time when their contemporaries are treated as near-adults. As a result, they may develop feelings of inadequacy about their abilities to assume the rights, privileges, and responsibilities that go with adulthood. using unconventional Role Change

Sexual Behavior Immaturity is especially apparent in the area of sexual behavior. The reason for this is that

adjustment from antagonism toward members of the opposite sex, characteristic of late childhood and pu- berty, to an interest in and the development of feel-

ings of affection for them is a radical one. Adolescents who do not date because they are unattractive to

Adolescents who go to work after completing high school, or after dropping out of school, undergo a drastic role change almost over night. They must assume adult roles earlier than their contemporaries who continue their edu- cation, and they are deprived of the opportu- nity to make a slow transition into adulthood.

Prolonged Dependency

members of the opposite sex, or because they

continue to have a childish dislike for them, are re-

garded as immature by contemporaries. This cuts ad-

olescents off from social contacts with their peers

A prolonged state of dependency, as when ad- olescents continue their education into early adulthood, is a handicap in making the transi tion to adulthood. Because girls, as a group, are more apt to be forced into a state of prolonged dependency than boys, they are especially handicapped in making the transition into adulthood.

who have made the shift to more mature attitudes

and behavior in relation to members of the opposite

sex.

Rejection of the socially approved sex role, a

continued preoccupation with sex, premarital preg-

nancy, and early marriage before adolescents have

any stable source of support are also regarded as in-

256 CHAPTER EICH

dications of immaturity. Rejection of the approved sex role, especially by girls, is regarded as one of the

cence because at this time boys and girls are typicaily unsure of themselves and depend on their families for a feeling of security. Even more important, they need

guidance and help in mastering the developmental tasks of adolescence. When family relationships are marked by friction, feelings of insecurity are likely to be prolonged, and adolescents will be deprived of the opportunity to develop poise and more mature pat-

terns of behavior.

most zardous forms

cause it is a potenual source of trouble in marriage.

of immaturity in this area be-

Moral Behavior In few areas is immaturity more haz- ardous to good personal and social adjustments than in that of morality. Adolescents who establish unreal istically high standards of behavior for themselves feel

otuilty when their behavior falls short of these stan-dards. Adolescents who set unreasonably high stan- dards for others become disilusioned and quarrel some when they tall below these standards. This can

often does lead to the breaking of emotional ties with family members and with peers.

Social adjustments are also damaged by willful defiance of rules and laws. Few adolescents are igno-rant of the rules and laws by which they are expected to abide, and few are incapable of learning what is right and what is wrong. On the other hand, many are willing to sacrifice their standards and the standards of their parents if they feel this will guarantee accept- ance by their peers. Many adolescents justify acts they know are wrong by claiming that "everyone" shoplifts, cheats, or uses drugs (12,54,161). G er,

Moral immaturity is also evident in juvenie de q what they think they are-as reflected in what they linquents from affluent families, as contrasted with

the many adolescents who grow up in unfavorable

environments that normally might produce antisocial

attitudes and yet who are law-abiding in their beha

1or. They are "insulated" against delinquency in that

they do not succumb to the temptation to behave in

an antisocial way, regardless of how strong this temp-

tation may be. Adolescents from affluent families,

especially those in suburbia, may behave in a morally

immature way because they find it exciting to do so. It

also gives them ego-satisfaction to be able to "8et

away" with their criminal behavior without being

Furthermore, the adolescent whose familyrela- tionships are unfavorable may also develop po0or rela- tionships with people outside the home. VWhile all re lationships, whether in adulthood or in childhood, are sometimes strained, a person who consistently has difficulty getting along with others is regarded as immature and unpleasant to be with. This militates

against good social adjustments.

Effects of Immaturity Adolescents who know that their attitudes and

behavior are viewed by the social group as "imma

ture" and who realize that others consider them in-

capable of handling the adult role successfully, may

develop inferiority complexes. Even if they do not set

unrealisticaly high standards for themselves, there

will still be a gap between what they want to be and

believe others think of them. If this gap is small, ado-

lescents will experience some self-dissatisfaction but,

if it is wide, they are likely to consider themselves

worthless and contemplate or even attempt suicide

(131,142). Ron 1?, Shaf Even when self-rejection is not overtly ex

pressed, it is evident in ways that may be regarded as

danger signals of maladjustment-indications that in-

dividuals are dissatisfied with themselves and have

self-rejectant attitudes. Box 8-13 lists some of the

common danger signals of maladjustment in adoles-

cence.

A self-rejectant person soon becomes malad-

Justed and unhappy. Adolescents who experience

these feelings find themselves playing the role of so-

cial isolates. As a result, they miss out on the good

times their contemporaries are enjoying and they find

little compensation for these losses in their relation-

ships with the members of their families. Although

most adolescents experience unhappiness in some

degree, the poorly adjusted not only experience un-

happiness in more pronounced forms but also experi-

punished for it, even when they are caught (161,162).

Family Relationships Immaturity in family relation-

Ships, as shown by quarreling with family members,

Criticizing them constantly, or making derogatory

Omments about their appearance or behavior, Is

Especially common during the early years of adoles-

cence. This is when, as was pointed out earlier, tamily

relationships are usually at a low point.

Poor family relationships are psychological

nazards at any age, but especially so during adoles- ence it more otten.

ADOLESCENCE 257

BOX 8-13 COMMON DANGER SIGNALS OF ADOLESCENT MALADJUSTMENT

feel increasingly confident of their abilities to cope with these problems without adult help, periods of unhappiness gradually become less frequent and less intense. By the time they reach the senior year in high school and look and act more like adults than like

Irresponsibility as shown in neglect of stud-ies, for example, in favor of having a good time and winning social approval.

An overly aggressive, cocksure attitude Feelings of insecurity, which cause the ado-

lescent to conform to group standards in a slavishly conventional manner Homesickness when away from familiar sur- roundings Feelings of martyrdom Excessive daydreaming to compensate for the lack of satisfaction the adolescent derives from daily life Regression to earlier levels of behavior in an attempt to win favor and recognition Use of defense mechanisms such as rational-ization, projection, fantasizing, and displace-

children, happiness should gradually outweigh un- happiness, and the stress and discontent that characterized early adolescence should have largely disappeared.

The greater happiness that is characteristic of late adolescence is due, in part, to the fact that older adolescents are granteda status more in keeping with their level of development than was true during early adolescence. They are, for example, given more inde pendence and consequently suffer fewer frustrations. Even more important, they are more realistic about

their capacities, and set goals more within their reach; they use sustained and definitely directed ef- forts to attain these goals; and they have built up a de-gree of self-confidence based on knowledge of past successes which counteracts some of the feelings of inadequacy that plagued them when they were

ment

younger. If adolescents are realistic about the degree of

acceptance they can achieve, and are satisfied with the people who accept them and show affection for them, their chances for happiness are greatly in-

creased. It is important to realize that meeting the ad- olescent's need for acceptance, achievement-the three A's of happiness-may depend on the environment or on the adolescent. This is true of all ages, but especially of childhood and adolescence, when individuals are dependent on their families and cannot control their environments

HAPPINESS IN ADOLESCENCE

Because few adults separate early adolescence from late adolescence in their minds, they tend to remem- ber all adolescence as a generally unhappy age. In addition, publicity given to adolescent suicides in re cent years, especially among college students, has tended to strengthen the belief that this is an unhappy period in the life span.

Adolescents who are poorly adjusted, espe- cially those who have been making poor adjustments since childhood, tend to be the most unhappy and the most persistently unhappy throughout the years of early adolescence. Their unhappiness comes more from personal than from environmental causes. They

have unrealistically high levels of aspiration for themselves, and when their achievements fall below

their expectations, they become dissatisfied with

themselves and self-rejectant in their attitudes. Al-

though all adolescents tend to be unrealistic during the early years of adolescence, those who are poorly

adjusted are not only more unrealistic than average

but also less likely to modify their aspirations.

If, however, adolescents are able to solve the

affection and

as they will be able to do when they have reached adulthood.

If the controls provided by the environment are

such that they permit adolescents to satisfy their needs, they will be happy provided their needs are re- alistic in the sense that they have the capacities neces sary to meet them. Because most adolescents become

more realistic as adolescence progresses, this explains why it is that they tend to be happier and better sat- isfied with their lives than they were during the unre- alistic period of early adolescence.

Chapter Highlights 1. Adolescence, which extends from the time the

individual becomes sexually mature until eigh- problems that face them with reasonable success and

258 CHAPTER EIGHT