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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (Editorial Board)

http://www.springer.com/earth+sciences+and+geography/environmental+science+%26+engineering/journal/10064?detailsPage=editorialBoard[19.04.2012 16:01:38]

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ORIGINAL PAPER

Geotechnical characteristics of the clayey soils and rocksof the North Lefkos�a, Nicosia, Cyprus

Altay Acar Æ _Ismail Dincer Æ Mehmet Necdet

Received: 14 August 2006 / Accepted: 27 January 2007 / Published online: 20 March 2007

� Springer-Verlag 2007

Abstract This paper outlines the engineering geological

properties of the clayey soils of North Lefkos�a (Nicosia,

Cyprus). On the basis of their physical properties and

their engineering characteristics, the Miocene, Pliocene

and Quaternary deposits were divided into six units:

unconsolidated man-made fill, unconsolidated surficial

recent alluvium, unconsolidated surficial young alluvium,

consolidated old alluvium, highly weathered soft rock

units and slightly weathered relatively resistant rock

units. Laboratory tests indicated a generally high swelling

potential, which would account for the damage seen in

many single and two-storey buildings as well as major

roads.

Keywords Clay mineralogy � Shrink/swell �North Lefkos�a � Cyprus

Resume L’article presente les proprietes geotechniques

de sols argileux de la partie nord de Nicosie (Lefkosia) a

Chypre. Sur la base de leurs proprietes physiques et de

leurs caracteristiques geotechniques, les depots miocenes,

pliocenes et quaternaires sont repartis en 6 unites : remb-

lais anthropiques sous-consolides, alluvions tres recentes

sous-consolidees, alluvions recentes sous-consolidees, al-

luvions anciennes consolidees, roches tendres fortement

alterees, roches de resistance moyenne legerement alterees.

Les essais de laboratoire indiquent generalement un fort

potentiel de gonflement, ce qui pourrait expliquer les

dommages affectant des habitations d’un ou deux niveaux

ainsi que des routes construites sur ces sols argileux.

Mots cles Mineralogie des argiles � Retrait-gonflement �Nord de Nicosie � Lefkosia � Chypre

Introduction

Evaluating the engineering geological conditions is a vital

step in urban planning and design, in order to recognise,

control and/or prevent geological hazards (Topal et al.

2003). The paper reports a study in the northern part of

North Lefkos�a (Fig. 1). As seen in Fig. 2, much of this part

of Nicosia—the capital of Cyprus—is characterised by

different types of construction with low- and high-rise

buildings of masonry, reinforced concrete, etc. Some set-

tlements towards the north are found up to an altitude of

200 m, but the population is concentrated in the lowland in

the southern part of the study area.

Located near the junction of the African, Arabian and

Eurasian plates, Cyprus has a complex neotectonic history

and several devastating historical earthquakes have oc-

curred. The Ovgos fault zone and transverse strike-slip

faults are the main tectonic elements of the northern part of

Cyprus (Fig. 3).

Much of the island is covered by clayey and marly

formations containing the montmorillonite group of min-

erals. A number of settlements are situated on these

potentially shrinkable/swellable clays, such as Lefkos�a

A. Acar � _I. Dincer (&)

Department of Geology Engineering,

Faculty of Engineering-Architecture, Cukurova University,

Balcali, 01330 Adana, Turkey

e-mail: idincer@mail.cu.edu.tr

M. Necdet

Union of the Chambers of Cyprus Turkish Engineers

and Architects, Nicosia, Turkey

123

Bull Eng Geol Environ (2007) 66:473–481

DOI 10.1007/s10064-007-0090-5

(Nicosia), Gazi Magusa (Famagusta) and Girne (Kyrenia),

and hence are particularly vulnerable (Fig. 1). Collapsible

soils and gypsum bedrock also occur in some parts of the

island. This paper discusses the geology, hydrogeology and

engineering geology of North Lefkos�a (Nicosia).

Morphological setting

Geomorphologically, Cyprus varies between a rugged ter-

rain and intervening flat basins. North Lefkos�a, situated

between the Girne and Trodos (Troodos) ranges (Fig. 2), is

almost flat at about 100–175 m asl, based on topographic

maps with 5 m contour intervals. Most of the low topog-

raphy is covered by alluvial deposits, while the higher

ground of the Trodos is formed of sandstones and lime-

stones. The watercourses form a well-developed dendritic

pattern in the study area and generally follow the tectonic

lines. The river terraces in the eastern part of the region are

relatively thick and generally consist of sand and gravels,

sometimes weakly cemented.

The island has a typical Mediterranean climate with

warm to hot summers and wet winters. During periods of

high rainfall, abrasion continues to deepen the channels

in the soft clay-rich units, forming steep-walled

‘‘gorges’’.

Fig. 1 Location map of North

Lefkos�a (Nicosia)

Fig. 2 Morphological setting of

North Lefkos�a (Nicosia)

474 A. Acar et al.

123

Tectonic setting

The main structural feature of the region is the Ovgos fault

zone, which passes through the study area. It consists of

multiple strands of faults and faulted folds that have

undergone many periods of movement under different

stress orientations (Harrison et al. 2004). Numerous

northeast- and northwest-trending strike-slip faults occur in

the northern part of Cyprus (Fig. 3), some of which disrupt

the Ovgos fault zone.

Geological setting

The main lithological units in the vicinity of North Lefkos�a

are Miocene, Pliocene and Quaternary deposits (Fig. 3).

The Miocene deposits are the most widespread sedi-

mentary rocks and cover almost 45% of the study area,

mainly in the northern part where the elevations are 140–

170 m asl. The deposits frequently contain folds and faults

and consist of turbidites—alternations of sandstone, silt-

stone, marl and claystone (Baroz 1969; Hakyemez et al.

2000)—with massive gypsum and selenite crystals.

The Pliocene deposits consist of gravel and plankton-

rich marl with interbedded sandstones (Henson et al. 1949;

Hakyemez et al. 2000).

Erosion of the uplands during the Quaternary resulted

in extensive deposition of fluvial fan and alluvial mate-

rial. In the study area, these Quaternary deposits are di-

vided into a first/older alluvium and a second/younger

alluvium according to their elevation and lithological

characteristics.

Engineering geological evaluation

The engineering geology study involved trench pitting,

drilling, groundwater monitoring and laboratory testing.

The locations of the five boreholes and seven trenches are

shown in Fig. 4. Laboratory tests included sieve analysis,

hydrometer analysis, specific gravity, density, colloidal

content, liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage limit, perme-

ability and triaxial tests together with X-ray diffraction.

The materials encountered could be conveniently di-

vided into three units:

1. Quaternary—three units—unconsolidated material

including artificial fill (uaf) and recent/young alluvium

(ura and uya).

2. Pliocene—consolidated old alluvium (coa).

3. Miocene—two units—highly weathered sedimentary

rocks and/or their overlying soils (wsr) and less

weathered relatively resistant rock units (urr).

The distributions of these engineering geological units

are shown in Fig. 4, which includes a description of each of

the units made at both the material and in situ mass scales.

Field identification, description and classification systems

were generally in accordance with British standard (BS

1981), while the discontinuity characteristics were classi-

fied following ANON (1978).

The logs of the five 76 mm diameter rotary-cored

boreholes are given in Fig. 5. Adjacent to the sampling

boreholes, piezometer boreholes were drilled and after ten

days monitored between September 2001 and September

2002. The level of the water below the top of the hole is

given in Fig. 6. It can be seen that the water level is from 2

Fig. 3 Tectonic and geological

setting of North Lefkos�a

(revised from Harrison et al.

2004)

Engineering geology of North Lefkos�a, Cyprus 475

123

to 4 m higher in the rainy season than in the summer

months.

Quaternary unconsolidated materials (uaf and ura)

These deposits occur close to the foothills of the adjacent

mountains. The alluvial plain deposits form the bulk of the

weaker sediments and range from gravel to clay size in

beds varying from a few centimetres to more than 5 m in

thickness. They are often saturated and weak. Man-made

artificial fill is found in the region including large graded

areas of highway and other fills, foundation fills, rubbish

fills, gravel pits and areas of major engineering structures

including, for instance, embankments. Some of these arti-

ficial fills are supported by retaining walls. These deposits

are generally associated with engineering geological

problems, including settlement of foundations and swelling

of foundation soils. The deposits are found in very re-

stricted locations.

Quaternary unconsolidated surficial young alluvium (uya)

The most widespread clay-type alluvium, this unit also

contains sands and gravels in various proportions with a

thickness of about a metre (Fig. 5).

Water is found commonly on the ground surface in the

swales and lowlands due to the low relief. As a conse-

quence of the layered nature of the soil, with significant

differences in the grain size from clay-rich to gravel-rich

bands, the permeability varies considerably, often with

good lateral and poor vertical flows.

Some of the laboratory test results are given in Table 1

and shown diagrammatically in Figs. 7, 8 and 9.

Pliocene consolidated old alluvium (coa)

These deposits are generally coarse-grained, transported,

dense materials (Fig. 4), sometimes partially cemented.

Distinct river terraces are found throughout the study area

and along the present streams where they are typically 2–

5 m thick. Silty sand, well-sorted sand, low plasticity clay,

low plasticity silt, high plasticity clay, and silty sandy

gravels are the major soil types. Individual beds of allu-

vium are 0.3–1 m thick and are continuous along the

present streams. In general, the deposits are well drained

but locally surface water ponds are present where the upper

horizons have low permeability. The finer deposits have a

high to very high potential for swelling behaviour (Figs. 8

and 9).

Miocene highly weathered soft rock units (wsr)

This unit consists of highly weathered marl with inter-

bedded sandstone and poorly bedded dense gravels. The

weathered part of the topsoil may be described as brown,

firm or stiff clay, intercalated with sand and gravel (Fig. 4).

Water remains at the surface until it runs off/evaporates,

although it may remain indefinitely in flat areas and in the

Fig. 4 Engineering geology map of North Lefkos�a (Nicosia)

476 A. Acar et al.

123

rolling topography small seeps occur on the slopes. These

deposits have low permeability, except for the sandy and

gravelly levels. Figures 8 and 9 indicate a high potential

for swelling.

Miocene slightly weathered resistant rock units (urr)

The slightly weathered Miocene flysch is up to 10 m thick

and consists of interbedded sandstone with weak, thin to

Fig. 5 Borehole logs

Fig. 6 Change in groundwater

level between 20 September

2001 and 30 September 2002

Engineering geology of North Lefkos�a, Cyprus 477

123

thick beds of grey to reddish-brown marl. Discontinuities

are often parallel to the bedding at the junction between the

different rock types, while the joints are generally

orthogonal to the bedding.

Joints, fractures and bedding planes commonly have a

clay or oxide coating, but thin open voids are also present.

At some locations, slightly weathered material overlies

Table 1 Index and some mechanical properties of the engineering units

Soil property Engineering units

Unconsolidated surficial

young alluvium (uya)

Consolidated old

alluvium (coa)

Highly weathered

soft rock (wsr)

Low weathered

resistant rock (urr)

Mean ± SD Number

of test

Mean ± SD Number

of test

Mean ± SD Number

of test

Mean ± SD Number

of test

Water content (%) 26.50 ± 05.84 (12) 21.91 ± 05.92 (8) – – –

Specific gravity (Gs) 02.69 ± 00.01 (6) 02.67 ± 00.02 (10) – – –

Unit weight (kN/m2) 18.70 ± 02.08 (12) 18.10 ± 01.86 (14) 21.56 ± 01.43 (16) 19.60 ± 30.80 (16)

Dry density (g/cm3) 01.46 ± 00.12 (6) 01.54 ± 00.80 (8) – – –

Sand (%) 24.34 ± 14.63 (10) 24.01 ± 15.56 (7) 04.45 ± 02.40 (4) 18.89 ± 9.86 (12)

Silt (%) 33.30 ± 06.20 (10) 27.81 ± 09.57 (7) 23.46 ± 04.85 (4) 36.40 ± 6.55 (12)

Clay (%) 42.10 ± 15.98 (10) 48.18 ± 15.40 (7) 72.09 ± 06.41 (4) 44.53 ± 16.03 (12)

Liquid limit (%) 45.33 ± 16.16 (10) 69.83 ± 03.89 (5) 78.56 ± 01.39 (2) 55.41 ± 16.03 (12)

Plastic limit (%) 23.66 ± 04.69 (10) 30.37 ± 07.06 (5) 33.48 ± 00.87 (2) 32.77 ± 10.50 (12)

Plasticity index (%) 21.67 ± 11.89 (10) 39.45 ± 08.06 (5) 45.08 ± 02.26 (2) 25.27 ± 12.24 (12)

Flow index (If) 00.80 ± 00.70 (10) 01.34 ± 00.75 (5) 01.51 ± 00.21 (2) 00.80 ± 0.53 (12)

Toughness index (It) 43.56 ± 47.40 (10) 40.71 ± 29.50 (5) 30.12 ± 02.48 (2) 41.61 ± 24.95 (12)

Shrinkage limit (%) 19.00 ± 02.00 (3) 22.00 ± 02.15 (4) – – –

Swell (%) 0.425 ± 00.25 (6) 00.73 ± 00.25 (3) – – –

Cohesion (kPa) 24.00 ± 04.00 (3) 30.00 ± 08.30 (3) – – –

Friction angle 08.00 ± 01.12 (3) 23.00 ± 05.56 (3) – – –

SPT-N value 16.00 ± 08.86 (32) 34.00 ± 12.40 (18) – – –

Permeability (cm/s) 10–6 – 10–7 – – – –

Void ration (eo) 00.81 ± 00.15 (4) 00.78 ± 00.08 (4) – – –

SD Standard deviation

Fig. 7 Distributions of the clayey layers on the plasticity chart

Fig. 8 Distribution of the clayey layers on the activity chart (Merve

1964; Williams and Donaldson 1980)

478 A. Acar et al.

123

more highly weathered strata of poorly graded silty and

clayey sand. The unit is classified as CL, CH and ML and,

as seen in Figs. 8 and 9, has a varying swelling potential.

Mineralogical and physiochemical properties

The physiochemical properties of a soil affect its engi-

neering behaviour, e.g. swelling, piping failure and shear

strength. A high percentage of SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO

and CaO indicates the presence of smectite clay minerals

and therefore the swelling potential of the soil is likely to

be high (Erguler and Ulusay 2003).

Table 2 provides the physiochemical properties of the

soils. In addition, XRD was undertaken on 38 samples from

the different formations; the X-ray diffraction traces are

given in Fig. 10 and selected scanning electron microprobe

views in Fig. 11. Ben-Dor et al. (1999) and Tomas et al.

(2000) suggest that the relationship of water in soils varies

with the specific surface of each of the clay minerals

(smectite > illite > kaolinite). Al-Rawas (1999) concluded

that active clays have a greater influence on the swelling

behaviour than any other factor, describing smectite as the

most active and hence most responsible for swelling

damage.

Conclusions

The main lithological units in the Northern Lefkos�a area

are of Miocene, Pliocene and Quaternary age and have

been divided on the basis of their engineering properties

into unconsolidated man-made artificial fill (uaf),

Fig. 9 Distribution of the clayey layers on the swelling potential

chart of Seed et al. (1962)

Table 2 Physiochemical properties of engineering units

Physiochemical property Engineering units

Unconsolidated surficial

young alluvium (uya)

Consolidated old

alluvium (coa)

Highly weathered

soft rock (wsr)

Low weathered

resistant rock (urr)

Mean ± SD Number

of Tests

Mean ± SD Number

of Tests

Mean Number

of Tests

Mean ± SD Number

of Tests

Salt (%) 0.30 ± 0.19 (5) 0.79 ± 0.16 (4) 0.44 ± 0.11 (3) – –

CaCO3 (Gs) 26.32 ± 3.72 (5) 23.58 ± 5.63 (4) 20.17 ± 0.98 (3) – –

K2O (ppm) 185.0 ± 37.91 (5) 312.50 ± 75.0 (4) 441.67 ± 38.19 (3) – –

Na (pp) 1505.0 ± 576.57 (10) 3337.50 ± 309.23 (4) 2450.0 ± 337.49 (3) – –

Clay (%) 42.10 ± 15.98 (10) 48.18 ± 15.40 (7) 72.09 ± 6.41 (4) 44.53 ± 16.03 (12)

Smectite

Clay (%) 44.89 ± 3.57 (10) 43.34 ± 12.63 (7) 48.87 (1) 47.24 ± 9.63 (10)

Total (%) 19.75 ± 8.09 (10) 19.32 ± 6.80 (7) 35.23 (1) 22.39 ± 7.32 (10)

_Illite

Clay (%) 25.05 ± 1.89 (10) 24.43 ± 7.29 (7) 24.06 (1) 31.11 ± 15.50 (10)

Total (%) 11.12 ± 4.81 (10) 11.12 ± 4.83 (7) 17.34 (1) 12.23 ± 5.02 (10)

Cholorite

Clay (%) 30.16 ± 2.72 (10) 25.68 ± 8.03 (7) 27.07 (1) 28.99 ± 6.03 (10)

Total (%) 13.24 ± 5.33 (10) 11.52 ± 5.03 (7) 19.51 (1) 16.21 ± 13.25 (10)

SD Standard deviation

Engineering geology of North Lefkos�a, Cyprus 479

123

unconsolidated surficial recent alluvium (ura), unconsol-

idated surficial young alluvium (uya), consolidated old

alluvium (coa), highly weathered soft rock units (wsr)

and slightly weathered relatively resistant rock (urr).

Many single and two-storey buildings in the area show

evidence of significant structural damage. Laboratory

testing has confirmed a high potential for swelling due to

the presence of abundant smectite and illite.

The study indicates that shallow foundations should be

avoided and where possible buildings should be con-

structed with basements to avoid/reduce the effects of

seasonal change in moisture content and hence the poten-

tial for shrink/swell.

Acknowledgments This study was supported by a project

‘‘Swelling clays: a continuous threat to the built environment of

Cyprus’’, was financed by United Nations Office for Project Ser-

vices (UNOPS). The authors are grateful to the Chamber of Mining,

Metallurgical and Geological Engineers of the Union of the

Chambers of Cyprus Turkish Engineers and Architects for their kind

cooperation, for contributing data and for help during the experi-

mental work.

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Fig. 10 Typical XRD patterns for each engineering unit

Fig. 11 Selected scanning electron microprobe view

480 A. Acar et al.

123

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