Great Narratives of the Qur’anDavid PenchanskyFebruary, 2015

What’s so special about the Qur’an? Muslims

believe their sacred book consists of the actual

words of God, dictated to the prophet Muhammad

by the angel Gabriel. How does one examine such

a claim, which goes beyond the claim that most

Jews and Christians make regarding their holy

texts? The Qur’an claims that its divine

nature should be obvious to anyone who reads it

with an open heart. I, as a sympathetic reader,

want to gain access to the divine presence

Muslims claim emanates from the reading of the

book.

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Notice I said reading of the book. There is one

aspect unavailable to us in a forum like this.

“Qur’an” means “recitation,” and a Muslim’s

primary relationship to the book is through

chanting its contents, or listening to its words

in Arabic. So what we will do here is access

that aspect of the Qur’an not so dependent on a

familiarity with the Arabic language. The

Qur’an, like the Bible, is made up of many

different types of literature, such as laws,

prayers, ritual instruction, and apocalyptic

visions. Narrative, though, is the easiest

place to start because everyone can relate to a

story. So I will share with you this evening

four stories from the Qur’an. Some of these

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stories involve biblical characters, but the

ones I have chosen do not overlap with the

Jewish or Christian Scriptures.

You have before you a translation of the key

verses

Image The first story concerns the Jinn.

Adolescent boys of my generation drooled over

the bare midriff of Barbara Eden Image in “I

Dream of Jeannie.” In my children’s generation,

the wisecracking voice of Robin Williams spoke

as the Genie of the movie Aladdin. Image We

base these images on a basic Arabic belief in

the jinn, (singular jinni). Image(blank)

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In the Arabian Peninsula, before the advent of

Islam, the people regarded jinn as members of an

inaccessible, supernatural world. They could

fly, had great strength, and saw into the

future. The jinn lived near humans in parallel

communities, but people could not see them.

They were “liminal,” that is, they lived in the

margins and the uninhabited places, and

represented the uncanny. The Arabs regarded

them as sources of malignancy. In A Thousand and

One Nights, people bound the jinn with powerful

spells and compelled them to serve human whims.1

The advent of Islam raised questions as to their

power. Image (move back to jinn circle)1See the stories of the jinn who served King Solomon in Suras 21:81-82; 27:38-40. Note also that the Arabic word for “crazy” is majnoon, which means, “possessed by Jinn.”

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The Qur’an has one entire sura dedicated to the

Jinn, Surat-al-Jinn, number 72. The Surat al-Jinn

narrative is not arranged chronologically. In

addition, it has pieces missing, very important

pieces. Chronologically, the story begins in

verse 9, where the jinn reflect on their

previous exalted existence in contrast to their

current destitution. Image

. . . we touched the sky . . . We used to sit

there on seats to listen. (vv. 8-9)

According to the sura, humans sought benefit

from the jinn because they had this access to

heaven.

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Image Some men have sought the help of jinn,

but they misled them into further error . . .

(v. 6)

Other suras confirm that these pre-Islamic Arabs

not only sought shelter from them, but

worshipped them as well. In the Cattle Sura it

says: Image

Yet they regard the jinn as God’s

equals . . . (6:100)2

[From the Sheba Sura:] “They worshipped jinn,

and it was in jinn that most of them

believed.” (34:41)

[From the Sura called “The Ranks” or “The

Ones Who Line Up.”]

2 “. . . though he Himself created them, and in their ignorance ascribe to Himsons and daughters.”

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They [the unbelievers] assert kinship between

Him [God] and the jinn. (37:158)

Then something happened, which ended this

idyllic situation: Image

And we touched the sky, [the jinn recall] and

found it filled with harsh guards and

piercing flames. (v. 8)

The last phrase, “piercing flames,” can refer to

comets, meteors, or some fiery weapon loosed

upon the jinn. The sura does not hint at what

led to this change in heaven’s policy. This key

piece is missing. Centuries earlier, the Bible

spoke of supernatural beings similarly cast out

of heaven. The prophet Ezekiel, for instance,

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spoke of a boastful king cast down from his

place, like a flaming angel cast out of heaven.3

Image. . . you were on the holy mountain of

God; you walked among the stones of fire. . .

[Then] I cast you as a profane thing from the

mountain of God, and the guardian cherub

drove you out from among the stones of fire.4

(Ezekiel 28:14-16)

This common ancient narrative probably even

informs Jesus’ enigmatic statement in the Gospel

of Luke:

3 [from Isaiah] [You said] “’I will ascend to the tops of the clouds, I will make myself like the Most High.’ But you are brought down to Sheol, to the depths of the Pit.” (Isaiah 14:14-15)

4 “Stones of fire,” -- at first seems a heavenly description of a bejeweled highway. But the stones of fire might be stars, and then the phrase, “drove out from among stones of fire,” might be congruent with flaming meteors thrownat the jinn. See the version of the story in Sura 37:7: “We have decked the lower heaven with constellations. They guard it against rebellious devils . ..”

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Image I watched Satan fall from heaven like a

flash of lightning. (Luke 10:18)

Image (blank) The early Islamic tradition

quickly decides that the reason that heaven’s

guest list changed was because of the coming of

the Prophet. With the Qur’an available, what

need was there for jinn to bring messages from

heaven or to intercede on behalf of the people?

The strong guards cleared out heaven’s visitor

galleries of these liminal beings.5 This image

of beings barred from paradise strongly invokes

5 See the corresponding passage in Sura 67:5 “We have adorned the lowest heaven with lamps, missiles to pelt the devils with.” 37:7-8 We have decked the lower heaven with constellations. They guard it against rebellious devils, so that they may not listen in to those on height. . . Eavesdroppers are pursued by fiery comets.” Also 41:11. Some of the early commentators recognized the problem and suggested that the jinn were always prohibited, butsometimes snuck in. When the jinn in Sura 72 (and its parallels) commented onmeteors, it was only an increase in the number of meteors that they noticed. Listening in was always wrong – it is only that God had stepped up his enforcement to bar uninvited access.

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an older one, where an angel and a flaming sword

barred the way to paradise in Genesis 3: Image

He drove out the man; and at the east of the

garden of Eden he placed the cherubim, and a

sword flaming and turning to guard the way to

the tree of life. (Genesis 3:24)

Image The Cherubim in Genesis and the Image

guardian cherub in Ezekiel corresponds to Image

the strong guards in the Sura. Image The

flaming sword in Genesis and Image the stones

of fire in Ezekiel correspond to Image the

piercing flames in the Jinn Sura. The stories

each tell of individuals cast out of

paradise/heaven by angels and some kind of fiery

weapon.

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Genesis 3 ---------------- The Jinn Sura ------------------ EzekielCherubim ---------------- Strong guards ----------------- guardian CherubFlaming sword ---------- meteors ------------------------ stones of fire

Image (blank) The early Islamic traditions

offer to supplement the Qur’an by suggesting

what happens next. They recount that the jinn,

blindsided by the meteors and angelic guards,

form a delegation to roam the world looking to

find out why their status changed. During this

mission, on their travels, the jinn encounter

the Prophet and overhear him reciting the

Qur’an. They are struck with its excellence.

Now we pick up the story in verse 1: Image

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. . . a band of jinn listened [ . . . ] and

said, “Surely we have heard an amazing Qur’an.

(v. 1)

In verses 2 and 3, these jinn (the ones who

heard the Qur’an) declare their submission to

God:

Image We believed in it and shall not

associate anyone with our Lord. (v. 2) Image

(blank)

Verse 19 ends the jinn narrative. This

enigmatic verse throws the story I just

recounted in doubt. Its ambiguities cause one to

question the portrait of compliant jinn who

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become Muslim. As in verse 1, in 19 the Prophet

prays before an audience:

Image. . . when the servant of God stood

calling on him, they were almost upon him in

hordes.6 (v. 19)

More literally, I translate the final phrase as

Image, “. . . they were all over him; they were

nearly smothering him.”

In the sura, “God’s servant” who is praying, is

Muhammad. The two verbs translated by “nearly”

and “smothering7” suggest a bad thing which

دا 6 ب� ه ل� لي ون� ع� ون�� ك ادوا ي� ka’du yakununa ‘aliyhi libadan; literally “they were almost upon him .ك�crowding.” Translator Asad adds a good deal to make this verse more orthodox:“Yet [thus it is] that whenever a servant of God stands up in prayer to him, they [who are bent on denying the truth] would gladly overwhelm him with theircrowds.” Ali’s translation: Yet when the Devotee of Allah stands forth to invoke him, they crowded.”7 The word in Arabic for crowding/smothering, libadan, originally described densely curled strands of wool, and is elsewhere thickly gathered clouds.

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almost happens to him, but not quite.

Smothering threatens.8 The “they” in the two

linked verbs: “they were all over him; they

nearly smothered him. . .” are the jinn, who

have been the topic of the sura from the

beginning. Although the jinn in the first few

verses are placid and pious, the jinn here are

threatening. If all the jinn had been as easy

to convince as in verse 1, there would have been

no need for the meteors and the fierce angelic

guards. A polite and firm refusal would have

sufficed. In verse 1, the jinn hear and

believe. In verse 19 they nearly smother the

Prophet. Image (blank)8 Quote from Tafsir about the prophet signaling with his hand when nothing else of his body could be seen. The term in some of the early Tafsir is that the jinn swarmed around him like a flock of birds.

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In this story, the jinn are still defeated, but

not before a struggle. 9 The jinn competed with

God for the attention, loyalty, and dependence

of the people. Thus, behind the story one sees

a mythic struggle, one that often takes place in

the ancient stories. The victor reigns as the

supreme God, deposing and disempowering all his

competitors.

You can have your jinn, the sura tells the first

Muslims, but know that they will have no power,

no special knowledge, no ability to help you,

and if you resort to them, you will only

experience confusion. The sura gives the

9Many have written of the cosmic struggle between Yahweh and the chaos monsters, which lay behind the narrative and poetry of Genesis, Exodus, Job, and many Psalms. And as I have briefly reviewed here, certain Psalms recount the struggle between Yahweh and the Elohim. We find suggestions of a similar struggle between God and the jinn in surat-al-jinn and its parallels.

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account from the winning side, showing a

cowering and pious jinn abjectly capitulating.

The band of jinn that so quickly responded to

the message of Islam represents the demoralized

shreds of jinn society suing for peace.

The jinn had received worship, and they claim to

have helped people because they had access to

heaven. Now they were obsequious and powerless.

Islam, the new religious movement in Arabia,

assimilates and accounts for an older, more

diverse religious environment. This older

environment, the Muslims called “the time of

ignorance.”

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Image Now to the second story which also refers

to this time of ignorance. To introduce the

story, I remind you that in 1989, Image the

Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran issued a fatwa (that

is, an authoritative decree) against the author

Image Salmon Rushdie, who had written the book,

The Satanic Verses. Image I have nothing to say about

the book. However, the Satanic verses

themselves do exist, and they are linked to the

next story. Image It concerns three figures,

Lat, Uzza and Manat, identified as God’s

daughters. The Satanic Verses are about these

goddesses. The Qur’an mentions divine daughters

in the fifty-third Sura, the Star Sura, Surat-al-

Najm. It says:

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Image Have you considered Lat, or Uzzah, or

Manat, the third, the other?10 (19, 20)

These three, pre-Islamic, pan-Arabic goddesses,

are offered, in the Sura, for the

hearer’s/reader’s consideration.11 I will treat

these figures first in the context of pre-

Islamic archaeological evidence; second, in the

Star Sura itself and the larger Qur’anic

context; and finally, in the context of early

Islamic tradition, including the Satanic verses.

10 Some have suggested “Manat, the third, the oldest,” as an alternate meaning. According to the Book of Idols, she was in fact the oldest.11 An oddly defensive claim by Maududi understand the verse to say, “Have you ever considered rationally whether they could have even the slightest role in

the affairs of the Godhead of the earth and heavens? (p. 249). م ت� ي! �را# ف� from ا#the root ى .to see, meaning in this form, “to form an opinion, to consider را#Some translators (for theological reasons?) retain “see.”

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Image (blank) Pre-Islamic Archaeological

Evidence

The worship of these goddesses was Image

widespread geographically from Sinai Image in

the West, to Syria Image in the North,

spreading to all of Arabia. There were temples

dedicated to them, and statues to represent

them, and they left their stamp on many personal

names found in ancient texts and inscriptions.

We lack, unfortunately, any religious texts that

narrate their stories. Image Greek historian

Herodotus mentions Lat, and she has been

compared to and identified with Image Aphrodite

and Image Athena. Earliest references date to

the fifth century BCE, more than a thousand 19

years before the time of Muhammad. According to

Islamic tradition, Arabs worshipped the three

goddesses in Mecca and neighboring towns.

Muhammad’s tribe, the Quraish identified

particularly with Uzza.12

After the above quoted lines, a new voice breaks

in and responds incredulously – Image

[Here is a literal translation] Is it to you

the male and to him [presumably God] the

female? (53:21)

12 Bowersock, p. 20. These three names appear significantly in epigraphical evidence from early Arabian and Nabatean archaeological sites. They represented the names of goddesses worshipped in that region through large tracts of its history. However, there is no real consensus on what these goddesses might represent. Uzza is regarded by some as the Arabian Aphrodite. From etymology of names, Manat – death, Uzza – strength, and Lat –goddess (Al-Lat – “the goddess,” the feminine version of Al-lah, “the god.) Perhaps at some point Lat’s actual name was hidden, replaced by this generic name). They are major female deities in the region. Some interpreters argue that they are unimportant gods in the region, and that is why Muhammad thoughtit a small concession.

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I understand the verse to mean:

Image How can you covet male children for

yourselves while you ascribe to God these

daughters, Lat, Uzza, and Manat?

The Sura presents Lat, Uzza, and Manat as

putatively God’s daughters. Islam condemns shirk,

the comparing or associating of God with any

created thing.13 That would prohibit traffic

with goddesses. In the Qur’an, following the

introduction of the three goddesses, the Sura

emphatically rejects any consideration of them.

It piles on the reasons: First because they are

female: 13 Ahmad p. 534 shirk . .. .Shi’a. .. no Shi’a of any school has ever acceptedthe satanic verses incident. [other reason for rejection] isnads . . . goes back to an eyewitness. . . [a. .. The incident is not cited in any canonical hadith collection. . . basis of recurrent transmission; Shepherd, p. 37.

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Image [It asks] Is it the male for you, and

for him [God] the female?

Image [and then observes] That is indeed an

unfair division. (24, 25)

[The second reason] Image . . . because they

are [quote] “names you have named,” (v. 23);

The Sura claims that the names Lat, Uzza and

Manat have no substance behind them; Image [the

third reason] because God does not authorize

their intercession, (23); Image [the fourth

reason] those who do not believe in the

hereafter are the same ones who give female

names to angels (v. 26); and finally, because it

asks for help that God has already provided:

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Image And indeed guidance has come to them

from their Lord. (v. 23)

Image (blank) Two centuries after the death of

the Prophet, Ibn al-Kalbi wrote the Book of Idols, a

compendium of pre-Islamic gods, goddesses, and

religious practices. In it, he describes a

chant heard in Mecca while the pagan worshippers

circled the Ka’bah:

Image I swear by14 Lat and Uzza,

And Manat, the third15 the other.

Indeed they are the exalted goddesses [ ق� ران�� غ��gharaniqu]16

14 The verses begin with the “oath-taking و.” I translate v. 1 “I swear by thefalling star.”15 The online translation adds “idol.” “third idol besides.”16 The online English translation translates it “exalted women.” A variation

uses �ه ق� ران�� .feminine ending ,غ��23

To be sought for intercession. (p. 17)17

Image Note that the first two lines Image are

nearly identical with verses 19 and 20 of the

Star Sura.18 The Book of Idols portrays the Meccans

seeking these three goddesses for intercession.

Al-Kalbi reports that the Quraish, Muhammad’s

tribe, called them “the daughters of Allah.19

رى 17 خ�� الأ# ة� ال�ي1 اة� ال�ب1 ب� ى وم� وال�لأت� وال�عر�ى هن� لت�رج� اع�ت� ف� ن� ش�1 E ال�على وا�ق ي هن� ال�ع�راي!� ن�� Eا ف��18 “Have you considered” is replaced by the oath formula و – See v. 1.19 Either the idea of a bird is first, in which case women and goddess are

called �ه ق� ي راي�� .because they in some way resemble or invoke sea birds [gharaniqatu] غ��

However, �ه ق� ي راي�� conveys nothing to the modern reader, and has [gharaniqatu] غ��

conveyed nothing for over a millennium. .” �ه ق� ي راي�� does not occur [gharaniqatu] غ��in the Qur’an. The word is used in pre-Islamic poetry. From them, definitions range from sea-bird (heron or crane), women, or goddesses. With

the further descriptor ا ل�على, [al-‘ula] we get “high flying bird,: “high born women,” or “high (flying) or exalted goddesses.” [as cited in Al-Kalbi] Al-Tabari,Jami’ al-Bay’dn fi Tafsir al-Qur’an, Cairo, 1323-1330, vol. xxvii, pp. 34-36. Alsoi, F.V. Winnett, “The Daughters of Allah,” in The Moslem World, vol. xxx 1940), pp. 113-130. See Winnett, p. 116 for other sources for this phrase.

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Image (blank) Early Muslims gave a context to these

unusual verses in the Star Sura. They told the

following story which offers an explanation why

the Qur’an might reproduce a part of this older

pre-Islamic chant. The earliest accounts of

this story I am about to tell you, actually pre-

date the Book of Idols.20 The narrative appears in

20 “. . . the reports of the Satanic verses incident to the late 1st and early 2nd centuries; in other words, to what seems to have been the earliest period of systematic collection and organization of historical memory materials in the Muslim community.” Ahmed, “Satanic,” p. 258. “. ..all the 1st/early 2nd century reports are agreed that the Prophet uttered the Satanic verses.” Ibid,p. 262.

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many texts21 in the first two centuries of Islam,

spread widely throughout the region.22

The story begins when the Prophet publically

recites the Star Sura for the first time. .

After he recites verses 19 and 20, (“Have you

considered Lat, and Uzzah, and

21 Maududi p. 54; This is a list of the sources that have the narrative Tabariin his Tafsir (838-923)Sa’d’s Tabaqat (biography) Ibn Saʿd Muhammad b. Saʿd (d. 230/845); Al-Wahidi Asbab al-NuzulIn the Maghazi (also refers to biography) of Musa ibn Uqba Mūsā b. ʿUqba al-Asadī (d. 141/758)In the Hadith collections of Ibn Abi Hatim,; Ibn al-Mundhir; Ibn Marduwayh; Al-Tabarani 260 AH (873 CE) and lived until 360 AH; Following narrators: Muhammad ibn Qays; Muhammad ibn Ka’b al-QuraziUrway ibn al-Zubayr; Abu Salih; Abu al-Aliyah; Sa’id ibn Jubayr ahhak; Abu Kakibn ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Abbas, the only one among the Companions said to doso.Qurtubi – Spain, 13th century, Jami is from the Arabic name for the tafsir.; Tabari – 9th through 10th century.Maududi, p. 55 quote from Ibn Hajar [wiki 14th-15th century] “leading scholar of the Hadith” (p. 54. The chains of narrators of this report, except the one by Sa’id ibn Jubayr are either weak or interrupted. However, the sheer numerousness of the chains of narration of the report suggests that there is some basis to the report.22 Ahmad p. 533 Q 53:19 . .. from almost every Qur’an commentator of note in the first two centuries of the hijira . . . ira-maghazi.. the incident also appears in the respective Works transmitted in the first two centuries . .. [list of sources] . . . standard element in the memory of the early Muslim community about the life of Muhammad. . . Tabari. . .al-Thalabi. . . strong objections . . .early as the fourth/tenth century . . .superhuman qualities ofMuhammad

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Manat. . . ?”), he includes the two verses

Al-Kalbi quoted:

Image These are the exalted goddesses [

ق� ال�على ران�� gharaniqu] to be sought for ,غ��

intercession.

Western scholars know these lines as the Satanic

Verses. In most versions of this story, it was

Satan who influenced the Prophet to say these

words, and not God.23 24 23 Possible sources mentioned in the story (from Maududi, p. 54) Satan; the prophet’s devising; he spoke in his sleep; he spoke sarcastically, to negate their power; as a rhetorical question expecting a no answer; from an unbeliever imitating the Prophet’s voice. See also Winnett, p. 129.24 Burton “High” p. 246 “When he had reached this verse, the devil suggested to Mahomet an expression of thoughts which had long possessed his soul; and put into his mouth words of reconciliation and compromise such as he had been yearning that God might send unto his people, namely: These are exalted Females/ And verily their intercession is to be hoped for.” Burton “High” . . . They make intercession with Him for us.” See Sura 17 which Maududi (p. 53) translates, “they had all but tempted you away from what we have revealed to you that you may invent something else in our name. . . you might have inclined. . . Had you done so they would have taken you as their trusted friend.

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Image (blank) This was a time when the Quraish

tribe mercilessly persecuted the small band

of Muslims. When the Prophet sanctioned the

goddesses’ intercession, the Quraish were

then willing to become Muslim. However, that

evening, the angel Gabriel appeared to the

Prophet and said, “What is this that you have

done? You have repeated before the people

words that I never gave you.”25 Muhammad

immediately removed the offending verses. As

a result, the Quraish began to persecute the

Islamic community again.

For the first 200 years or so, Muslims used this

narrative as a key to understanding the Star

25 Burton, “High,”p. 247.

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Sura.26 The story is consistent with biblical

portrayals of prophets. In the Hebrew Bible,

prophets sometimes experience such momentary

confusion about their prophetic voice.27 The

prophet doubts the voice28 or they mistake their

own passion for the voice of God. Sometimes the

message comes from an evil spirit.29 The

biblical depiction of God tolerates these

prophetic missteps, but hates willful false

prophecy uttered to gain the approval of the

powerful.

Most commonly, the Islamic scholars who argue

against the validity of this narrative (and 26 Burton, “High,” p. 250; “Thus the satanic verses incident seems to have constituted a standard elelemtn in the memory of the early Muslim community about the life of Muhammad.” Ahmed, Encycl. p. 63327 1 Kings 1328 Jeremiah 2029 1 Kings 22

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there are many) claim that the story lacks the

proper pedigree – that is, its chain of

witnesses did not pass muster among the medieval

Islamic scholarly community.30 The main

motivation, though, appears to be theological.

Sayyid Maududi, a prominent conservative 20th

century cleric and interpreter, states a common

position: [quote]“To accept the report [of the

Satanic Verses narrative] means there is no

strong basis for belief in any of the teachings

of Islam.”31 [unquote] Notwithstanding the many

efforts to dismiss the story, the Satanic verses

30 Ahmed, Encycl, p. 534; “First, the incident contradicted the theological principle of infallibility in the transmission of Divine Revelation, thereby calling into question the integrity of the text of the Qur’an. Second, the isnads of the reports which narrated the incident were insufficient in Hadith methodology for the narratives to be validated as true.” Ahmed, “Satanic,” p.3.31 Maududi, Towards Understanding, p. 55. Burton says that “Muhammad’s reported conduct on this occasion would have given the lie to the whole of his previousprophetic activity.” (p. 248 “High”).

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remain in the background when one reads the Star

Sura.

Do not mistake what I am saying. No part of the

tradition seeks to rehabilitate the Satanic

Verses themselves.32 In every ancient version of

the story, the Prophet ultimately rejects the

Satanic Verses.33 In no version did Muhammad

concoct the story to achieve political ends.

Nor did he willfully turn over the Sura to evil

spirits. No version condemns the prophet. On

the contrary, Tabari, an important medieval

commentator,34 and others suggest that God

intended this verse in Surat-al-Hajj to comfort

32 Burton, “High,” p. 25733 In some, the Prophet realizes it by himself, but in most versions Gabriel corrects him.34 Tabari, vol. 1, pp. 1192-1196. See Burton, “High,” p. 249.

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the Prophet, because he feared God’s

chastisement for his error:35

Image We have not sent any messenger or any

prophet before you, except that, when he

began to wish, Satan cast (something) into

his wishful thinking.36 Image But God

cancels what Satan casts, (and) then God

clearly composes His verses . . . (22:52)37

According to this, God took out the Satanic

Verses and replaced them with verses 21-28 of

the Star Sura as presently constituted.38 These 35 “Muhammad is portrayed as being under pressure, confused, and unaware of the import of his act.” Ahmed, “Satanic,” p. 264.36 This “wishful thinking” might tie in with the Prophet’s desire to heal the breech between the Muslims and his tribe. (Burton, “37 “Surely they almost tempted you away from what We inspired you (with), so that you might forge against Us (something) other than it, and then they wouldindeed have taken you as a friend, 74 And had We not made you (stand) firm, you would almost have been disposed toward them a little.” (17:73-74) See also Burton, “High,” p. 258; Burton, “Abrogation,” p. 5 [online].38 See Burton, “Abrogation,” p. 6 [online] who recounts stories from Qurtubi about verses being given and then withdrawn; Burton, “High,” p. 265.

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verses refute the pre-Islamic chant reported by

Al-Kalbi. Image(blank) The Satanic Verses

narrative highlights the integrity of the

Prophet, who does not allow concern for his

reputation to prevent him from correcting the

error. It also speaks of the integrity of the

revelation, that God would send an angel to make

sure that it was right.39 40 The Sura included

part of the chant (verses 19, 20) to serve as

trace of a strongly held belief now passing

39 Sura 22 implies that the Prophet out of passion opened himself up to Satan casting words into his head. 80 the Prophet turns away from a blind man to seek more socially advantageous connections. Whether or not he could have made such a serious theological error is not in my purview. Whether or not Satan could have successfully impersonated God’s voice to the Prophet is outside the scope of this study. 40 The Sura itself asks: “Have you considered the three goddesses?” No one inlater Islam would ever ask a question in that way, on that topic. Later commentators try to make the question mean, “Have you considered how absurd are these goddesses.” The question is studiously neutral. Its very neutralitysets itself apart from later Islamic orthodoxy.

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away, like a broken monument standing in mute

reminder of past glories.

Islam has taken over much from earlier religious

practice. It linked those practices to older

narratives about righteous monotheists, such as

Abraham. However, intercession by Lat, Uzza,

and Manat was a bridge too far, completely

unacceptable to the new religion. Nevertheless,

for one tiny moment at least, a small

constituency within the Islamic community

considered it.41

And now to the third story, found in: Image41 It is likely that the original constituency of having female angels (presumably the same as having female names for angels) might have been in theIslamic community itself. If, as the Satanic Verses narrative attests, that might at some point have seemed reasonable or possible, even to the Prophet. It seems likely that it was a live topic of debate for a time within the Islamic community. Very quickly, the Muslim community cleaned up the Arabic pantheon, now populated by angels, devils, jinn, but only one God, and no female angels.

34

The Ant Sura, Sura 27

In the Hebrew Bible, when God asked Solomon to

make a wish, he asked for wisdom. His

reputation for wisdom spread, until the Queen of

Sheba came with a delegation to see if he

deserved all this praise. In the Qur’an, a

cluster of three episodes about King Solomon

portrays the Queen of Sheba and the King in a

different light. In the first episode, King

Solomon encounters a tiny ant. That is how the

Sura got its name. It says:

Image. . . when they came upon the Valley of

the Ants, an ant said, ‘Ants! Enter your

dwellings, or Solomon and his forces will

35

crush you without even realizing (it).

(27:18)

. . . But he [King Solomon] smiled, laughing

at her words. . . (27:19a)

Image (ant) Solomon’s army marches through the

“Ant Valley.” One of the ants sees the

onrushing hordes.42 She commands her community

flee to their homes to avoid being crushed.

Solomon, who understands the languages of

animals,43 hears the ant’s desperate warning. 42 Solomon’s army was made up of jinn (fire creatures), birds and humans. Wheeler, p. 605 Muslim traditions attributes to Solomon control over the wind, demons and the jinn (21.81-82; 34:12-13, 38:34-40) 21.81-82 And to Solomon (We subjected) the wind, blowing stronglyat his command to the land which We have blessed. We have knowledge of everything. And among the satans, (there were) those who dived forhim and did other work besides. We were watching over them.43 Soucek p. 77 This ability is referred to in three different qurʾānic passages affirming its importance as an aspect of Solomon’s status (Q 21:81; 34:12; 38:36; Ṭabarī, Tafsir, xvii, 55-6; xxiii, 68-9, 160-1; id., Taʾrīkh, i, 573-5; Thaʿlabī, Qiṣaṣ, 260-1); Maududi, Meaning p. 16 There is no mention in the Bible that the Prophet Solomon had been taught the speech of the birds and animals, though the Israelite traditions contain a reference to it. (Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. XI, p.

36

First, he smiles. Then he breaks into laughter.

He finds what the ant said funny.44

After Solomon laughed at the plight of the ant,

what happens next? Muslim parents tell their

children (and traditional commentaries concur)

that Solomon turned his army away from the Ant

Valley and thus he saved the tiny creatures from

598) . . . The Bible does not either make any mention that there were jinns also in the Prophet Solomon’s armies, and he took service from them; but the Talmud and the rabbinical traditions contain details of this. (Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. XI, p. 440) There are Jewish stories about the glass floor but not the throne. See translations in Lassner, Demonize, for the translations.

Bell, p. 31 For the supernatural powers of Solomon, cf. xxxiv:11ff. and xxxviii29ff.. His knowledge of the speech of birds may be foundedultimately on 1 Kings iv:33; xxxiv:11ff [wind subject to him, jinn follow him, molten brass follows him]; xxxviii29ff [subject the wind to him, and “satans”]44 Lassner Sheba p. 42 “Shorn of all exegesis, verses 15-44 represent a seemingly disjointed account more reminiscent of an opaque folktale than historical narrative or a didactic midrash based on an ancient and oft-read chronicle. . . too many questions are left unanswered in the Qur’anic version for it to have been a cohesive account of Solomon’s joust with the queen. There must have been a more detailed and broadly focused account that informs the scriptural version.

37

oblivion. One traditional commentary on the

Qur’an describes the scene this way:

[quote] Solomon smiled at the caution taken

by the ants and ordered his hosts to await

the ants getting into their holes and to be

careful against causing any hurt to the ants

in their passing over the land. [Solomon

said] “How could my hosts hurt you . . . and

do you not know that I am the Prophet of God

and would never act inequitably?”45

[unquote]

The Sura though, says nothing about the fate of

the ants. Everyone hopes that the ants will

survive. While the Qur’an portrays Solomon as a

45 Ali p. 1147 38

prophet, a righteous king of Israel, a king of

extraordinary power and control over

supernatural realms, and a Muslim.46 Therefore,

he would never hurt those adorable ants. The

three episodes in this Sura take a different

stance. They each portray Solomon in an act of

kingly violence. Violence against the ants is

the first.

The second episode begins when Solomon inspects

his troops. They consist of jinn, humans and

birds. He finds that one of his soldiers is

missing. Image It is a bird, called in Arabic

the hudhud, in English the hoopoe. Solomon

becomes enraged at the hudhud’s absence.46 if we cast our net wider into the Hebrew Bible traditions we find anambiguous figure both extraordinarily wise, but also one who fell under the influence of foreign, religiously impure women.

39

Image Why do I not see the hudhud? [he says]

Is he absent without authorization? I shall

inflict harsh torture on him,47 or slaughter

[him outright], unless he gives me a good

reason for his absence.48 (vv. 20-21)49

We later learn that the hudhud had just returned

from scouting out unconquered territory and was,

in fact, not far away at the time of the

assembly. Even so, Solomon would have tortured

دا 47 دي! ا ش�1 اي�� ه ع�د� ي� �Pي ع�د� :literally “punish him with a harsh punishment. Droge لأ#“punish it [the hudhud] severely.

48 I will use Droge’s translation throughout unless otherwise indicated. This verse is my translation based on Droge. See Bell p.

31 [v. 21] ن�Qي meaning ,ش�لطان� ;a fairly common phrase ,ش�لطان� م�ب�authorization rather than authority.

د 49 عب ر ن�� ت which can either mean “not very far” [distance] or not very ف��مكث1 غ�long [time]. Bell p. 31 v. 22 د عب ر ن�� ”he remained not far off“ ,ف��مكث1 غتwould be the natural translation, but is usually taken to mean “he didnot remain long”, “he came shortly”.

40

or executed this bird on impulse when he missed

him in formation. That is the second act of

kingly violence.

The hudhud tells Solomon about the Queen of

Sheba and her nation of sun worshippers. After

the King hears about her,50 he sends the

following letter to the Queen:

Image (v. 31) Do not exalt yourselves over

me, but come to me in surrender. (27:31)51

50 Because of this, the current authorities in Saudi Arabia discourage the reading of this Sura in the mosques.

ن]� 51 �ي م�سلمي ن� و# ن`� .Literally, come to me a muslim/in surrender وا#41

The Queen however, suspects his intentions. In

a council meeting,52 she says what she expects

King Solomon to do: Image

Surely kings, when they enter a town,

destroy it, humiliate and debase all of the

high-born people.53 (27:34)

She tries to deflect the King by sending gifts,

which he subsequently refused (v. 36). The King

takes umbrage because of his sense of

superiority. He thinks it a paltry gift that

would deign to add to Solomon’s wealth. In the

biblical account, Solomon accepts gifts from the

52 The use of the term ال�مللأ which can either mean a general assembly, a general reference to a large group, or else the elite, the upper class. In the context, I assume high military council.53 Droge: “Surely kings, when they enter a town, corrupt it, and make the upper class of its people the lowest.” Of course, we do not know what the “humble classes” might think of such a reversal.

42

Queen, while in the Qur’an he refuses. In the

Bible, Solomon seeks diplomatic relations; in

the Qur’an, he seeks the Queen’s conversion.54

In a tirade, Solomon mirrors the Queen’s worst

fears. He says:

Image (v. 37) We shall indeed come upon

them with forces which they have no power

to face, and we shall indeed expel them

54 Lassner Sheba p. 39; Bell, p. 33 Solomon has no need of a gift, it isthe people who sent it who are pleased with it as showing their own wealth. Ali, p. 1149 [A discussion of the motivation for Solomon’s refusal of the Queen’s gifts – it was a test of Solomon’s piety – if he were an ordinary king and not a prophet, he would refuse the gift.]; Maududi, Meaning p. 30 v. 42 It means this: “O messengers, take this gift back to the people who have sent you. They will eitherhave to yield to our first proposal, i.e. they should come before us as Muslims, or we shall bring forces against them.”

43

from there in humiliation,55 and they will

be disgraced. (27:37)56

“Humiliation” is the same word the Queen used in

verse 34

Her gift rejected, she visits him at his palace.

At its entrance, Solomon administers two tests

to determine if she is rightly guided.57 In the

له� 55 د� ,which is the same word used in verses 34 (what the Queen says) ا#and verse 37 (what Solomon says).

56 Then he threatens to do to the Queen of Sheba on purpose what he didwithout awareness (?) to the ant. Then, when the Queen tries to buy him off, he responds boastfully and arrogantly, that his stuff is nicer than hers. Her submission to God at the end seems more like a submission to him.

57 دى هب� v. 41, See Bell, p. 31 As regards the origin of this legend, see ن��Sidersky, p. 121f., who however is not certain that the Jewish sourcesquoted are earlier than Muhammad’s time. The legend is perhaps ultimately based on Proverbs vi:6. Lassner Sheba p. 227 note 2 . .. Suffice it to say, the language of the various manuscripts offers no conclusive proof for preferring one date to another. Neither is context all that useful because we are dealing with texts that are likely repositories for elements of older traditions, some of which are no longer extant. . . . [if 6th century] one can easily imagine how the legendary Jewish material of the queen’s visit could have madeits way to Arabia, which was, at that time, sensitive to cultural

44

first test, she must recognize her great

throne58, which Solomon had miraculously captured

and disguised.

Image (v. 42) When she sees the throne. . .

it was said, “Is your throne like this?” She

said, “it is as though it were the very

same.”59 (27:42)

The second test requires the Queen to detect an

architectural trick in Solomon’s palace, a glass

stimuli from the North. Lassner Sheba p. 47 To cite but one example, what influence can be claimed for the Targum Sheni, a work that has been dated by various scholars to the fourth, sixth, seventh, eighth and and eleventh centuries CE.58 Notice the two references to great throne in the Sura. In the first, the Queen is described by the hudhud as having a “great throne”

م ي! and later on, the Sura describes God as “Lord of the ,(v. 23) غ�رش1 ع�د�great throne” م ي! .رت� ال�عرش1 ال�عد�59 Droge: When she sees the throne. . . it was said, ‘Is your throne like this? She said, ‘It seems like it.’

45

floor that gives the appearance of water.60 It

fools her. She uncovers her legs to wade in

what she thinks is a large puddle. Solomon has

tricked her into compromising her modesty, and

thus he humiliates her, as he had promised to do

in verse 37. That is the third act of kingly

violence.

The Queen gives in to Solomon’s demands

unconditionally. She says: Image

60 Pool of water/common Jewish-Muslim tradition Lassner, “Bilqis” p.229 But Solomon with some help from the angel Gabriel (q.v.) overcomes her carefully crafted ploys and in the end the queen, unableto distinguish between a pool of water—God’s design for nature—and an artificially created pool made from glass—representing her unnatural desire to rule—capitulates. These themes also appear in the Jewish lore of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, a body of tradition that is seemingly linked, however loosely, with the Muslim scripture and its commentary (J. Lassner, Demonizing the queen, 88-132).

46

My Lord, surely I have done myself evil. I

surrender ( ش�لمت� with Solomon to God, the (ا#Lord of the worlds. (27:44)

This verse is fraught with ambiguities. She

opens the address رت� my lord, ostensibly addressing God, but Solomon had been speaking to

her moments before. She might be calling him

lord. She submits with Solomon. This could mean

that she now regards Solomon as her spiritual

companion. More likely, she says that she

submits to Solomon’s God, according to Solomon’s

express wishes. Because of the aggression and

implied threat in Solomon’s letter and

subsequent behavior – when the Queen submits and

47

repudiates her previous life, Solomon has “won.”

Image(blank)

Solomon has made low the great and independent

Queen by the threat of military force, by the

failure of her peace initiatives, and finally by

the two tests Solomon gave her. In any case,

she submits to Solomon and she submits to God.

The two actions overlap. They might be the

same.61 62

The narrative has many reasons for disliking

Solomon. Solomon thanks God that he is better

61 Pre-Islamic poetry mentions both David and Solomon as wealthy kings and armorers. [?] Solomon rules over jinn and all sorts of magical creatures in these poems. [Lassner, get page number]

62 In contrast, the hudhud, first unfairly singled out, and then fearlessly offers to expand the King’s horizons. “I have encompassed what you have not encompassed, and I have brought you reliable news from (the people of) Sheba.” (27:22)

48

than others.63 Solomon threatens the independent

state of Sheba, unprovoked, apparently for

religious reasons, because they worship the

sun.64 The Queen was a careful diplomat and

peacemaker. Solomon, in contrast, humiliates

the proud Queen, throws a fit when he fails to

locate one of the birds in his army,65 and yes,

tramples an ant city and laughs about it.

So far I have suggested two different portrayals

of Solomon, co-existing in the same story. In

the first, Solomon, a prophet of God and proto-

63 Regarding his inheritance he and his father say, (v. 15) “Praise (be) to God, who has favored us over many of His believing servants!” (27:15)64 The hudhud had reported: “I found her and her people prostrating themselves before the sun.”(27:24)65 The hudhud expresses outrage that a woman would rule over a peacefulland. Later Islamic commentators accuse the Queen of reversing the natural order by ruling over men. However, she rules with equity and concern for those under her authority.

49

Muslim, compels the sun-worshipping Shebans and

their queen to submit to God.66 A different

perspective sees Solomon as one who ruthlessly

and without mercy, forces less powerful nations

to submit to his will. He abuses his underlings

and laughs at the plight of the small and

defenseless.

Now I want to offer a third portrayal, embedded

in the other two. Notice the following:

1) Image To submit to God is to be a Muslim

( The root means “to surrender, to .(م�سلمن�submit.” To submit to Solomon also means to

be a muslim.

66 The Pharaoh and his people are unbelievers who refuse the revelation; Sheba and the Queen, are unbelievers who then receive the revelation and submit.

50

(v. 31) [He writes to the Queen] Do not

exalt yourselves over me, but come to me in

surrender That’s the word ( . ن� (27:31م�سلمي

2) Image Solomon sends a kitab, here in this

verse translated “letter.” The Queen said:

(v. 29) Assembly! Surely an honorable

letter (kitab) has been cast (down) to me.

(27:29)

God too sends a kitab67 (here translated “book”):

(v. 1) These are the signs of the Qur’an

and a clear book (kitab). (27:1)68

67 Sinai, p. 119.

68 There is one other use of kitab in this Sura. The one who brings the throne to the King is described by narration as “one who has knowledgeof the kitab,” which is usually translated “book.” It remains obscure whether kitab here the Qur’an, the Torah, or some other book.

51

3) The Queen reads the beginning of

Solomon’s kitab:

(v. 30) Surely it is from Solomon, and

surely it (reads): “In the Name of God,

the Merciful, the Compassionate.”

(27:30)

God’s kitab always begins in this same way,

with “In the Name of God, the Merciful, the

Compassionate,” the phrase abbreviated as

Image bismillah, meaning, “In the name of God.”69

There is significant commonality between the

depiction of Solomon in this Sura and the

depiction of God in the Qur’an generally. I 69 Bismillah is a shortened form of the Islamic exordium, meaning “in the name of God.” It continues, “the compassionate and merciful.” Many communications from Muslims begin this way, so it would not at all be unusual for the “Muslim” Solomon to so begin a letter. However, the cumulative evidence suggests that it means more than that.

52

emphasize the word significant. The similarity is

not a coincidence, nor a side effect of imperial

monarchies (in that they naturally assume the

air of divinity). No – what we have here is a

conscious effort to evoke God in the description

of Solomon using these key words, muslim, kitab, and

bismillah. The Solomon narrative, by means of these

verbal cues, becomes an indirect way for the

Sura to speak about God. In a similar way,

kings and landowners represent God in Jesus’

parables.

Image(blank) So if Solomon’s story here serves

as an indirect description of God (the third

portrayal), and if the Sura depicts Solomon

negatively (the second portrayal), how might we 53

put them together? Once again, our attention

goes to the ant. Image(ant) Read from this

perspective, Solomon and his army stand for God

and the forces that God controls, and the story

thus becomes a theodicy, that is, a way to

address injustice in a God-governed world. It

is similar to the book of Job in the Bible, with

the ant, like Job, serving as a universal

suffering figure.70 The ancient readers would

sympathize with the ant because the plight of

the ant was their plight, standing small,

vulnerable, in the face of large, destructive,

70 The ant expected that Solomon and his armies would not even notice the devastation. However, Solomon did notice. He found it amusing. We cannot know what manner of amusement he felt, mocking and condescending? Warm and affectionate? Did he feel sadistic glee? Does he smash ant cities for his entertainment? Or did he feel warm and protective towards the ants? The possibility of it being a warm sympathetic laugh becomes increasingly remote.

54

exploitive powers.71 The ant and her

civilization suffer not because they have

rejected God’s “clear signs,”72 as did the

Pharaoh, (in an earlier part of the Sura) but

only because they are small and in the way.

The plight of the ant embodies the experience of

the terrifying universe and the naked

vulnerability of most peoples. In this story,

like God, Solomon rules over a council of

supernatural beings,73 and like God he sends his

messengers with a kitab ات� ,and like God ,ك�ب�71 Of course powerful people had significant control over the transmission of the Qur’an, but embedded in this text is the experience of the earlier beleaguered community, crushed by the tribalpowers.

72 “a clear book,” v. 1, “our signs came to them visibly,” v. 13. 73 Note 1 Kings 22 where Yahweh speaks with his divine council.

55

submitting to him makes one a ن� muslim; The م�سلمي

ant narrative is a fable told about God and

God’s relation to people in their suffering.74

The Sura holds two conflicting positions in

tension. On one side there is a just God who

rewards righteousness and punishes evil, who

provides clear signs embraced by believers. And

on the other side, the lived experience of a

world where it seems God crushes humanity

without awareness, or perhaps even, a God who

appears to mock human suffering. These verses

then constitute a sophisticated theodicy, able

to maintain ambiguity and complexity.75 The Ant 74 There are many “kingdom of God” parables in the synoptic Gospels in which a king or a bridegroom represents God.75 So the ant depicts Solomon and thus God as either unaware or vindictive. And the story of the hudhud, if taken as a positive

56

stands for those who suffer. Like Job, the

ant’s cry of danger and despair takes on a

universal hue, and becomes the strong,

unanswered cry of the downtrodden.

Image I conclude with a story from the Cave

Sura, Sura 18, whose protagonist is Moses. In

the story, Moses becomes student to a

mysterious, God-imbued stranger; they travel

together with disastrous results. I here

summarize the story and offer my interpretation.

representation of Islam in the form of a fable, widens the view of submission. Similarly, when Yahweh says regarding Job, “you have not spoken what is true as my servant Job,” the writer affirmed Job’s fearless accusations against God’s fairness. I suggest that the hudhud is a model of divine –human dialogue.

The Sura holds in concentrated form, an expression of the central tension in monotheism, between a just and righteous God and a world full of pain. Similarly, in Job, different viewpoints on the questionof suffering exist side-by-side in the book.

57

Moses and his servant encounter a figure

identified as “one of God’s slaves.” God had

blessed and taught this Stranger. Moses asks

the Stranger to teach him God’s secrets. Image

“Your mind,” the Stranger says, “is incapable of

comprehending the divine mysteries.” (v. 68)

Image Moses, undeterred, swears that he will

persevere, and do whatever the Stranger

commands, “if God wills.” (v. 69) The Stranger

lays down one condition for accepting Moses’

company – that he not ask any questions.

Image If you follow me, [he says], do not

ask me about anything, until I mention it to

you. (v. 70)

58

Instead, Moses must await the Stranger’s

explanations for whatever he sees.

Apparently, Moses agrees to those conditions.

The narrative then recounts three incidents. In

each, the Stranger does something inexplicable

and disturbing, and in each, Moses breaks his

silence, which had been the requirement of his

discipleship.

In the first incident, they take passage on a

boat. The Stranger sinks or attempts to sink (

ها رق�� .the boat while they are on it (خ��

Image “What are you doing?” Moses cried.

“Are you trying to drown us all?” (v. 71)

59

The Stranger only responded,

Image “I told you that you were incapable of

being patient with me.” (v. 72)

Moses insists that the Stranger overlook his

lapse:

Image Do not take me to task for what I

forgot, and do not burden me (with) hardship

in my affair. (v. 73)

The Stranger accepts Moses’ apology, and they

move on down the road. They see, coming towards

them, a young child. The Stranger kills the

child. Image We learn no gory details. Did he

pick up a stick and club the child to death?

Did he strangle him? Throw him off a cliff? We

60

have only our imagination to fill in the

details. Moses could not look away. He

exploded in rage.

Image “You have killed an innocent! You have

done a terrible thing!” (v. 74)

The Stranger just repeated the same litany as

before:

Image I told you that you were incapable of

being patient with me.

Moses begs for one more chance:

Image If I ask you about anything after this,

[ he says] do not keep me as a companion.

61

You have had enough excuses from me. (v.

76)76

Off they go again.77 Moses and the Stranger

enter a village that refuses to receive them.

The Stranger finds a broken wall in the town and

fixes it. Moses, incensed at this apparent

generosity to a selfish and inhospitable people

said, “At least you could have charged them” for

fixing their wall.(v. 77)

The Stranger gives Moses no more chances. He

separates from him, finally and decisively: “

Image This is the parting between me and

you.” [he announces] ( rك ب� Qي uى وب� ن� Qي uب� �راق� ا ف� (v. 78 ه�د�76 Note the change of tone from v. 73.77 The same three word formula: ار� د� Eى ا ا ح�ن� طلف� ان�� .. . .ف��

62

Before they part, the Stranger explains each of

the three behaviors that had so upset Moses.

This brings us to the heart of the story. Along

with Moses, the reader has been waiting for

someone to make sense of what the Stranger did.

What the Stranger says to justify his behavior

produces the theological content of the Sura.

First, concerning the sinking of the boat, it

belonged to a family which made its living on

the sea. The Stranger intended to sink the

boat, he said, in order to keep it out of the

hands of an evil king: (v. 79)

In the second, the Stranger explains that he

killed the child because he feared that the

63

child would become a burden to his believing

parents:

Image As for the young boy, [he says] his

parents were believers, and we feared that he

would burden them both (with) insolent

transgression and disbelief. Image We wanted

their Lord to give to them both in exchange

(one) better than him in purity and closer

(to them) in affection. (vv. 80-81)

The Stranger explained that God would give them

a better child.

Regarding the third incident, why the Stranger

fixed the wall, a treasure hidden in the wall,

belonged to two orphan brothers, he explained.

64

Their father had hidden this treasure, but now

the wall had fallen into disrepair. By

repairing the wall, the Stranger prevented the

wrong people from discovering the treasure

prematurely. It would remain hidden until the

children came of age.78

As the Stranger parts ways with Moses, he spits

out a parting insult:

Image “That is the interpretation (of) what

you were not able (to have) patience with.”

(v. 82) There the story ends.

As with Solomon in the Ant Sura, the Stranger in

this story represents God.79 God has shown him 78 Further evidence of blurring between what the stranger does and what God

does. This activity repairing the wall was a mercy from the Lord, rم�ن� رب!�ك �رح�مه.79 In later interpretations, it is clear that he represents God. (Wheeler, “Jewish Origins,” p. 163) They even treat him as a “quasi-divine being.”

65

divine mercy and has taught him divine

knowledge. He acts on God’s behalf. The

Stranger claims divine mandate for each of his

actions.

Image [He insists] “I did not do it on my

(own) command.” (v. 82)

When explaining why he killed the child, the

Stranger speaks in first person plural, using

pronouns such as “we,” “our,” “us.” For

example, Image “we feared that he would burden

them both,” (v. 80) In the Qur’an, this is

characteristic of God’s speech. For instance,

in verse 65:

(Wheeler, “Jewish Origins,” p. 164)

66

Image And they found a servant, one of Our

servants to whom We had given mercy from Us,

and whom We had taught knowledge from Us.

Image(blank)

There is a deliberate blurring of identity

between God and the Stranger. I am beginning to

see a pattern here, of the Qur’an using human

figures to address these theological claims

indirectly. If the Stranger stands for God in

the story, the disturbing and inexplicable

actions of the Stranger mean to comment on the

disturbing and inexplicable events of life in a

God-governed universe. When the Stranger

explains his actions, it becomes an articulation

of how Muslims might defend God’s rule, in other67

words, another theodicy. This narrative

represents a way to speak about theologically

sensitive subjects while keeping the

unchallengeable God at a distance. The

explanations of the Stranger to Moses80 assume

that behind every inexplicable event, whether

disaster (the first two stories) or the

benevolence of a windfall, (the third), God has

hidden reasons.81 If those involved had

understood that, it would have made sense of the

chaos and seeming randomness of their lives.

Unfortunately, people cannot see the divine

plan. The family that owned the boat could not

have known about the evil king stealing boats. 80 (vv. 79-82)81 “. .. the Koranic notion of an apparently unjust or queer act which turns out to be of benefit to the righteous.” (Schwarzbaum, p. 148)

68

The parents could not have known how their

original child would have brought them grief.

And the brothers could not have known about the

treasure, hidden for their own good. God has

reasons, although not apparent from a human

perspective. The Stranger required Moses to be

patient and not to ask any questions because

humans cannot possibly understand God’s reasons,

as Moses could not.

We do not know if the Stranger’s explanations

satisfied Moses, because Moses is silenced at

the end of the tale. But (and here is the

crux), they are very poor explanations. Many of

69

you must have noticed that. Taking the first

two82:

First, the boat – the Stranger, by sinking the

boat, prevented an evil king from appropriating

it by force. But how did that help the poor

family that lost the boat? Second, regarding

the murdered child, would the pious parents be

happy that their son was murdered? Would they

not rather have seen him alive? Why does the

Stranger think that the parents would be

satisfied with exchanging an old child for a new

one? Further, the Stranger only Image feared (v.

80) that the child would turn out badly. That

82 The last one only loosely fits the schema, in that it represents the benevolence of God’s unpredictable actions.

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word indicates an absence of certainty.83 Each

of these actions is horrible on their face, but

even with the hidden explanation, they are still

horrible.84 What the Stranger did on the boat is

disturbing. The Stranger’s murder of the child

is horrifying.

In the face of divine injustice, Moses cannot

restrain himself. He complains bitterly that

the Stranger has acted immorally and foolishly.

83 “. . . the ‘Abd, in this case of committing a heinous crime exhibits his gnosis, or rather his extraordinary prescience predicting the future depravityof the murdered boy. In other words, in order to save both the righteous parents and their still innocent son from the impending iniquity and apostasy which will be brought about by the future evil deeds of the boy. . . “ (Schwarzbaum, p. 143)An argument made by later commentators (not the Qur’an itself) is that because the young child died before he could be wicked, his death was a blessing to him as well as to the parents. This is similar to an argument made about death in the Wisdom of Solomon in the Deuterocanon.84 According to Tha’labi, Moses ultimately regrets having chosen to meet such a nasty fellow committing such awful atrocities. (Schwarzbaum, p. 153)

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Image Have you killed an innocent person? [he

says] Certainly, you have done a terrible

thing. (v. 74)

The story weaves together two voices that

respond to suffering – a pious one represented

by the Stranger, who urges trust, patience, and

above all, no questions; and Moses’ voice,

though silenced, protesting pointless pain and

suffering inflicted on the innocent.85 Neither

voice dominates the story, but they both deserve

to be heard.

Conclusion

85 Wheeler takes a contrary position: “. . .it is not obvious from the Qur’anthat Moses is questioning God’s justice, but rather the actions of the unnamedcharacter. … . Likewise, it is not clear from Q 18:65 that the “servant of God” Moses encounters is supposed to be divine or a divine representative.” (“Jewish Origins,” p. 159)

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What have I learned by reading these stories?

Let me suggest a few take-aways. First, these

stories reward careful reading. They come alive

when one pays attention to the details. Second,

these stories address multiple questions of

theological import: Who is God? Why is there

evil and suffering in the world? How does Islam

relate to other religions? These were live

issues at the time when the Qur’an was put

together, and in different forms, they remain

live issues today. The genius of story is its

ability to contain multiple voices and multiple

points of view. The presence of these voices

does not diminish the power of the stories. It

strengthens them. What I tell my students about

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the Bible, I see in these stories as well – that

one of the ways a text written in human language

may represent/mediate/channel the being of God,

it appears to human understanding as multiple

voices in tension with each other. If the

meaning of these stories could be expressed in

plainly understandable language as a single

voice, that would suggest human devising. A

full reading listens to all the voices.

So has the Qur’an proven its claims? Please! I

have just begun this journey. At this point, I

can say confidently that the parts of the Qur’an

that I have studied are profound. They are

nuanced. They are beautiful. It has definitely

been worthwhile for me to study them. A famous 74

Roman Catholic scholar of the Qur’an (whose

name I cannot recall) said when he came to St.

Thomas, something like this: “First you take the

Qur’an, and then after a while, the Qur’an takes

you.” As I embark on this journey, I wonder if

that is beginning to happen to me.

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