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Biology 11 – Guided Notes Package

***Notes for sections on scientific method and DNA Structure and Evolution will be handed out in class.***

Notes - Classification and Taxonomy

- Scientists classify in biology for the same reason we stack plates in one cupboard and glasses in

another.

1.) We do it so we know where items are, based on similarities.

2.) So we can properly communicate with other scientists in one common language.

- Early scientists had difficulty conveying just what they meant to other scientists, until a Swedish

scientist Carolus Linnaeus invented binomial nomenclature (two part naming).

Ex. – ________________________________________________

- Always ______________ genus and _____________ or ____________ entire name.

- Once named we need that spot on the shelf to put them . . . . . so Linnaeus decided to group organisms

by _____________ ________________. This is called taxonomy.

- He started with general or common items and worked his way to more specialised/specific items.

1.) _____________ – most general. Organisms fall into animalia or plantae.

2.) _________ – second largest. Have birds, reptiles, mammals, fish, etc. All grouped together.

Ex. - chordata.

3.) __________ – larger grouping. Now broken down into groups.

Ex. - mammals (warm blooded, hairy, milk)

4.) _________ – larger subclass. Cats and carnivores grouped together with other carnivores.

Ex. – carnivora.

5.) __________ – same general groups but differences into sub categories.

Ex. – all cats in one family felidae.

6.) __________ – some similar characteristics, but unable to breed.

Ex. – similar teeth, claws and feet, but lions and cheetah can’t breed.

7.) _______________ – share similar characteristics and can breed.

- A good memory aid to remember taxonomy is

“__________ _________ ___________ _______ _____________ ____________ _______”.

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- Changes have occurred to the rules for taxonomy. With new information on organisms being

discovered all the time, the “important” characteristics definition has become muddied.

1.) Scientists have turned to using evolutionary relationships, such as ____________, to classify

related species.

2.) Organisms that are closely related with each other have proteins that are more closely linked.

One such protein is _______________________. Virtually all life uses this in energy

transport. However, slight mutations cause small differences and it is these differences that

help classify organisms.

3.) When Linnaeus began taxonomy there were only 2 kingdoms. We now have 6 kingdoms.

Kids

Play

Catch

Over

Farmer

Grey’s

Sow

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Notes - Microbiology – Viruses

- Viruses are somewhat of an enigma. Scientists can’t agree of whether these are considered a living

organism or not. As we delve deeper into viral structure and function you will understand why there is

a debate.

- Right now viruses are noncellular particles made of genetic material and protein that can invade living

cells.

- All viruses have the same basic components, but put them together differently. Typical viruses are

composed of a _________________ (either DNA or RNA but not both) surrounded by a protein

coat called a ___________. A more complex type of virus are viruses that infect bacteria .They are

called bacteriophages. They have nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat, but also contain a tail and

tail fibres (see below).

- Viral shapes and sizes vary greatly depending on what the virus infects. Viruses are very specific in

what cell they infect and rarely cross over to a new cell. Some viruses are species specific while some

are class specific, like mammals.

- There are two main categories of viruses: __________ and ____________ viruses. All viruses must

invade a host cell to be able to reproduce. What the virus does after infection defines which type of

_______

_______

_________________ _____________ ______________

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virus it is. Lytic viruses infect a host cell, have the host cell produce many new viruses and then make

the cell lyse or burst.

Ex. – T4 bacteriophages are activated when they land on a bacterial cell. They inject their DNA into

the host bacterium. The host’s RNA polymerase that reads DNA to make proteins can’t tell the

difference between the hosts DNA and the parasitic DNA. It transcribed the DNA of the virus into

messenger RNA. The messenger RNA attacks the cellular organelles and deactivates others. As the

host cell is taken over the materials from the host’s cell are used to replicate multitudes of viruses

until the cell bursts and releases all the viruses onto new cells.

- Lysogenic infections differ from lytic infections by having the viruses DNA spliced into the hosts DNA

where it remains dormant. The inserted viral DNA is called a______________. It remains dormant

until stress or a chemical change causes it to be cut out of the hosts DNA and enter a lytic cycle.

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Ex. – Lambda virus or Herpes simplex (cold sores).

- The second way viruses are classified is depending on if their nucleic acids are DNA or RNA. If the

virus contains RNA (and reverse transcriptase enzyme) as its genetic code then it is called a

retrovirus. This causes one extra step in the life cycle. The RNA is first transcribed into DNA (by

the reverse transcriptase) after being injected into the host’s cell. Then DNA polymerase enzyme

activates the DNA so it is copied and translated into more viral pieces by messenger RNA (m-RNA).

- So are viruses alive? If the definition for living is being composed of cells, and living independently,

then NO they are not. However, viruses are considered parasites as they “feed” off a host and once

inside of a host cell then viruses can indeed grow, reproduce, regulate gene expression, and even

evolve. These are characteristics of living organisms.

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PART 2 - Infection

- Viruses are known as ____________. A pathogen is any disease causing agent. Examples of diseases

caused by viruses are HIV/Aids, polio, smallpox, measles, rabies, the common cold and some cancers.

Cancer causing viruses are called oncogenic viruses. Ex. –

_______________________________________________________________________.

-Viral infections can be life threatening. SO how do we and how does our body stop or reduce infection?

If we look how viruses enter this should help answer the question

- Most infections occur through bodily openings such as; eyes, ears, nose, mouth, urogenital tract or

wounds like cuts or burns. SO, how do we minimise infections?

- Minimising contact with infected people (stay home when sick, no handshaking, sharing food, kissing

etc.), wash hands regularly with soap, keep wounds clean, abstinence from sexual activity or use

condom.

- Body keeps out invaders through the use of skin (___________________) and fluids like tears and

mucous at openings

- _____________ are when a substance containing weakened or killed disease-causing agent are

injected into the body. This agent allows the body’s immune system time to learn the shape of the

invader and build up immunity before being attacked.

- If infected what does body do? Immune system is like a small army. Many different “tools” to help

fight off invaders.

1.) Interferons are proteins naturally produced by infected cells to inhibit viruses from invading

other cells.

2.) Immune system cells

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Notes - Microbiology – Monera

Part 1 – Classification

- Kingdom moneran is more commonly known as bacteria. This is the largest kingdom with inhabitants

covering almost every square metre of the planet!

- Bacteria are considered __________ or simple cells as they are prokaryotic. They have no

_____________ ___________ or organelles.

- All bacteria fit into 3 categories:

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1.) Eubacteria – are the most commonly thought of bacteria. They are bacteria that are surrounded

by a cell wall composed of complex carbohydrates. Inside of the cell wall is the cell membrane.

Some types have two cell membranes. They can be either autotrophic or heterotrophic. Eubacteria

are found everywhere from inside organisms to the soil.

2.) _______________ -

3.) Archaebacteria and Prochlorobacteria – Archaebacteria are also extreme dwelling bacteria.

They can survive with zero oxygen environments like the intestines of animals, or hot

springs that are high heat and sulphur levels. These bacteria are sometimes called

_______________ as they produce methane gas. Prochlorobacteria contain photosynthetic

pigments that match plants (pigments α and β). There are only a few known species at this

time.

Part 2 - Identification

- Bacteria are generally indentified based on three criteria; cell shape, cell wall, and motility

Cell Shape

-

Cell Wall

- -

Motility

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- Gram staining is used for identifying the cell wall type. _________ appears purple under microscope

(when stained) as this bacteria only has one layer of _____________ and _______________. Gram

– appears _______ under the microscope (after staining) as they have a second layer that also has

_________________ and ____________.

- Energy type is broken into two categories based on how energy is gathered to survive.

1.) Autotrophs Phototrophic –

Heterotrophic –

2.) Heterotrophs Phototrophic – use light energy but also need organic molecules for

nutrition (eat things).

Chemotrophic – use organic molecules (eat like us). These bacteria

compete with us for nutrients and so often are on our foods

eating and releasing poisons if improperly cooked.

- Respiration – there are three types of bacteria categories based on respiration.

1.) Obligate aerobes –

2.) Obligate anaerobes –

3.) Facultative anaerobes –

- Reproduction – bacteria may reproduce by two different ways; Binary Fission and/or Conjugation.

1.) _________________ – the enlarging of the cell and then splitting into two cells. The cells are

genetic clones of each other (asexual). This is an advantageous way of increasing numbers quickly.

No partner is needed. However, because new cells are clones there is no adaptations that may help

species.

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2.) _________ – one bacterium will form a protein bridge (donor tube) that attaches to the second

bacterial (recipient) cell wall. Part of the genetic code will is transferred through the tube and

mixes with the second bacteria’s DNA (sexual reproduction).

3.) ____________ – while not really reproduction, bacteria can extend their life by producing an

endospore. When conditions for survival become unfavourable, the bacteria can produce a thick

wall around its DNA. Bacteria can survive for years in this state.

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Bacterial Control

- There are two ways we try to control bacteria; 1.) outside and 2.) inside the body.

1.) _____________ – using chemicals or heat to kill bacteria. ______________ are chemicals used

on non-living items to kill bacteria (Lysol). _____________ are acids, bases, or alcohols used on

living tissue to kill bacteria (soap). We can also use u.v. light, or high heat (canning or cooking) to kill

bacteria in places we don`t want them. We also use cold (________, ________) to slow bacterial

growth on unwanted items.

2.) Antibiotics - are natural or man-made drugs that attack and kill bacteria. The ___________,

____________ is the last line of defense. It is made up of specialized cells work together to kill

bacteria.

Bacterial Impact

Positive

1.)Symbiotic Relationships – Plant - Nitrogen Fixation – bacteria called _____________ live in a

symbiotic relationship with legumes in the root nodules and

“fix” nitrogen for the plant.

- Animal –

2.) Recycle and Decompose – saprophytic bacteria break down dead organic life for energy (used

in sewer treatment plants).

Negative

- Caused by bacteria that attack us. These are called pathogenic bacteria.

1.) Food spoilage –

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2.) Illness –

Ex. – rabies, syphilis, cholera, tuberculosis, flesh eating disease.

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Notes - Microbiology – Protista

Part 1 – Animal like Protists

- Kingdom Protista is a very diverse group of organisms. There are over 115 000 different kinds, with

traits that fit with fungi, plants, and animals.

- All protists are eukaryotic cells that can be either single or ______________. It’s hypothesized

that the first protist was derived from many prokaryotic cells that came together symbiotically.

Over time these cells became so dependent on each other that they could no longer survive on their

own. This hypothesis is called the _______________ ______________. Evidence to support this

idea is found in Cyanophora paradoxa. This protist has blue green bacteria living inside of it, and can

be removed to survive on its own!

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- There are four categories for animal like protists.

1.) ________________: cilia bearing protists – can be either solitary or colonial. All ciliphora

contain small hair like projections called cilia that beat back and forth to produce movement.

There are over ____________ different ciliaphora and few are parasitic or symbionts.

Ex. – Paramecium caudatum

-

- Paramecium reproduces using both binary fission (primary) and _______________

(secondary). Binary fission occurs the same as in bacteria except the paramecium splits at the

gullet to form a clone. __________________ occurs when the paramecium is stressed (high

temperature or starvation). Two paramecium attach, _________________________, and

their diploid (___) micronuclei undergo meiosis to have 4 haploid micronuclei (N). Three of

haploid micronuclei are reabsorbed by the paramecium leaving only one micronuclei, which divides

into two. Each paramecium exchanges one with each other. The old ______________ fuses

with the new to become a diploid micronuclei again and the macronuclei reforms.

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2.) __________________: flagella bearing protists (zooflagellates) – may have one or more

flagellum to use for locomotion. Food is absorbed through the cell membrane. May be symbiotic,

parasitic, or free moving. Zoomastigina may reproduce via binary fission or asexually. Sexual

reproduction occurs by forming gametes, which fuse together and form an new individual.

Ex. –

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3.) Sporozoa: spore producing protists – non-motile and parasitic. Infect many chordates. They

reproduce by making spores. ___________ are groups of cells enclosed in a protective

membrane. The spores attach to the hosts cells, penetrate, and live within the cell.

Ex. – Plasmodium causes malaria.

4.) _________________: false feet protists – use cytoplasmic projections for movement and food

capture. The projections are called ________________. Amoeba move by pumping cytoplasm

into a pseudopod and the rest of the cell follows.

- Amoeba reproduce through binary fission.

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- Other groups in Sarcodina are the heliozoans, radiolarians, and foraminifers. Many of these

groups produce shells of SiO2 and CaCO3.

Impact of Animallike Protists

- As stated earlier, some protists are parasitic. Trypanosoma (zoomastigina) live in the blood of

vertebrates, and cause diseases like “African sleeping sickness”. This disease is spread by the tsetse

fly. The protist destroys the red blood cells and other tissue. Animals become weak, fall asleep and

often die.

- Some protists are beneficial. Many types of protista live in the digestive tract and aid in nutrient

absorption. Ex. – Trichonympha (zoomastigina) that lives in termites and digests the wood (cellulose)

they eat.

Part 2 – Plant like Protists

- There are five categories for plant like protists.

1.) Euglenophyta: ____________________________ – closely resemble the zoomastiginans in

general body shape and they are flagellated. Main difference is chloroplasts that contain

_________________ in the Euglenophytes.

Ex. – Euglena

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- Euglena move by using their larger (of 2) flagellum like a whip or by ______________ in low

water conditions, called ____________ movement. There is a red light sensing spot (eye spot)

used for directing the euglena towards the most light for photosynthesising. Euglena can also

gain nutrients and energy through absorption from water. Euglena are both a phototrophic

autotroph or a heterotrophy in poor lighting conditions. They reproduce by

________________ when they enlarge and split from the flagellated end on down.

2.) Pyrrophyta: ________ ___________ – this phylum are also known as _______________.

Most are photosynthetic (a few are heterotrophic). They usually have _______________; one

is wrapped around like a belt, and the other trails behind for locomotion. This phylum is

covered in thick plates and is luminescent! These are the organisms that cause

_____________________ when you stir ocean water. There DNA is not wrapped around

histone proteins and is the only eukaryotic cell that isn’t!

3.) ________________: golden protists – only 3 kinds in this phylum: yellow-green algae, golden-

brown algae, and diatoms. Very diverse group. Reproduce sexually and asexually. Diatoms

produce shells largely made of ___________.

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4.) Acrasiomycota: _____________________ – very hard to place in any kingdom. They are now

considered protists. Parts of their life cycle are ____________ like. When nutrients are

exhausted they gather together and form a fungi like organism. They produce fruiting bodies

and spores just like Fungi.

5.) _________________: acellular slime molds – Have the same life cycle until nutrients become

scarce. Then they come together and form plasmodia. Plasmodia are a single cell with thousands

of _____________ in the one cell. They then also produce fruiting bodies that make spores.

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Impact of Plantlike Protists

- Harmful - often in areas of sewage dumping. The _______________ absorb and feed of the

nutrients in sewage. This causes a “__________” in the number and when they die off the

bacteria that decompose them use up all the oxygen in the water. Breathing animals suffocate

and die. Ex. – Large blooms of Gonyaulax polyhedron cause “red tides”. This is a

red colour in the water from the protists and the toxin they produce. The __________ build

up in filter feeders like clams and can be fatal if the clams are eaten.

- Helpful – plantlike protists often form ________________ symbiotic relationships. Ex.

– dinoflagellates with coral. The dinoflagellates allow the coral to use the energy made from

_________________ and in return the dinoflagellates feed of the coral wastes. Also, ____%

of all photosynthesis (and thus oxygen) occurs from plantlike protists. They are also a huge

resource of food for larger organisms in the oceans.

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Notes - Aquatic Plants - Algae

Part 1 – General Information

- Algae are considered the ____________ of plant types. They lack any internal structures that allow

the transport of ___________ _____ ____________ throughout the organism. As such, they

must live in or near a water source.

- Algae are ________________or multicellular, causing a large size range, from microscopic to the

size of a ______________ _______. Like plants, algae have a ________ _______ surrounding the

cell for support and contain photosynthetic pigments (____________________) for energy

gathering. However, algae differ in that there are no _______, stem, or _______ structures like

terrestrial plants. Many deep dwelling algae also possess accessory ______________ to aid in

photosynthesis. These pigments help absorb wavelengths of light not used by _______________

(primary photosynthetic pigment). It is these different chlorophylls and accessory pigments that are

largely used in classifying the different algae types.

- Multicellular Algae has been divided into 3 main groups; Chlorophyta, ________, and Rhodophyta.

1.) ______________ – green algae – this phylum all contain chlorophylls __ ____ __, and it is

these pigments that give the green colour. As well, this phylum also stores their energy in the

form of a complex sugar called __________. Green algae are found near the surface of water

and in very moist land. Some Chlorophyta are single celled. Ex. –Chlamydomonas.

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- ___________ green algae also exist. There are two kinds of colonies. Gonium is colonial but

each cell acts individually.

Whereas, a colony of ___________ is the second type of colony in that it is made of individual

cells that come together and act as one organism. There are ________________ strands

connecting the cells for communication and movement. A Volvox colony only produces a few

specialised cells for reproduction.

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Another example is Spirogyra; this forms a threadlike colony called ________________. They

reproduce by _________________.

2.) Phaeophyta – __________ ______ - this phylum all contain chlorophylls, but they are a and c,

along with the accessory pigment ______________, and it is these pigments that give the

brown colour. As well, this phylum stores their energy in special starches and _____.

Ex. – _____________

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3.) Rhodophyta – red algae - this phylum all contain chlorophyll a (a few species also d) along with

accessory pigments called ________________. Phycobilins are excellent at absorbing

________ light, which allows these algae to live in deeper water where only blue light

penetrates. As well, this phylum stores their energy in special starches.

Part 2 – Reproduction

- Most algae life cycles are characterised by what is called ______________________________.

This expression describes how part of the algae’s life cycle is _________ (half the chromosomes)

and the other half of the life cycle is diploid (full amount of chromosomes). This trend is common to

all members of the __________ kingdom.

- The general life cycle of ___________________ characterises the life cycle for most algae. Most of

the life cycle is spent in a _____________ stage. The organism reproduces asexually until

conditions become unfavourable. Then the organism will switch to sexual reproduction. Instead of

releasing ______________ that develop into new organisms the Chlamydomonas will release both +

and – gametes. These two types will fuse (___________) and form a thick walled ___________.

This zygote can survive harsh conditions and when ready will undergo _________ and release four

haploid cells that grow into new Chlamydomonas.

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Part 3 - Algae Impact

- The primary role of Algae is the production of ____________. Between 50 to 75% of all oxygen

comes from algae.

- Algae are used for food in sashimi (nori wraps), ice cream, and __________________.

- Industry uses algae for everything from plastics, waxes, to deodorants.

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Notes - Spore Bearing – Bryophytes and Tracheophytes

Part 1 – Bryophytes

- _______________ and ____________ are believed to be the first plants to move onto land. This is

a monumental undertaking. To understand this let’s look at the requirements to survive on land:

1.)

2.)

3.) Rigid support for leaves to be exposed to sunlight for photosynthesis.

4.) Transport minerals and nutrients up and products of photosynthesis down.

5.)

- Bryophytes – ___________, ____________, ____________ – first plant to try for the fab five.

1.) Provide water to all cells and minimise evaporative losses. (grow low in height) (weak spot)

2.) Exchange water and carbon dioxide with environment. (osmosis and diffusion) (weak spot)

3.) Rigid support for leaves to be exposed to sunlight for photosynthesis.

4.) Transport minerals and nutrients up and products of photosynthesis down.

5.) Reproduction. (spores) (weak spot as needs water)

Two and half out of five is mediocre. Obtained 1, 2, 5. They need ________ for reproduction to occur.

Usually only a few centimetres tall as there are no ______________ ___________. This means

water moves between cells by osmosis. Bryophytes contain _____________ for anchoring the plant.

Rhizoids do not absorb nutrients or transport like roots do. _____________ are only one cell thick

so evaporation occurs quickly.

- Bryophytes have an alternating life cycle like algae. The __________ generation is the dominant

stage. Sexual reproduction occurs through the production of specialised organs. The male

antheridium produce sperm, and the female _______________ produce the egg. After fertilisation

the zygote will develop into a _______________ to release microscopic _________ that develop in

the sporophyte.

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Moss Liverwort

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Part 2 – Tracheophytes

- Tracheophytes are considered the first “true” land plants. This is due to the fact they don’t rely on

_________ for any part of their life cycle.

1.) Provide water to all cells and minimise evaporative losses. (_________________________)

2.) Exchange water and carbon dioxide with environment. (vascular tissue)

3.) Rigid support for leaves to be exposed to sunlight for photosynthesis. (______________)

4.) Transport minerals and nutrients up and products of photosynthesis down. (vascular tissue)

5.) Reproduction. (spores) (____________________)

- Tracheophytes – __________ - first plant to achieve the fab five. Ferns have ______________

_____________. Vascular tissues are specialised cells that allow for the movement of water,

nutrients, and __________. Vascular tissues are akin to our _____________ _________. Ferns

have true roots and leaves that need to be connected by the vascular system. Vascular tissues are

gathered into a bundle called ______________ _____________. They are made up of

__________ and phloem:

1.) Xylem – composed of tracheid cells (________________) that build straw like tubes that

carry water up from roots.

2.) Phloem – straw like tubes that carry nutrients and photosynthesis products _______ from

leaves.

_________ (blue)

Xylem (pink)

- Ferns have all three tissues needed for life on land; roots, stems and Fronds (leaves).

1.) Roots – anchor and absorb water and minerals

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2.) Stems and rhizomes – stems support the plant to give it height and not be blocked from the sun.

Rhizomes are ______________ stems that all horizontal growth and not just vertical.

3.) ___________ (leaves) – contain photosynthetic organs (______________), waxy _________

to minimise water loss, veins containing vascular tissues for transport, and a large

____________ _________ for sunlight capture.

- Ferns also have an alternation of generations. They are opposite mosses in that the (___) sporophyte

generation is the dominant form. __________ are produced by a sporangia which are clumped

together in the underside of the frond and called a _______.

The spores develop into a haploid heart shaped gametophyte (N) called a ______________. Ferns also

need water for sperm to swim to the egg.

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Part 3 - Bryophyte Impact

- Mosses help stabilise and retain water in soil, lower pH and add nutrients why they decompose.

- Fern ________________ are considered a delicacy for eating. Fiddleheads are the name given to new

fern fronds as they are just beginning to grow.

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Notes - Seed Bearing – Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

Part 1 – Gymnosperms

- Sub phylum _______________ is Latin for “naked seed”. This is fitting as the seeds are exposed to

the environment at maturity. Gymnosperms are ________, ___________, and __________ and

are thought to be first plant to not need water for their life cycle.

- Conifers – ________ __________ - are the most successful of this subphylum with over ____ types

spread over most of the northern hemisphere. They are extremely drought resistant with needle like

leaves with a thick ________. Ex. –

- Cycads look like palm trees with seeds on cones. They exist in tropical and subtropical regions.

- ____________ are the oldest but only one species remains, Ginko biloba as the Chinese have grown

them in their gardens for millennia. A very _____________ _____________ tree.

- Gymnosperms are photosynthetic in gathering energy. ___________ (leaves) last 2-14 years, contain

a thick, _________ __________, and contain small pits on the underside. At the bottom of these

pits are specialised openings, called stomata, which allow the exchange of ______________ made

from photosynthesis with __________ ____________ from the air.

- Chloroplasts in the needles change sunlight into sugars (_________). The sugars are transported

throughout the plant by sieve cells in the ___________. Water and minerals are transported by

hollow, dead tracheid cells or _______ which transport horizontally across the stems. Tracheid cells

are what form the _____________ of a tree and thus form the “growth rings”. Together, xylem and

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phloem make up the vascular cylinder for transport. _____________ is unspecialised cells that adds

more _________ on its inside and more ________ on its outside. Cambium is composed of meristem

tissue. Meristem tissues are cells capable of ________ throughout life of the plant. They are also

found in root tips as roots keep growing and spreading into soil. The _______ forms the outer

protective covering for trees called bark. The plant also has ______ __________. These are

specialised cells that produce resin, which is a mixture of _____________ and rosin. This inhibits

infection from insects and _______.

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- The sporophyte is the dominant form we recognise as a tree. As all tracheophytes they have true

roots, stems, leaves and vascular tissue. Reproduction occurs through production of two different

cone types. Male cones (pollen cones) are smaller and produce pollen (male gametophyte) to blow to

the female cone, undergo meiosis to produce sperm, and fertilize the egg (15 months long!). Female

cones (seed cones) produce ovules, areas that house the female gametophyte. Once the egg is

fertilised by sperm from the pollen grain, the zygote develops into an embryo. The embryo is stored

food and a protective coat which we now call a seed.

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- ______________ from humans, clear cut logging, and lack of forest fires have ______ conifers.

Sulphur dioxide from fossil fuel burning enters through stomata and causes stoma __________.

This has lead to increased penetration from disease and increased water loss. As well, __________

have been causing a reduced leaf size (less photosynthetic area). Forest fire decrease has increased

old, weak trees, that help feed insect infestations and _____________ cone release of seeds.

Part 2 – ______________

General Characteristics

- Subphylum Angiosperma is Latin for “_______________”. Angiosperms are what we know as

flowering plants. They are considered the _________ and most advanced of the plant kingdom.

- Angiosperms – flowering plants – all angiosperms are divided into one of ____ groups, based on the

seed type; monocotyledons (monocots) or _______________ (dicots). Both types of seeds have an

embryo, epicotyls, hypocotyls, seed coat, and __________. The difference is that

1.) Monocotyledons have one cotyledon and the endosperm for nutrient. Ex. – ________

2.) Dicotyledons have two cotyledons and the endosperm dissolves. Ex. – ________

- Seeds are dispersed through many different ways. ____ and _________ are the most common. Wind

will float the seed to a new destination (______________). ___________ dispersal often involves

the animal eating the seed and ___________ it somewhere else or having the seed become

entangled in fur or feathers and being deposited elsewhere (burdock seeds). Draw pictures of my

examples.

Dandelion Burdock

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- The _____________ is the dominant form as in other tracheophytes. Flowering plants are composed

of roots, stem and leaves. The ________ function as other tracheophytes roots. That is, they

transport water and minerals up while ____________ the plant to the soil. The stem stores and

___________ food through photosynthesis. Leaves primary function is the capturing and converting

of sunlight into energy through photosynthesis. However, in some flowering plants, the _________

may store food and minerals. ___________ – highly modified stem whose leaves are specialised for

sexual attraction and _____________. The flower is composed of a receptacle, which is the point on

the stem where the base of the flower attaches and all of the flower parts attach too.

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___________ – outer most protective leaf-like structures. All sepals together are called the

________. Petals – specialised leaves that attract insects or birds by colour and nectar glands at

base of petals (corolla). Stamen – male part of flower, composed of pollen producing ___________

and a stalk called the filament. The female part of the flower is called the _________, which is

made up of the ovary, style, and stigma (the ovule becomes the seed and the ________ the fruit).

Some plants have both male and female on the same plant. These are called monoecious, while plants

that have separate sexes are called _______________.

Reproduction

- Male gametophyte is very tiny. Microspore mothercells (____) reside inside of the anther. Each

microspore mothercell undergoes ___________ to produce four haploid microspores (N). The

microspores are the __________ ________. Inside each pollen grain’s thick moisture proof coat,

the nucleus divides into two parts; the _________ ________ which dissolves and the generative

nucleus which ___________ again to form two sperm. When the anther dries out the __________

____________ are set adrift by the wind.

- Female gametophyte is attached at the base of the flower (_____). Inside the ovary are one or more

________ containing the megaspore mother cell (2N). The megaspore mothercell will undergo

__________ to produce 4 haploid cells (N), only which one of survives. This cell undergoes mitosis to

produce eight cells. The eight cells and surrounding membrane are called the _________ ______.

The eight cells move around with ________ settling at each end and two in the middle called the

__________ _________. All will dissolve except one of the three closest to the opening. This cell

is called the egg nucleus.

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Comparative Review of Life cycles

- ______________ is the act of pollen moving from the anther to the stigma. This can occur as self

pollination or cross pollination. ______ ___________ is when a flower’s pollen fertilises the same

plants egg resulting in no sexual reproduction. Cross pollination is when wind, _______, or insects

cause the pollen from a one plant (same species) to fertilise a different plants egg resulting in a

_____________ ___ _____________ (sexual reproduction).

- Once the pollen has landed on the _______, chemicals on the stigma cause a pollen tube to begin

_________ from the pollen grain down to the ___________ (opening) in the ovule. Once the tube is

complete the two sperm travel down, enter the ovule, and one fertilises the egg to form a zygote

(2N) while the other fertilises the _____ _______ ________ (3N) in a process called double

fertilisation. The ________ (3N) becomes the __________ to nourish the embryo. Most of our

food is the endosperm of grasses (wheat, corn, and rice). The _________ is the mature ovary and

the seeds are the mature ovule.

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- The life span of flowering plants fit into three different groups; annuals, biennials, and perennials.

____________ flower and live one season, _____________flower once in the second year and live

for two seasons, and perennials flower and live for many years. You can get an idea on lifespan based

on if the plant is herbaceous or woody. Herbaceous plants are green and soft stemmed like most

garden flowers. __________ plants are flowering plants with wood stems, and often live for many

years.

Plant Parts (angiosperms)

- Leaves – are largely composed of cells that contain _______________ for photosynthesis. Outer

layer, top and bottom of leaves, is called the ____________. The remainder of the leaf is composed

of two types of _____________ cells; palisade and spongy mesophyll. Mesophyll cells (parenchyma

cells) are cells that largely contain the chloroplasts used for photosynthesis. Palisade mesophyll is

___________ layered mesophyll, while spongy is mesophyll cells spaced by ____________ and air

space for _______ exchange to occur.

- Stomata are on the underside of the leaf. They regulate gas exchange (in/out) for

___________________ to occur. They remain closed at _________ as no photosynthesis is

occurring. The opening and closing is controlled by the _________ (water pressure) in the guard

cells of the stomata.

- Veins are the bundles of vascular tissue. The ______________ of leaves is controlled by tugor

pressure in veins. The large flat side of leaves is called the ________. The petiole is the leaf stem

that attaches the leaf. __________ are small growths (_______ ___ ________) that may grow

near the base of the leaf.

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- Roots – two main purposes; anchor plant and ____________ water and minerals. There are also two

main types of roots; __________ and ___________. A ____________ is a large single main root

that grows deep with small secondary roots. Ex. – __________,________,_______ Fibrous roots

are when many secondary roots anchor the plant and one main root does not exist.

Ex. – grasses.

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- The tip of a root is called the ____________. The cap lubricates the soil and is constantly replaced

by apical meristem as the cap is scraped off as root grows. ________________ grow out of the

root and increase surface area for water/mineral uptake dramatically.

- The cortex is the main cells of a root and is primarily used for ___________ ___________. The

endodermis is a thick, waxy layer of cells that encase the ___________ and ____________ to stop

water and minerals from escaping the vascular bundle. The waxy part of the endodermis is called the

Casparian strip and this is water waterproofs the endodermis. The outer layer is the epidermal cells

and they function to absorb water they come in contact with.

- Stems – tracheophytes stems differ between a monocot stem and a dicot stem. ___________ stems

are lacking _________ to allow the vascular tissue to continue to increase in size. This therefore

limits stem growth for girth (not height) throughout monocot development. This is due to the

vascular bundles being _____________ throughout the ground tissue (pith) of the stem. In dicots

(______________) the vascular tissue is in a ring of cambium with the xylem on the inside, and

phloem on the outside. This allows continuous growth in both the x and y axis continually throughout

the plants development.

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- Water moves from roots to leaves via 4 actions working in conjunction.

1.) ___________________ – upward movement through narrow tubes due to molecular

attractive forces.

2.) Root pressure – difference in osmotic pressure between cells from root hair into xylem of

root. This forces water up xylem tubes.

3.) __________________ –

4.) Transpiration-cohesion theory – when water evaporates the cell becomes limp and water

diffuses in because of cohesion.

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Notes - Porifera and Cnideria

- Animals exist on every continent on the planet. Most people consider animals to be the most important

kingdom as we are considered animals. But, what is an animal? What characteristics define an animal?

- Animals are considered to be any _________________, ________________, ______________

without cell walls. Animals have developed a ”division of labour” to better survive. That is, they have

developed _____________ ____________ that take care of a particular function for the organism.

Ex. –

- All organisms have some symmetry to their body plan. The more specialised tissues and organs an

organism has the more likely it will move from ____________ __________ to bilateral symmetry.

- Also, as animals become more complex they tend to undergo cephalisation. _______________ is the

gathering of nerve cells and ________ ________ into their anterior end (_______). A gathering of

nerves is called a ganglion and in the case of large gathering this is called a __________.

- All animals have 7 primary functions they carryout for survival. They are:

1.) __________ – the acquisition of nutrient. Often through a mouth that leads to a digestive gut.

Feeding takes many forms like carnivorous, herbivorous, parasitic, filter feeders, and

_______________ ____________.

2.) Respiration –

3.) Internal transport – the movement of ___________, _____________, __________

___________ etc. to cells deep inside of the organism. This is often done by a

______________ ______________.

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4.) Excretion – the expulsion of toxins (____________) and waste products (_____________).

5.) Response –

6.) Movement – move throughout environment to gather nutrients, ______________, and avoid

_____________. A skeletal system and muscles are needed in most cases.

7.) ____________ – continue species by passing on _________. Can occur sexually or asexually.

Phylum Porifera

- Porifera – _______ _________ – this phylum includes both marine and fresh water sponges. Sponges

are the only animals with no specialised systems like organs. Sponges have a simple body plan. They are

essentially built like a sieve or ____________. They function to pull water through their millions of

_______ (small holes through their epidermal layer) into their central cavity, using tiny

______________ that beat back and forth. The flagellum are attached to special cells called collar

cells, that are ___________, and function to pull ________ _______ ____________ out of the

water and engulf them for digestion. The water exits the sponge through the ___________. The

sponge maintains its structure through an internal skeleton made of spicules and/or ________. The

spicules are created of calcium carbonate (______), or silicon dioxide (_____) by the amebocyte cells.

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The flow of water serves as the respirator, excretory, and _____________ ______________ for

the sponge.

- Sponges reproduce both asexually and sexually. ____________ reproduction can occur through

_____________ or budding. Gemmules occur during unfavourable conditions. The sponge will produce

a small _________ shaped collection of amebocytes surrounded by ___________. This body is very

resilient to cold temperatures and _____________. It can grow into a sponge when conditions

improve. Budding occurs when a piece is broken off and simply grows into another sponge.

- Sexual reproduction occurs by sperm being released (male sponge) and carried out the osculum. If they

reach a female sponge they will be taken up by the _____________ cells and delivered to the eggs.

The zygote that develops into the larva, swims away to settle and grow into a new sponge.

Role in Nature

- Sponges often form symbiotic relationships with photosynthetic bacteria in return for protection.

Sponges help breakdown and release minerals from shells as well as filter water. Humans have used

sponges for bathing since the ancient Romans as well as produce chemicals that are antibacterial.

_________

_____

______

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Phylum ____________

- Cnidaria – _________ ________ – are soft-bodied animals with stinging tentacles around their

__________. This phylum includes jellyfish, anemones, and __________. All cnidaria have radial

symmetry and specialised tissues. Most cnidaria have a 2 stage life cycle like many plants do. The

cnidaria alternate between a ____________ polyp and a motile ____________.

- Both stages have a gastrovascular cavity for _____________ of food. They also both have a 3 layered

body wall consisting of the epidermis, ___________, and the _______________.

- Cnidarians feed by stinging their prey with nematocysts. Nematocysts are a specialised cell that

functions like a ____________. The nematocyst contains a small barb that is triggered by a

specialised hair (when touched) and injects deadly toxin to stun their prey. Once stunned the prey is

pushed into the __________________ cavity for digestion. Once digested the nutrients move into

cells through __________________.

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- No central nervous system or ___________ exists, but they do have a nerve net concentrated around

the mouth. There are some cells in the epidermis for sensing touch, as well as the _________ has

very simple sense organs formed of _______________ and ocelli cells.

- Waste removal occurs through ____________ as the cnidaria are only a few cells thick.

- For _______________ the cnidaria uses specialised epidermal cells that can change shape when

stimulated. This allows movement without ________________.

- Reproduction occurs sexually and asexually. _______________ occurs by budding or having entire

medusa bud off. Sexual reproduction occurs when medusa release sperm/egg into the water which

grows into a ___________ when fertilised. The zygote will become a larva, which can swim, and will

move to a new area to settle, ____________, and grow into a polyp.

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- There are three classes of cnidaria: Hydrozoa, Scyphozoan, and Anthozoa.

- ________________ – includes fresh water hydra and _______________ __________________

(not a true jellyfish as it is a colony of polyps working together). Most hydrozoa are ___________

and have a very short medusa life stage. Most organisms have separate male and female but a few are

_____________________ (have both male and female reproductive organs).

- Scyphozoa – ____________ ___________ ____________. This class functions oppositely in that the

medusa is long lived and the polyp is very short in duration.

- Anthosoa – includes the anemones and __________. This class has NO medusa stage of life. Eggs and

sperm are released from the polyp, develop into a ciliated larva that attaches and grows into another

polyp. Anemones have a symbiotic relationship with many photosynthetic protists that live in their

cells. As such they need to be near the light at the surface.

Role in Nature

- Many cnidarians have symbiotic relationships with __________, fish, and other small animals. The

animals live amongst the tentacles for protection and feed scraps to the cnidaria in return. Coral reefs

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are an integral part of housing and protection for small sea creatures while also protecting coast lines

from wave erosion. Jewelry and medicines are also very important uses for man.

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Notes - Platyhelminthes and Nematodes

- These two phylum are composed of _________. However, the worms we are going to look at are not

common ______________. Both of these phyla are composed of unsegmented worms. That is, these

worms are not divided into _______________ or ______________ like an earthworm and are

considered less developed (_____________) than earthworms. Unsegmented worms have definite

organs contained in a fluid filled body cavity (______________).

Phylum Platyhelminthes

- Platyhelminthes – ______ ________ – considered the simplest animals with _____________

______________ and _______________. They have more developed organ systems than either

sponges or ______________. Flatworms are carnivorous, _____________, or parasites. There are

three kinds of flatworms; turbellaria, trematoda, and ______________.

Turbellaria – ________________ flatworms. Ex. – planarian. ______________ ingest organisms in

through their mouth and into a long muscular tube called a ____________. The pharynx leads to the

gastrovascular cavity (intestine), which spreads throughout the length of the planarian, and uses

_______________ to breakdown the food. The food can ___________ throughout the planarian to

all cells needing nutrition. Waste food is expelled back out the mouth.

- Flatworms lack any kind of respiratory or _____________ systems. Due to their flat body plans,

diffusion can transport all gases and nutrients needed. Many flatworms also contain flame cells, which

are used to expel extra __________ through pores in the skin. Flatworms have a much more

developed nervous system than Cnidarians or Porifera. They have a definite head with a

_______________ (simple brain) and a definite nerve cord with branches running the length of the

organism. They have ocelli (_____________) that are light sensitive and help direct the flatworm

towards light as well as touch sensors and chemical sensors in their skin to help direct to food and

hiding places.

- Flatworms move using ________ and muscles to wiggle their way around.

- Reproduction occurs both sexually and asexually. Most flatworms are ________________. The worms

will pair up and fertilise each other’s eggs with sperm. Asexual reproduction often occurs through

______________ (being cut or split and each piece regenerating into a new worm).

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Trematoda (flukes) and Cestoda (________________)

-Some Platyhelminthes are ________________ and feed off ____________ or host cells. They have

little to no digestive tract as it is not needed. In most cases the host organism has already

predigested most to all of the food. Ex. – ______________ and ______________.

- Parasitic flatworms have little to no _____________ system as responding to stimuli (light or

chemicals) is not needed inside of their host.

- Parasitic flatworms are usually not hermaphroditic and have a much more complex life cycle than their

non-parasitic cousins.

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Trematoda life Cycle

Use your textbook (not picture) page 573 to fill in detailed notes of the blood fluke life cycle.

Cestoda Life Cycle

- Tapeworms are parasitic flatworms that absorb predigested food from their host’s intestines. See life

cycle to side diagram next page.

- Once full of eggs the ________________ break off and burst releasing _______________ eggs that exit

with feces. If food or water that is contaminated with eggs is eaten by cows, fish, pigs or other

intermediate hosts, then the eggs hatch. The larvae burrow into ____________ ____________ and

form cysts. If a human eats raw or not completely cooked meat the larvae become active and enter the

human’s _____________ to start the cycle over.

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Phylum ________________

- _______________ – round worms – simplest organisms to have a fully developed digestive system.

That is, they have a __________, intestines, and an _________ for expulsion. Roundworms are found

in water, soil, and ___________ from the tropics to the polar regions of earth.

- Roundworms can be carnivorous and eat smaller organisms such as; algae, fungi, or ___________.

Parasitic roundworms can attach to plant roots and feed of the plant juices or may infect animals and

feed in the intestines.

- Like _____________, roundworms breathe and excrete metabolic wastes through their body wall. They

have no circulatory system and so rely on diffusion for transport. They have a simple _____________

system with several ganglia in the head region. They control muscular movements using a few nerve

chords that run the length of the body.

- Reproduction occurs ____________ through internal fertilisation. Parasitic roundworms have complex

life cycles like parasitic flatworms did.

- ____________ is a parasitic roundworm that affects humans. There are many species like ascaris that

affect horses, pigs, deer, chickens, dogs, and cats. Collectively they are called ________________.

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Role in Nature

- Both flatworms and roundworms have little positive influence on humans. Most help break down dead and

rotting organic material or eat organisms smaller than they are. However, the parasitic unsegmented

worms have the largest impact on humans. Hundreds of millions of people are infected by roundworms

each year. ______________, like the guinea worm, are terribly painful and affect many outside of

North America. The life cycle is the same as ascaris except hookworms feed of intestinal blood.

________________ is a roundworm that causes trichinosis. Most people are infected by eating

improperly cooked ________. The larvae burrow through the intestines into the blood and move about

the body until they burrow into muscles and form cysts (painful!).

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- ________________ worms are threadlike worms that travel in the ___________ system instead of

the blood. They cause blockages in the lymph and lead to elephantiasis.

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Notes - Annelida and Mollusca

- Annelids are another type of worm. ________________ are the most well known of the annelids. There

are over ________ species of annelids with most living in the oceans or in soil. Annelids differ from

flat and roundworms by being ________________. They range in size from less than 1 millimetre to

3 metres long. Annelida is divided into three main classes; Polchaeta, _____________, and

__________________.

Phylum Annelida

- Annelida – ___________________ – the word annelid comes from the _______ word annellus, which

means little rings. Annelid bodies are composed of many segments that are generally the same. The

segments are ___________ by thin internal tissue called __________ (septum pl.).

- Annelids eat using a __________ followed by a long tube that exits the body at the anus. The “tube”

has specialised areas along the way to aid in ____________ and digestion of food. The mouth is

attached to the ____________ by the pharynx. The pharynx can be extended out of the mouth to aid

in food capture or ____________. The esophagus leads to the crop (___________) where food is

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stored and onto the _____________ (mechanical grinding to break-up food) before entering the

intestine (enzyme digestion) and exiting through the anus.

- ____________ annelids use gills to filter oxygen out of the water. Terrestrial annelids use _______

_________ to allow gas exchange to diffuse through. A cuticle is used to keep the skin moist.

- Annelids do have a ______________ circulatory system (vessels) that pump blood towards the head

______________ and returning to the tail _____________. The two main vessels are connected two

each other and tissues, in each segment, by ring vessels. Near the head the ring vessels are larger and

__________ ___ ___________ to allow contraction and pumping of blood. These anterior ring

vessels are therefore called __________ _________ (hearts).

- Metabolic excretion occurs via a pair of nephridium in each segment, while solid waste passes via the

____________.

- Annelids have a well developed nervous system. They have a simple brain connected to a pair of ganglia in

the head. The nerves continue from the pair of ganglia down the annelid via the _________ nerve

chord with small branches in each segment of the worm. Most annelids have many sense organs for

touch, chemicals and light. A few worm species (marine) have eyes developed enough to perceive

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images. Most do not have protective adaptations but a few do. Some carnivorous worms use their jaws

or ____________ ____________ (marine worms) to fight back.

- Movement occurs using _____________ and transverse muscles to lengthen/shorten or dilate/shrink

and essentially “wiggle”.

- Reproduction is commonly __________ with a few annelids able to asexually reproduce via

___________. The sexes are separate in the worms and both fertilisation and development occur

externally. Marine worms often congregate to increase chances of sperm meeting egg. Terrestrial

worms and leeches are often _______________ and undergo internal fertilisation. They rarely

fertilise themselves. The worms pair up and exchange sperm, which they store in a special sac for

later. When ready the ______________ of the worm releases mucous with both sperm and eggs

inside. The clitellum slides off to form a _____________ of protection.

- _______________ – sandworms, bloodworms, and cousins – __________ means bristles. This part of

the name refers to each segments pairs of paddles with many bristles on the end. This class exists in

soil, freshwater and marine environments.

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- Oligochaeta – earthworms and cousins – oligo means “few” so these worms have much fewer bristles.

Most live terrestrially or in freshwater (few in marine). Earthworms eat _______ and pass the dirt

particles out the anus as “___________”.

- Hirudinea – __________ – an exterior parasitic worm with less apparent segmentation and

__________ at both ends. Leeches use razor sharp teeth or a _____________ to pierce tissues and

inject an ____________________ to aid in blood or fluid removal.

Role in Nature

- Annelids function as food for many marine organisms and as fabulous soil aerators terrestrial. Leeches

and their saliva have become a major medical help. They are often used to remove old blood in limb

reattachments and their saliva is an excellent heart attack/stroke medicine used to thin blood.

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Phylum Mollusca

- Commonly known as _____________ they are the second most numerous animal species

(100000�� �) after arthropods (_________). The name mollusc is from the Latin Molluscus

meaning “________”. Mollusks are defined as a soft bodied animals with an internal or external shell.

They range from oceans to the tops of trees. Mollusks are very diverse in behaviour and looks. They

are grouped together based on a common larval form called a _____________. Trocophore swim in

open water and feed off small floating plants. Annelids also have a larval trocophore form. It is this

that causes biologists to believe that a common ancestor may have existed.

- All mollusks have four main parts: foot, mantle, shell, and visceral mass. The _______ is a muscular

organ that often contains the _______ and ingestion structures. The foot can be used for crawling,

attachment to substrate, or as tentacles. The mantle is a thin, soft tissue that covers the animal’s

body like a cloak. The shell is for protection, and is made by calcium carbonate (CaCO3) that is

excreted by the mantle. The visceral mass contains the organs. These four parts take on different

roles depending on habitat. The shell and foot are used to categorize mollusks into three classes.

- Molluscs can be carnivorous, herbivorous, detrivores, parasitic, or even filter feeders. Many feed using a

layer of ___________ ______ with small teeth on it called a radula. This can be used to _______

algae, eat buds and roots, or scrape through shells and tear up the soft tissues of prey inside.

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- Some mollusks such as clams, oysters or ___________ are filter feeders instead, and use their gills to

filter small _________________ in the water and have cilia move the particles into the mouth.

- Most mollusks ______________ using gills located in their mantles. If they are terrestrial then they

use a large, ________, folded region on the inside of their ________ to allow oxygen to diffuse into

the animal.

- Slow moving mollusks have an ________circulatory system. This means that the system does not fully

contain blood inside of vessels but rather opens into large areas called _________ that allow the

blood to bath the organs and tissues inside of the sinus. It then returns to vessels leading to the

_________ and ______ before dumping into the sinuses again. Fast moving mollusks like octopi and

squid have a __________circulatory system that uses vessels for transport throughout the body.

- Excretion occurs like annelids. Solid waste is removed via the anus and _____________ wastes are

removed by _______________.

- Mollusks vary in nervous system development as well. Snails and slugs have a __________ and some

nerve chords throughout their body that connect to eyes and touch receptors. However, octopi and

squid have very developed _________ (can learn and remember), advanced nervous systems, and

sensory organs capable.

- Most mollusks have separate sexes. Untentacled mollusks reproduce with ______ fertilising the egg

externally. The sperm and egg meet through chance and a free-swimming larva develops. In tentacled

mollusks and certain hermaphroditic snails the _____________ takes place inside of the female. In

the snails they pair up and fertilise each other.

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Phylum Gastropoda

- _____________ – stomach foot – this class includes _______, ______, abalones, and nudibranchs.

Most have a one-piece shell for protection, while slugs and ____________ do not. They protect

themselves with toxins (brightly coloured nudibrachs!) or by behaviour (slugs hide during day).

Phylum ____________

- Bivalves – ____ ______ – this class includes clams, oysters, and scallops. Most bivalves are ________

filter feeders. They anchor themselves by digging into mud (clams) or using sticky threads (mussels).

The scallop can “swim” by flapping its two shelf halves.

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Phylum Cephalopoda

- Cephalopods – head foot – this class includes squid, octopi, ___________, and _________. The foot

has adapted to become the 8 arms, and 2 tentacles (not in octopi). The arms or tentacles are covered

in __________ _____ and used to grab prey. The shell has been internalised in all but the nautiluses

and lost in the octopus. Most are able to evade predators using ___ ____________, ink, or special

cells (________________) that completely mimic their surroundings.

Role in Nature

- Mollusks are excellent detrivores returning nutrients to the environment as well as some are hosts to

symbiotic algae. Snails and slugs can be pests in gardens as they eat food crops. Also, ___________

(bivalve) cause millions of dollars in damage to boats and docks by drilling through wood with their

shells. Bivalves are excellent indicators of water quality. Because they are filter feeders, monitoring

their tissues for toxins is an excellent way to accurate pollution levels. However, in recent years they

have become very important to science and medicine. The _________ _____ has an amazing toxin

that is being researched as a possible pain reliever or muscle relaxant. Also, some mollusks are immune

to cancer. Scientists are trying to figure out what it is that causes the immunity.

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Echinodermata and Arthropoda

- Echinoderms are a very well known phylum. Sea stars, _______________, sand dollars, and sea urchins

are all members.

Phylum ______________

- Commonly known as arthropods they are the most numerous animal species (________________). The

name arthropod means ________ ________. They are a very varied group of organisms. However,

they all have key common characteristics. The three important features are: _________

_______________, ________________________, __________________________. They also

all have a brain, ventral nerve cord and ______________________ pumped by a single heart.

- Many scientists believe some arthropods like insects, millipedes, and centipedes may have come from

ancestors of _________ __________, while spiders, crustaceans, and extinct trilobites may have

come from a different more distant ancestor. In other words, while the organisms we are discussing

fit into one phylum, they are very ___________ and potentially could have come from many different

ancestors.

- Arthropods have a waterproof tough external skeleton made of sugar (______________) called an

_________________. This type of skeleton is very rigid and only allows movement at joints as well as

no growth without shedding of the skeleton (_________). The body of arthropods is divided into

many segments with a myriad of different appendages (legs, ____________, wings, claws and

___________).

- Arthropods encompass all forms of heterotrophs (carnivores, detrivores, herbivores, parasites, etc.).

- Gas exchange occurs one of ___________ ways in arthropods: gills/book gills, ________ _______,

and tracheal tubes. Most __________ arthropods like crabs and shrimp use gills hidden under their

exoskeleton. _________ ________ are used by spiders and_________ _________. They function

like the pages of a book to increase surface area and may be contained beneath or inside a sac with a

spiracle to connect to the outside air. ___________ are a tube, or set of tubes, that extend

throughout the organism’s body to allow _____________ to transport gases in and out of the animal.

This is what most SMALL ____________ arthropods use.

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- Circulation is routed in an ________circulatory system. That is, the heart pumps blood through

___________ into the tissues. It then moves back into a large _______ surrounding the heart where

it is pulled back into the heart, through small holes in the heart, to be ________________.

- ____________ are removed via the anus in terrestrial arthropods. Both solid (food) and __________

wastes are mixed and leave together. _____________ ________ function like simple kidneys to

remove the metabolic wastes from the blood and dump them in with the food waste for removal. In

aquatic arthropods _________ allows the wastes to diffuse out of ____________ or _________

into the surrounding water.

- Arthropods have 2 ___________ that function as a brain. One often controls ______________ (legs

and wings) while the other will process ________ ________ data. They have very developed sense

organs like compound eyes (handout), taste, hearing and touch receptors (_________). They are often

more sensitive than we are to stimulus making them hard to swat or kill. These receptors are also not

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often found just in the head like _________ receptors in flies, which are on their ____________

and antennae or ______________ (ears) behind the hind legs of grasshoppers.

- Movement is generated by ____________ working against the exoskeleton, much like ours.

- ________________ is usually sexual with sperm/egg resulting in fertilization occurring ___________

the female.

- Arthropod growth, particularly _____________ (insects), follows one of two paths. They will undergo

incomplete metamorphosis or ______________ ________________ (see diagram below).

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- Arthropods are broken into ___________ main subphylums: Trilobita, _____________,

_______________, and Uniramia.

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Subphylum Trilobita

- ______________ – now extinct and thought to be the oldest subphylum. All were marine organisms

with a tough outer covering with many segments.

Subphylum Chelicerata

- Chelicerates –this subphylum includes ________, ____________, ____________,

__________________, and _____________. This subphylum is characterised by ______ ______

body (segments have fused) and _______________. The body is divided into the cephalothorax and

the ______________. The cephalothorax contains the brain and sense organs (eyes, mouth),

___________ and upper digestive tract along with several pairs of walking legs. The mouth has two

pairs of appendages that function for prey ___________ and devouring; the chelicerae (biting and

sucking) and _______________ (grabbing and holding). In ___________ and some ticks (small

arachnids) the pedipalps are claws.

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Subphylum _____________

- Crustaceans – primarily marine but a few are terrestrial (__________). Included are lobster, crabs, pill

bugs and shrimp. All crustaceans have a hard exoskeleton, _____________ and two pairs of

____________. Most crustaceans are divided into three main parts the head, thorax, and

_____________, however the ___________ has the head and abdomen fused into a cephalothorax.

Large crustaceans have ___________ __________ added into their carapace (shell) for more

strength. Both sets of antennae are jointed (2 parts), often used as feelers and may be used for filter

feeding in some species. ____________ are used for biting and ___________ food. In the crayfish

the main appendages have developed into one pair of claws, 4 pairs of legs, many pairs of

____________, and paddle like appendages on the end of the tail called a ____________.

Subphylum Uniramia

- Uniramians – contain more species (____________________) than all other groups on earth combined. This

subphylum includes ______________ like centipedes (class chilopoda) and _____________ (class

diplopoda), as well as class insecta. _______________ have one pair of legs per segment and

millipedes have _____ pair per segment. All insects share characteristics of a three part body

composed of a head, thorax, and abdomen. They also all have 3 pairs of legs attached to the

____________ as well as one pair of antennae.

- Typical insects have three sets of mouth parts: ________, _________, and _________. Some have

modified mouth parts into a proboscis for sucking blood or nectar (mosquito or butterfly).

- Movement is governed by three pairs of legs or wings found in two pairs.

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- Some insects such as termites, bees, wasps, and ants form colonies called ____________ for survival.

Individuals from the society are adapted to perform certain tasks and all individuals are needed for

survival.

- ________________ in insects involves sight (fire flies) and sound (crickets chirping) but often ways

we don’t realise. _____________ are a special type of chemical used to attract males from great

distances.

- The use of specialised “languages” is also employed. In ________ ______ the distance and direction to

flowers, or a new hive, can be communicated through a special dance called a “_________ ________”.

Role in Nature

- Most of the world’s pollination of flowering plants occurs from insects. As well, many plants live in

mutualistic relationships with insects. Ex. – _____________. The lady birds eat aphids that are

feeding on the plant and in return the plants thorns help keep predators away. Ex. 2 – mites living in

humans pores eating dead skin flakes and oils. In return we offer them a home. Arthropods are also

very beneficial to our food sources. Lobster, crab, shrimp and all of the insects eaten around the globe

are high in nutrients and protein. Many drugs, and created products like surgical thread, are made

from chemicals or bodies of insects. Your favourite red drinks are dyed red using crushed up beetle

carcases. Silk and cotton are invaluable as well.

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Notes - Chordata

- Chordates are a very well known phylum. This phylum includes all mammals, birds, fishes, reptiles, and

amphibians. The above mentioned classes are all _____________ (have a vertebral column or spine).

There are two _______________ of chordate that are invertebrates: _____________ and

_______________. These are important subphylums as they are believed to be possible

___________ for vertebrates to the rest of the animal kingdom.

- Chordata – commonly called chordates. Animals with the common characteristics of a

_______________, hollow dorsal nerve cord, and ____________ (throat) slits. These

characteristics may appear in the ________________ stages of development or some time later up

to a mature adult. The notochord is a long, flexible rod running _____________ to

________________ along, most often, the dorsal surface. It usually only exists in the embryonic

stage and is replaced by a ____________. The ___________________________ is just like the

name says. The anterior end usually terminates in a brain with multiple nerve branches along the length

that connect to organs and muscles. Pharyngeal slits are only present in ____________ and in marine

chordates, they contain the ________ and in terrestrial chordates they only exist in the embryonic

stages as ___________ exist to breath.

Subphylum Urochordata

- ________________ – known as tunicates, which are small marine animals that filter out

_____________. They look like small pitchers with _________ ___________. Most of the

characteristics of a chordate are not seen in the adult form but rather in the tadpole shaped larvae

which have a notochord and a dorsal nerve cord. The ____________ __________ are used by the

adult form for breathing via a pharyngeal basket pierced by gill slits.

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_______________ ________________

- Cephalachordates – are small fishlike creatures that cruise the sandy bottoms of tropical oceans. They

have a definite head, __________ ___________ system, and bilateral symmetry. They possess a

____________, pharyngeal slits containing gills, and a hollow nerve chord as part of their nervous

system. Unlike most chordates they have no ________ or appendages.

Subphylum Vertebrata

Vertebrates are animals that have the chordate characteristics with the ______________ having been

replaced by a backbone composed of vertebrae (________). All vertebrates share the following

characteristics:

1.) a backbone

2.) an endoskeleton

3.) a large brain in skull

4.) an advanced nervous system

5.) a complex heart and closed circulatory system

6.) a special outer protective covering

6.) one or two pairs of appendages

- There are five classes of vertebrates; fish, amphibian, reptile, bird, and mammals.

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Class Fish

- All fish share the following characteristics:

1.)

2.)

3.)

4.)

5.)

- A fishes shape is very streamlined to reduce drag in the water. ______ stabilise and help with

direction. Many fish contain a __________ ___________ to give neutral buoyancy. Fish breathe by

gulping in water that passes the ________ (oxygen is removed) before being expelled out the gill slits.

___________ do not regulate body temperature, which fluctuates with the surroundings.

- Fish are broken into _________ classes in the subphylum vertebrata. The first class is the jawless

fishes; ___________ ____ __________. Lampreys are a parasitic fish that attaches itself to a

host, _________ the flesh off the side using its raspy tongue, and feeds of the fluids of the host.

- The second class is the _________________ fishes. This class includes the rays, sharks and skates.

As the name implies they all have a ____________ made of cartilage instead of bone. Cartilage is a

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tough and flexible tissue. Sharks do not have a flap of skin covering their five to seven gills and must

always be moving to breathe. Sharks are the largest fish.

- The third class is the bony fish or “______ _______”. This class includes salmon, ___________, trout,

char, and __________. Bony fish have a skeleton of bone and scales covering their skin.

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Class Amphibian

- Amphibians are believed to be the first animals to move onto land. Frogs, newts, toads, and salamanders

are all members of this class. This class begins life in water as it is needed for _______________

and development of the embryo. Tadpoles are the first form for amphibians and have gills, a _____

chambered heart, ____________ circulatory system, and two legs. Metamorphosis describes the

changes that occur to result in the adult form for amphibians. Adults have __________, four legs,

and a three chambered heart.

- Amphibian characteristics are as follows:

1.) gills in tadpole stage/lungs in adult stage

2.) three chambered heart (adult)

3.)

4.)

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Class Reptile

- Reptiles are believed to be the first animals to live their entire life on land. Common members are

crocodiles. turtles, snakes, and lizards. Life on land was possible due to; 1. ________________ 2.

_____ ____________. Males deposit sperm into the female who produces a ______________

protective shell over the zygote. The eggs are also deposited in a protective nest.

- Reptile characteristics are as follows:

1.)

2.)

3.)

4.)

5.)

6.)

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Class Bird

- Birds are characterised by flight. However, there are a few species that are flightless. Flight can occur

from body plans that include feathers, hollow bones, and powerful breast muscles to move their wings.

- Bird feathers exist in two types; down feathers for warmth, and large outer feathers for flight. Birds

are __________________ (warm blooded) with a very efficient set of four chambered lungs. Birds

have no teeth and use beaks instead.

- The shape of the beak is indicative of the food source

eaten. Internal fertilisation and eggs with a protective

shell are laid. Brooding helps protect the eggs while

incubating for proper development.

- Bird characteristics are as follows:

1.)

2.)

3.)

4.)

5.)

6.)

7.)

8.)

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Class Mammal

- Mammals are considered the most highly developed animals. Examples of the class are the elephant, bat,

monkey, human and dolphins. Mammals are named for the _____________ ________ used to produce

milk for young. Mammals fall into two groups depending on whether a placenta exists during young

development or not. A ____________ is a bag inside of the mother that the offspring develops in.

Placental mammals are considered a higher form of life. Having a ____________ period (pregnancy

period) allows a more fully developed offspring at birth. Placental mammals provide the greatest

amount of parental care. This results in the most successful of all animals. ________________ are

considered the most highly developed with the largest brains.

- Characteristics of mammals are as follows;

1.)

2.)

3.)

4.)

5.)

6.)