THE WO RKS

GEORGE BERKELEY, D . D.

FORMERLY BISHOP OF CLOYNE

INCLUDING

MANY OF HIS WRITINGS HITHER‘

TO UNPUBLISHED .

His Life Pkizlowpky,

ALEXANDER CAMPBELL FRASER, M.A~

PROFESSOR OF LOGIC AND METAPHYSICS IN THE

IN FOUR VOLUMES ;

VOL. III .

Qlfixfnrh

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

MD CCCL‘XXI

C O N T E N T S .

M I S CELLAN EOU S WO RK S.

LATIN .

ARITHMETICA ABSQUE ALGEBRA AUT EUCLIDE DEMONSTRATA. Auc

to re Art. Bac. Trin . Co l. Dub. 1 7 o 7

MISCELLANEA MATHEMATICA : sive Cogitata n o nnulla de RadicibusSurdis, de E stu Aeris, de Co no [Equilatero et Cylindro

eidem Sphaerae circumscriptis , de Ludo Algebraico ; et

Paraenetica quaedam ad studium Matheseo s, praesertimAlgebrae. Auto re Art. Bac.Trin . Co l. Dub. 1 707

DE MoTU : sive de Mo tus principio et Natura, et de Causa

communicatio nis Mo tuum. 1 7 z 1

ENGLISH.

PASSIVE OBEDIENCE ; o r, The Christian Do ctrine o f no t resistingthe Supreme Power

,proved and vmdicated, upo n the

Principles o f the Law o f Nature, in a Discourse deliveredat the Co llege-Chapel, 17 1 2

ESSAYS IN THE GUARDIAN . 1 7 13

AN ESSAY TOWARDS PREVENTING THE RUIN o r GREAT BRITAIN. 1 7 2 I

A PRo POSAL fo r the better supplying o f Churches in o ur Fo reignPlantatio ns, and fo r co n verting the savage Americans to

Christianity, by a Co llege to be erected in the SummerIslands, o therw ise called the Isles o f Bermuda. 1 7 25

VERSES o n the pro spect o f plantingArts and Learning inAmerica

PAGE

CONTENTS .

A SERMON preached befo re the In co rpo rated So ciety fo r the

Pro pagatio n o f the Go spel in Fo reign Parts : at theirAn niversary Meeting in the Parish Church o f St. Maryle-Bo w ,

o n Friday, February I 8,

1 73 2

THE ANALYST ; o r, A Disco urse addressed to an Infi del Mathema

tician . Wherein it is ex amined whether the Object, Principles, and Inferences o f the Mo dern Analysis are mo redistinctly co nceived, o r mo re eviden tly deduced, than

Religio us Mysteries and Po in ts o f Faith . 1 734

A DEFENCE OF FREE-THrNRING IN MATHEMATICS. In Answerto a pamphlet o f Philalethes Cantabrigien sis, en titled,Geometry no Friend to Infi delity, o r a Defence o f Sir IsaacNew to n

,and the British Mathematician s. Also an Ap

pendix co ncern ing Mr . Walto n’

s V indicatio n o f the principles o f Flux io n s against the Objectio n s co ntained in the

Analyst. Wherein it is attempted to put this co n tro versyin such a light as that every Reader may be able to judgethereo f. 1 735

REASONS FOR NOT REPLYING To MR. WALTON’

S FULL ANSWER, ina Letter to T. P . T. 1 7 35

THE Q UERIST, co n taining several Q ueries, propo sed to the co n

sideratio n o f the Public. 1 735—1 737

AD ISCOURSE ADDRESSED To MAGISTRATES AND MEN IN AUTHORITY.Occasio ned by the eno rmo us License and Irreligio n o f theTimes. 1 736

ALETTER To THE ROMAN CATHOLICS OF THE DIOCESE OF CLOYNE.

Published in the late Rebellio n, A.D. 1 745

AWORD To THEWISE : o r, An Exho rtation to the Roman Catho lic

Clergy o f Ireland . 1 749

MAXIMS CONCERNING PATRIOTISM . 1 750

THREE LETTERS To THOMAS PRIOR, ESQ , and a Letter to the Rev.

Dr . Hales, o n the virtues o f Tar-water. 1 744—1 747

FARTHER THOUGHTS ON TAR-WATER. 1 75 2

AP PEN D I X.

A. The First Editio n o f the Q ueristB. First Editio n o f the Max ims co ncerning Patrio tism

MAXIMZE SPEI PUERO ,

G U L I E L M O P A L L I S E

REVERENDISSIMI ARCHIEPISCOPI CASSELENSIS l

FILIO UNICO, INGENIO, SOLERTIA, ERUDITIONE,

ANNOS LONGE PRJEEUNTI,

NUMERISQ UE ADEO OMNIBUS AD PRIESTANDUM,

INGENS ALIQ UOD SCIENTIIS LUMEN AC INCREMENTUM NATO,

HUNC ARITHMETICZE TRACTATUM ,

IN EXIGUUM SUMMI AMORIS P IGNUS,

OFFERT ET DICAT

AUCTOR .

1 Wil liam Palliser, translated to the Archbishoprick o fCashel in 1694 , w as previouslyBisho p o f Cloyne. He had been elected a

Fello w o f Trin ity Co l lege , Dublin , in 1668,and w as tutor to Wil liam Mo lyneux , thefriend o f Lo cke

,father o f Samuel M o lyneux ,

t o w hom Berkeley dedicated his M iscellaneaM athematica . Pal liser w as afterw ards Professo r o f Divinity in Trinity Co llege. Hedied in 1 72 7 . Of the yo unger Palliser, tow hom the Ar z

'

tbmetica is dedicated , no thingfurther o f interest is recorded.

PR/EFAT IO .

PLEROSQUE scientiarummathematicarum pro co s in ipso earundem liminecaecutientes

, sentio simul et do leo . Nimirum cum ea sit, apud no s saltem,

mathemata discendi ratio , ut primo arithmetica, deinde geometria, postremo algebra addiscatur, Tacqueti

1vero Ar z ’tfimetz ’mm legamus, eam

autem nemo probe intelligat, qui algebram no n praelibarit, hinc fi t ut

plerique mathesi operam navantes, dum bene multo rum mino ris usus

theorematum demonstratio nes studio se evo lvunt, interea o perationum

arithmeticarum, quarum ea est vis et praestan tia, ut non mo do caeteris

disciplinis mathematicis, verum etiam hominum cujuscunque demum

so rtis usibus commo dissime famulentur , principia ae rationes intactaspraetereant. Q uod Si quis tandem aliquando , po st emensum matheseo s

cursum, o culo s in preedictum Tacqueti librum reto rqueat, multa ibi

methodo obscura, et quae intellectum no n tam illuminet quam convincat,

demonstrata ; multa ho rrido po rismatum et theo rematum satellitio stipatainveniet.

Sed nec alius quisquam ,quo d sciam,

arithmeticam seo rsim ab algebrademonstravit. Pro inde e re tyro num futurum ratus, si haec mea qualiacunque in lucem emitterem ,

ea po stquam ,Si minus omnia, pleraque certe

per integrum fere triennium in scrinns delituerint, publici juris facio .

Q uae cum praeter ipso s o perandi mo do s, eo rundern etiam demo nstratio nesex pro priis et genuinis arithmeticae principiis petitas complectantur, mirabitur fo rtasse quispiam, quo d no ster hic tractatus mo le vulgares arithmetico rum libro s, in quibus prax is tan tum tradatur , haud ex aequet.

Ho c autem ex inde pro venit, quo d cum o perationum 7 6 8167 4 explicaremin praeceptis et ex emplis, quae vulgus arithmetico rum ad nauseam usque

pro sequitur , co ntractio r fui ; nec eo fo rsan obscurio r. Q uippe tametsi

1 Fo rTacquet , an eminent mathematician Spino z a’s letter to De Vries (Epistola XXVI).

o f the seventeenth century, cf. N ew Theo ry His Ar itbmetz’

cce Tbeor z'

a er P ram’

s, upo n

of Vision , sect. 30, no te. He is o ften re w hich Berkeley here remarks, was publishedferred to by contemporary writers. See at An tw erp in 1665 .

8 P R E F A T I O .

caeco ad singulo s fere gressus regendo s o pus sit manuducto re , in Claratamem demo n stratio n um luce versan ti suflicit, si quis tenen dum traff

‘

lltem

vel strictim ex p o nat. Q uamo brem omn es matheseo s can didatl

.

ad

regularum arithmeticm ratio nes ac fundamen ta percrplendum animo s

adjungan t, summopere velim et ex o ptem.

Neque id tanti moliminis est, ut plerique fo rtasse Imaginen tur . Q uas

attulimus demon stratio nes faciles (mi fallo r) SUHt et 0011015 33 ; nec principia aliunde mutuan tur, ex algebra nihil, n ihil ex Euclide tanquamno tum suppo n itur . Ubique malui o bvia et familiari aliqua ratio ne a

prio ri veritatem prax eo s comprobare, quam per pro lix am demo nstratio num apagogicarum seriem ad absurdum deducere. Radicum quadratarum et cubicarum do ctrinam ex ipsa invo lutio nis arithmeticae naturaeruere ten tavi. Atque ea, meo quidem judicio , ad numero sam radicumex tractio nem illu strandum magis accommo da videtur

,quam quae ex

elemen to secundo Euclidis,aut ex analysi po testatum algebraicarum

vulgo adferri so lent. Regula vulgaris pro alligatio ne plurium rerumno n n isi diffi culter admo dum et per species demo nstratur : ejus igiturlo co no vam

, quae vix ulla demo nstratio ne indigeat, e proprio penu substitui. Regulam falsi, utpo te mancam et fere inutilem

, Co nsulto preetermisi. Ac

, Si nihil aliud, n o vitas fo rtassis aliqua placebit.Neminem transcripsi ; nullius scrinia expilavi. Nempe id mihi im

primis propo situm fuerat, ut numero s tractandi leges ex ipsisprincipiis

,

prOpru ex ercitii et recreatio n is causa, deducerem. Q uo d et deinceps ho rissubsecivis pro secutus sum. Ncc mihi ho c in lo co

, absque ingrati animi labe,praeterire liceat Reverendum Virum Jo hannem Hallz

, S .T.D . Academi z eno strae V ice-praepo situm,

ibidemque linguae Hebraicas Pro fesso rem dign issimum. Cui viro o ptimo quum me multis n ominibus o bstringi lubensagn o scam, turn no n id minimum duco , quo d illius ho rtatu ad suavisSimum Matheseo s studium incitatus fuerim.

Mo nstravi po rro ad quem co llimaverim scopum : quo usque ipsumassecutus Sim, penes aequo s rerum aestimato res es

'

to judicium. Candidoquippe ho rum ex amini istas studio rum meo rum primitias libenter submitto quicquid in terim scio li sen tiant et malevo li, parum so licitus.

2 John Hall , elected Fellow o f Trinity attributes to him his o wn early en thusiasmCo llege , Dublin , in 1685 , w as afterwards fo r mathematics. In 1 713 Hal l w asBerkeley’s tuto r. He w as Vice-Pro vo st o f appo inted to a co llege living in the dio cesethe Co llege, 1697—1 713 . Berkeley here o f Derry. He died in 1 735 .

AR ITH M ET I C ZZE

I

PARS PRIMA.

CAP I.

DE NOTATIONE ET ENUNCIATIONE NUMERORUM .

NOVEM sun t no tes numerales,

!me . 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 , 6, 7 , 8, 9,

quibus una cum cyfra (0) utuntur arithmetici,ut tantum no n

in fi nito s numero rum o rdines expriman t . Omne illius rei artifi ciumin eo po situm est

,quod no tarum numeralium lo ci rat io ne decupla

progrediantur. Series autem numero rum,ea lege quoad lo co rum

valo res pro cedent ium,in membra s ive perio do s enunciatio nis

causa secatur.

Tabe l laThis treatise on

‘Arithmetic ’ is the

fi rst pro o f Berkeley gave to the w orld o f

his literary ability. It must have been

published early in 1707 , when he w as

tw en ty-three years o ld, fo r he to o k his

Master’s degree in June o f that year, and

o n the tit le-page he is designated Bacheloro fArts. From the preceding Preface mucho f the w ork seems to have been preparedthree years before it w as published.

In the original editio n, now very rare,the Aritbmetica and M iscellanea M athe

matica form together a small ano nymo usvo lume o f 92 pages. Neither o f them is

contained in the M iscellany o f his smallerw orks which Berk eley published in 175 2 .

They bo th appear, how ever, in the vario usco llected editio ns o f his w ork s ; and , as

additio nal pro o f o f their authorship, w e havethe evidence o f their co ntents, as w ell as o fBerkeley’s MS. Commo n-place-bo o k .

Bo th theArithmetica and the Miscella nea

Matbematica are marked by the o riginality,ingenuity, and simplicity which are charac

Rem to tam o culis co nspiciendam subjecta exhibet

teristic o f their author. They give internalevidence o f the truth o f what he says in

the Preface to the former—N eminem tr an

scn'

psi ; nullius scrinia expilavi. And theyexpress his juvenile en thusiasm in tho se

mathematical sciences which , nearly th irtyyears afterwards, invo lved him in a famous

co n tro versy.

The treatise o n Arithmetic, no t unw orthyo f study at the present day, is a briefsystem o f the science, unfo lded simply and

ingenio usly from its principles—ln threeparts. The First Part deduces the elementary rules fo r the Addition , Subtractio n ,Multiplication and Division of numbers, w iththe th eory and rules o f Squares and Cubes

the Seco nd treats o f Fractio ns o r bro k ennumbers, and the theory o f the rules fo radding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing,and reducing them ; the Third is co ncernedw ith the numerical relations o f proportion ,

alligatio n , and progression—arithmetical andgeometrical.

I OA V z

'

t/zmelz'

ea

NOTARUM NUMERALIUM SERIES .

o o o o o o o o o o o o

0 e e e e e 0 0 0 O O D I Q O

e e l -a c e e e e e e 0 0-0 0 .

C l 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .

O I O D O I Q t O O C Q Q O O Q O Q O O

0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 e 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0

Q O 0 . 0 .

0 0 0 0 0 5 . 0 . t o .

o o o o o o o o o 0 .

O O O O G-O D O p o y l o e e o

D i o n -O o o e o t q o e n u o o

c c c c c c c c c c c c l . 0

o .

0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o

O I ' O O . C O O

o o o o o o o o o -0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .

t o o n e . 0 0 c a

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o A c e s0 0 s 0 0 0 0 0

l 0 0 . 0

Q Mntilio num.

( Q atrilionum.

Trilio num.

Bilio num.

M illio num.

M i llium.

Integro rum.

Partes.

M illesimarum.

M illio nesimarum.

Bilio nesimarum.

Trilio nesimarum.

(matrilio nesimarum.

na ex o niturq p n o tarum numeralium seri es,In tern lo nes distributa

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

I 2 A 7 22kmefz'

m

perio di,valet septem decadas millio num : quia ve ro numeri ratio n e

decupla progrediun tur, in tellecto n o tez primae yalo re, caetcrarum

valo res o rdin e sequun tur. Sic ergo en uncrabimus numerum

pro po s itum ; septem decades et tres un itates millio num, quatuo rcen turies et o cto decades mi llium,

una cen turia, no vem decadesct quinque imitates , vel co n tractius

,septuaginta tres mi llio

nes

,

quadringenta o ctaginta millia, centum n o nagin ta quinque. Hinc

cern imus quo d cyfra, licet per se n il valeat,necessario tamen

scribatur,ut un icuique no tae debitum assign emus lo cum.

Facillimum crit numero s quan tumvis magn o s scribere et enun

ciare,mo do quae dicta sunt perpendan tur, quo rum et iam sc ientia

in sequen tibus maximi erit moment i : siquidem qua ratio ne o peration es arithmeticx in digitis perfi ciantur ipsa do cet natura ,arte vero o pus est ad easdem in numeris grandio ribus accurateexercendas

,quae sane omnis in eo versatur

,ut quo d o pus simul

et uno quasi ictu peragi n o n sin it humanae men tis angustia,id

in plures partiamur Opellas sigillatim inquirentes digito rumaggregata, difi eren tias, producta, 86C. dein hsec ita compo namus

ut exhibean t summam,residuum

,aut pro ductum,

Sec. to tale , cujusrei rat io omnis et artifi cium petitur ex simplici lo co rum progres

sio ne,et in ea u ltimo fundatur.

N .B . N o n me latet arithmetico s no nnullo s numero rum seriemaliter ac a n o bis factum est partiri , sc . in senario s (compo sitaden ominatio ne) lo co tern io num. Cum vero methodum quamtradimus sequan tur etiam Z

alii,visum est et no bis earn (utpo te

Simplicio rem) retinere.

2[v . g. Cl. Wallisius in Malbes . Univers.,

et le Pere Lamy dans ses Elémens ales

M atébmatiques.]—AUTHOR. Wallis’Matbesz'

s

Um'

versalis is the fi rst art ic le in h is OperaM athematica (Ox ford, See ch . V ,

Numero rum Pro creatio ,’fo r the opinio n to

w hich Berk eley refers. Bernard Lamy (o rLami), priest o f the Orato ry, a Cartesian

,

w as author o f vario us w ork s in mathematicsand theo logy. One o f these , Tr aite

'

de laGr andeur en ge

’

n e’

ral, qu i comprend l’

Ar itbmétz

’

que, I'

Algébre, I’Analyse, &c. , w as

published at Paris in 1680 . The seco ndeditio n o f this bo o k appeared in 169 1 ,under the tit le Elémens des M atbématiques.

P ar s P r imer . 13

CAP. 11.

DE ADDITIONE.

ADDITIONE quaeritur duo rum pluriumve numero rum aggre

gatum ; quo d ut obtineatur,

numeri aggregandi sub invicem

scribantur ea lege,ut un itates un itatibus

,decades decadibus

,partes

decimz decimis,8cc. respo ndean t . (mamo brem,

ubi adnexee

fuerint partes decimales,Opo rtet unitatis lo cum adjecto commate

insign ire. D einde,sumpto a dex tris in it io

,no tae in primo lo co

o ccurren tes una addan tur , decades autem siquae pro veniant ,

adjectis punctulis n o tatae sequenti lo co annumerandae sunt,cujus

itidem numeris (reservatis interim decadibus,quae ad lo cum

sequentem pert inent) in unam summam aggregati infra scribantur .

Atque ita po rro .

E . g. In primo,infra-Scripto rum ex emplo

, 9 et 5 faciunt 14 ;

decadem punctatam servo,cum 4 progredio r , 4 et 8 sunt 1 2 ,

pun ctata igitur decade, 2 subscribo 5 ad secundum lo cum accedens

,

reperio 6, quibus addo 2,soil. decadas in primo punctatas, 8 et 2

faciunt decadem,quam no tatam servans

,quae so la superest 1

subscribo . Et sic deinceps.

if

2 0 1 8 7Addend . 8-2 2 5 3 1

04 3 6 9 \r

to

oo

;~

to

tn

xo

k

Sum. 1 4 6 1 2 I I 8 4

(g o d Si propo nantur co lligendae res diversarum specierum,simi li

pro rsus metho do operandum,dummo do habeatur ratio propo rtio nis,

juxta quam progrediuntur diversa rerum genera. E . g.w o niam

Lib. 801. et D en . n o n rat io ne decupla ut numeri progrediun tur ,adeoque no n I o denarii sed 1 2 co nst ituan t so lidum , no n I O

so lidi sed 20,libram. Propterea in bisce Speciebus addendis

, lo codecadis

,numerus quilibet in denariis

,ddo denarius

,in so lidis,

vicenarius, sequen ti lo co adscribendus est .

I 4A r iffz metz

'

ca

CAP . III.

DE SUBDUCTIONE.

SUBDUCTIONE quaeritur duo rum numero rum difleren t ia, sive

quodnam superfueritresiduum sublato un o ex altero , cujus obti

nendi causa

,numeri mino ris no ta quaelibet no tae

majo ris ejusdemloci

subscribatur ,delude subducendi prima dextro rsum no ta ex

n o ta suprascripta auferatur, residuumque infra no tetur , atque itapo rro

,usque dum perfi ciatur subductio to t ius.

Si vero accidat numerum aliquem min o rem esse quam ut ex

eo n o ta subscripta auferri po ssit, is decade augeatur, mutuata scil.un itate a lo co sequente.

Detur 1 189 subtrahendus ex 32034. N umeris ut in exemplosubjecto scriptis, aggredio r subductio nem n o tae primer: 9 ex suprapo s ita 4 , verum cum 4 n e seme l quidem co n t ineat 9, adjecta de

cade,fi at 14 , ex 14 subductis 9, restan t 5 . D ein versus sin istram

pergens, reperio 8, a 2 (lo co 3, habita n imirum ratio n e mutuataedecadis) subducenda, quo d quo n iam fi eri nequit, aufero 8 a 12, et

restan t 4 . Pro x ima subducendi no ta est I,quae quia a n ih i lo , sive

0,n o n po test subtrahi

,lo co cyfrae O, substituo 9, (9 inquam, quo

n lam,mutuata decas un itate numero praeceden t i jam an te adjecta

t runcatur) ablata demum 1 ab 1,restat n ih il. Po rro peracta sub

ductio n e restant 3, quae itidem subscribo .

Haud dissimi l i rat io ne subduct io specierum diversarum perfi

citur : mo do advertamus n o n semper decadem,sed numerum qui

dicit quo tuplus lo cus quilibet sit praecedentis, in supplementum

defectus n o t z alicujus mutuandum esse.

1 a’.

32034 7 329 645 4 8Subduc. 1 189 30422100 2 6 g

Resid. 30845 2 1 I O

N .B . Ex dictis liquet arithmeticae (quam hactenus tradidimus)

P ar s P r z’

ma . I 5

artifi cium co nsistere in perfi ciendo per partes id quo d una vice herin equeat , rat io n em vero in additio n e

,reservandi

,in subductio ne ,

mutuandi decadas,a decupla lo co rum pro gressio ne omn ino peten

dam esse.

CAP. IV .

DE MULTIPLICATIONE.

MULTIPLICATIONE to t ies po n itur multiplicandus quo t ies jubetmultiplican s , seu quaeritur numerus qui candem habeat rat io n emad multiplicandum,

quam multiplican s ad un itatem. N umerusautem iste appellatur productum sive rectangulum5 cujus lateraseu facto res dicuntur uterque tum multiplicandus, tum numerusper quem multiplicatur.U t pro ductum duo rum numero rum inven iamus

,scripto numero

multipli'

cante sub mult iplicando,hic mult iplicetur per quamlibet

no tam i llins,incipiendo a dex tris , cujusque autem producti n o ta

prima directe subscribatur n o tae multiplicanti, reliquae versus leevam o rdine sequan tur.

Peracta multiplicat io ne, producta particularia in unam co lligantur summam

,ut habeatur pro ductum to tale

,in quo to t lo ci partibus

sun t assignandi, quo t sunt in utroque facto re .

Propo natur ducendus in (sive multiplicandus per)(Q inquies 4 dant 20, cujus primam fi guram 0 subscribo no ta: mul

t iplicanti reliquam 2 servo , po rro 5 in 9 dant 45 , 5 cum 2

servat is faciunt 7 , quae subscribo , 4 sequen ti lo co po nenda servans ,

et Sic deinceps .

Pro d. to t . 1 269264 336000

I 6 A Vz'

tkmetz'

ca

(l ip n iam numeri cujusque duplex est valo r, ut mult iplicatio

recte instituatur o po rtet utriusque rat io nem habe ri , adeo ut no ta

quaevis multipliceturjux ta valo rem cum simplicem tum lo calem

fi gurae mult iplican t is. Hinc n o ta prima cujusque particularis

pro ducti scribitur sub no ta multiplicante. E .g. in secundi ex

empli mult iplicato re, n o ta 2 valet duas (n o n un itates sed) de

cadas , ergo in 6 (primam multiplicandi no tam) dueta pro ducetduo decim (no n quidem unitates

,verum) decadas. Pro inde pri

mam producti no tam in lo co decadum la.e. directe sub no ta mul

tiplicante 2,po n i opo rtet .

Ob candem ratio nem,ubi in facto ribus o ccurrun t partes, nume

rus ex prima multiplicandi n o ta in primam mult iplicantis ducta

gen itus, to t lo cis detrudendus est infra n o tam multiplicatam, quo tmultiplicans dex tro rsum ab un itate distat , adeoque to t lo ci inpro ducto to tali part ibus sepo nendi sunt

,quo t fuerant in utroque

facto re.

N .B . Si facto ri at t ique aut alterutri a dextris accedant cyfra’.

n o n in terruptae, multiplicatio ne in reliquis no t is instituta omittantur istae mo x pro ducto to tal i adjiciendae : quippe cum lo ci propo rt io ne decupla progrediantur liquet numerum decuplum,

centuplum

,millecuplum,

&C. suiipsius evadere,si modo uno

,duobus aut

t ribus lo cis promoveatur.

CAP. V .

DE DIV ISIONE.

D IV ISIO Oppon itur multiplicatio ni , nempe pro ductum quod haec‘

co n fi cit,i l la S ibi disso lvendum s ive dividendum propo n it . N ume

rus in divisio ne inven tus,dicitur i gwt z

’

em : siquidem dicit quo tiesdividendus co n tin et diviso rem vel (quo d idem est) ratio nem dividendi ad diviso rem seu denique, partem dividendi a diviso redenominatam.

In divisio ne,scriptis dividendo et div iso re

,sicut in exemplo rum

subj ecto rum primo,captoque in it io a sin istris

,pars dividendi divi

a

equalis , vel cum pro x ime superans (in telligo valo rem tantum

32255?if? rend“ de if‘W i s

sque pro ven ren s cri t

Par s P r imer. I 7

prima quo tientis no ta , po rro diviso r ducatur in no tam inventam,

pro ductoque a membro dividendo ablato,residuum infra no tetur

,

cui adscripta sequente dividendi n o ta,co n fi t novum membrum

dividendum,unde eruatur no ta secunda quo tientis, mo x in divi

so rem ducerida,ut pro ducto ex membro pro xime diviso ablato

,

residuum una cum sequente dividendi n o ta, praebeat no vum mem

brum , atque ita po rro , usque dum abso luta fuerit operatio . Sub

ductis demum lo cis decimalibus diviso ris ab ils qui sun t in dividendo , residuum indicabit quo t lo ci part ibus assignandi sunt in

quo tien te , quo d Si nequeat fi eri subductio , adjiciantur dividendoto t cyfrae decimales quo t o pus est .

Peracta divisio ne,Si quid superfuerit, adjectis cyfris decimalibus

co n tinuari po terit divisio , do nec vel n ih il restet,vel id tam exi

guum Sit,ut tuto negl igi po ssit , aut etiam quo tienti appo nantur

no tae residuz subscripto iisdem diviso re.

Si uterque, dividendus n empe et diviso r,desinat in cyfras, hae

aequal i numero utrinque rescindan tur , Si vero diviso r so lus cyfris

terminetur,eae omnes in ter o perandum negligantur, to tidemque

po stremz dividendi no tec abscissae,sub fi nem Operatio nis rest itu

antur,scripto in fra lineo lam diviso re.

Propo natur 45832, dividendus per 67 . (Eo niam diviso r majo rest quam 45 , adjecta no ta sequen te fi at 45 8, membrum primodividendum , ho c interpo sito puncto a reliquis dividendi n o t issecerno . 6 in 45 co ntinetur septics

,et superest 3 , veruntamen

quo n iam 7 n o n itidem sept ics in 28 reperitur, ideo minuendusest quo t ien s. Sumatur 6 , 6 in 45 inven itur sex ies, atque insuper9, quin et 98 co ntinet 7 sex ies

,est igitur 6 no ta prima quo

tientis. Haz e in diviso rem ducta pro creat subducendum 402, quo

sublato a 458, restant 56 , his adscribo 3, pro ximam dividendino tam

,unde co nfi t no vum membrum

,n imirum 5 63, quo d sicuti

prius dividen s,invenio 8 pro no ta secunda quo tientis : 8 in 67

dat 536, hunc subduco a membro 563, residuoque 2 7 adjicien s

reliquam dividendi no tam,022 . 2

,habeo 272 pro no vo dividendo

,

quo d divisum dat 4, qua primo in quo t iente scripta,dein in

diviso rem ducta, productoque ex 272 ablato

,restant 4 quo tienti,

scripto infra lineo lam diviso re, adjicienda.

Expeditio r est o peratio , ubi subductio cujusque mo tae multipl icatio nem immediate sequitur , ipsa autem multiplicatio a sin istradextro rsum in stituitur . E . g. Sit 12 199980 dividendus per 156

VOL. III . C

18 Am’

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ca

( !v ide ex empl. 3) sub 1 2 19 primo dividend i membro scripto di.

Vi

so re,co n stat hunc in illo sept ics co nt in er i , quamo brem 7 scrIbO

in quo t ien te . Septies I est 7, quibus subduct is ex 1 2, de leo tumn o tam multiplicatam 1 turn 1 2 partem membri unde auferebatur

pro ductum,residuum 5 supra n o taus , de in accedo ad pro x imam

diviso ris n o tam 5 , 7 in 5 dat 35 , 35 ex 5 1 ablat is,restant 16

,

quae supra scribo,deletis 5 1 et 5 . Deinde autem 7 in 6 duco ,

pro ductoque 4 2 ex 69 subtracto , supersunt 27, quae pro inde n oto,

deletis in terim turn 69 tum 6,ult ima dividendi fi gura. Po rro divi

so rem jam in tegre deletum,denuo versus dextram uno lo co

promo tum scribo,perque illum membrum suprascriptum (quod

quidem fi t ex residuo membri pro xime divisi sequen te no ta aucto)quemadmo dum praeceden s divido . Eo dem mo do diviso r usquepromoveatur quo ad dividendum to tum percurrerit.3

4140 2 WE! {4

”1 9998 320514366666

Jam vero praecepto rum ratio dabitur , et primum quidem liquet,cur quo tien tem per partes investigemus.2 . (Q atari po test

,cur o . g. in exemplo supra allato habeatur 6

pro quo tien te membri primi per diviso rem divisi, nam 67 in 458cen turiis (pro cen turiis n imirum habendae sunt cum duobus lo cissin istro rsum ab un itate distent) n o n sex ies

,sed sexcenties con

tinetur ? Respo ndeo , revera n o n simpliciter 6,sed 600 scribi in

quo tien te , duz en im n o tse po stmo dum inventse istam sequun tur,

atque ita quidem quo t ienti debitus semper co nservatur valo r , namun icuique n o tee to t lo ci in quo tien te, quo t membro uncle eruebatul.

’

111 d iv i dendo po stpo nun tur.

Th is meth o d o f fper o rmmg D 1v15 10n the alea , from lts ho ld Ital1ans rej o w ed 111, under the name o f The Lagun e .

s ape, dear to a native Of

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2 o Am’

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est a simplicissimis et fac illirn is o rdiri,a co ntemplat io ne geneseo s

quadrat i,ex radice binomia o riundi, in it ium capiamus.

Atten t ius itaque intuendum est,quid flat ubi numerus duabus

n o t is co n stan s in seipsum ducatur. Et primo quidem manifestum

est,primam a dextra radic is no tam in no tam supra po sitam,

seipsam nempe,duci , unde o ritur quadratum mino ris membri.

Deinde vero,eadem no ta in sequentem multiplicandi, z

'

, e. alteramradicis no tam dueta

,pro ven ire rectangulum ab utroque radicis

membro co nflatum co n stat . Po rro peracta multiplicatio ne to tiusmultiplicandi per primam radicis no tam,

ad secundam accedimus,

qua in primam multiplicandi no tam dueta,o ritur jam denuo

rectangulum duarum radicis binomiaa no tarum 5 deinde secundamult iplicandi n o ta

,z

‘

. e. eadem per eandem,mult iplicata, dat

secundi membri radicis binomiae quadratum.

Hinc ergo co lligimus, quadratum quodvis a radice binomiapro creatum co nstare primo ex quadrato membri mino ris , secundoduplici rectangulo membro rum , tert io quadrato membri majo ris.Propo natur radix binomia, o . g. 23 quadranda, juxta ea quae

cap. 4. traduntur , primo duco 3 in 3, unde producitur 9,quadratum membri mino ris. Secundo duco 3 in 2

,alteram

23 radicis no tam , pro dit 6, rectangulum utriusque no taa.

Te rt io,ex 2 in 3 ducto o ritur jam secunda vice rectan

gulum membro rum. (Q arto, 2 in 2 gign it 4, quad

ratum membri majo ris .

Progrediamur ad gen esin quadrat i a radice trimembri. Atqueh ic

, primo quidem, prima radicis n o ta in in tegram radicem duetapro creat, primo , primi membri quadratum , secundo

,rectangulum

membro rum primi ac secundi , tert io , rectangulum membrorum

primi ac terti i . Secundo,secunda radicis no ta multiplicans

radicem dat,primo

, rectangulum membro rum primi ac secundi ;secundo , quadratum membri secundi , tertio , rectangulum membro rum secundi ac tertii . Tertio

,ex tertia radicis no ta in radicem

ducta o ritur,primo

,rectangulum membro rum secundi ac tertii ;

secundo , rectangulum membro rum secundi ac tert ii , tert io , quadratum tert i i membri radicis.Hin c po rro co lligimus quadratum quo dvis a radice trinomia

gem tum complecti, primo, quadratum no ta: radic is primse , secundo,

quarum,z . e. bi na Singularum quadrata et

Par s F n

'

ma. 2 I

earundem duplex rectangulum,quee quidem constituere quadratum

duarum no taram jam ante o stendimus.

Simili methodo o stendi po test quadratum 4, 5, quo tlibet no tarumco ntinere

, primo quadratum no ta: infimae, secundo,duplex rect

angulum ex in fima in sequen tes omnes dueta genitum ; tert io,

quadratum no tarum omn ium sequen tium ; quo d ipsum (uti ex

praemissis manifestum est) con tin et quadratum n o ta: a dextris

secundaa, duplex rectangulum ejusdem in omnes sequen tes ductse ,

quadratum no taram omn ium sequentium ; quo d pariter co n tin etquadratum no te tertiaa

,bina rectangula illins et sequentium

harumque quadratum,atque ita po rro

,usque quoad ventum sit ad

quadratum altissimse radicis no tz .

Inventis tandem partibus ex quibus compo nitur quadratum,

restat ut circa carum o rdinem situmque dispiciamus. Si itaque

quadratum incipiendo a dextris in binio nes partiamur, ex gen esiquam supra tradidimus co nstabit

,primum (a sinistris) membrum

o ccupari a quadrato no tae primae sive altissimae,simul ac ab ea

duplicis rectanguli ex no tis prima et secunda in invicem ductis

con tlati po rtio ne, quz ex tra primum sequentis binio n is lo cumredundat : secundi lo cum primum co ntinere dictumduplex rectangulum,

atque insuper quicquid quadratin o tse secundae

,excurrat , secundum capere quadratum

no tes secundae,et quo d redundat duplicis rectanguli

duarum prio rum no tarum in tertiam ductarum (quoad 3 2 1

no tam infimam) ad lo cum primum tert ii bin ion is per 64 2

tinentis,et sic deinceps , 11. g. in exemplo appo sito , 963

membrum primum IO co ntinet 9 quadratum no ta’.primes 3 , simul ac 1 qua 1 2 (duplex rectangulum no tae

3 in sequentem 2 ductae)“ lo cum primum secundi

membri transcendit. Primus lo cus secundi bin io nis capit 2

(duplicis rectanguli no tarum 3 et 2 reliquum), atque et iam idquo d ex tra lo cum pro xime sequentem redundat

,SEC.

Perspecta jam compo sitio ne quadrati, ad ejusdem analysin

accedamus. Proponatur itaque numerus quivis (e. g.

uncle elicienda sit radix quadrata. Hune incipiens a dextris,in

bin io nes (si par sit lo co rum numerus,alioqui membrum ult imum

ex un ica co nstabit no ta)‘ dist inguo . (macro dein quadratum

maximum in ( 10) membro versus laevam primo co ntentum,cujus

radix (3) est no ta prima radicis indagandae, ipsum autem quad

10 30 4 1

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ratum (9) a membro ( 10) subduco . Ex residuo ( 1)adjecta (3) no ta prima sequentis membri co nfi t

dividendus ( I quem divido per n o tam inventamduplicatam (z

'

. e. quo tien s (2) crit no ta radicalis

secunda , qua primo in diviso rem,deinde in

seipsam ducta, pro ductisque

'

in unam summam col

lectis,ita tamen ut po sterius uno lo co dextro rsum

promo veatur (e. g.124) habeo numerum subdu

cendum hunc aufero ex dividendo ( 13) aucto(0) no ta reliqua secundi membri : residuo (6) adjicio

000 (4) n o tam primam tert i i binio n is,ut fi at novus

dividendus qui divisus per (64) duplumradicis hactenus inven tae dat ( 1 ) no tam tert iam radicis in

dagandae , hac turn in diviso rem turn in seipsam ducta,fac

t isque ut supra simul aggregat is, summam (64 1) subduco a dividendo (64) aucto accessio ne n o tse alterius membri tert ii : eademplane metho do pergendum quan tumvis producatur operatio .

Si quid po st ult imam subductio n em superfuerit, id tibi indicioSit

,numerum pro po situm no n fuisse quadratum , verumtamen

adjectis reso lvendo cyfris decimalibus operatio extendi po teritquousque lubet.N umerus lo co rum decimalium

,Si qui fuerin t , in reso lvendo

bipart itus indicabit, quo t po n endi sun t in radice. Cujus ratiocern itur ex cap. 4 .

Ratio o perandi abunde patet ex praemissis. N am e. g. adhibui

(6) duplum n o tae inventae pro diviso re, propterea quod ex traditaquadrat i compo sitio n e, duplex rectangulum n o tae lllius (3) insequen tem (2) ducta: dividendum complecti rescissem,

coque adeodiviso per duplum facto ris un ius (3) co nfacto rem ejus (2) la. e.

no tam pro ximam radicis in n o tescere . Similiter,subducendum

co nflavi ex duplici rectangulo quo tientis et diviso ris,simul ac

quo tientis quadrato in unum,ea qua dictum est ratio ne

,co llectis ,

quia bina i lla rectangula ct quadratum eo o rdin e in residuo et

membro sequen te, ex quibus fiebat subductio,co ntineri dep

henderam,atque ita quidem po testatis reso lutio ex ipsius com

po sitio ne fac i li admo dum nego tio deducitur.

Par s P almer. 2 3

CAP. V II.

DE COMPOSITIONE ET RESOLUTIONE CUBI.

RADIx in quadratum ducta pro creat cubum. U t sternamus

V iam ad analysin cubi, a compo sitio n e po testatis (quemadmodum

in capite praecedenti factum) sumendum est initium. In pro

ductio ne igitur cubi a radice bin omia primum radicis membrum

OEendit,primo

,suiipsius quadratum,

unde cubus n o tac primes ;secundo

,duplex rectangulum membro rum

,unde duplex so lidum

quadrat i no tse primae in alteram ducti , tertio , quadratum membrialterius

,unde so lidum ex n o ta prima et quadrato secundee gen itum.

Simi liter,facta multiplicatio ne per membrum secundum

,o ritur

primo,so lidum n o ta: secundae et quadrati primes ; secundo , duplex

so lidum no tae primes et quadrat i secundae , tert io , cubus membrisecundi.

Co ntinet ergo cubus a radice bin omia pro creatus singulo rum

membro rum cubo s et 6 so lida,nimirum 3 facta ex quadrato

membri utriusvis in alterum dueto .

Hinc rat io cinio ad analogiam capitis prz ceden tis pro tracto ,co nstabit

,si (ut quadratum in bin io n es

,ita) cubus a quantavis

radice gen itus, in tern io nes distribuatur, tern io nern seu membruma sin istris primum co ntinere cubum mo tae sin istro rsum primae

,

simul ac redundantiam (si quae sit) 3 so lido rum quadrat i ejusdemin secundam ducti , lo cum primum secundi capere dicta so lidaet redundantiam 3 so lido rum quadrati no tae secundae in primam

,

lo cum secundum eadem 3 so lida et redundan tiam cubi no tae se

cundae , tert ium o ccupari a dicto cubo , simul ac redundantia 3

solido rum,ex quadrato n o tarum praeceden tium in tertiam ducto

gen ito rum : lo cum primum tert ii membri so lida ult imo memo ratao btinere

,et Sic dein ceps. Hinc fac ile derivabimus metho dum

eliciendae radicis cubicse, quee est ut sequitur.Incipiendo a dex tris

,reso lvendum (8062 1568) in tern io nes

(praeter membrum po st remum quo d minus esse potest) pun ctisin terpo sitis distribuo . Dein cubum max imum (64) in (80) primoversus sin istram membro co nten tum subduco

,scriptaque illius

radice (4) in n o tam primam radicis quaesitae, residuo (16) abscribo(6) no tam pro x imam reso lvendi

,unde co nfi t dividendum ( 166)

2 4 A ViifiMeZZ'

ea .

quo d divido per (48) t riplum quadrat i n o tae inven tae : quo tiens (3)est no ta secunda radicis : han c duco , primo in div iso rem , secundo ,ipsius

quadratum in triplum no tae primes , po stremo , ipsam in

s eipsam bis. Pro ducta ea lege aggregata, ut secundum a primo ,

t ert ium a secundo , uno lo co dextro rsum po natur, 108 subduco

a dividendo aueto accessio ne duarum no tarum reliquarum

membri secundi . Ad eundem modum,

80 62 16 680132 utut pro lixa Sit operatio , numerum divi64 dendum semper praestat residuum,

adjuncta

prima sequen tis membri no ta : diviso rem4S)I 66 ' Z I vero

,triplum quadrati n o tarum radicis hac

155078

tenus inventarum : et subducendum,

nota

ult imo reperta in diviso rem ducta,ejusdem

1 1 14568 quadratum in triplum no tarum praecedentium :

0000000po st remo illius cubus

,ea qua diximus ratione

aggregat i co n stituent .Si numerus reso lvendus n o n sit cubus

,quo d superest, adjectis

lo cis decimalibus,in in fi n itum exhauriri po test .

Radici assignanda est pars tert ia lo co rum decimalium reso lvendi .N . B . Operatio nes syntheticae examinari po ssunt per analyticas,

et vicissim analyticae per syntheticas : adeoque Si numero alterutro

ex summa duo rum subducto,restet alter

,recte peracta est additio

"

;

et vice versa,ex tra dubium po nitur subductio , quo ties aggregatum

subducti et res idui aequatur numero majo ri dato . Similiter, si

quo tiens in diviso rem,aut radix in seipsam ducta pro creet divi

dendum,aut reso lvendum

,id t ibi indicio sit

,in divisio nem aut

resolutio nem nu llum repsisse vitium.

AR I THM ET IC ZE

PARS SECUNDA.

CAP. I.

Q UID SINT ERACTIONES ?

SCRrpTo diviso re infra dividendum, ductaque linea intermedia,divisio n em utcunque designari, jam ante 4 mo nuimus. Hujusmo di

autem quo tien tes dicun tur numeri fracti seu fi act z’

oaes, propterea

quo d numerus superio r, qui dicitur etiam numerato r

,dividitur

seu frangitur in partes ab inferio re denominatas, qui pro inde

dicitur denominato r : e. g. in hac fractione 2 est dividendusseu numerato r

, 4 diviso r seu denominato r ; ipsa autem fractio

indicat quo tientem qui o ritur ex divisis 2 per 4, la. e. quadran temduarum rerum quarumvis, vel duo s quadrantes un ius ; n empeidem so nan t.N . B . Patet numero s qui partes decimales deno tant, quiquevulgo fractiones decimales audiun t

,subscripto n ominato re, per

modum fract ionum vulgarium exprimi po sse . E. g.,25 valen t

132056 ; ,004 valent fi rs

-o 8cc. id quo d faciamus opo rtet, aut saltem

factum intelligamus, quo tiescunque em in fractio nes vulgares aut

vicissim hse in i llas reducendae sint, aut aliam quamvis o pera

tionem,utro sque fracto s, vulgares et decimales ex aequo respi

cientem,fi eri co nt ingat.

[Cap v . p. I .]—AUTHOR.

2 6 Am’

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CAP. II.

DE ADDITIONE ET SUBDUCTIONE FRACTIONUM.

1 . SI fractio nes, quarum summa aut difl'

erentia quaeritur, eundem habent n ominato rem,

sumatur summa aut difl'

erentia nume

rato rum,cui subscriptus commun is nominato r quaesitum dabit.

2. Si no n sun t ejusdem nomin is, ad idem reducantur. N ominato res dati in se invicem ducti dabunt novum nominato rem ; cu

jusque autem fractio nis numerato r,in nominato res reliquarum

ductus,dabit nuntterato rem novae fraction is datae aequalis. Dein

cum novis fractio n ibus operandum ut supra.

3. Si integer fractioni addendus sit,aut ab ea subducendus

,vel

vice versa,is ad fractionem datae co gnominem reducatur ; nempe

i lli in nominato rem datum ducto idem nominato r subscribendusest .

Subductio

Additio

Subductio

Subductio

Primo , D icendum est,cur fractio nes

,antequam operemur, ad

rdem n omen reducamus : atque id quidem pro pterea fit, quod numeri res heterogen eas numeran tes in unum co lligi, aut ab invicemsubduci nequeant . E. g. Si velim addere tres denario s duobus

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2 . Si multiplicanda sit fractio per integrum,ducatur integer

datas in numerato rem fractio n is,eo dem manente nominato re.

3. Si in facto re alterutro,vel utroque o ccurrant integri, aut

fractio n es heterogeneae, ci claritatis causa una co lligi po terunt.

EXEMPLA MULTIPLICATIONIS.

Multiplie. 5 per 5 pro . 4, per 2 pro d. 4;

Multiplie. 2 8c per 4, 8c 4} i. e. 15?

per

Manifestum est quo tientem eadem proport ione augeri, qua dividendum : E .g. si 2 co ntinetur ter in 6

,continebitur bis ter in bis

6 ; liquet insuper eundem eadem propo rtio ne minui, qua crescit

diviso r. E .g. Si numerus 3 co nt inetur quater in 12, co ntinebitur

bis 3 duntaxat bis in 12 : igitur cum ut multiplicem g per g,augenda sit fractio g. ratio n e quin tupla, quon iam per 5 , et minuenda ratio ne o ctupla

,quon iam no n simpliciter per 5, sed so lum

modo ejus partem o ctavam multiplicatur 5 duco dividendum 2 in 5,et diviso rem 3 in 8.

2 . Q ipd ad regulam secundam,co n stat bis 4 res quasvis aequari

8 rebus ejusdem denominatio n is, qux cunque demum sit illa.

CAP. IV .

DE DIVISIONE FRACTIONUM.

1 . FRACTIO per in tegrum dividitur,ducendo in tegrum datum in

nominato rem fraction is datae.2 . Si fractio per fractio nem dividenda Sit

,numerato r divisoris

ductus in nominato rem dividendi dabit n ominato rem quo tientis ;et ejusdem nominato r ductus in numerato rem dividendi dahitnumerato rem quo tientis.

3. (mo t iescunque admiscen tur in tegri aut fractio nes diversi nomin is, facilius operabere si membra utriusque

,tum dividendi tum

diviso ris,in binas summas co lligan tur .

P ar s Secunda . 2 9

EXEMPLA D IVISIONIS.

Div I per 2, quo t . g

Div. 4, per quo t.

Div. per i. e. 2353per

117

Q igntum ad primam regulam,ex capite prz cedenti co nstat,

fract io nem eadem propo rtione minu i seu dividi, qua multiplicaturnominato r.

Po stquam dividens fractio nem unam per aliam,e.g. 5 per

duxi nominato rem 9 in 2, fractio { fig dicit tan tum quo ties 2 co n

tin etur in dividendo ; illins vero quin tuplum indicabit quo t iespars quinta numeri 2 ibidem con tinetur ; quapropter quo tientem

primum fi duco in 5 , inde fit 21-3.

N .B . Si fractio nes datae sunt homogeneae, brevius est et co ncin

n ius dividere numerato rem dividendi per numerato rem diviso ris,

quo tiescunque illum hic metitur. Sic divisis per gquo t iens erit2, quaecunque en im numerantur 6 bis co nt inen t 3.

2 . Si extrahenda Sit radix e fractio ne data,radix nominato ris

radici numerato ris subscripta co n stituet fractio nem qua crit radixquaesita. E .g. 41. est radix quadrata fractio n is 5, et cubica fractio nis587 ; nam ex iis qua: de mult iplicatione diximus patet, 12, in pro

ducere 14, et in dare 5

9

7 .

CAP. V .

DE REDUCTIONE FRACTIONUM AD MIN IMOS TERMINOS.

1 . (EON IAM fractionum quae ex minimis termin is co nstantvalo r clarins agno scitur, ut i le est fractionis terminos, quo ties idfi eri po test

, per communem aliquam mensuram dividere. Q anto

autem majo r fuerit commun is iste diviso r, tanto mino res crunt

quo tientes seu termin i fraction is datae wqualis. Opo rtet itaque,

30 A r z'

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datis duobus numeris,in telligere metho dum inven iendi max imam

co rum commun em men suram,z’

. e. diviso rem maximum qui dato sdividat absque residuo . Q 1} est ut sequitur2 . D ivide majo rem e datis per mino rem,

et diviso rem per

divisio n is residuum,

et si quo d denuo supersit residuum, per

illud residuum prius,i. e. ultimum diviso rem dividas , atque

ita po rro,do nec veneris ad diviso rem qui dividendum suum

exhauriat sive metiatur , is est maxima dato rum commun ismen sura.

E . g. Propo nan tur 9 et 15 . D ivido 15 per 9, restant 6. D ivido9 per 6, restan t 3 : po rro divisis 6 per 3, restat n ihil. Ergo 3est maxima commun is mensura dato rum numero rum 9 et 15quo d Sic o stendo .

(a) 3 met itur 6, at (b) 6 metitur 9 demptis 3 , igitur 3 metitur 9demptis 3 , sed 3 metitur seipsum,

metitur ergo in tegrum 9 :

atqui (c) 9 metitur 1 5 demptis 6, ergo 3 metitur 15 demptis 6,metitur vero 6 , igitur metitur in tegrum numerum 15 . Hinc

patet 3 esse propo sito rum 9 et 15 communem mensuram. Superest

ut o stendam candem esse max imam. Si n egas,esto alia quaepiam

majo r,puta 5 , jam quo n iam (a') 5 metitur 9, (e) 9 vero metitur

15 demptis 6, liquet 5 metiri 15 demptis 6 , sed et integrum 15

(ex hypo thesi) metitur, igitur metitur 6 , 6 autem metitur 9demptis 3, ergo 5 metitur 9 demptis 3 . (mon iam igitur 5 metituret in tegrum 9, et 9 demptis 3 , metietur ipsum 3, la. e. (f )numerum min o rem , quo d est absurdum.

Inventa max ima commun i mensura,patet fractionem T

9,deprimi

po sse ad han c e, quam prio ri sequalem esse Sic o stendo . Omnis

fractio deno tat quo tien tem numerato ris divisi per nominato rem,in divisio ne autem

,quo tiens dicit ratio nem dividendi ad divi

so rem,dum igitur rat io eadem manet

,crit et quo tiens seu fractio

eadem. Po rro rat io nem n o n mutari,termin is ejus pariter divisis,

liquido constat , e. g. Si res quaelibet sit alterius rei dupla,vel

t ripla, crit et dimidium illius,dimidii hujus, duplum vel

triplum,8CC.

[Sw i fractio n es per integro s dividere et multiplicare no vit,Si

in fractio n ibus (ut vo cant) fractio num ad Simplices reducendis

(a) per co nst . (b) per const . (0) per co nst . per hyp. (e) per const . (f ) per hyp.

5 N o t in the 1 707 editio n .

nullam diflicultatem experietur. N am fv. g. heec fractio fractio nis

de ecquid aliud est quam pars quarta fractionis triplicata,sive 12

-21, dueta in integrum 3 ? Similiter, ductis in invicem tam

numerato ribus quam n ominato ribus,fractio fraction is fractio n is,

8cc. ad in tegrum reducitur. Haec cum tam Clara sint et per se

manifesta,mirum profecto per quantas ambages

,quam opero sam

theo rematum citatio nem,et specierum supellectilem a no nnullis

demonstrantur,dicam

,an o bscurantur

AR ITH M ET I C/E

PARS TERTIA.

CAP . I.

DE REGULA PROPORTION IS.

REGULA pr oportionalis dicitur, qua, datis quibus numeris,in

ven itur quartus propo rtio nalis. IlliuS quidem usus frequens est

e t ex imius : uncle nuncupatur regula aurea. Dicitur etiam regula

t riam,o b 3 termino s dato s. Po rro quartum directe groportio

nalem inven ies,multiplicando terminum secundum per tertium,

et pro ductum per primum dividendo : E . g. Si ut 2 ad 6,ita se

habeat 4 ad quaesitum,duc 4 in 6, et pro ductum 24 divide per 2

,

quo tiens 1 2 crit quartus propo rtio nalis quaesitus. (mod sic

demo nstro‘

In quatuo r propo rtio nalibus, pro ductum extremo rum aequatur

pro ducto termin o rum intermedio rum. N am propterea quo d numeris int pro po rt io nales

,17 . e. candem habean t in ter se ratio nem,

ratiovero per divisio n em cogno scatur, diviso termin o secundo per

primum,et quarto per tert ium

,idem pro ven iet quo tiens , qui

(ex natura divisio n is) ductus in terminum primum, producet

secundum,et in tert ium

, pro ducet quartum. Jam,Si ducamus

terminum primum in quartum,vel (quo d idem est) in tertiurn

et quo t ien tem co n tinue, et terminum tertium in secundum vel

(quo d idem est) in primum et quo tientem co n tinue, patet pro ductafo re aequalia, nam iidem sunt utro bique facto res. Sed ex naturamultiplicatio n is et divisio n is co n stat

,diviso pro ducto per unum

P ar s Tee/Zia . 33

e facto ribus, quo tientem esse alterum. Igitur, Si dividam pro

ductum duo rum term’

ino rurn intermedio rum (6 et 4) per primumquo tiens ( 12) exhibcbit quartum propo rtio nalern qux situm.

w e rt z'

o 1 . Viato r tribus ho ris co nfi cit quindecim milliaria , quo tco nfi ciet no vem ho rarum Spat io ? Resp . 45 . Patet en im ex quac a

s tio ne,ut 3 ad 15 , ita 9 esse ad quaes itum : z

'

. e. 3 15 9 : ergo135 , productum ex 9 in 15 , divisum per 3, dabit quaesitum,

v ia .

21342 12 2 . Si 2 operarii 4 diebus meren tur 21 . 5 quan tam mer.

cedem merebuntur 7 diebus ? 19. e. ut 2 in 4 ad 2,ita 5 in 7 ad

qusesitum : sive 8 2 z 35 ? Unde invenitur quaesita merces,v ia .

81 . 9d.

g ym . 3 . Tres mercato res,in ita so cietate

,lucrifaciunt 100i.

expendebat autem primus 5l. secundus 81. tertius I o l. Q 1_seritur

quantum lucri singulis seo rsim co nt igit ? summa impen sarumest 231. Die itaque, ut 23 ad 5 , ita 100 ad quaesitum : numeruspro ven iens indicabit quan tum primo de commun i lucro debetur ;aequum nempe est

,ut quam propo rtionem habet cujusque impen sa

ad summam impensarum,candem habeat ipsius lucrumad summam

lucro rum. Po rro ad eundem mo dum dicendo 23 8 et

23 10 100 P cgetero rurn lucra in no tescent .[6Propo rtio compo sita inversa in S implices facillime reso lvitur.

lib. lib.

V . g. 2 homines expendun t , 5 , 6 diebus : 30 quo t diebus expenden t

8 homines ? D ic primo 2 5 8 ? inven ien s 20 ; dic igitur denuo20 6 30 P et habebis qux situm. a vero ration e terminusquaesitus simul et seme l per regulam satis intricatam inno tescat,

explicare superfluum duco .]gl yfl j f . 4 . (Q atuo r fi stulse implent cisternam 12 ho ris ; quo tho ris implebitur i lla, ab 8 ejusdem magn itudin is ? Dicendum

8 4 z : 1 2 ? Pro inde 4 in”

12 , b . e. 48, divisa per 8, exhiben tqux situm,

!v iz . 6. N eque in ho c casu, ubi invertitur propo rtio

u lla est no va difi icultas , nam termin is rite dispositis, semperhabebimus bina aequalia rectangula, quo rum un ius no tum est

utrumque latus, a lterum vero conflatur ex n o to termino in igno tumducto : quare dividendo pro ductum illud prius per no tum latus,seu facto rem hujus, pro ven iet terminus ign o tus. Q O autemo rdin e dispo n endi sint termin i, ex ipsa quaestio ne palam fi et .

No t in the 1707 editio n .

VOL. 111 D

34 A r it/zmetz’

ca

CAP . II.

DE ALLIGATIONE.

REGULA alligatiom’

: simplici: dicitur, qua, propo sitis duabus

rebus diversi pretii aut ponderis, 8cc. invenitur tertium quoddam

genus, ex datis ita compositum,ut i llins pret ium vel po ndus

,8cc.

aequetur dato cuidam pretio vel po nderi,8cc . inter proposita

intermedio . E . g. Po llex cubicus auri pendit un cias po llexcubicus argent i uncias (e itur po llex cubicus metallicujusdam ex utroque mixti qui pendat 16 uncias ; in quo problemate

,pondus intermedium 16 superat argen ti po ndus per 4,

et superatur ab auri po ndere per 2. Jam,si capiamus cubi

argen te i, et 3 cubi aurei,patet eas una co nflatas dare pollicem

cubicum 5 quippe et aequan tur unitati. Q rin patet etiammetalli hujusce mix ti po ndus acquari dato in termedio 16 5 nam

argen ti, quo d levins est per 4, accepimus 2 partes ; igitur defectusest 2 in 4 5 auri vero , quod gravius est per 2, accepimus 4 partes :adeoque ex cessus est 4 in 2, z

’

. e. aequalis defectui ; qui pro indese mutuo to llunt.Hinc o ritur regula pro alligatione rerum duarum : Fractio

quiz nominatur a summa diEeren tiamm,et numeratur a defectu

mino ris infra medium indicat quantitatem majo ris sumendam;et vicissim qua: eundem haben s nominato rem, numeratur ab

ex cessu majo ris supra medium,indicat quantitatem minons

sumendam.

w rest. Sun t duo genera argen t i,uncia pur io ris valet 7, vilioris

4, quacruntur 3 un ciae argen ti,quae valeant singular. 5 ? Reso l.

co ns tat ex regula,si accipiam

2

gun cias vilio ris

,et ,

1 uncia puriorisargen ti, haberi unam unciam mix ti quaesiti 5 haz e triplicata sOlvit

queestio nem.

(mod Si res alligandae sint plures duabus, dicitur alligatio rom

pan'

ta. E .g. sun t quinque vin i gen era,vis massici est 1

,chn 3,

falern i 5 , csecubi 7, co rcyrsei 9 : vo lo mixtum cujus vis sit 4. Mixti

sequaliter ex chio et massico,vis crit 2 : nimirum dimidium sum

mae datarum 1 et 3, uti per se patet. Similiter,mixti sequaliter

ex falerno caecubo et co rcyraeo , vis crit 7, i. e.Tl,numeri 21, seu

summae virium misturam hancce compo nentium. 2 et 7 altcum vi intermed ia data

,viz . 4, defectus est 2, excessus summa

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36 AM'

tfi mez‘z

'

m

que auro,aqua exundans Sit 5 , argento 9, co ro na 6 . Huc igitur

redit quaest io 5 datis libra auri cujus magn itudo est 5 , et libraargen t i cujus magn itudo est 9, quaeritur quantum ex singulis ca

pere Opo rteat , ut habeamus libram metalli cujus magn itudo sit 6

pro inde alligatis 9 et 5 cum magn itudine in termedia 6,inno tescet

quantitas auri,

v iz . 22}l ib. et 5 lib. quantitas argenti

,co ronae

immisti .Hin c patet

,quam no n difl-icile sit pro blema

,ob cujus solutionem

no tum illud eii

prjxa ingeminavit o lim Arch imedes.

CAP. III.

DE PROGRESSIONE ARITHMETICA ET GEOMETRICA,ET DE

LOGARITHMIS.

PROGRESSIO A rit/ametim dicitur series numero rum,eadem com

mun i differentia crescen tium vel decrescentium. E .g. In hac

serie I . 4 . 7. 10 . 13 . 16 . 19. 22 . 25, 3 est commun is excessus, quo

t erminus secundus ex cedit primum,tertius secundum

,quartus ter

tium,et Sic dein ceps : et in hac altera decrescentium serie

,15. I3.

1 1 . 9. 7 . 5 . 3. 1,2 est commun is defectus

, quo terminus quilibeta prx ceden ti deficit .Jam ex ipso serierum harumce intuitu et quam preemisimus

defi n it io n e,man ifestum '

est,unumquemque terminum continere

min o rem ex tremum,

_simul ac communem differen tiam, multiplicatam per numerum lo co rum quibus ab eo dem cfi stat . E.g. In

prima serie terminus quin tus 13 co nstat ex mino re extremo 1, Ct

commun i difi eren tia 3, dueta in 4, i. e. numerum lo co rum quibusa min imo ex tremo distat . Hin c dato mino re extremo

,et com

mun i difi eren tia,terminus quivis, e. g. a min imo undecimus ex

clusive,facile inveniri po test

,ducendo differentiam 3 in 1 1,

Ct

pro ductum 33 mino ri ex tremo I addendo . Idem invenitur, datismajo re extremo , diEeren tia commun i, et numero lo co rum quibusterminus quaesitus a max imo ‘

sejungitur, ducendo communem dif

feren tiam in numeram lo co rum datum,et productum e majore

ex tremo auferendo . Patet etiam qua rat ione datis termino quolibet, ejusdem indice

,et commun i diH'

eren tia,terminus primus

P ar/s Ter tz'

a . 37

assignetur , et quomo do ex dat is termin o quo vis, illius indice, et

mino re extremo , commun is differen t ia itemque ex dat is termino,

difi'

eren tia,et min o re extremo

,termin i index eruatur. (min et

illud et iam patet,w

’

z . dimidium summae duo rum termino rum

z quari medio pro po rtio nali arithmetico . E . g. 7 et I 3 faciun t 20,cujus dimidium 10 \est terminus inter datos medius (wide seriem

primam). Haec et alia bene multa theo rematal

ac problemata,eo rumque so lutio n es

,ex ipsa progressio n is arithmeticae natura

facile quisquam deduxerit,praesert im Si logis tica specio sa utatur.

(mapropter ea ex ercit ii causa tyro n ibus relinquo .

Pr ogressio Geometr im vo catur series numero rum,eadem co n

t inua ratio ne crescentium vel decrescen tium. E .g. 3 . 6. 12 . 24 .

48. 96 . sun t in progressio ne geometrica,cujus rat io commun is est

dupla,nimirum terminus quisque duplus est praeceden tis. Simili

ter numeri hujus decrescentis serie i,8 1. 27 . 9. 3. 1 . progrediuntur

ratio ne subtripla, z’

. e. terminus quilibet preeceden tis subtriplus

est sive a}.

Ubi observandum est,terminum quemvis co nflari e

'

x po testatecommun is rat io n is

,ipsi cogn omine, in terminum primum ducta.

E .g. In serie prima, 48, terminus exclusive quartus

, producitur ex

16,po testate quarta numeri 2 (i. e. quae generatur ex 2 ter in seip

sum ducto,siquidem ipsa radix dicitur po testas prima) per

'

terminum primum 3 mult iplicata. (Q amo brem ea quae de progressio ne arithmetica dix imus et iam hic lo cum habent

,Si pro additio n e

e-t subductio ne multiplicatio nem et divisio n em, pro mu ltiplica

t io ne et divisio ne invo lutio nem et evo lutio nem,sive radicum 7

ex tractio n em adhibeamus. E .g. Q 1_emadmo dum in pro gressio ne

arithmetica summa ex tremo rum bisecta dat medium arithmet icum,

ita in pro gressio ne geometrica medius propo rtio nalis est radixpro ducti ex tremo rum. Adeoque theo remata et pro blemata quo dSpectat, iis, cum illa ex nuda serierum contemplatio ne facillime

eruantur,ulterius deducendis no n immo rabimur .

At vero unum est progressio n is geometricae theo rema,ex quo

o lim derivata fuit, et etiamnum dependet no bilis loga rithmo rum

sc ientia,quo dque adeo hic visum est explicare.

In pro gressio ne geometrica cujus principium est un itas,rectan

7[N . B. Q i omo do po testatum quarumvis et ~cubo c o rumque radicibus agentes, inradices ex trahantur, lector diligens, jux ta Vestigare po terit .]—AUTHOR .

methodum quam secuti sumus de quadrato

38 A r z'

thmet z'

ca

gulum duo rum quo rumlibet termino rum aequatur t ermin o ejusdem

progressio n is, qui proindice habet summam indicum facto rum. E .g.

4 . 8. 16 . 3 2 . 64 .

4 . 5 . 6 .

secundum 2 in quartum 8, pro ductum 16 est terminus quin tus

,

cujus index 4 aequatur indic ibus secundi et quart i una co llect is.

Rat io man ifesta est : nam quaelibet po testas, in aliam quamcunque ejusdem radicis ducta

, pro creat tertiam,cujus dimen sio nes

to t sunt,quo t fuere in utraque po t estate generante . Sed in pro

gressio ne geometrica,cujus terminus primus Sit un itas

,patet reli

quo s omnes subsequentes esse po testates ex commun i rationegen itas , quarum singulae to t habean t dimensio nes, quo t lo cis ab

un itate distant .Igitur Si infi n itx progressio n i geomet ricae adscriberetur indicum

series it idem in fi nita,ad o bt inendum duo rum termino rum rectan

gulum haud n ecesse fo ret unum per alterum mult iplicare 5 Opo rteret so lummo do

,indicibus una co llectis

, quaerere indicem qui

aggregato aequetur, is Sibi adscriptum ostenderet rectangulum

qux situm. Similiter,Si dividendus Sit unus terminus per alium

,

dif’feren t ia indicum,Si extrahenda Sit rad ix quadrata aut cubica,

5 aut 5 indic is, quaesitum quo tum,vel radicem

,indigitaret .

Hinc patet,diflic ilio res arithmeticae Operatio nes insign i com

pendio exerceri po sse,Si co nderentur tabulae

,in quibus numeri

naturali o rdin e co llo cat i habeant Singuli indicem a latere respon

den tem : tun c quippe multiplicatio , so la additio ne , divisio , subeductio ne 5 ex tractio radicum

,bisectio ne vel trisectio ne indicum,

perageren tur. Sed indices illo s,sive logarithmo s, numeris aecom

mo dare,boa 0pm,

bio la éor ert , in quo exantlando plurimi desudarun t mathematici.

Primi 3 quidem tabularam co ndito res hac fere methodo usi sunt.

N umeris 1 . 10 . 100. 1000,86C. in pro gress io ne decupla existenti=

bus,logarithmo s assignarunt

8cc. Deinde ut numeri alicujus, g. 4 , in ter 1 et 10

in termedi i,logarithmum inven iren t

,adjectis utrique septem cy

fris, in ter et medium pro po rt io nalem quatS ic re 5 qui si min o r esset quam 4 , inter ipsum et

S i vero majo r,in ter cum et medius propo rtio nalis ih

dagan dus erat : po rro in ter hunc (Si mino r esset quam 4) et prox

Si sequen tis serie i 4: ducamus terminum

8 N o t N apier. He to o k fo urth propo rtio nals, no t mean .

P ar s Ter tz'

a . 39

ime majo rem,Sin majo r

,et pro xime mino rem

,denuo queerebant

medium pro po rt io nalem ; et sic deinceps, usque dum ventum fuisset ad numerum

,no n n isi in sensibili part icula, puta m ,

a pro po sito 4 difl'

erentem. Hujus autem lo garithmus o btinebatur,

inven iendo medium arithmeticum in ter logarithmo s numero rum

1 et 10,et alium inter ipsum et logarithmum denari i, 8cc. Jam

Si bipart iatur logarithmus numeri 4, habebitur logarithmus binarii,idem duplicatus dat logarithmum numeri 16 5 et Si logarithmo

quaternionis addatur logarithmus binarii, summa crit logarithmuso cto narii. Simi li metho do

,ex uno logarithmo numerii 4 alii in

numeri inven iri po ssunt .Ad eundem mo dum

,cum caeteris numeris inter unitatem et

decadem intermediis aptati essent logarithmi, alio s quamplurimo sco rum summas

,difi

'

erentiae,860. suppeditarunt. Sed de his satis ,

neque en im omn ia quae ad logarithmo s Spectant tradere statuimus

id duntaxat pro po situm fuit,co rum naturam

,usum

,et inven

tio nem quadantenus expo nere.

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44 D E D I C A T I O .

strenue navan tem cernam ; quum spinas quibus obsepta videtur mathesis,quaeque alio s quamplurimo s ab ejus studio deterrere so lent, te e contraad alacrius pergendum stimulare ; quum denique ad industriam illam et

sciendi ardo rem praeclaram ingenu vim sentiam accedere ; exundantem

nequeo cohibere laetitiam quin in o rbem literatum effi uat, teque ex preecipuis (si mo do Deus vitam largiatur et salutem) ineuntis saeculi o rnamentis fo re, certissimo sane augurio praenuntiem. Pro inde, sequentibus

quantuliscunque ad te delatis, ansam hancce tecum publice co lloquendi

arripere gestiebam ; cum ut ipse pro prio cedam afi ectui, tum uti

tu,expectatio ne de te co o rta, tanquarn vinculo quodam, alioqui non ingrato ,illi rerurn pulcherrimarum studio devinciare.

M ISCELLANEA MATHEMATICA 1

DE RADICIBUS SURDIS z .

ID mih i o lim in mentem ven it,ut putarem prax in algebraicam

factum iri no nnihil facilio rem,si ablegato sign o radicali, alia

quaepiam excogitaretur po testatum imperfectarum radices com

putandi metho dus,quae ab usitata in reliquis operat io num fo rma

min us abho rreret . N imirum, quemadmodum in arithmetica lo nge

facilius tractantur fractio n es a vulgaribus ad decimales reductae,

quia tunc no tae cujusque lo co n ominato ris vicem obeun te,altera

sui parte truncantur,similique fo rma ac integri descriptae, eandem;

que cum iis seriem co nstituentes,iisdem itidem legibus subji

ciun tur ; sic si ex logist ica et iam specio sa ablegaretur no ta istaradicalis [ J ] quae, ut n ominato r inter fractio nes et integro s,

o peratio num diversitatem inter radices surdas ac rat io nales inducit

,praxis pro culdubio minus intricata

‘

evaderet .

(Q idn i itaque radices quascunque surdas,perinde ac ratio nales

,

per nudas duntaxat literas design emus,

ru. g. pro a/é subst itutoc vel d w ippe surdis ad hunc mo dum designatis, n ihi l in tereritin ter eas ac po testatum perfectarum radices ; additio

,subductio

,

multiplicatio , 8cc . ad eundem modum utro bique peragen tur. Sed

1 These Mathematical M iscellanies, ’published alo ng w ith the ‘Arithmetic

’in

1 707, co ntain some ingen io us operatio ns andapplicatio ns in Algebra, asw ell as a speculatio n o n the cause o f the Atmo spheric

Tide . They co nclude w ith an ardentpersuasive t o the study o f Mathemat ics,

especial ly Algebra, t o w hich Berk eley w as

then enthusiastically devo ted. He adduces

(pp. 61—2) Sir William Temple, Baco n , Des

Cartes, Malebranche , and Lo ck e as autho

t ities in favo ur o f M athematics, in particularAlgebra, asamental discipline ; and he ends by

lamenting that o ther studies, dry and jejuneeno ugh , w ere at that stage in h is lifetime superseding charming Mathematics, to

w hich he h o ped so o n to return . It seems

that the diversio n o f his attentio n lasted lo ng.

Cf. Analyst, sect . 50 , published nearly thirtyyears after, w hen he nex t appeared in

mathematical literature, and w ith a different purpo se.

2 This essay o n Surds do es no t carrymuch w eight . The suggestio n w ith wh ich

it commences has no t met w ith favo ur, andis apt to pro duce co nfusio n .

46 M iscellanea M atfi ematz'

m

o bjicere in promptu est,vel magis quam signum radicale, species

hac rat io ne multiplicatas calculum divexare. Siquidem cum

nu lla sit afiin itas seu co nn ex io inter 6 et a,adeoque una ex

altera agno sci n equeat, videtur illius radix aptius designari per

V b, cujus statim ac cern itur in no tescit signifi catio . Resporz deo,

hu ic malo mederi po sse, si cv. g. Graecum alphabetum ad desig

nan das radices intro ducamus, scribendo fl pro M5, 6 pro ! M,

& c . 03 0 pacto no n tam ipsac l iteras quam characteres variabun tut

,et no ta quasvis subst ituta in tantum referet primitivam,

ut scrupulo no n sit lo cus.Q uantitatis ex aliarum multiplicatio ne aut divisione co nflatae

radix designabitur per earundem radices Simi liter multiplicatasd

seu divisas. E.g. J éc= fi x , et JB

f“

Si vero proponatur quantitas mult inomia,seu co nstans ex

pluribus membris (in quibus nulla sit quantitas igno ta) signis+ant—inter se co nnex is ; designetur ho rum aggregatum (quo d et

alias quidem saepe fit) per un icam aliquam literam. E. g. flat

4 é - c : g cujus radix est y.

(yams autem quid fi at ubi igno tae quantitates no tis co nnectan tur ; sit 0 . g. po testas imperfecta f+ x : nam si utamur 4; et 5

partium nempe po testatis radicibus,ex iis nequit determinat i

radix to tius ? (midni igitur exaaquemus po testatem datam im

perfectam alteri cuidam perfectae,fw

’

z . f+ x = 1f+aff-l-ff, vel

ff+ 3 f f+ 3 f ff + fffi 860 ? Tune en im vel

Q/f -f x , SIC.

Sed illud praetermissum est, qua rat io ne radicis genus dignos

catur ; utrum sci licet sit quadratica,aut cubica

,aut biquadrat ica.

N um itaque quadraticis linquendi sun t character-es e ci,reli

quisque deinceps ali i itidem assignandi ? An po tius manente

eo dem charactere,puncto supra n o tato radicem quadratam,

bin iscubicam

,tribus biquadraticam,

atque ita po rro indigitemus

e. g. d sign ifi cet radicam quadraticam quantitatis per a designates,a radicem cubicum

,a biquadraticam,

8 m? quo quidem modo

fluxio nes primae,secundae

,tertia

,& C. designantur. Seu den ique

id sat is ducamus quo d per retrogressum inno tescat radicis denominatio ? Op ippe inter operandum n ih i l interest cujus generissit radix aliqua, quandoquidem omnes absque signo radicali no tatae,iisdem subsint legibus, et ad eundern mo dum tractentur.

D e Rad z'

ciéus Su‘

rdz'

s. 47

Cruda quidem sunt haec et imperfecta, quamque nullius sint

pretii ut a me propo nuntur, sat cerno . Tu autem,clam-rime

adolescem,cui nec o tium deest nec ingen ium

,ex ho cce sterqui lin io

bon i aliquid fo rtasse extraxeris. Caz terum haud scio,an ea ques

disseruimus tyro n ibus (reliquo s ista flo cci facturo s scio ) quadantenus usui esse po ssin t , eo rumque ope disquisitio nis analyticae

fi lum no nnunquam eno detur eliminatis,cum ipso signo radicali

,

operatio n ibus quae illud comitantur heterogen eis. U tut id sit,

mihi visus sum ils ex parte adhibitis,vulgarem de mrdi: do ctrinam

,

brevius et clarins quam ab ullo quo d sciam factum est,po sse

explicat e. Pro inde rem ipsam aggredio r .

Radices surdae dicuntur esse commensurabiles,cum carum ad

invicem ratio per numero s ratio nales exprimi po ssit , quo d si

fi eri nequeat, incommensurabiles appellan tur. Po rro si propo sitis

duabus radicibus surdis, quaerere opo rteat , utrum sint commen

surabiles necne ; inven iatur expo nen s ratio n is ex isten tis interpo testates quibus praefigitur s ignum radicale : hic si sit po testasperfecta

,habens eundem indicem ac radices pro po sitae

,erunt

il la: commen surabiles : sin minus,incommensurabiles cen sendae

sunt . E. g. Sint radices propo sitze 24 et U54 . s fractio quadrata expo n it ratio nem po testatis un ius 24 ad alteram 54 ; adeoqueradices sunt commensurabiles

,w k . 2/24 : Q/5 4 2 3 . Pro po

natur denuo Q/3 20 et 3 135 rat io numeri 320 ad 135 expo n itur

per gs,cubum nempe perfectum,

cujus radix g. indicat ratio nemradicis un ius 3 20 ad reliquam Q/I 25 . Demo nstrat io man ifestaest

,siquidem n o run t omnes radices quadratas esse in rat io ne

subduplicata, cubica in Subtriplicata, biquadraticas in subquad

ruplicata, et sic deinceps po testatum respectivarum.

Op o d si radices sin t heterogeneae quarum explo randa est ratio,

ad idem genus reducantur,invo lvendo numero s signo radicali

afiixo s,singulo s juxta indicem radicis alterius , quibus sic invo lutis

prsefi genda crit no ta radicalis cum indice ex indicibus primodat is in se mutuo duct is co nflato . E . g. Sint radices surdae heterogeneae U5 et

3n . Cubat is 5 , et quadrat is I a

, proven iunt

1 25 et 1 2 1 : his praefi xum signum radicale cum indice 6 przestatradices homogeneas et Q/I 2 1. Hujus o peratio nis ut

2

cernatur ratio , design emus 5 per speciem quamvis simplicem,

puta 6,

et\3/I I per c , eritque et

‘

48 M iscellanea IWalkemalzfea

et 125 , et Ubi po rro patet quodf/lééélé z i/lé et

Additio nem quo d att inet radicum surdarum, il la, si sin t co rn ,

mensurabiles,fi t praefi gendo summam termino rum rat io n is signo

radicali,cui sutfi gendus est commun is diviso r cujus o pe dicta

ratio n is termin i inno tuerun t . E . g. U24 + .i/54 : 6 . N am

ex antedictis,et iis quae sequuntur de multiplication e, i/z 4

2 6,et U54= 3 6. Ad eundem mo dum fi t subductio

,n isi

quo d different ia termino rum expo nentis signo radicali praefi gatur.Si addendae sunt aut subducendae radices surdm incommensura

bi les,median tibus sign is aut co nn ectan tur . E.

et M3 sunt summa et difi’

erentia radicum numero rum

6 et 3 ; quo quidem mo do surdis addun tur aut subducuntur etiamnumeri rat io nales .

Si radix surda per aliam homogeneam multiplicanda sit , rectangulo po testatum prsepo natur n o ta radicalis

,simulque index

commun is . E . g. U3 et Ad

cujus prax eo s demo n stratio nem,designentur radices numero

rum 3 et 7 per 5 et a’

,ut sit et 4d = 7, et liquido con

stabit,quo d UM dd z ed

,i . e . radix quadrata'

producti aequatur

pro ducto radicum quadratarum. Idem ad eundem mo dum o stendipo test de aliis quibuscunque radicibus

,cubicis

,biquadraticis, 8cc.

Radices heterogen eae, priusquam multiplicentur, ad homogeneas reducendae sunt . Si numerus ratio nalis in surdum ducendus sit

,elevetur

i l le ad po testatem dates imperfectae cogn omin em,cui praefi gatur

no ta radicalis,unaque ejusdem po testatis index . Caetera ut prius.

E . g. 5 x U4 : Vel brevius sic, 5 U4

“

,

et generaliter l x i/e z f/lac vel 5Divisio n em quo d attinet

,quo t ies dividendus et diviso r sunt

ambo radices surdae,

ablata - (si qua sit) heterogeneitate, no ta

radicalis cu-m pro prio indice quo tienti po testatum praefi xa,

quo tum quaesitum exh ibebit . E . g. 3 : i/gz U Si

vero ex duo bus alteruter dun taxat numerus seu species signoradicali affi citur , reliquus, juxta indicem radicis dat ze invo lut'us

,

no ta: radicali sufligatur : deinde ut prius. E . g. V96 —43

U96 i/64 {hag U}. Vel sin e praeparatio ne Et

a a ca

f 4gen erali ter 5 J ? “ vel 5

Haec,velut praecedentia,

facillime demo nstran tur .

D e E sta Aem’

s. 49

DE [ESTU ABRIS 3.

N ON ita pridem in cidi in librum cui t itulus,D e Imperlo Solis et

Lame in Corpora bummed,autho re V iro cl. M .D . et S.R.S 4 . (Q i

sane quantus sit, et quan tulus sim ipse, no n igno ro . Sed ut l iberedicam quo d sentio

,sententiam ejus D e E sta A eris

,quam ibidem

explicatam dat,utpo te celeberrimi N ew to n i principiis inn ixam

,

ambabus ulnis amplexus sum. Verumtamen haud scio,an autho r

ingen io sus phaen omeno n quo rundam isthuc pertinen tium causastam recte assecutus sit . Q iam vero justa sit dubitandi ratio

,tu

,

cujus perspectum habeo acumen,o pt ime judicabis.

Tribuit vir cl. altio rem aeris circa aequino ctia tumo rem figuressphaero idali terrae : differen tiam in super inter acris in tumescen tiam

,

qua: a luna meridio nali,et illam quac a luna (ut ita loquar) an t i

meridio nali in sphaera obliqua ex citatur,eidem causae acceptam

refert. Ego vero n eutrius i'

sto rum phaenomen o n explicatio n em

ab o blata sphaero ide peten dam duco . Propterea quo d, primo ,quamvis sen tentia quae massam aereo -terrestrem ea esse fi gura

co n tendit,ratio nibus tam physicis quam mathematicis compro

betur,et no nnullis item phaenomen is pulchre respo ndeat , no n

tamen apud omnes usque,adeo o btinet

,ut nu lli veteris

,vel

etiam o ppo sitae sen ten tiae fauto res,iique no n min imae n o ta: viri

,

ho die reperian tur. Et sane memin i,D . Chardello u

,astron omiae

peritissimum,abhinc plus minus sesquiann o , mihi indicasse, sibi

ex o bservatio n ibus astro nomicis ax em terra: diametro x quato ris

compertum esse lo ngio rem : adeoque terram esse quidem sphaa

ro idem,sed qualem vu lt Burnetius 5 , ad po lo s assurgen tem,

pro pe

3 This speculatio n o n the ‘Atmo sphericTide

’expo ses some absurd errors, but it is

hard to see w hat its intrinsic value is. To

the mathematician it seems to invo lve a

defi cient appreciation o f w hat co nstitutes

mathematical pro o f.4 The autho r here referred to w as Dr.

Richard M ead , born 1673 , an eminent

Lo ndo n physician , author o f various w ork sin medicine and natural ph ilo so phy, w h o sew ork s passed thro ugh many editio ns. His

bo o k De Imper io S olis et Lance w as fi rst

published in Lo ndon in 1 704, and editio ns

VOL. III.

afterwards appeared in Leyden , Naples,Amsterdam, and Frank fort. It w as trans ~

lated into English in 1 708.

5 This reference is to a curio us bo o k byDr . Brunet—Telluris Theor ia Sacra : o rbis

nostr i or iginem, et mutationes generales quas

aut j am,subit, aut olim subiturus est, com

plectens. Lo ndo n , 1681 . The opinion t e

ferred to is thus stated : Manifestum est

partes po lares altio res fuisse aaquino ctialibus,sive remo tio res a centro : unde aquzz ceci

derunt versus po lo s, in medias terraa partesdefluere deberunt , et to tam fere telluris

so M iseellanea M a taematiea

aequato rem vero humilio rem . Attamen quo d ad me attinet,

mallem quidem v iri clarissimi o bservat io n es po t ins in dubiumvo care

,quam argumen tis quae terrarn esse oblatam demo nstrant

o bviam ire. N ihilominus,quo n iam sen ten tia ista no n omn ibus

aeque arridet,illam tanquam principium ad phaenomeno n ullum

explicandum adhiberi n o llem,n isi res alit'er commo de explicari

n equeat . Sed secundo,tantum abest quo d supradicto rum efi

'

ec

tuum explicatio sphaero idalem terrae fi guram necessario po scat, utvix nllam in de lucis particulam mutuari videatur : id quod, apposit is quee in hanc rem scribit vir clarissimus

,o stendere conabo r.

“ Alt ius (inquit) so l ito se atto llit aer c irca duo aequin octia,

quo n iam cum aequino ctialis linea i lli globi terrestris circulo ad

versa respo ndeat qui diametrum habet max imam,utrumque sidus

dum in i lla versatur terrae est vicin ius. D e Imp . Sol. et Lure. p. 9.Jam vero , utrum vicin io r iste luminarium situs par sit atto llendoaeri in cumulum so lito sen sibiliter altio rem

,merito ambigi po test.

Eten im tanti lla est difi erentia inter ax em t ransversum et con

jugatum ellipseo s, cujus vo lutio ne gignitur sphaero is terrestris, uti lla ad sphaeram quampro x ime ac

cedat . Verum ut accuratius rem

pro sequamur, designet a c l a'sec

tio nem per po lo s massae aereo—terrestris

,in qua sit a

'c axis a l diameter

aequato ris. Jam inito calculo,depre

hendi vim lunae attractricem in l

vel a n on esseT6

1

6 6“ sui parte fo rtio

rem quam fo ret in c vel d,si illa

po lo alterutri directe immineret,et

pro inde difl'

erentiunculam istamePfectui ulli sensibili edendo imparem omn ino esse. Considerandum et iam

,lunam ab aequato re nunquam tertia parte arcus

l d distare,dictamque pro inde quan tulamcunque difi

'

erentiam

adhuc valde minuendam esse . Q io d autem de luna dix imus,id de so le

,cum multis vicibus lo ngius absit

,adhuc magis

co nstabit .

Verum quidem est D . M ead alias insuper causas aestus prope

superfi ciem irrigat e.

’

(Lib. II. cap . Essay,in a series o f tracts (1697

Burnet wro te several tracts in defence o f h is afterwards co llected as a review o f Lo cke.

theory. He also wro te Remarks o n Lo cke’

s

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

5 2 M z

’

seellaaea M a taema tz'

ea

aestus in syz ygiis so lstitialibus quam in aequin o ct ialibus. Atqui

no n alia causa videtur quacrenda u llins phaenomen i aestus aerei,quam quae ad similem effectum in z stu marino ex citandum sufli

c iat . Sed ut id quo d a viro per to tum o rbem lo nge ce leberrimobrev iter adeoque subo bscure traditum est

,uberius expo nam ; sit

in prio re fi gura a d o 5 meridianus,et a 5 ax is massae aereo

terrestris , so l autem et luna in po lo co nstitui co ncipiantur.

M anifestum est, quamvis masses aerem part em

,puta a

’

,durante

circumvo lutio ne diurna,candem semper distan tiam a luminaribus

tueri,adeoque vi ubique z quali in eo rum co rpo ra t rah i . Pro inde

aer n o n uno tempo re atto llitur,alio deprimitur, sed per to tum

d iem in eadem haeret altitudine . Verum secundo,in eadem

fi gura repraesen tet a c l d aequato rem aut parallelum quemvis,luminaria in terim in piano aequino ctiali ex istant , quo tempo reman ifestum est

,tum ipsum aequato rem,

turn singulo s parallelo s,

ellipticam induere fi guram. M an ifestum et iam est,aerem qui

nun c a,apicem axis t ransversi

,o btin et

,adeoque altissimus in

surgit,po st sex ho ras

,c,

extremum axis co njugati, ubi humill imus deprimetur

,o ccupatum ire

,max imamque pro inde mo tus

recipro cat io nem cieri . U t igitur rem omnem simul abso lvam,

gibbo s sphaero idis aestuosae triplici rat io ne lo cari co ncipiamus ,vel in po lls, vel in aequato re, vel in lo cis intermediis. In primocasu

,esset planum ro tatio n is diurnae ad ax em sphaero idis perpendi

culare,adeoque c irculus , unde nullus fo ret x stus : in secundo

,

esset ad eundem parallelum,adeoque e llipsis

,inter cujus axes

maxima sit difi eren tia , unde maximi fo rent a stus : in tert io, quo

magis ad sitam perpendicularem accederet,eo circulo vicinius

esset,adeoque mino res fo rent aestus.

Reliquum est ut demonstrem,difi

’

erentiam quae est in spheera

o bliqua in ter aestum quemvis

et subsequen tem,ubi luna ex t ra

x quato rem vagatur, terra po sitavel o blata

,vel ad amussim

s‘phaerica

,vel etiam o blo nga,

perinde causatum iri . Sit a 6

ax is mundi, g d aequato r

,k lo cus

quivus, f k lo c i parallelus, b 1ax is sphaero idis aestuo sae o b

act io n em, po tissimum,lunaz

D e C0740. 5 3

utrinque tumen tis. Luna autem pro pe l co nstituatur. Demo nstrandum est c k altitudinum aeris

,luna pro pe lo ci meridianum

ex isten te,majo rem esse cf, acris alt itudin e, ubi luna meridianum

lo ci oppo sit i transierit . Ducatur p r parallelus prio ri ex adversorespondens, et pro ducantur c k, cf ad p et r. Per co nstructio n emarcus p I: aequalis est arcui k l

, ergo arcus f la majo r est arcu

k l, ergo pro pter ellipsin recta f 5 mino r est recta k p, et f e mino r

k. e. 31, e. 4.

DE CONO fEQ U ILATERO ET CYLINDRO ,

EIDEM SPH/ER/E CIRCUM SCRIPT IS 7 .

LEMMA.

LATUS trianguli aequilateri est ad diametrum inscripti circu li ,ut J 3 ad 1 , et perpendicularis ex angulo quo vis ad latus o ppositum demissa

,est ad candem

,ut 3 ad 2.

Haec cuivis,algebram et geometriam utcunque calienti, faci le

co nstabunt .

PROBLEMA.

Inven ire ratio nem quae ex istit in ter Cylindrum et Comum acquilaterum eidem Sphaerae circumscripto s.

Po namus diametrum et peripheriam bas is cylindri esse singulas

unitatem. Eruntque, per Lemma, diameter basis co n i ejusdemqueperipheria singulae 3. Pro lude 1 x i has. cylindri , et

11, summa: bas ium. Et X i bas. co n i

,et super

fi cies cylindri seu quadruplum basco s 1 . Et superfi cies s implex

g“

16x d 6 . N am as (/a. e . media propo rtio nalis inter

latus co n i,et bas is radium seu Mi) est radius ci rculi zequalis

superfi ciei comiese. Et per pracceden tia 1 + 7} g sup. to t .

cylindri, et 3. 29; sup. to t . co n i . Po rro per hypo thesin

7 This matter o f the Co ne is at best an ingenious co nceit.

54 M iscellanea M a tnematz'

ca

So liditas autem cylindriet lemma,ax is cylindri est 1 , et co n i a}.

Hinc, comparai x 1 et so liditas con it is inter se homogen eis, eruitur sequens

3 1. 3

I x ? s

THEOREMA.

Inter Co num a quilaterum et Cylindrum e idem Spha ra circumscripto s, eadem obtin et ratio Sesquialtera, quo ad superfi cies ro tas,superfi cies simplices, so liditates, altitudines, et bases.

Duobus abhinc ann is 8 Theo rema i liad no n sine admiratione ali

qua inven i. N ec tamen pro priam ingen i i Vim aut sagacitatem

nllam,quippe in re tam facili

,sed quo d Tacquetus 9, no tissimus

matheseo s Pro fesso r,tantopere glo riatus sit

,de invento cui impar

n o n sit tyro,id demum admiratus sum. N empe is invenerat

partem aliquam Theo rematis pra fati, v iz . quo d co nus aquilaterussit cylindri, eidem spha ra circumscripti, so liditate et superfi cie

to ta sesquialter , quo dque adeo co n t inuata esset ratio ” inter co numa quilaterum,

cylindrum,et Spha ram.

~

Ha c est ipsa i lla proposit io

,ad quam spectat schema, quod pra fati authoris tractatus De

T/aeorematis ex A rc/aimea'e selectis

,in ipsa fro nte

,una cum epi

graphe inscriptum pra fert . Q ljn et iam videas qua dicat Jesuita 10in pra fatio ne, in scho lio ad pro p. 32, et sub fi nem propo sitionis

44cm ejusdem tractatus. Ubi Theo rema ho cce tanquam illustre ali

quo d inven tum,et Archimeda o rum amulum o stentat. Idem quod

Tacquetus, etiam Cl. VVallisius 11 in addition ibus et emendationibus

ad cap. lxxx i. algebra sua,aD . Casw ello 12 ope Arithmetices Infi ni

to rum demo nstratum exhibet . (Q o d ipsum,quo ad alteram ejus

pat tem,facit D .Dechales 13 in libro suo de indivisibiliumMethodo

,

pro p. 20. Sed tam ipsa indivisibilium M etho dus,quam qua in ca

fundatur Arithmetica inflnito rum,a no nnullis minus Geometrica

censentur.

lntegrum autem Theo rema a nemine,quo d sciam

,antehac

3 i. e. in 1 705.9 Cf. p . 7.1° i. e . Tacquet.‘1 Wa llis , the eminent mathematician andlogician , died in 1703 .

2 Jo hn Casw ell, an Ox fo rdmathematician ,auth o r o f A Br ief Acco un t of the Doctr ineof Tr igonometry ( 1689) and o ther w ork s.

‘3 Des Chales, a native o f Chambery lnSavoy, was pro fessor o f mathematics in

Claremo nt, and afterwards in Turin. Hisedition o f Euc lid w as lo ng a popular textbo ok . His w ork s w ere published ar Lyons.in fo ur fo lio s, under the title o f Mundus

Mathematicus. He died in 1678.

D e Laa’o A lgelr a z

'

co . 5 5

demo nstratum fuit . Attamen si verum est quo d opinatur Tac

quetus : Idcirco Archimedi inter alia tam multa et pra clara in

venta, illud quo cylindrum inscripta spha ra so liditate et superfi cie

sesquialterum esse demo nstrat, pra reliquis placuisse : quo d co rpo

rum,et superfi cierum co rpo ra ipsa co ntinentium

,eadem esset

atque una ratio nalis propo rtio z’si,inquam,

ho c in causa fuit,cur

is cylindrum spha ra circumscriptum tumulo insculptum vo luit ,

quid tandem faceret sen ex i lle Siculus, si unam eandemque rat iomalem propo rtio nem bina co rpo ra quintuplici respectu in tercederedeprehendisset ? Illud tamen quam facile ex ejus inven tis pro

fluat,mo do vidimus.

[ 14Simi li fere metho do ac no s illud omn ia Tacquet i Theo remataArchimeda is subjuncta, adde et centum istiusmo di alia si cui

o pera pret ium videbitur,diffi cile crit inven ire et demo nstrare.]

DE LUDO ALGEBRAICO

SUB idem tempus quo Theo rema iliad, Ludum etiam Algebraicuminven i. e ppe cum vidissem e familiaribus meis n o n nullo s

, per

dimidio s ferme dies,Scaccho rum 16 ludo gnaviter incumbentes, acre

co rum studium in re n ihili admiratus,rogavi quidnam esset quo d

tantopere labo rarent ? Illi po rro pergratam an imi exercitium re

nuntian t . Ho c ego mecum reputans, mirahar quamobrem tam

pauci ad mathesin,utilissimam sane scientiam eandemque jucun

dissimam,an imum applicarent . An quo d diffi cilis sit ? Sed mult i

et ingen io valen t , nec labo rem in nugis fast idiun t ullum. An

po tins,quo d gratissimum an imi exercitium no n sit .

> Sed qua nam,

qua so , est i lla ars,aut disciplina

,aut quo dcunque demum o pus

,

quod omnem an imi facultatem,so lertiam

,acumen

,sagac itatem

pulch rius ex erceat ? Sed ludus est mathesis ? N ih ilo secius

jucunda : eo tamen si ven isset nomine,tunc fo rsan lepidi ist i

1‘ No t co ntained in the 1 707 editio n .

15 Th is curious Game, co ntrived as a sub

stitute fo r Chess, and at the same time as a

pleasing and useful ex ercise in Algebra, isvery characteristic o f Berk eley. Po rtio ns o fw hat fo llow s, especial ly the formula fo r thepo ssible variatio ns and combinatio n s w hich

the co nditio ns o f theGame admit o f that are

co ntained in the Appendix , are given in MS.

in hisCommon-place-bo o k . TheGame itselfis a so rt o f lo ttery—no t to so lve but to

draw a set o f simple equatio ns. It is w orthlitt le

,save as show ing the bent o f Berk eley'

s

mind to w ards the practical side even o f a

game o f chance. In reading it, he suppo sesh imself, like a spider, in the centre o f the

Tabula .

15 Chess.

5 6 M iscellanea M at/z ema tz'

ca

homuncio nes, qui tempus ludendo terunt , ad ejus studium se

pro tinus accingerent . Subiit adha c sapient issimi viri JohannisLo ckii 17, in re n o n mu ltum absimili

,co nsilium. Sequentem pro

inde lusum ad praxia algebra ex ercendam, rudi fateo r M inerva,

excogitavi, sed qualis ado lescent i, aliis pra sertim studiis o ccupato ,faci le spero co ndo nabitur.

Problemata algebraica immediate co nstituunt a quatio nes data ,qua in qua stio n ibus determinat is quan titates qua sitas numeroexaquan t . Q a libet autem a quatio duo bus co nstat membris aqualitatis s igno co nnex is

,in quo rum utroque co nsideranda veniunt ;

primo,species

,utrum scilicet quant itates datas aut qua sitas desig

nent , deinde, signa quibus co nn ectuntur. Efl‘icere itaque ut ha c

omn ia ad co nstituendas qua stio nes so rte obven iant,ludumque

tam ex qua stio num fo rmation e,quam ex earundem rcso lutione

,

co ncin nare o peram damus.In asserculo

, qualis ad dominarum aut scaccho rum lusum vulgoadhiberi so let

,depingatur circulus quadrato inscriptus, reliquaque

omn ia qua in appo sito Schemate 18 contin entur ; n is i quo d lo co circello rum n igrantium facienda s in t fo ramina. Q i jbus peractis,

habebimus Tabu lam luso riam. Parandus insuper est stylus tenuise ligno

, qui alicui ex dictis fo ramin ibus infigatur. Reliquum est

ut ho rum usum expo namus .

Ut vides, operationum logisticarum Symbola ad latera et angu

los Q adrati scribuntur : po rro latera prio ribus, anguli vero posterio ribus, aquat io num membris s igna impertiunt . Circulus auteminscriptus a sedecim cuspidibus in to tidem partes aquales dispes

citur,ita ut tres cuspides ad latus et angulum quemvis spectent,

sed alia directe,alia o blique : qua o blique latus aliquod aut an

gulum respiciun t, ea angulo et lateri communes sun t , qua verodirecte latus aliquod in tuentur , ea ad angulum nullum pertinent,sed ad utro sque adjacen tes pariter referuntur. Et vicissim qua

angulum aliquem directe intuen tur, ea ad latus nullum pertinent,sed ad utraque adjacentia pariter referri cen senda sun t.In fo rmanda itaque qua stio n e, primo o bservanda est cuspisquam stylus respicit, latusque et angulum ad quo s pertineat ;ho rum s igna no tentur

,quippe qua , ut dix imus

,species utriusque

1"See Essay on the Co nduct of the Under 13 In the o riginal editio n , the Tabulastanding , § 7 . This is the fi rst allusion to Lusor ia o ccupies an enlarged page, whichLo cke m Berkeley’s w ork s. faces this sectio n .

D e Lua’o A lgeér az

'

co . 5 7

TABULA LUSORIA.

cujuslibet a quatio n is membri co nnecten t. Dein, stylo litera ad

pra dictam cuspidem scripta impo sito , numera 1,coque inde juxta

recta l inea ductum tran slato (ut faciun t astro logi, nominum qui

bus feria appellantur rat io nem assignantes) ad literam oppo sitam,

numera 2 . Tun c ad alteram linea,tanquam co nt inuata esset

per annulum in termedium ex tremitatem pergens, numera 3 , et

sic deinceps, do nec litera prima cuspidi adjacens recurrat . Hine

recta descendens ad cuspidem in co nvex itate in terio ris circuliterminatam

,fo ramin i alterutro adjacenti infi ge stylum.

N umerus ult imo numeratus indicabit,quo t quan titates qua sita ,

vel (quo d idem est) quo t a quatio nes data fuerint in qua stio ne .

Harum membra prio ra quant itates igno ta alternatim sumpta et

signo laterali co nnexa,po sterio ra quantitates cogn ita vel inco g

n ita (pro ut determinarit litera ad cuspidem internam scripta)qua sitis signo angulari alligata ,

co nstituent . Po rro a’adhibendas

5 8 M iscellanea M allieni atica

quan titatum co gn itarum species diversas, s unam so lummodo , ffi guras numerales 2

, 3, 4, 8Cc . x quant itates qua sitas repetendas

esse indicat . N o tandum autem,in cujusque a quatio n is membro

po sterio re n o n alias po n i quant itates ign o tas, quam qua in

primo membro sequentis a quatio n is reperian tur . D icta exemplis

clarescen t .

Ponamus itaque stylum o ccupare fo ramen stellu la insign itum,

cuspisque quam respicit pertin ebit ad latus cujus signum est

et ad angulum cujus signum est x , qua signa in charta no to,

laterale a sin istris sive primum deinde angulare. Po rro e ad

cuspidem scribitur,ad quam numero 1 , inde (liberum autem est

e duabus lineis utriusvis ductum sequi) sin istro rsum pergens

o ffendo 4,ad quam numero 2 , hinc tran siens ad z numero 3 ,

inde autem tran sversim cun t i denuo obversatur e,litera prima

cuspidi appo sita,ad quam numerans 4, recta descendo ad cuspidem

in terio rem litera cl in signitam. Erun t igitur quatuo r quantitatesqua sita in qua stio n e, qua signo laterali alternatim connexa

,

co n st ituen t prima aquationum dataram membra. Po sterio ra verofi en t ex quantitatibus igno tis et no tis (pro pter a

’

) diversis per

signum angulare,n imirum x ,

co njunctis , ad hunc mo dum :

(mod si po namus stylum fo ramin i pra cedenti infi xum esse,

quo pacto + laterale directe intuebitur, lin ea que sin istra ductum

sequamur, pro ven ien t tres quant itates investiganda ,et cuspis

in terio r habchit literam f. Unde numerus aquatio num datarum

et primo rum earundem membro rum signa,itemque po sterio rum

species determinan tur. Sed quo n iam in ho c casu cuspis indifferenter se habet respectu duo rum angulo r um adjacentium,

idcirco

co rum signa per vices usurpanda sunt : secundum quas co nditioneshujusmo di struatur qua stio .

a + e = 2 y a z ?

e + y= 3—a e z ?

y+ a z 4 e

Po sito autem stylum sequenti fo ramin i infi gi, cuspis stylaris1n x angularc dirigetur, signaque lateralia+ et—pariter respiciet.

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60 M iscellan ea M al/z enca lica

dum lo ngo s co n sequen t iarum nexus an imo reco lun t , integramque

analyseo s seriem brev issimo co n ceptu claudere labo ran t .Permitte jam,

ado lescens o pt ime ut alio s paulisper alloquar ,

t ibi en im,quem ipsa trah it diffi cultas

,n ih il o pus ho rtato re. Vo s

,

ado lescentes academici,compello , quibus inest sagacitas , men

t isque vigo r et acumen , t ristem vero in musa o so litudinem,

duramque co rum qui vulgo aud'

iunt Pumps, vitam aversamin i,satius

in ter co ngerro nes, per jo cum et lusum,ingen ium pro dere ducentes.

Videt is quam merus lusus sit algebra, et so rs lo cum habet,et

sc ien t ia : quidn i igitur ad tabulam luso riam accedat is ? N equeen im

,quo d in chart is

,scacchis

,domin is

,8cc . usu ven it

,ut dum

ali i ludunt,ali i o scitanter adsten t

,h ic etiam metuatis. N am

quo tcunque ludendi in cesserit libido,ils omn ibus lndere simul

ac studere,

adde et n o nnullis,lucelli aliquid co rradere fas

est . Ast aliquem audire mihi video r in hujusmo di verba crumpentem : Itane vero no s decipi po sse putas ? N o n ii sumus

,quos

ad difi-icillimam artem sudo re multo addiscendum,o blata lusus

specie,inescare liceat . Respo ndeo , algebram eatenus esse diffi

cilem quantum ad lusum requiritur : quo d si to l las omnem diffi

cultatem,to llitur simul recreatio omn is ac vo luptas. Siquidem

ludi omnes to t idem sunt artes et sc ien tia , nec aliud est interca tero s et hun e n o strum discrimen

,quam quo d illi pra sens so lum

mo do oblectamen tum specten t , ex ho e vero,pra ter jucundissi

mum labo rem,ali i etiam iique uberrimi fructus percipiantur. Tan

tum autem abest quod ho c in lusus detrimen tum cedat,ut is id

circo omn ibus numeris abso lutus jure habeatur,juxta tritum illud

po eta,

Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci.’

Sed qu inam sun t i lli quo s pra dicas fructus ? Ho s ut enumerem,

un iversa,quaqua patet

,mathesis

,artesque omnes ac sc ientia

,quas

rem mi litarem,civilem

,et phiIOSOphicam promoventes complec

t itur, perlustranda fo ren t . (Q ippe per hasce omnes difi

'

unditur

mirifi ca algebra vis . Eadem apud omnes ars magna, mirabilis,supremus cognitio n is humana apex

,un iversa matheseos nucleus

e t c lavis,imo apud n o nn eminem sc ien tiarum omn ium fundamen

tum audit . Et sane quam diffi cile esset algebra limites assignare,cum philo soph iam et iam naturalem et medicinam jamdudum in

vasit,inque dies dissitissima qua que argumenta aggreditur. Ut

alia taceam,in Act is Ph i lo so ph . N O

. 25 7 , de certitudine testimo

D e Lua’o A lgeér aico . 61

n io rum et tradit io num humanarum algebraica ex tant theo remata.

Et pro certo statuendum est,ubicunque datur magis ac minus

,

ubicunque ratio aliqua aut propo rtio invenitur,ibi lo cum habere

algebram .

Verum dix erit fo rtasse aliquis, se nec mathesin ipsam,nec res

mathematice tractatas mo rari . U t lubet : demus ho c vo lun tat i

cujuspiam,demus ign o rant ia : n imirum ex igno ran t ia rerum pra

clarissimarum, guague

rvar a larlaris distinguunt‘z l,co n temptum pro

fi cisci afi irmare ausim. Estne vero quisquam qui ingen ium sagax ,

intellectum capacem,judicium acre parvi faciat ? Siquis usque

adeo rat io n is expers inven iatur, is demum mathesin spermat, qua

quan ti sit moment i ad optimo s quo sque men tis habitus comparando s

,apud omnes in co nfesso est .

Verulamius alicubi,in lis qua de Augment is Scien t iarum co n

scripsit‘m,analogiam quandam in ter pila palmaria lusum et mathe

sin no tat . N empe quemadmo dum per illum,u ltra vo luptatem

qua primum in tenditur,alia caque po tio ra co nsequamur,

fw'

z . co r

po ris agilitatem et robur, promptumque o culo rum mo tum : sic dis

ciplina mathematica ,pra ter fines ac usus singulis pro prio s, illud

et iam co llaterale habent,quo d men tem a sen sibus abstrahant

,

ingeniumque acuant et fi gan t . Idem ho c tam o lim veteres,quam

ho die e modern is co rdatio res quique agno scun t . (mod vero recentio rum algebra ad ingen ium fo rmandum imprimis co nducat

,inter

al io s o stendun t Cartesius 23,et pro lixeMalbran chius

“24 DeInquirenda

2‘

[Vide Tentamen Anglicum de Har tis

Epicur i, a Gulielmo Temple, Equite Auratoco nscriptum AUTHOR. The reference to

Sir Wil liam Temple is co ntained in the

fo llow ing sen tence M ore than th is, I

know no advan tage mank ind has gained bythe progress o f natural philo so phy, duringso many ages it has had vogue in the w orld ,excepting always and very justly w hat w e

owe to the M athematics, which is in a

manner all that seems valuable amo ng the

civilised natio ns,more than tho se w e cal l

barbarians, whether they are so o r no , o r

more so than o urselves.’—Essay upon tbe

Gardens of Epicz tr us See Temple’sCollected Wo rks , vo l. I. p. 1 72 (ed.

Cf. Guardian , N o . 130 , in w hich the abo vepassage is referred to in a similar manner.

23 The passage alluded to is co n tained inthe Advancemen t of Learning , the earlierw ork and is no t r epro duced in thetranslatio n, in the correspo nding passage o f

the De Augmentis The w ords arethese Fo r if the w it be to o dull , they(Pure M athematics) sharpen it if to o

w andering, they fi x it ; if to o inheren t insense , they abstract it . So that as tennis is

a game o f no use in itself, but o f great use

in respect it mak eth a quick eye and a

bo dy ready to put itself into all po stures

so in the Mathematics, that use w hich is

co llateral and intervenient is no less w orthythan that w hich is principal and intended.

’

Advancement of Learn ing, B. II. But Baco n

repeats his recommendatio n o fMathematics,especially as an educatio n o f the po w er o fattent io n ,

in the De Augmentis, VI. 4 , andin the Essay o n Studies in 1625 .

as See Discour s de la Méthode, pp. 143146, in Cousin

’

s editio n o f the w orks o f

Des Cartes. In ano ther passage in the samew ork

,Des Cartes speak s rather in disparage

men t o fAlgebra.

2’ This paragraph co ntains Berkeley’s

6 2 M iscellanea M a i/z ein a tica .

Veritate,lib. V i. part 1 . cap. 5 . et part . 2 . cap. 8. alibique passim.

Et regula quidem quas hic in qua stio num so lutio n e o bservandas

t radit,lib. Vi. part . 2 . cap. 1 . qua que tam sun t ex imia ,

ut melio res

angelum n o n fuisse daturum credat aucto r quidam ingen io sus

illa,inquam,

regula angelica ex algebra desumi V iden tur. At

quid alio s memo rem,cum V ir omn i laude majo r, Johann es Lo ckius,

qui singulo s intellectus human i defectus, eo rumque remedia,Siquis

alius,o pt ime callebat

,cum un iversa matheseo s

,tum pra sertim

algebra studium,omn ibus supra plebem po sitis, tanquam rem

in fi niti usus vehementer commendat ? V ide in ter Opera ejus

Po sthuma i’fi, pag. 30, 3 1 , 32, Sec . Tractatus de Regimine Intellectus

o pus ex iguum quidem illud et imperfectum,sed quod vastis et

elabo ratis alio rum vo lumin ibus jure quisquam pra tulerit . At veroaucto r magn i n omin is ad disciplinas mathematicas aerem n imismeditatio n em

, qua que bomin i gene ro so et vo luptatibus studentiminus co nven iat

,requiri putat . Respo ndeo , suadente Lo ckio

,

frustra o ppo n i dissiden tis San tevremo n tii 26 judicium. Delude hicineptus matheseo s judex merito habeatur

,quippe qui, uti ex ejus

vita et scriptis plusquam verisimile est,earn vix a limine salutarat.

Si vero co rtex durus videatur et ex succus,quid mirum ? Sed ut

dicam quo d res est , pra stat singulo s rem ipsam experto s propriasequi judicia. N ec est cur quis ingentes dilfi cultates sibi fi ngat,eo quo d vo x algebra nescio quid asperum so nat et ho rrifi cum ,artem en im

,quantum ad ludum n o strum requiritur, intra breve

un ius men sis spat ium facile quisquam perdiscat .

Expo sita demum- lusus et consili i n o stri rat io ne

,lecto rem ma

themat icum,ut tenues istas studio rum meo rum primitias candide

accipiat, rogo , po tio ra fo rsan po sthac daturus. Impra sen tiarum

autem me alia distin ent studia qua , arida satis et jejuna,suavissi

mam mathesin ex ceperun t . Tu in terim,Clarissime Ado lescens

,

han c nugarum rhapso diam,tanquam aliquo d mei erga te amo ris

symbo lum,cape

,et vale .

earliest published allusio ns to Baco n , Des

Cartes, and Malebranche, here adduced as_

authorities in favo ur o f the study o f Mathematies. It maybe added that Malebranche,in h isRecher che, Liv . VLp . ii. ch . 8, alludesto the commendatio n o f Algebra in DesCartes' D iscour s de la Méthode.

25 The reference is to the Essay on the

Conduct of the Understanding, 5 7 , eulogiz edin the fo llo w ing sentence.

26 Saint Evremo nd, a famo us French w ito f the seventeen th century, w ho came to

England in the reign o f Charles II, and diedthere in 1 703. He w as co nnected w ith

Bayle , Des Marz eaux , and o ther men o f

letters o f that time.

A P P E N D IX .

UT mentem no stram quilibet plenissime assequatur, visum est,

sequen tibus paginis, omnem in qua stio nibus Combinatio num et

Specierum varietatem quam pra fata lndendi co nditio n es patiantur oculis subjicere.

N o tandum autem : Primo,quo d sequentes fo rmula

,quoadmo do s

combinandi et quantitatum Spec ies,n on item omnes quo ad nume

rum aquatio numdatarum,ad Cuspides respectivas pertin en t : sa pe

en im plures quam tres quan titates investiganda crunt .Secundo

,quo d ut omnes qua stio num fo rmula haberi po ssin t,

meta diversa,prout fieri po sse supra monuimus

,statuenda sun t

alioqui dua tantum ex quatuo r classibus ad Cuspidem quamcunquepertinebunt .

Primam dico Cupisdem qua in laterale dirigitur, secundamhuic a dex tris pro x imam, atque ita po rro .

A D L E C T O R E M .

ISTA ado lescentia n o stra,o biter tan tum proprioque marte ad

quan tulamcunque matheseo s scien tiam o lim en itentis,co namina

in lucem pro trusisse sero aliquo ties poenituit . (min et poeniteret

etiamnum,n isi quo d hinc no bi le par Ingen io rum,

in spem nascen

tis sa culi succrescentium,una propalandi enascatur o ccasio . N eque

en im n o s aliunde Rempublicam Literariam demereri glo riamur.

Atque ha c quidem ad temeritatis,86C. censuram

,ut et invidiam

,

si quam mih i fo rte co nflaverim,amo liendum dicta in telligantur.

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68 M is te/14mm M at/z ematz’

cz z .

d v—e a x e z e-z—yy—t—é’x e x y e—y: y

—z z a-z—yy

_ ay x a z a + e e-z—a

s e xyz y—z—é é + yd + é 5 a

y‘

x a z a—z-é é—z-u e—z—é £+ e

a x e= e -é b—z—ey—z—b éd e x y= y+ c c -

y a -c c —ay x a : a - d a

'- a e+ d d+ e

y x a = d + 44+ a e_:-44- e

4 X y-e

y x d = a 8—2—4

e+ é 5 .—e y+ 6s e x y= é +yy+ é é + 4 a + é y+ é b+ya+ é é + a

é + e c+ é d + é 5 4—4 e+ é £+ e

fl x p = é + e e-z—é é +yy+ 6 e+ é é + e y+ é é—z—y

d e x yz e+ y y+ c c~

+ d a + cy_ :-c a+j a + c t + a

a+yy-e—2 2

—6

a x e = e+y 8—2 ] e +yy+ e

x

yx a z a + e'

a —e d + e er r-d

Appm/mix 7 1

7 2 M iscellanea M a t/z ematz'

ea .

d + e = !

x e+y= y—a a—y

y+ a = a—e e—a

N . B . Est et alia varietas in prio ribus a quatio num membris,

ubi signum analyticum reperitur, v iz . si Species tran spo namus.

E .g. in cuspide quarta adhibit ls y—e in duo decima

duplicabun tur qua stio nes.

[1N e quis fo rte putet qua stio nes omn es in ludo no stro possibilesa Tabulis exhiberi

,n o tandum est i llas revera esse innumeras. N am

meta in fi n ities variari po terunt : ex h is Vero pendet numerusquan titatum in quovis problemate qua sitarum, qui pro inde pro

metarum diversitate erit infin ite variabi lis , unde qua stio n es o ri

en tur innumera,in quaram tamen singulis n o n alia servanda

sun t metho di pro sign is, combinatio n ibus,et Speciebus determi

nandis,quam qua in so lis qua stio n ibus imparis cujusvis pra ter

un itatem numeri quantitatum qua sitarum atque adeo in Tabulisquas appo suimus exhibeantur.]

1 N o t contained in the 1 707 editio n .

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7 6 D e M eta .

quam a philo so pho rum aucto ritate nato,ipsa rerum natura dili

gen ter inspicienda. N eque en im cujusquam aucto ritatem usqueadeo valere opo rtet , ut verba ejus et vo ces in pretio s in t

,dummodo

n ihil clari et certi iis subesse comperiatur .

z . M o tus co ntemplatio mire to rsit veterum aphilo sopho rum

mentes,unde nata sunt varia Opin iones supra mo dum difiiciles

,

n e dicam absurda, qua , quum jam fere in desuetudinem abierint

,

haud meren tur ut iis discutiendis n imio studio immo remur. Apudrecentio res autem et sanio res hujus a vi 4 philo sopho s, ubi de Mo tuagitur, vo cabula haud pauca abstracta nimium et o bscura signifi

cationis o ccurrun t,cujusmodi sunt solicitatio gravitatis, conatus

,

wires mortua , 8cc . qua scriptis alioqui do ctissimis tenebras oflim

dunt,sententiisque no n minus a vero quam a sensu hominum

communi abho rren tibus o rtum pra bent . Ha c vero necesse est

ut,veritatis gratia, no n alio s refellendi studio

,accurate discu

tiantur.

3. Solicitatio et n isus,sive co natus

,rebus so lummo do animatis s

revera. competunt .accipiantur n ecesse est.

sopho .

Cum aliis rebus tribuuntur,sensu metapho rico

Ametapho ris autem abstinendum philoPo rro

,seclusa omn i tam an ima affectio n e quam co rpo ris

mo tio ne,n ih il c lari ac distincti iis vo cibus signifi cari, cuilibet

co nstabit qui mo do rem serio perpenderit .

mo tio n amo ng bo dies is co nsidered in the

remaining sectio ns o f the Essay. The on lytrue o r effi cien t cause o f mo tion and o f its

difi’usio n, as w as argued in the precedingsectio ns, is the Intelligence to which all co r

po realchange is due . But the rules accordingto w hich it tak es place—the Law s o f

mo tion —may be termed its mechanical o r

appar ent cause . If w e remember that

physical causatio n means o nly the orderaccording to w hich sensible changes take

place—that it is o nlyNatural Languagew e may speak o f mo tions transmitted bymechanical causes. But Causatio n properlyso cal led belo ngs to metaphysics o r primaryphilo sophy, and active causes can be drawnforth from the shades in which they are

invo lved on ly by co ntemplatio n and rea

soumTheDeM om shou ld be compared, o n the

o ne hand, w ith Berk eley's P rinciples and

Dialogues o n Mat ter, and, o n the o th erhand , w ith S ir is , being itself intermediate

betw een his earlier and later philosophy.

See also Alcipbr on , Dial . VII. sect. 4.

3 ‘ vo ces male intellecta .

’Cf. P rinciples

of Human Knowledge,‘ Intro ductio n ,’ sect.

6 , 23—25 .

3 ‘veterum.

’

The h istory o f ancien t

speculations abo ut mo tion , from the parado xes o f Z eno downw ards , is, in some sort ,a history o f ancient metaphysics. The

pro blem invo lves the nature o f Space, Time,and Sensible Things, and their ultimate re

latio n to Mind.

‘hujus avi.’See Baco n , DeMom, and

the questions raised by New ton , Leibnit z ,and o thers, al luded to in the fo l low ingsections.

5animatis.’ Sect . 3

—42 refer the

various terms in language w hich signify the

cause o f mo tion ex clusively to animated

being, mind, o r spirit , and interpret metapho rically their applicatio n to sensiblethings.

D e M ala . 7 7

4. Q ramdiu co rpo ra gravia a no bis sustinentur,sen timus in

nobismet ipsis n isum,fat igation em,

ct mo lestiam. Percipimus

etiam in gravibus cadentibus mo tum acceleratum versus centrumtelluris ; ope sensuum pra terea n ihi l. Ratio ne tamen co lligitur

causam esse aliquam vel prin cipium ho rum pha nomen o n ; illud

autem gravitas vulgo nuncupatur . (Eo niam vero causa descen susgravium ca ca sit et in cogn ita, gravitas ea acceptio n e pro prie dicinequit qualitas sensibilis 5 est igitur qualitas o cculta. Sed vix

,

et ne vix quidem,concipere licet quid sit qualitas o ccu lta

,aut qua

ratio ne qualitas ulla agere aut o perari quidquam po ssit . M e liusitaque fo ret, si

,missa qualitate o cculta

,homines attenderent

so lummo do ad efi’ectus sensibiles , vo cibusque abstractis (quantumvis i lla ad disserendumut i les sint) in meditatio ne omissis, mens

in part icularibus et co ncretis, ho c est in ipsis rebus, defi geretur .

5 . Vis fi Simi liter co rpo ribus tribuitur : usurpatur autem vo cabulum

illud,tanquam "

signifi caret qualitatem cognitam,distinctamque

tam a mo tu,fi gura, omnique alia re sen sibili

,quam ab omn i

an imal i affectio ne : id vero n ihil al iud esse quam qualitatem

o ccultam,rem act ins riman ti co nstabit . N isus animalis et mo tus

co rpo reus vulgo spectantur tanquam symptomata et men sura hujusqualitatis o cculta .

6. Patet igitur gravitatem aut vim frustra pon i pro principio 7mo tus : nunquid en im prin cipium illud clarins cogno sc i po test exeo quo d dicatur qualitas o ccu lta ? Q J

’Od ipsum o ccultum est

,

nih i l explicat : ut omittamus causam agentem incogn itam rect ius

dici po sse substant iam quam qualitatem. Po rro vis, grav itas, et

istiusmo di vo ces,sa pius, n ec in epte, in co ncreto usurpantur, ita

ut co nn o tent co rpus mo tum,diffi cultatem resistendi

,Scc . Ubi

vero a philo sophis adhiben tur ad signifi candas naturas quasdam

ab hisce omn ibus pra cisas et abstractas, qua nec sensibus subji

ciuntur,n ec ulla mentis vi in telligi nec imaginatio ne eliingi

e

po ssunt , tum demum erro res et co nfusionem pariunt.

vis.’This suppo sed power o r for ce in when gravity,’ bodily pow er,’ o r force,’

matter is the great ex ample o ffered o f the are taken as causes o f mo tion . To cal labuse o f abstractio ns. It seems easily co n these ‘

o ccult causes'

is to say no thing.

ceivable , but reflectio n disso lves the apparent The sensible effects and their law s are allw emeaning. Cf. S iris, sect . 248. know thro ugh sense. Mere physicists are

principio —the ultimate explanatio n still deluded by these metaphors.o r eflicient cause. Cf. sect . 36. M ere 3 Cf. sect. 53, where sense

, in telligence,metaphors, due to metaphysical abstractio n , and imagination are distinguished from o ne

are accepted fo r explanations, it is argued, ano ther.

7 8 D e M ala .

7 . M ulto s autem in erro rem ducit,quo d vo ces generales et

abstractas in disserendo ut i les 9 esse v idean t,n ec tamem earum

vim satis capiant . Part im vero a co nsuetudine vulgari iriventasunt illa ad sermo nem abbreviandum

,part im a philo sophis ad

do cendum excogitata ; no n quo d ad maturas rerum accommo data

sint, qua quidem singulares et co ncreta ex istunt

,sed quo d ido nea

ad tradendas disciplinas, propterea quod faciant no t io n es, vel saltem

propo sitio nes, un iversales .

8. Vim co rpo ream esse aliquid co nceptu fac i le plerumque,ex istimamus. Ii tamen qui rem accurat ius inspexerun t in diversasunt o pin io n e

,uti apparet ex mira verbo rum obscuritate qua

labo ran t ubi illam explicare co nantur . To rricellius ait vim et

impetum esse res quasdam abstractas subtilesque et quin tessentias,qua includuntur in substant ia co rpo rea

,tanquam in vase magico

C irces 10. Leibnitius item in natura vi explicanda ha c habet

V z'

s actives, primitiva, ga ze est évr eh e

’

xa a 7rpa’rr r), anima

fuel formee sul

stan tialz'

respondet . V ide A ria Erna’z

’

t . Lips . Usque adeo n ecesseest ut vel summi viri

, quamdiu abstractio n ibus indulgent, vo cesnulla certa sign ifi catio ne pra ditas, et meras scho lastico rum umbrassecten tur . Alia ex neo terico rum scriptis, nec pauca quidem ea

,

pro ducere liceret,quibus abunde

,co nstaret

,metaphysicas abstrac

t io n es n o n usquequaque cessisse mechan ica et experimen tis, sed

n ego t ium inane philo so phis etiamnum facessere .

9 . Ex illo fo nte derivantur varia absurda,cujus generis est illud

q n'

m percussion z'

s,utcnngne ex igaae, esse infi nite magnam. n d sane

suppo n it, gravitatem esse qualitatem quendam realem ab aliis

omn ibus diversam , et gravitatio nem esse quasi actum hujus qualitat is a mo tu realiter distinctum : min ima autem percussio pro

ducit effectum majo rem quam maxima gravitatio sine mo tu , illasci licet mo tum aliquem edit

,ha c nullum. Unde sequitur

,Vim

percussio n is rat io ne infi n ita ex cedere vim gravitatio n is, ho c est,

esse infin ite magnam”

. Videantur experimenta Galila i,et qua de

defi n ita vi percussio n is scripserunt To rricellius, Bo rellus, et ali i .

9 ‘utiles.’ Cf. Alcipbr on , Dial . VII. sect. nel l’ intima corpulen z a de so lidi naturali,

8 , I 7 . Vide Lez ioni Academicbe.] —AUTHOR . This1°[La Materia altro non e che un vaso di compariso n o f M atter t o the enchanted vase

Circe incantato , il quale serve per ricettaco lo o fCirce , il lustrates a mass o f crude physicaldel la for z a et de momen ti dell’ impeto . La speculatio n . With th is and the six fo llowfo r z a l

’

impeti so no astratti tanto so ttili, so no ,ing sectio ns cf. Alcipbr o n , Dial . VII.quintessen z e tanto spirito se, che in altre 11 See Bo rellus

,De Vi P er enssionis , cap.

ampo lle n o n sr po sso no rachiudere , fuo t che XXIV . pr0p . 88 , and cap.XXVII.

D e M ela . 79

10. Veruntamen fatendum est vim nullam per se immediatesent iri

,neque aliter quam per efi’ectum12 cogno sci et mensurari.

Sed Vis mo rtua,seu gravitatio nis simplicis, in co rpo re quiescente

subjecto , nul la facta mutatio n e,efi -"ectus nul lus est , percussio n is

autem,efi fectus aliquis. (mon iam

,ergo , Vi res sunt effect ibus

pro po rt io nales,co ncludere licet vim mo rtuam 13 esse nullam. N eque

tamen propterea vim percussio n is esse in fi n itam : n o n en im opo rtet

quantitatem nllam po sit ivam habere pro infi n ita, propterea quo dratione in fi nita superet quantitatem nullam sive n ih i l.

1 1 . Vis gravitationis a momento secern i nequit ; momen tumautem sine celeritate nullum est

,quam sit mo les in celeritatem

ducta : po rro celeritas sin e mo tu in telligi no n po test , ergo n ec

vis gravitatio n is. Deinde vis nulla n isi per act io nem inno tescit,

et per candem mensuratur , act io n em autem co rpo ris a mo tu

pra scindere no n po ssumus ; ergo quamdiu co rpus grave plumbisubject i vel cho rda fi guram mutat

,tamdiu mo vetur , ubi vero

quiescit , n ih il agit , vel, quo d idem est,agere pro hibetur . Breviter,

vo ces ista fvis mor tna et grav itatio, etsi per abstractio nem meta

physicam aliquid signifi care suppo nuntur diversum a moven te,

mo to,mo tu et quiete

,revera tamem id to tum n ih i l est .

1 2 . Siquis diceret po ndus appensum vel impo situm agere in

cho rdam,quo n iam impedit quominus se restituat vi elast ica : dico

,

pari r‘at io ne co rpus quodvis inferum agere in superius incumbens,

quon iam illud descendere pro hibet : dici vero n o n po test act io co r

po ris,quo d pro hibeat aliud co rpus ex istere in eo lo co quem o ccupat .

13 . Pressionem co rpo ris gravitantis quandoque sent imus. Verumsen sio ista mo lesta o ritur ex mo tu co rpo ris istius gravis fi bris nervisque no stri co rpo ris communicatio

,et eo rundem situm immu

tan te , adeoque percussio n i accepta refert i debet . In hisce rebusmultis et gravibus pra judiciis labo ramus, sed i lla acri atque iteratameditatio ne subigenda sunt 14

,vel po t ins penitus averruncanda.

12per effectum,

’

i. c . by its sensible tation’

are distinguished from the sensibleeffects—po ivet o r force no t being, in itself,a dead object o f the senses, but th e livingspiritual efi icacy o f w h ich w e are co nscious.

Cf. S iris, sect . 250 .

13vim mortuam.

’

The o n ly pow er

reco gnised in this philo so phy is the livingpow er o f M ind, perpetual ly active in the

universe, in itself impercept ible thro ugh the

senses, and revealed to them o n ly in its

sensible efi'

ects.‘Dead pow er’ and gravi

effects called rest’ and ‘mo tio n’o n ly through

an illusio n due to metaphysical abstractio n .

There is no physical pow er in termediate be

tw een spiritual agency, o n the o ne hand,and the o rder w e observe in the sensibleeffects o f that agency, o n the o ther. Cf.

sect . 1 1 .

14 meditatione subigenda sunt .’

Cf.

Theory of Vision Vindicated , sect. 35 , 70 .

80 D e M eta .

14 . (Q 0 pro betur quan titatem nllam esse infi n itam,o stendi

o po rtet partem aliquam fi n itam homogen eam in ea infi n ities co n

tin eri. Sed vis mo rtua se habet ad vim percussio n is, no n ut parsad to tum

,sed ut pun ctum ad lin eam

,jux ta ipso s vis infi n ita per

cussion is aucto res . M ulta in hanc rem adjicere liceret, sed vereo r

me pro lixus sim .

r5 . Ex prin cipiis pramissis lites insignes so lvi po ssunt, quaviro s do cto s multum exercuerun t . Hujus rei exemplum sit co n

tro versia i lla de propo rtio ne virium. Una pars dum co ncedit,

momen ta,mo tus

,impetus

,data mo le

,esse simpliciter ut velo ci

tates,afi

’irmat V ires esse ut quadrata velo citatum. Hanc autem

sen tentiam suppo n ere vim co rpo ris dist ingui 15 a momen to,mo tu

,et

impetu , caque suppo sit io n e sublata co rruere,n emo n o n videt.

1 6. (Q 0 clarius adhuc appareat , co nfusio nem quandam miramper abstractio n es metaphysicas in do ctrinam de mo tu introductam

esse,videamus quan tum intersit in ter no tio nes viro rum celebrium

de vi et impetu . Leibn itius impetum cum mo tu co nfundit . JuxtaN ew to num 16 impetus revera idem est cum vi inertia . Bo rellus 17

asserit impetum n o n aliud esse quam gradum velo citatis. Aliiimpetum et co natum inter se differre

,alii no n ditferre vo lunt .

Plerique vim mo tricem mo tui pro po rtio nalem intelligun t . N o n

nulli aliam aliquam vim pra ter mo tricem,et diversimode men

surandam,utpo te per quadrata velo citatum in mo les

,intelligere

pra se ferun t . Sed infi nitum esset ha c pro sequi .17 . Vis

, grav itas, a t tractio , et hujusmodi vo ces, utiles lfl sunt ad

ratio cinia et computatio nes de mo tu et co rpo ribus mo tis , sed no n

ad intelligendam simplicem ipsius mo tus naturam,vel ad quali

tates to tidem distinctas designandas. Attractio nem certe quodattinet

, patet illam ab N ew to n o adh iberi,no n tanquam qualitatem

yeram et physicam,sed so lummodo ut hypo thesin mathematicamw

.

“ 5 ‘ distingui . It is here argued that socal led pow er in the material w orld is in

distinguishable from the sensible phenomena o r effects—in sh ort, that there is noreal pow er in matter. To the inco nceivablesuppo sitio n that there is, he attributes thediff erences amo ng the learned mentio ned inthe fo llow ing sec tio n . The pro vince o fn atural philo sophy, according to Berk eley,is to inquire w hat the general rules are

according to wh ich sensible eff ects are

man ifested. Cf. S ir is , sect . 236, 247 , 249 .

1“ P r incipia Math. Def. III.

De Vi P er cussionis, cap . I.18 ‘

utiles.’ Berkeley’s do ctrine o f the

functio n o f commo n terms as useful instrumen ts fo r calculatio n , even when no t sigui

fi can t o f w hat he calls ideas,is illustrated

in Alcipbr on , Dial . Vll. So here such w o rds

as‘ force,’ ‘

pow er, gravity, attraction ,’are al low ed to be co nvenient in physicalreaso n ings abo ut the law s o f mo tio n , butw o rth less as philo so phical expressio ns o f thecause o f mo tio n , which transcends sense.

Cf. S ir is,sect . 234 , 235 .

19 Cf. sect . 67 .

D e M ala . 8 1

(Q inetiam Leibn itius,n isum e lemen tarem seu so licitatio n em ab

impetu distinguen s, fatetur i lla entia n o n re ipsa inven iri in rerumnatura, sed abstractio n e facienda esse.

18. Similis ratio est compo sitio n is et reso lutio n is v irium qua

rumcunque directarum in quascunque o bliquas, per diago nalem

et latera parallelogrammi . Ha c mechan ica et computatio n i in

serviunt : sed aliud est computatio ni et demo nstratio n ibus mathe

maticis inservire,aliud rerum naturam exhibere.

19. Ex recentio ribus mult i sun t in ea o pin io ne,

ut puten t

mo tum neque destrui n ec de no vo gigni, sed eandem 20 sempermo tus quan titatem permanere. Aristo teles etiam dubium illud

o lim propo suit—utrum mo tus factus sit et co rruptus, an vero ab

a terno ? Plays. lib. xiii . Op o d vero mo tus sen sibi lis pereat,patet

sensibus : i lli autem eundem,impetum,

n isum,aut summam

virium candem manere ve lle Videntur . Unde afiirmat Bo rellus,

V im in percussio ne n o n imminui,sed expandi , impetus et iam

co n trario s suscipi et retineri in eo dem co rpo re . Item Leibn it ius

n isum ubique et semper esse in materia,et ubi no n patet sensibus

,

rat io ne int elligi co ntendit .—Ha c autem n imis abstracta esse et

o bscura,ejusdemque fere generis cum fo rmis substant ialibus et

en telechiis,fatendum.

20 . (Eo tquo t, ad explicandum mo tus causam atque o riginem,

vel principio hylarchico , vel natura indigen t ia, vel appet itu, aut

den ique instinctu natural i utuntur,dix isse aliquid po tius quam

cogitasse cen sendi sun t . N eque ab bisce multum absunt qui sup

po suerin t‘2‘, partes terr re esse se mov en tes

,ant etiam spiritus z

'

z'

s

implan tatos ad instar form e,

ut assignen t causam acceleratio n is

gravium caden tium : aut qui dix erit29,

“ in co rpo re pra ter so lidamex tensio nem debere etiam po n i aliquid unde virium co nsideratio

o riatur.”

Siquidem hi omnes vel n ih il particulare et determi

natum enuntian t , vel, si quid sit, tam diffi cile crit illud explicare,

quam id ipsum cujus explicandi causa adducitur‘w

.

2 1. Frustra ad naturam illustrandum abhibentur ea qua nec

candem.

’

So in recent discussio ns 011 a real causality in the material w orld are

the co nservatio n o f force . merely a co ver fo r meaninglessness. O nly2‘

[Bo rellus.]—AUT110R . See De Vi P er thro ugh o ur experience o f perso nal activitycassianis, cap XXIII. do es meaning enter in to this portio n

‘

o f22

[Leibn itiusj—An’r no n . language . This is argued in detail 1n sect.

9" On Berk eley’

s reaso n ing in the tex t , 2 1—35 .

all terms w hich invo lve the assumptio n o f

VOL. I II. G

8 2 De M ain .

sen sibus patent, n ec ratio ne in telligi po ssunt . V idendum ergoquid sensus

,quid experientia, quid demum rat io iis innixa suadeat.

Duo sunt summa rerum gen era—corpus et nn imn . Rem exten sam,

so lidam,mo bi lem

,fi guratam,

aliisque qualitatibus quae sen sibus

o ccurrunt praeditam,ope sensuum ; rem vero sen tientem

, percipien tem ,

in telligen tem,co nscientia quadam in terna cogno vimus.

Po rro,res istas plane inter se diversas 24 esse

,lo ngeque hetero

gen easfi t,cern imus. Loquo r autem de rebus cognitis : de in

cogn itis en im disserere nil juvat .

22 . To tum id quo d n ovimus,cui n omen corpus indidimus, n ihil 9 5

in se co nt inet quo d mo tus princ ipium seu causa efi iciens esse

po ssit— eten im impen etrabilitas, ex tensio , fi gura nullum includunt

vel co nno tant po ten tiam pro ducendi mo tum ; quin imo e co ntrarion o n mo do i llas

,verum etiam alias

, quo tquo t sint, co rpo ris, qualitates sigillatim percurren tes, V idebimus omnes esse revera passivas

,

n ihilque iis activum inesse,quo d ullo mo do intelligi po ssit tan

quam fo n s et principium mo tus. Gravitatem quo d attinet,vo ce

i lla n ihi l cogn itum et ab ipso efi'

ectu sensibi li,cujus causa quaeritur,

diversum signifi cari jam ante o stendimus. Et sane quando co rpusgrave dicimus

,n ihi l aliud in telligimus

,n isi quo d feratur deo rsum

,

de causa hujus effectus sen sibilis n ihil omn ino cogitan tes;23. De

'

co rpo re itaque audacter pro nunciare licet,utpo te de re

comperta, quo d n o n sit principium mo tus. Q o d si quisquam,

praeter so lidam ex tensio nem ejusque modifi catio nes, vo cem corpus

qualitatem etiam occultam,

virtutem,fo rmam

,essentiam com

plecti sua sign ifi catio n e co ntendat ; l icet quidem i lli inuti li nego tiosine ideis disputare

,et nomin ibus n ihi l dist in cte exprimentibus

abut i. Caeterum san io r philo sophandi rat io videtur ab n o tio nibus

abstractis et gen eralibus (si modo n o tio nes dici debent quae intelligi n equeunt) quan tum heri po test abstinuisse .

9" ‘ diversas’ Cf. P rinciples of Human Know ledge, sect . 1 , 2 , inw hich o ur kno w ledge is c lassifi ed by reference to its co nstituen t faculties ; and inw hich mind o r perso nality, said here to berevealed by an internal co nscio usness ( conscientia qud dam interna) , is co ntrasted w ithsensible things o r ideas revealed in sense

( ope sen suum).95 ‘

nihil .’ Cf. P r inciples of HumanKnowledge, e .g. sect . 26 , 65 , 66, w here the

essential passivity o f ideas given in sense, o r

the material w orld , is maintained as a car

dinal principle o f the Berkeleian philo sophy-on the po sitive ground o f o ur experience o f

w hat sensible things are. Cf. S z'

r z'

s, sect .

155 , 29 2 . On the o ther hand, to speak o f

the origin o f mo tio n as something in matter’

is, he argues ( sect . merely to say thatw e know no thingabo ut the origin o fmo tio n .

Cf. sect . 28, 29, infra.

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

84 D e M o tu .

n ihi l aliud est quam continuatio in eo dem mo do ex istendi, quae

pro prie dici act io non po test . Cseterum resistentiam, quam ex

perimur in sistendo co rpo re mo to , ejus actio nem esse fi ngimus

vana specie delusi . Revera en im ista resistentia 3° quam sentimus,

passio est in no bis,n eque arguit co rpus agere

,sed no s pat i : con

stat utique no s idem passuro s fuisse, sive co rpus illud a se moveatur

,sive ab alio principio impellatur.

28. Actio et reactio dicuntur esse in co rpo ribus : nec incom

mo de 8 1 ad demo nstrationes mechanicas. Sed cavendum,ne prop

terea suppo namus virtutem aliquam realem,quae mo tus causa sive

principium sit,esse in iis. Etenim vo ces i ll-ac eo dem mo do intelli

gendz sunt ac vo x attractio , et quemadmodum haec est hypo thesisso lummo do mathemat ica l”

,n o n autem qualitas physica : idem et iam

de i llis intelligi debet , et ob candem rat io n em. N am sicut veritaset usus theorematum de mutua co rpo rum attract io ne in ph i lo sophiamechanica stabi les manen t

,utpo te un ice fundati in mo tu co r

po rum,sive mo tus iste causari suppo natur per actio n em co rpo rum

se mutuo attrahentium,sive per act io nem agentis alicujus a

co rpo ribus diversi impellen tis et mo derantis co rpo ra ; pari ratione,quascunque tradita sunt de regalis et legibus mo tuum,

simul act heo remata inde deducta

,manent inco n cussa

,dum mo do conce

dan tur efi '

ectus sensibilis,et rat io cin ia lis innixa ; sive supponamus

actio nem ipsam,aut vim ho rum eH-

"

ectuum causatricem,esse in

co rpo re,sive in agente in co rpo reo .

29. Auferantur ex idea co rpo ris extensio,

so liditas,fi gura,

remanebit,nihil” . Sed qualitates istae sun t admo tum indifferentes,

nec in se quidquam habent quo d mo tus principium dici po ssit.Ho e ex ipsis ideis n o stris perspieuum est. Si igitur vo ce corpus

signifi catur id quod con cipimus,plane co nstat inde no n pet i po sse

prin cipium mo tus : pars sci licet nu lla aut attributum i llins causaeffi ciens vera est

,quae mo tum pro ducat . Vo cem autem pro ferre,

et n ihil con cipere,id demum indignum esset philo sopho .

3° ‘resistentia.

’The sensatio n o f resist

ance is vulgarly o ffered as in itself evidenceo f the independent ex istence o f material

tained in the P r inciples and Dialogues

passim, and afterw ards in Sir z's. This sec

t io n sums up Berkeley's objectio ns to creditSubstance and Cause, al though it is reallya sensat io n dependent on consciousness.

31 incommo de.’

Cf. sect . 17, and no te.

3” ‘ hypo thesis mathematica.

’

Cf. sect .

W. 35 , 36—41 , 66, 67 ; also S iris, sect .

250—2 5 1 .

31n ihil.’ Cf. the theory o fMatter co n

ing matter‘w ith real power. It may be

compared and harmoniz ed w ith Hume, Dr.Thomas Brow n

,and Mr. I. S. Mill o n

Causatio n. But Berkeley differs from the

po sitive philo sophers in recogniz ing trueefliciency in the spiritual w orld.

D e M ata“

: 8 5

30. Datur res cogitans, activa, quam prin cipium mo tus esse in

nobis experimur. Han c animam,men tem

,spiritum dicimus. B atur

etiam res ex ten sa,imers

,impenetrabilis, mo bilis, quae a prio ri

to to coelo difl'

ert,no vumque gen us

3 4 co nstituit . (Eantum in tersit

inter res cogitan tes et ex tensas,primus omn ium deprehenden s

Anaxago ras, vir lo nge sapie‘

ntissimus,asserebat men tem n ihi l habere

cum co rpo ribus commun e,id quo d co n stat ex primo l ibro Aristo

telis D e A nimn 3 5 . Ex neo tericis idem o pt ime an imadvertit

Cartesius -q6 Ab eo ali i 3 7 rem satis claram vo cibus obscuris

impeditam ac diffi cilem reddiderunt .

3 1. Ex dictis man ifestam est eo s qui vim act ivam,actio nem

,

mo tus principium,in oorpor z

’

éns revera inesse aflirmarit,senten tiam

nulla experien tia fundatam amplecti, eamque termin is o bscuris et

gen eralibus adstruere,n ec quid sibi velint sat is in telligere. E

co n trario, qui men tem esse prin cipium mo tus vo lun t

,sen tentiam

pro pria experientia munitam pro ferunt , hominumque omn i aevodo ctissimo rum sufl

‘

ragiis comprobatam.

32 . Primus Anaxago rasmi u

‘

m vo fi u introdux it, qui mo tum inerti

materise imprimeret . (mam quidem senten tiam pro bat et iamAristo teles 3 9, pluribusque co nfi rmat

,aperte pro nun cian s primum

movens esse immo bi le,indivisibi le

,et nullam haben s magnitu

dinem. D icere autem,omne mo tivum esse mobile

,recte an im

advertit idem esse ac siquis diceret,omne aedifi cativum esse

atdifi cabile,P/aysz

'

c. lib. viii . Plato insuper in Timaeo 40 tradit mach inam hanc co rpo ream,

seu mundum visibilem,agitari et animari a

men te, qum sen sum omn em fugiat. (Einetiam ho die philo so phi

Cartesian i ‘“ prin cipium mo tuum naturalium Deum agno scunt . Et

3 ‘ ‘no vumque genus.

’

Cf. sect . 2 1 . We39 N at. Ausc., VIII. 15 ; also De Anima ,

have here Berk eley’s antithesis o f mind and

matter— active perso nality in co n trast to the

passive ideas w hich stream thro ugh the

senses. This distinctio n he supports by

experience and authority, sect . 3 1 , 32 .

35 De An ima , I. ii. 13 . 2 2 , 24.

36 Cartesius.’

The ant ithesis o fex tended

and think ing Substance pervades th e philoso phy o f Des Cartes. See e.g. P rincz

’

pz’

a ,

P . I. 63, 64.

37 Ab eo alii.’ Do es he refer to Lo ck e, whosuggests the po ssibility o fmatter think ing?

38 See Aristo tle, De Anima , L ii . 5 , 13 ;

Diogenes Laertius, lib. VI. i. 6.

III. x . 7 .

‘0 Hardly any passage in the Timaeus

ex actly correspo nds to this . The fo llo wingis, perhaps, the mo st pertinent z—Klyno wyap dn éueipw c ifr e

'

i r i w r ei? o a’

ma 'r o s

o ik eiav, ‘r é

‘

w 61 nd n epl vo fi v lcal (ppduno w

udAw-r a oEaav (p . 34 a). Aristo t le quo tes

the Timaeus in the same connectio n , De

An ima , I. iii. 1 1 .‘1

philo sophi Cartesiani.’ SecundumCartesium causa generalis omnium mo tuum

et quietum est Deus.—Derodon, Physio-a,1. ix . 30 .

86 D e M om.

N ew to nus “ passim n ec o bscure innuit, n o n so lummo do mo tum ab

in it io a numine pro fectum esse,verum adhuc systema mundanum

ab eo dem actu moveri. Ho c sacris literis co n so num est : ho c

scho lastico rum calculo comprobatur. N am etsi Peripatet ic i naturamtradan t esse principium mo tus et quietis, interpretan tur tamem

naturam naturantem esse Deum 43. Intelligunt n imirum co rpo ra

omn ia systematis hujusce mundan i a men te praepo ten ti juxta certamet co n stan tem rat io n em “ moveri.

33. Caeterum qui prin c ipium V itale co rpo ribus tribuun t , obscurumaliquid et rebus parum co nven iens fingun t . Q iid en im aliud estvitali principio praeditam esse quam vivere ? aut vivere quam se

mo vere,sistere

,et statum suum mutare ? Philo sophi autem hujus

saz culi do ctissimi pro prin cipio indubitato po nun t , omn e co rpusperseverare in statu suo

,vel quietus vel mo tus un ifo rmis in

directum,n isi quatenus aliunde cogitar statum illum mutare : e

co ntrario,in an ima sen timus esse facultatem tam statum suum

quam aliarum rerum mutandi ; id quo d pro prie dicitur V itale,

an imamque a co rpo ribus lo nge discriminat .

34 . M o tum et qu ietem in co rpo ribus recentio res co nsideran t

velut duo s status ex istendi,in quo rum ut ro vis co rpus omne sua

natura imers permaneret “ ,nulla vi externa urgente. Unde co lligere

licet,candem esse causam mo tus et quietis, quae est ex istentiae co r

po rum. N eque en im quaerenda videtur alia causa ex isten tiae co rpo rissuccessivae in diversis partibus spatii, quam illa unde derivatur

ex istent ia ejusdem co rpo ris successiva in diversis partibus tempo ris.De D eo autem Optimo Max imo rerum omn ium Co ndito re et

Co n servato re tractare,et qua rat io n e res cunetas a summo et

vero Ente pendeant demo nstrare, quamvis pars sit scienti z e

humanae praecellen tissima,spectat tamen po t ins ad philosophiam

primam seu metaphysicam et theo logiam,quam ad philo sophiam

naturalem “, qua: ho die fere omnis co ntinetur in experimentis et

‘2 P rincipz'

aMatbematica—Scho liumGenerale.

4”naturam naturan tem esse Deum

’—i. e.

Go d co nsidered as the imminent cause o f

the universe . See St . Thomas Aquinas,Opera , vo l. XXII. Q uest. 6 , p . 27 .

jux ta certam et co nstan tem ratio nem’

—i. e . w h ile the changes in matter are

determined by w il l , it is n o t a capricio usbu t a ratio nal w il l . The very arbitrarinesso f the Language o f N ature is relative to us,

and from o ur po int o f view . In itself, the

physical universe is the expressio n o f Abso lute Reaso n .

45 ‘

permaneret .’

Cf. sect . 5 1 .

4°spectat po tins ad philo sophiam primam

seu metaphysicam et theo logiam , quam ad

philo sophiam naturalem.

’

The drift o f the

essay De M o tu is to distinguish the merelyphysical sciences o f phenomena from the

faith in an o riginating Cause w ith which

the spiritual students o f Metaphysics and

Theo logy are co nversant .

D e M o tor. 8 7

mechan ica. Itaque cogn itio nem de Deo vel supponit ph i lo sophianaturalis, vel mutuatur ab aliqua scien tia superio ri . (Q anquamverissimum sit

,naturae investigat io nem scientiis altio ribus argu

menta egregia ad sapientiam,bo n itatem

, ct po tentiam Dei illustrandam et probandam undequaque subministrare.

35 . (mo d haec minus intelligantur, in causa est,cur no nnul li

immerito repudient physica: prin cipia mathematica, eo scil icetnomine quo d illa causas rerum eflicientes n o n assignant : quumtamen revera ad physicam aut mechan icam spectet regulas 4 7 so lummo do

,n o n causas eflicientes

,impulsio nam attractio numve

,et ut

verbo dicam,mo tuum leges tradere , ex iis vero po sitis phaeno

meno n particularium solutio nem “,n o n autem causam eflicientem

assrgnare .

36. Mu ltum intererit 49 co n sideras se quid proprie sit prin cipium,

et quo sen su intelligenda sit vo x i lla apud philo sopho s. Causa

quidem vera efliciens et co nservat rix rerum omn ium jur e o pt imoappellatur fo ns et prin cipium earundem. Principia vero philo sophia experimentalis pro prie dicenda sun t fundamen ta quibus i llainnititur

,seu fo ntes unde derivatur

, (no n dico ex istentia,sed)

cogn itio rerum co rporearum,sen sus ut ique ex experientia. Simi

liter,in phi loso phia mechan ica, prin cipia dicenda sun t

,in quibus

fundatur et co ntinetur un iversa disciplina, leges illae mo tuum

primaries, quze experimentis comprobatae, ratio cinio et iam excultae

sun t et reddiwe un iversales 49. Ha: mo tuum leges commo de dicuntur prin cipia

,quo n iam ab iis tam theo remata mechanica generalia

quam particulat es raw (paw op e'

mo v explicatio nes derivantur.

37 . Turn n imirum dici po test quidpiam explicari mechanice,

cum reducitur ad ista principia simplicissima et universalissima,

et per accuratum ratio cinium,cum iis co nsentaneum et co nnexum

esse o stenditur. N am inventis semel natura legibus, deinceps

regulas so lutionem.

’

Cf.Sir is, sect .

3 31—235 .‘9 ‘mu ltum intererit .

’ Having, in the

preceding sectio ns, co ntrasted sensible motions and their efi icient cause—matter andmind—physics and metaphysics, Berk eleyproceeds in this and the seven fo llow ingsectio ns to explain what he means by origin(principium) , and the tw o meanings. (met

a

physical and mechanical) o f solutio . By

the real so urce and o rigin o f things he

understands their effic ient and preservingcause . In natural philo so phy the term is

applied to law o r o rder man ifested in effects,

and no t to causes proper at all.‘9 ‘

experimentis compro batur., ratio cinio

etiam excultz sunt et redditae universales.’The relatio ns in know ledge o f the facts

given in the senses to the un iversaliz ingreaso n are here recogniz ed.

88 D e M ain .

mo n strandum'

est phiIOSOpho , ex co nstan ti harum legum obser

vat io n e,ho c est

,ex iis principiis phaenomeno n quo dvis n ecessario

co nsequi : id quo d est phaenomena explicate et so lvere, causamque,id est rat io n em cur fi ant

,assignat e .

38. M ens humana gaudet scien tiam suam extendere et dilatare.

Ad ho c autem no tio nes et pro po sitio nes generales eiTo rmandae

sunt,in quibus quodam mo do co ntinen tur propo sitio nes et cog

n itio nes particulares,quee tum demum intelligi credun tur cum ex

primis i llis co n tinuo nexu deducun tur. Ho c geometris no t issimumest . In mechan ica et iam praemittun tur no tiones

,ho c est defi

nitio nes,et enunciationes de mo tu primae et generales

,ex quibus

po stmo dum metho do mathematica co nclusio nes magis remo tae et

minus generales colliguntur. Et sieut per applicationem theo re

matum geometrico rum,co rpo rum particularium magnitudines

men suran tur , ita etiam per applicatio nem theo rematum mechanices

un iversalium,systematis mundan i partium quarumvis mo tus

,et

phaenomena inde pendentia, inn o tescunt et determinantur : ad

quem sco pum un ice co llineandum physico .

39 . Et quemadmodum geometrae,disciplinaz causa, multa com

miniscuntur, quz nec ipsi describere po ssunt, n ee in rerum natura

inven ire , simi li pro rsus ratio ne mechanicus vo ces quasdam

abstractas et generales adhibet,fi ngitque in co rpo ribus a15m

,ao

tionem,

a ttractionem,solicitationem

,8CC. quae ad theo rias et enun

ciatio n es,

ut et computatio nes de mo tu apprime ut iles sunt,

etiamsi in ipsa rerum veritate et co rpo ribus actu ex istentibus

frustra quaererentur, no n minus quam quae a geometris per abstraetio n em mathematicam fi nguntur .

40 . Revera o pe sensuum n il n isi efl'

ectus seu qualitates sensibiles, et res co rpo reas omn ino passivas

,sive in mo tu sint sive in

quiete, percipimus : ratioque et experien tia activum n ihi l praeter

men tem aut an imam esse suadet . (Q icquid ultra fi ngitur, idejusdem generis esse cum aliis hypo thesibus et abstractio nibus

mathematicis exist imandum : quo d pen itus an imo infi gere opo rtet.

Ho c n i fi at,faci le in obscurum scho last ico rum subtilitatem

,quae

per to t saecula, tanquam dira quaedam pestis, philo sophiam co rrupit,relabi po ssumus.4 1. Prin cipia mechanica Iegesque mo tuum aut naturae univer

sales, sz culo ultimo feliciter inven tae,

et subsidio geometriestractatae et applicatae, mi ram lucem in philo soph iam intulerunt.

D e M om. 89

Principia vero metaphysica causaeque reales efi icien tes mo tus et

existentiae co rpo rum attributo rumve co rpo reorum nullo mo do ad

mechanicam aut experimenta pert inent , neque eis lucem darepo ssun t , n isi quatenus

,velut pr z cognita inserviant ad limites

physicae prze fi niendos, caque rat io ne ad to llendas difi’icultates quaes

tio nesque peregrinas.4 2 . (Mi a spiritibus motus prin cipium petunt, ii vel rem co r

poream velinco rpo ream vo ce spiritus in telligunt . Si rem co rpo ream,

quantumvis tenuem,tamen redit diffi cultas : si in co rpo ream,

quantumvis id verum sit

,attamen ad physicam no n proprie pertin et.

(mod si quis philo sophiam naturalem ultra limites experimen to rum

et mechan ica: extenderit,ita ut rerum etiam inco rpo rearum,

et

inex tensarum cognitio nem complectatur, lat io r quidem i lla voe isacceptio tractatio nem de an ima

,mente

,seu principio vitali ad

mittit . Caeterum commodius erit,juxta usum jam fere receptum,

ita distinguere in ter scientias, ut singulae pro priis circumscriban turcancellis

,et ph i lo so phas naturalis to tes sit in experimentis, legi

busque mo tuum,et principiis mechan icis

,indeque depromptis

ratio cin iis , quidquid autem de aliis rebus pro tulerit, id superio rialicui scien tiaa acceptum referat . Etenim ex cognitis naturaeIegibus pulcherrimz theo ri z e, praxes etiam mechanicae ad vitamuti les co nsequuntur. Ex cogn itio n e autem ipsius natura: Aucto risco nsideratio nes longe pra

' stantissimae quidem illas,sed meta

physicse, theo logicae, mo rales o riun tur.

43. De prinoz'

p z z s hactenus : n un c dicendum de natura mo tus ” .

Atque is quidem,cum sensibus clare percipiatur, no n tam natura

sua,quam do ctis philo sopho rum commentis obscuratus est . M o tus

nunquam in sensus no stro s in currit sine mo le co rpo rea,spat io

,

et tempo re. Sun t tamen qui mo tum,tanquam ideam quandam

simplicem et abstractam,atque ab omn ibus aliis rebus sejunctam,

contemplari student. Verum idea illa tenuissima et subt ilissima 5 1

5° ‘natura mo tus.’ Sect. 43

—66 treat o fthe nature o f the gfi

‘iect—sensible mo tion , as

distinguished from its true cause o r originseco nd part o f the De Mom. Cf. P rinciplesof Human Know ledge, sect . 1 1 1

—1 16.

51 idea illa tenuissima et subtilissima.’

(pr incipium)—mind o r spirit. As the o rigino fmo tio n belo ngs to Metaphysics, the natureo r defi nitio n o f mo tio n ,

co nstituted by the

law s o f its sensible phenomena, belo ngs toMechan ics o r Physics. A true defi nitio n o f

mo tio n is w hat Berkeleyis in search o f in this

Here again the difliculty is attributed to

abstractio ns, and to the inclinatio n o f the

sch o lastic mind to prefer these to the co n

crete mo tions o f which w e have sensibleexperience , and which may be universaliz edby reaso n.

90 D e M ala .

in tellectus aciem eludit : id quo d quilibet secum meditan do ex

peri ri po test . Hin e nascun tur magnae diflieultates de naturamo tus

,et defi n it io nes

,ipsa re quam i llustrare deben t lo nge

o bscur io res . Hujusmodi sun t defi n itio nes illae Aristo telis et

Scho lastico rum 5 1, qui mo tum dicun t esse actum molilz

'

s gnatenns est

moé z'

le,we! actum en tis in poten tin guntemos in poten tin . Hujusmodi

et iam est illud viri 5 3 in ter recentio res celebris, qui asserit nihil in

motu esse renle pra ter momen tnneum illud quad insui ad mutationen

niten te constitui deleo. Po rro co nstat,ho rum et similium defi ni

tio num aucto res in an imo habuisse abstractam mo tus naturam,

seclusa omn i tempo ris et spatii co nsideratio n e,explicare : sed

qua rat io ne abstracta i lla mo tus quintessen tia (ut ita dicam) intelligi po ssit, no n video .

44 . N eque ho e co n ten ti . Ulterius pergunt, partesque ipsius

mo tus a se invicem dividun t et secernunt, quarum ideas distin ctas,

tanquam entium revera distineto rum,effo rmare conan tur. Eten im

sun t qui mo tio nem a mo tu dist inguant, illam velut instan taneum

mo tus elemen tum speetan tes. Velo citatem in super,co natum

,vim

,

impetum to tidem res essentia diversas esse vo lun t, quarum quz que

per propriam atque ab aliis omn ibus segregatam et abstractam

ideam in tellectui o bjieiatur. Sed in hisce rebus diseutiendis,

stant ibus iis quae supra disseruimus “,non est cur diutius immo

remur .

45 . Multi etiam per transitum5 5 mo tum defi n iunt

,obliti

,scilicet

,

transitum ipsum sine mo tu intelligi n o n po sse,et per mo tum

defi n iri opo rtere. Verissimum adeo est defi nitio nes,sicut non

nullis rebus lucem,ita vicissim aliis ten ebras afi’erre. Et pro feeto ,

quaseumque res sen su pereipimus, eas elario res aut no tio res defi

n iendo et’fi eere vix quisquam po tuerit. Cujus rei vana spe allecti

res faci les diflieillimas 5 6 reddiderunt philo sophi, mentesque suas

diflieultatibus,quas ut plurimum ipsi peperissen t, implicavere.

Ex ho eee defi niendi,simul ac abstrahendi studio

,multae tam de

mo tu quam de aliis rebus natae subtilissimae quaest io n es,eaedemque

nullius utilitatis,hominum ingen ia frustra to rserunt , adeo ut

Aristo teles ultro et saepius fateatur mo tum esse actum quendam

”2 M o tio n is thus defined byAristo t le 5“ Cf. sect. 3—42 .

(b nyé'

v 871Thu Minno w slum sur ek éx etau 7 0 17 55 Des Cartes , P r incipia, P. II. 5 25 ; alsoicw nr o f/ 13 ! a mbo . N at. Ausc. III. ii. ; see Bo rellus, De Vi P ercussion is, p. I .

also i. and iii. See also Dcro do n ,Pbysica , I. ix .

5“res faciles difi icillimas.

’Cf. Pr in

03 New to n . ciples ,‘ Intro ductio n ,’ sect . I .

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9 2 D e M ain .

50 . Peripatet ici, qui dicun t mo tum esse actnm unum utriusque,

mo ventis et mo t i f “,

no n satis discriminan t causam ab efi'

ectu.

Sim i liter, qui n isum aut co natum in motu fi ngunt, aut idem co rpussimul in co n trarias partes ferri putan t, eadem idearum co n fusio ne

,

eadem vo cum ambiguitate ludifi cari V iden tur.

5 1 . Juvat multum,sieut in aliis omn ibus

,ita in scientia de

mo tu aecuratam diligentiam adh ibere,tam ad alio rum co n ceptus

in telligendo s quam ad suo s enunciando s : in qua re n isi peccatumesset

,vix credo in disputatio nem trah i po tuisse, utrum co rpus

indifferens sit ad mo tum et ad quietem,n ech e. (Eo n iam en im

experien tia co n stat,

esse legem natura: primarium,ut co rpus

perinde perseverat in statu motus ac gnz’

etis, ganma

’in aliunde nibz

'

l

accidat ad sta tum istam mutnndnm et pro pterea vim inertix sub

diverso respectu esse vel resistentiam,vel impetum,

co lligitur

ho e sensu pro fecto co rpus dic i po test sua natura indifi erens ad

mo tum vel quietem. N imirum tam diffi cile est quietem in co rpusmo tum

,quam mo tum in quiescens inducere : cum vero co rpus

pariter co nservet statum utrumvis, quidn i dieatur ad utrumvis se

habere indifferenter ?

52 . Peripatetici pro varietate mutatio num,quas res aliqua subire

po test,varia mo tus genera distingueban t . —Ho die de mo tu agen tes

in telligun t so lummo do motum localem 65. M o tus autem lo calis

in telligi nequit n isi s imul in telligatur quid sit locus : is vero a

n eo tericis 66 defi n itur pars spatii gunm corpus orcnpn t : unde dividiturin relativum et abso lutum pro ratio ne spat ii. Distinguun t en imin ter spat ium abso lutum s ive verum

,ac relat ivum sive apparens.

Vo lun t sc ilicet dari spat ium undequaque immen sum,immo bile

,

in sen sibile,co rpo ra un iversa permean s et co n tinens

,quo d vo cant

spat ium abso lutum. Spat ium autem a co rpo ribus comprehensum

vel defi n itum,sensibusque adeo subjectum,

dicitur spat ium relativum

,apparen s vulgare.

5 3. Fingamus itaque co rpo ra cuneta destrui, et in n ihi lum

so -called abso lute space is mere negatio n.

Cf. P rinciples, sect . 1 16, 1 1 7 . See Lo cke'

s

Essay, Bk . II. ch . 13 ; Corr esponden ce be

mo ventis et mo ti,’i.e. as co ncauses.

05 mo tum lo calem .

’

Sect . 52—65 discussthe alleged distinctio ns o f real o r abso luteand apparent o r relative mo tio n , and o f realo r abso lute and apparent o r relative space .

The abstract impo ssibility o f abso lute spaceand mo tio n is argued . With Berkeley spaceis iden tifi ed w ith sensible ex tensio n ; and

tw een Clark e and Leibnit z and New ton’

s

P r incipia .

5 6 New to n’

s P r incipia , Def. Sch . III.

See also Dero do n , Pbysz'

ca, P . I.'

cap. vi.

5 1 .

D e M ain . 93

redigi. Q o d reliquum est vo cant spat ium abso lutum,

omn irelatio ne quae a situ et distan tiis co rpo rum o riebatur

,simul cum

ipsis co rpo ribus, sublata. Po rro spatium illud est infi nitum,im

mobi le,indivisibile

,insen sibile

,sin e relatio ne et sin e distinetio n e.

Ho e est,omn ia ejus attributa sunt privativa vel negativa : videtur

igitur esse merum n ih i l “ . Parit so lummo do diffi cultatem aliquam

quo d ex tensum sit . Exten sio autem est qualitas po sit iva. Verumqualis tandem ex tensio est i lla quae nee dividi po test

,n ee men

surari,cujus mullam partem

,n ec sensu percipere, n ee imaginatio n e

depingere po ssumus ? Eten im n ih i l in imaginatio n em cadit,

quo d,ex natura rei

,n o n po ssibi le est ut sensu percipiatur , si~

quidem z'

mngz’

mz tio 68 n ih il aliud est quam facultas representatrix

return sensibi lium,vel actu cx istentium

,vel saltem po ssibilium.

Fngit insuper in tellectum pnrnm68,quam facultas il la versetur tantum

c irca res spirituales et in extensas,cujusmo di sun t men tes no st rz

,

earumque habitus, passio n es, virtutes, et simi lia . Ex spat io igiturabso luto auferamus mo do vo cabula

,et n ihi l remanebit in sensu

,

imaginatio ne, aut intellectu : n ih i l aliud ergo iis designatur, quampura privatio aut negatio , ho e est

,merum n ihi l.

54 . Co nfi tendum omn ino est n o s circa han c rem gravissimis

praejudiciis ten eri , a quibus ut liberemur, omn is an imi vis exercenda.

Eten im mult i,tan tum abest quo d spat ium abso lutum pro n ih i lo

ducant,ut rem esse ex omn ibus (Deo ex cepto ) un icam ex istimen t

,

qua: ann ihilari n o n po ssit z statuantque illud suapte natura mecessario ex istere

,aeternumque esse et in ereatum

,atque adeo attribu

to rum div ino rum particeps 69. Verum en imvero quum certissimum

sit,res omnes

,quas nomin ibus designamus, per qualitates aut

relation es,vel aliqua saltem ex parte cogno sci (in eptum en im

fo ret vo cabulis uti quibus cogn it i n ih il, n ihil n o tio n is,ideae vel

co n ceptus subjiceretur), inquiramus diligen ter, utrum fo rmare liceatideam ullam spatii i llins puri, realis, abso luti

,quo d po st omn ium

co rpo rum ann ihilatio nem perseveret ex istere. Ideam po rro talempaulo acrius in tuens

,repet io ideam esse n ihili purissimam,

si

mo do idea appellanda sit . Ho e ipse summa adhibita diligent iaexpertus sum : ho e alio s pari adhibita dil igen tia experturo s reo r .

“7 Cf. Lo ck e’

s account o f abso lute space, the aloe-oa ts, pavr ao ia ,and uo iis o fAristo

Essay, Bk . II. ch . I 3 , 1 5 , 1 7. telian psych o logy.

68 N o te the defi nitio ns here given o f 69att ributo rum divino rum particeps.

’

imaginatio n and in tellect, as distinguished Dr. Samuel Clarke, fo r instance , in his Defrom sense, w hich may be compared w ith monstration .

94 D e M ain .

5 5 . Decipere n o s n o nnunquam so let,

. quo d aliis omn ibus co r

po ribus imaginatio ne sublatis, nostram? 0 tamen man ere suppo n imus.

Q to suppo sito,mo tum membro rum ab omn i parte liberrimum

imaginamur . M o tus autem sine spatio co ncipi n o n po test .

N ihilominus si rem atten to an imo reeo lamus,co n stabit primo

co ncipi spatium relat ivum partibus n o stri co rpo ris defi n itum :

mo vendi membra po testatem liberrimam nullo obstaeulo

retusam : et praeter haee duo n ihi l. Falso tamen eredimus tertiumaliquo d, spatium videlicet immensum realiter ex istere

,quo d

liberam po testatem n obis faeiat mo vendi co rpus n o strum : ad ho e

en im requiritur absent ia so lummo do alio rum co rpo rum. (mamabsentiam

,sive privatio nem co rpo rum,

n ihi l esse po sitivum fate-a

mur necesse est 7 1.

5 6. Caeterum hasce res n isi quis libero et aeri examine perspex erit, verba et vo ces parum valen t . M editanti vero

,et ratio nes

secum reputan t i,ui fallo r

,manifestum erit

, quaecunque de spatiopuro et abso luto praedicantur, ea omn ia de n ihi lo praedicari po sse.

(Ea ratio ne mens humana faeillime liberatur_

a magnis diflicul

tatibus simulque ab ea absurditate tribuendi existentiam meces

sariam 72 ulli rei praeterquam so li Deo o ptimo maximo .

5 7 . In pro clivi esset sentent iam mo stram argumen tis a po sterio ri(ut loquun tur) ductis co nfi rmare

,quaest io nes de spatio abso luto

pro po nendo , exempli gratia,utrum sit substantia vel accidens ?

ut rum creatum vel increatum ? et absurditates ex utravis parteco nsequentes demo n strando . Sed brevitati co nsulendum. Illud

tamen omitti no n debet,quo d sen ten tiam hancce Demo critus

o lim calculo suo compro bavit, uti aucto r est Aristo teles l. i . Phys.ubi hmc habet : D emocritus solidum et inan e ponit principia, gnornm

aliud guin’em at gnon

’est

,aliud nt gnon

’n on est esse dicit . Scrupulum

si fo rte a IClat,quo d dist in ctio i lla inter spat ium abso lutum et

relat ivum a magn i n omin is philo sophis usurpetur, eique quasifundamen to inaedifi centur multa praeelara theo remata

,scrupulum

istum vanum esse,ex iis quse secutura sunt

,apparebit .

5 8. Ex praemissis patet,n o n co nven ire

,ut defi n iamus lo cum

verum co rpo ris esse partem spatii abso luti quam o ccupat co rpus,nostrum,

’se. corpus. 1 16 o f the P r inciples.

[Vide qua). co ntra spatium absolutum 7“ Pure Space being a mere negation , anddisserun tur in libro De P r z

'

ncz'

piis Cogn ition is sensible space a manifestatio n and pro ductHumance, idiomate anglicano decem abhinc o f Supreme Rational Will .ann is ed1to .]—AUTHOR . He refers to sect .

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96 D e M o tto.

men to nullo modo sequitur,mo tum abso lutum circularem per vires

recedendi ab axe mo tus n ecessario digno sei. Po rro qua ration ein telligendae sun t vo ces istec, v ires corporum et conatus

,ex praemissis

satis superque inn o teseit .6 1 . (no modo curva eo nsiderari po test tanquam co n stans ex

rectis infi n itis,etiamsi revera ex i llis no n co nstet

,sed

‘

quod ea

hypo thesis ad geometriam ut ilis sit eodemmo do mo tus circularisSpectari po test tanquam a directio n ibus rectilineis in fi n it is o rtum

ducen s,quae suppo sitio uti lis est in ph i lo sophia’

mechanica. N on

tamen ideo afi irmandum,impo ssibi le esse

,ut centrum gravitatis

co rpo ris cujusvis successive ex istat in singulis punctis peripheriescircularis

,nulla ratio ne habita direc tio n is ul lins rectilinear

,sive

in tangen te sive in radio .

62 . Hand omittendum est,mo tum lapidis in funda

,aut aquz

in situla circumacta,dici no n po sse mo tum vere circularem,

juxtamen tem co rum qui per partes spatii abso luti defi niun t lo ca veraco rpo rum ; cum sit mire eompo situs ex mo tibus n o n so lum situlz

vel fundae,sed et iam telluris diurno ci rca pro prium ax em

,men

struo circa commune cen trum gravitatis terrae et Iunae,et annuo

circa so lem : et propterea particula quasvis lapidis vel aquaedescribat lin eam a circulari lo nge abho rren tem. N eque reveraest

, qui creditur,co natus ax ifugus, quon iam n on respicit unum

aliquem ax em ratione spatii abso luti, suppo sito quo d detur talespatium : pro inde n o n video quomo do appellari po ssit co natusun icus

,cui mo tus vere circu laris tanquam pro prio et adequato

eflectui respo ndit.

63 . M o tus nullus digno sei po test, aut mensurari,n isi per res

sensibiles. Cum ergo spatium abso lutum nullo mo do in sensus

incurrat,

n ecesse est ut inuti le pro rsus sit ad distinctio nem

mo tuum. Praeterea determinatio s ive directio mo tui essentialisest

,illa vero in relatione consistir. Ergo impo ssibile est ut mo tus

abso lutas co n cipiatur .64 . Po rro quo n iam pro diversitate lo ci relat ivi varius sit mo tus

ejusdem co rpo ris, quinimo un o respectu moveri, altero quiescere

d ici quidpiam po ssit 7 3 ; ad determinandummo tum verum et quietemv eram

, quo sc il icet to llatur ambiguitas, et co nsulatur mechan ices

philo so pho rum, qui systema rerum latius co ntemplantur, satis

7 3 Sée Lo cke, Eisay, Bk . II. ch . 13, 7—10 .

D e M o tn . 97

fuerit spatium relat ivum fi xarum ceclo,tanquam quiescente spec

tato, con clusum adhibere

,lo co spatii abso luti. Mo tus autem

et quies tali spat io relat ivo defi niti,commo de adhiberi po ssun t

lo co abso luto rum, qui ab i llis nullo symptomate discern i po ssunt .

Eten im imprimantur utcunque vires, s in t quicunque co natus, co ncedamus mo tum distingui per act io nes in co rpo ra exerc itas , nun

quam tamen inde sequetur, dari spatium illud et lo cum abso lutum,

ejusque mutatio nem esse lo cum verum.

65 . Leges mo tuum,effectusque, et theo remata eo rundem pro

po rtio n es et caleulo s co nt inent ia, pro diversis viarum fi guris,

acceleratio n ibus itidem et directio n ibus diversis, mediisque plusminusve resistentibus

,hmc omn ia co nstan t sine calculatio ne

mo tus abso luti. U ti vel ex eo patet quo d, quum secundum

illo rum principia qui mo tum abso lutum inducunt,nul lo sympto

mate scire liceat,utrum in tegra rerum compages quieseat, an

moveatur un ifo rmiter in directum, perspicuum sit mo tum abso

lutum nul lius co rpo ris cogno sci po sse.

66. Ex dictis patet ad veram mo tus naturam perspiciendam

summopere juvaturum,D ist inguere inter hypo theses mathe

mat icas et naturas rerum : Gavere ab abstractio nibus :

Co nsiderare mo tum tanquam aliquid sensibi le,vel saltem imagi

nabile , mensurisque relativis esse co ntento s. (mac si feeerimus,

simul clarissima quaeque ph i lo so phi ze mechan ieae theo remata,quibus

reseran tur naturae recessus,mundique systema caleulis human is

subjicitur, manebunt intemerata,et mo tus co ntemplatio a mille

minutiis,subtilitatibus

,ideisque abstractis libera evadet . Atque

haec de natura mo tus dicta sufliciant.

67 . Restat,ut disseramus de causa communicatio n is mo tuum“

.

Esse autem vim impressam in co rpus mobi le causam mo tus in

eo, plerique existimant . Veruntamen illo s no n assignare causam

mo tus cogn itam,et a co rpo re mo tuque distinctam,

ex praemissis

7‘ Sect . 67—72 treat o f the cause o f the

transmissio n o fmo tio n amo ng bodies. Whileth is is h eld to be, strict ly speaking, the activeIntelligence which mo ves and embraces thewh o le material universe, nevertheless, fo rthe purpo ses o f merely natural philo so phy,VOL. III.

explanatio ns o f phenomena may be de

duced from mechanical principles. Cf. S ir is,sect . 25 2 , 2 53 , in which an interpretat io n o f physical signs, suffi cient fo r previsio n , is allow ed to be an explanatio no f them.

98 D e M om.

co nstat . Patet insuper vim n o n esse rem certam et determinatam,

ex eo quo d viri summi de i lla multum diversa, immo co n traria,pro feran t, salva tamen in co nsequentiis veritate. Siquidem

N ew to nus ” ait vim impressam co nsistere in act io ne so la, essequeact io nem ex ercitam in co rpus ad statum ejus mutandum,

nee

po st actio nem manere . To rricellius 7° cumulum quendam siveaggregatum viriam impressarum per percussio n em in co rpus mo bilerecipi, ibidemque man ere atque impetum co nstituere co ntendit .

Idem fere Bo rellus” aliique praedican t . At vero,tametsi in ter se

pugnare v ideantur N ew to nus et To rricellius, nihilominus,dum

singuli sibi co n sen tanea pro ferunt, res sat is commo de ab utrisque

explicatur . (mippe vires omnes co rpo ribus attributae tam sunt

hypo theses mathemat icae quam vires att ractivae in planetis et so le.Caeterum en t ia mathemat ica in rerum natura stabi lem essentiam

n o n haben t : penden t autem a n o tio n e defi nientis , unde eademres diversimo de explicari po test .68. Statuamus mo tum n o vum in co rpo re percusso co nservari

,

s ive per v im in sitam, qua co rpus quo dlibet perseverat in statu

suo vel mo tus vel quietis unifo rmis in directum , s ive per vim

impressam,durante percussio ne in co rpus pereussum receptam

ibidemque perman entem , idem erit quoad rem,difi

'

eren tia exis

tente in n ominibus tan tum. Simi liter,ubi mo bi le percutiens

perdit,

et pereussum acquirit mo tum,parum refert disputare

,

utrum mo tus acquisitus sit idem numero cum mo tu perdito ,

ducit en im in minut ias metaphysicas et pro rsas nominales deidentitate. Itaque sive dicamus mo tum transire a percutiente

in pereussum,sive in percusso mo tum de no vo generari, destrui

autem in percutien te, res eo dem reeidit . U trobique intelligitur

unum co rpus mo tum perdere,alterum acquirere, et prmterea n ihi l.

69. M entem,quae agitat et co n tinet un iversam hancce mo lem

co rpo ream,estque causa vera efiicien s mo tus

,candem esse

,proprie

et stricte loquendo , causam communicatio nis ejusdem haudn egaverim. In phi lo so phia tameh physica

,causas et so lutio nes

phaen omen o n a principi is meehan icis petere opo rtet . Physice

igitur res explicatur no n assignando ejus causam vere agentem

et inco rpo ream,sed demo n strando ejus co nnex io nem cum prin

cipiis mechan icis : cujusmo di est illud,actionem et renotionem esse

7 5 P rmczpta , Def. IV .

7 “ Lez z ont Accademtcbe.

7 7 De Vt P er cussion is, cap. IX.

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100 D e M o tto.

Spectat autem ad philo sophiam primam,seu metaphysieam,

de

iis agere . Q o d si cuique scien tia pro vin cia sua 79 tribuatur,

limites assignen tur, prin cipia et objecta accurate distinguantur,quae ad singulas pertin en t, tractare licuerit majo re, cum facilitate

,

tum perspicuitate.

"9 ‘

pro vincia sua.

’

The De Mo tu is a

treatise o n the theo ry o f Physics, if, w ithAristo tle , w e regard Physics as co nversantabo ut the manifestatio ns o f the principle o f

mo tio n , in co ntrast to Mathematics, w h ich

deals w ith th ings immutable but no t transcendent , and to Theo logy o r M etaphysics,concerned w ith the eternal and transcen

dental . Berkeley treats o f mo tio n as the

phenomenal expressio n o f its Divine Cause— as the fi rst link in the chain which con

nects the sensible and intelligible w o r lds,

a co nceptio n unfo lded more comprehensivelyin h is S ir is , mo re than twenty years afterw ards. Cf. S ir is . sect . 296, 297 , 347—349.

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TO THE READER.

THAT an abso lute passive o bedience o ught no t to be paid any

civil power, but that submissio n to go vernment sho uld be measuredand limited by the public go o d o f the so ciety ; and that therefo re sub

jects may lawfully resist the supreme autho rity, in tho se cases wherethe public go o d shall plainly seem to require it ; nay, that it is their dutyto do so , inasmuch as they are all under an indispensable o bligatio n to

promo te the commo n in terest —these and the like n o tio n s, w hich I

canno t help thinking pern icio us to mankind, and repugnan t to righ treaso n , having o f late years been industrio usly cultivated , and set in the

mo st advantageous lights bymen o f parts and learning, it seemed mecessary to arm the yo uth o f o ur University again st them, and take carethey go in to the w o rld well principled ;—I do no t mean obstinatelyprejudiced in favo ur o f a party, but , from an early acquain tance w iththeir duty, and the clear ratio nal gro unds o f it

,determined to such

practices as may speak them go o d Christians and loyal subjects.

In this view , I made three Disco urses no t manymo n ths since in the

Co llege-chapel 1, w hich some who heard them thought it might be o f

use to make mo re public and, indeed , the false acco unts

2that are go ne

1

[Trinity Co l lege, Dublin .]—AUTH0R . then Prince and Princess o fWales (w ho se9 The publicatio n o f the Discour se did

no t dispel these rumours, as w e learn fromthe anecdo te recorded by Bishop Sto ck .

‘ In 1 7 1 2 , the principles incu lcated in M r.

Lo cke’

s Tw o Treatises of Government seemto have turned his at tention to the do ctrineo f Passive Obedience ; in support o f whichhe printed the substance o f three Commo n

p laces delivered by him that year in the

Co l lege-chapel , a w o rk which afterwardshad nearly do ne him some injury in his

fo rtune . Fo r, being presen ted by M r .

[Samuel] Mo lyneux to their late Majesties,

Secretary Mr . M o lyneux had been at Hano ver) , he w as then recommended to LordGalw ay fo r some prefermen t in the Churcho f Ireland. But Lord Galw ay having heardo f these Sermo ns, represen ted him as a

j aco bite ; an impressio n which M r. M o lyneux , as so on as he w as apprised o f it

,to o k

care to remo ve from the minds o f their

Highnesses, by pro ducing the w ork in

quest io n , and shew ing that it co ntainedno thing but principles o f lo yalty to the

presen t happy Establishmen t.’

(Sto ck’

s s e

of Berkeley.)

106 P R E F A C E.

abro ad co ncerning them have made it necessary. Acco rdingly, I nowsend them in to the w o rld under the fo rm o f o ne en tire Disco urse.

To co nclude : as in w riting these tho ughts it was my endeavo ur topreserve that co o l and impartial temper w hich becomes every sincereinquirer after truth , so I heartily w ish they may be read w ith the same

dispo sition .

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108 P assive Oéea’z

'

etece : uf o rt M

w o rld,fo r the ir mo re co nven ient in struct io n in learn ing and

piety. But surely it is in n o respect unsuitable to the circumstan ces o f this place to in culcate and explain every bran ch o f

the Law o f N ature , o r tho se virtues and dut ies w h ich are equallybinding in every kingdom o r so ciety o f men under heaven , ando f this k ind I take to be that Christian Duty o f n o t fesistingthe supreme Po w er implied in my tex t—‘Who so ever resisteththe Po w er

,resisteth the o rdinance o f God.

’

In treat ing o n*

w hich w o rds I shal l o bserve the fo llowingmetho d r

2 . First,I shall endeavo ur to pro ve that there is an abso lute

un limited no n-resistance o r passive obedience due to the supremecivil pow er

,w herever placed in any nat io n ‘2

.

Seco ndly,I shall inquire in to the gro unds and reaso ns o f the

co n trary o pin io n 3.

Th irdly,I shall co nsider the o bject io ns drawn from the pre

ten ded co nsequences o f no n-res istance to the supreme power 4 .

In handling these po in ts I intend no t to build o n the autho rityo f Ho ly Scripture, but altogether o n the prin ciples o f Reaso n

commo n to all mankind ; and that,because there are some very

rat io nal and learn ed men,w ho

,being ver i ly persuaded an abso lute

passive subject io n to any earthly power is repugnant to rightReaso n

,can n ever bring themselves to admit such an in terpretation

Of Ho ly Scripture (however natural and o bvious from the wo rds)as shall make that a part o f Christ ian religio n wh ich seems to

them in itse lf man ifest ly absurd,and destructive o f the o riginal

inheren t rights o f human nature.

3 . I do n o t mean to treat o f that submission wh ich men are,

either in duty o r prudence,obliged to pay inferio r o r executive

powers , n either shal l I consider where o r in what perso ns thesupreme o r legislat ive pow er is lo dged in this o r that government .O n ly thus much I sha ll take fo r gran ted—that there is in everyc ivil commun ity

,somewhere o r o ther

,placed a supreme power

2 Sect . 3—3 2 .

3 Sect . 33—40 . Sect . 4 1—56.

P r inciples of Me Law of N atu r e. 109

o f making laws, and enfo rcing the observatio n o f them. The

fulfi lling o f tho se laws,either by a pun ctual perfo rmance o f w hat

is enjo ined in them,o r

,if that be inco n sistent with reaso n o r

co n science, by a pat ien t submissio n to Whatever penalt ies the

supreme power hath ann exed to the neglect o r transgressio n o f

them,is termed loyalty , as

,o n the o ther hand

,the making use

o f fo rce and o pen vio len ce,e ither to withstand the execut io n o f

the laws, o r ward o ff the penalt ies appo inted by the supremepower

,is pro perly named reéellz 'on .

N ow,to make it evident that every degree o f rebe llio n is

criminal in the subject,I shal l

,in the first place

,endeavo ur to

pro ve that lo yalty is a natural o r mo ral duty , and dislo yalty,

o r rebe llio n,in the mo st strict and pro per sense

,a vice o r breach

o f the law o f nature. And,seco ndly

,I pro po se to show that the

pro h ibit io ns o f vice,o r negat ive precepts o f the law o f nature

,

as,

‘Thou shalt no t commit adultery,Thou shalt n o t fo rsw ear

thyself,Tho u shalt no t resist the supreme pow er

,

’and the like

,

o ught to be taken in a mo st abso lute,n ecessary, and immutable

sense : in somuch that the attainment o f the greatest go o d, o r

deliverance from the greatest evil,that can befal any man o r

number o f men in this life,may no t justify the least vio lat io n

o f them.

First then,I am to show that lo yalty is a M o ral Duty

,and

dislo yalty o r rebel lio n,in the mo st strict and pro per sense

,a

Vice,o r breach o f the Law o f N ature 5 .

4 . Tho ugh it be a po in t agreed amo ngst all wise men,that

there are certain mo ral rules o r laws o f nature,which carry with

them an eternal and indispensable o bligat io n , yet, co ncern ingthe pro per metho ds fo r disco vering tho se laws, and distinguish ingthem from o thers depen den t o n the humour and discretio n o f

men,there are vario us o pin io ns. Some direct us to lo ok fo r

them in the D ivine Ideas , o thers in the natural inscript io ns o n

the mind : some derive them from the autho rity o f learned men,

and the un iversal agreemen t and co nsent o f nat ions. Lastly,

5 Sect. 4—25 .

I 10 Passive Oéea’z

'

em e upon t/z e

o thers ho ld that theyare o n ly to be disco vered by the deductio nso f reaso n . The three first metho ds must be acknowledged tolabo ur under great difficult ies , and the last has no t

,that I know ,

been anywhere distin ctly explain ed,o r treated o f so fully as the

impo rtance o f the subject do th deserve.

I ho pe therefo re it will be pardo ned, if, in a disco urse o f passiveo bedien ce

,in o rder to lay the foundat io n o f that duty the deeper,

w e make some inquiry into the o rigin , nature, and obligat io n o f

Mo ral Dut ies in general, and the criterio ns whereby they are to

be know n 6

5 . Self-lo ve being a principle o f all o thers the mo st universal,

and the mo st deeply engraven in o ur hearts,it is natural fo r us

to regard things as they are fitted to augmen t o r impair our own

happiness , and acco rdingly w e denominate them good o r evil.

Our judgment is ever emplo yed in dist inguishing betw een these

tw o,and it is the w ho le business o f o ur l ives to endeavour

,by a

pro per applicat io n o f o ur faculties,to pro cure the o ne and avo id

the o ther. At o ur first coming in to the wo rld,w e are entirely

gu ided by the impressio ns o f sen se , sen sible pleasure being theinfallible characteristic o f presen t go o d, as pain is o f evil. But

,

by degrees, as w e grow up in o ur acquaintance with the natureo f th ings, experien ce info rms us that present go o d is afterwardso ften attended with a greater evil , and

,o n the o ther side

,that

presen t evil is n o t less frequen t ly the o ccasio n o f pro curing to us

a greater future go o d. Besides, as the no bler facult ies o f the

human soul begin to display themselves,they disco ver to us

go o ds far mo re ex ce llent than tho se which affect the senses 7 .

Hen ce an alteratio n is wro ught in o ur judgmen ts , w e no lo ngercomply w ith the first so licitatio n s o f sen se

,but stay to co nsider

the remo te co nsequences o f an act io n—what go o d maybe hoped,o r what evil feared from it

,acco rding to the won ted course o f

0 In what fo l lo w s ( sect . 5 the rudi The later Idealism o f Berkeley, as in

ments o f Berkeley’s ethical do ctrine o f Siris, presents more distinctly than in this

Theo logical o r Onto logical Utilitarianism Discourse the Eternal Law o f Reason (byare un fo lded. Berk eley’s eternal mo ral rules w hatever metho d disco vered) as the essence

accord so far w ith Lo cke’

s hints o f a de o f morality.

mo nstrative Eth ics , w h ile his mo tive o f 7 Cf. Alcipbr on , Dial. I. sect . 14—16 ;

mo ral actio n co incides w ith that o f Paley. ll. sect . 13—16.

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1 1 2 Passive Ooea’z

'

ence upon the

o f Go d,do th presuppo se the being o f such laws, and law ever sup

po sing an end,to wh ich it guides o ur actio ns—it fo llows that,

anteceden t to the end pro po sed by God, no distinct io n can be

co n ceived between men , that end therefo re itself, o r general design o f Providence

,is n o t determined o r limited by any respect

o f perso ns. It is no t therefo re the private go o d o f this o r thatman

,natio n

,o r age, but the gen eral wel l-being o f all men

,o f all

natio n s,o f all ages o f the wo rld

,which God design s shou ld be

pro cured by the co ncurring actio ns o f each individual.

Having thus discovered the great end to which all mo ral obligatio n s are subo rdinate

,it remains that w e inquire what methods

are necessary fo r the obtain ing that end.

8. The wel l-being o f mank ind must necessarily be carried on

in o ne o f these tw o ways z—e ither,first

,without the injunctio n o f

any certain universal rules o f mo rality, o n ly by obliging everyo ne

,upo n each particular o ccasio n

,to co nsult the public go od,

and always to do that which to him shall seem,in the present

time and circumstances,mo st to co nduce to it . Or

,seco ndly, by

enjo in ing the o bservatio n o f some determinate,established laws,

which,if un iversally practised

,have

,from the nature o f things,

an essen t ial fitness to pro cure the we ll-being of mankin d , tho ugh,in their part icular applicat io n

,they are sometimes

,thro ugh un

toward accidents,and the perverse irregular ity o f human wills,

the o ccasio n s of great sufferings and misfo rtunes,it may be, to

very many goo d men .

Again st the fo rmer o f these metho ds there lie several stro ngobject io ns . Fo r brevity I shall men tio n o n ly tw o '

9. First,it will thence fo llow that the best men , fo r want of

judgment,and the wisest , fo r w ant o f knowing all the h idden cir

cumstances and consequences o f an act io n,mayvery o ften be at

a lo ss how to behave themse lves —Which they would no t be, incase they judged o f each act io n by comparing it with some par

t icular precept,rather than by exam in ing the go o d o r evil wh ich

in that s ingle instance it tends to pro cure : it being far mo re easyto judge w ith certainty, whether such o r such an action be a trans.gressio n o f th is o r that precept

,than whether it will be attended

with mo re go od o r i ll co nsequences. In sho rt, to calculate the

even ts o f each particular actio n is impo ssible , and, though it were

P r z‘

ucz

'

ptes of tae Law of N atu r e . 1 1 3

no t, would yet take up to o much time to be o f use in the affairs

o f life .

Seco ndly, if that method be observed,it w i ll fo llow that w e

can have no sure standard to w h ich,comparing the actio n s o f

ano ther, w e may pro no un ce them go o d o r bad,virtues o r vices.

Fo r,sin ce the measure and rule o f every go o d man’s act io ns is

suppo sed to be no thing e lse but his o w n private disinterestedo pin io n o f w hat makes mo st fo r the public go o d at that juncture ,and

,sin ce this o pin io n must unavo idably in differen t men

,from

their particular views and circumstances,be very differen t : it is

impo ssible to know,whether any o ne in stance o f parricide o r per

jury, fo r example,be criminal . The man mayhave had his reaso ns

fo r it,and that w h ich in me wo uld have been a heino us sin may

be in him a duty. Every man’s particular ru le is buried in h isow n breast

,invisible to all but h imself

,w ho therefo re can o n ly tel l

whether he observes it o r n o . And,sin ce that rule is fitted to

particular o ccasio ns,it must ever change as they do : hen ce it is

no t o n ly various in differen t men,but in o ne and the same man

at differen t t imes .

10 . From all w hich it fo llow s,there can be n o harmo ny o r

agreement betw een the actio ns o f go o d men : n o apparen tsteadiness o r co nsisten cy o f o ne man with h imse lf

,n o adhering

to principles : the best actio ns may be co ndemned,and the mo st

villainousmeet with applause . In a wo rd,there ensues the mo st

ho rrible co nfusio n o f vice and virtue,sin and duty

,that can po s

sibly be imagined . It fo llows, therefo re, that the great end to

wh ich Go d requi res the co n curren ce o f human actio ns must o f

necessity be carried on by the seco nd method pro po sed,namely

,

the o bservatio n o f certain,un iversal

,determinate rules o r mo ral

precepts,wh ich

,in their o w n nature

,have a necessary tenden cy

to promo te the well-being o f the sum o f mankind,taking in all

nat io n s and ages, from the begin n ing to the end o f the w o rld.1 1 . Hen ce

,upo n an equal comprehensive survey o f the general

nature,the passio ns

,interests

,and mutual respects o f mankind

whatso ever pract ical pro po sit io n do th to right reaso n evident lyappear to have a necessary co n nexio n w ith the un iversal we llbeing included in it is to be lo oked upo n as enjo ined bythe will o fGo d. Fo r

,he that willeth the end do th will the necessary means

co nducive to that end , but it hath been shewn that God willethVOL. 111. T

I I 4. Passive Oéea’z'

euee upon tue

the un iversal w e ll-being o f mankind should be promo ted by theco n currence o f each part icular perso n , therefo re, every such praet ical pro po sit io n necessarily tending thereto is to be esteemed adecree o f Go d

,and is co nsequen t ly a law to man .

1 2 . These pro po s it io ns are called law s of nature,because they

are un iversal,and do n o t derive the i r o bligat io n from any civil

sanct io n,but immediately from the Autho r o f nature h imself.

They are said to be stamped on the miud,to be engrav en on fi re

taéles of the hear t,because they are w e ll kn own to mankind

,and

suggested and inculcated by co nscience . Last ly,they are termed

eternal rules of reasou,because they n ecessarily result from the

nature o f th ings, and maybe demo nstrated by the infallible deductio n s o f reaso n 8

.

13. And,no tw ithstanding that these rules are to o o ften

,either

by the unhappy co ncurrence o f even ts,o r mo re espec ially by the

w ickedness o f perverse men w ho will no t co nfo rm to them,made

accidental causes o f misery to tho se go o d men w ho do, yet this

do th n o t vacate their o bligatio n : they are ever to be esteemedthe fix ed unalterable standards o f mo ral go o d and evil , n o privateinterest

,no lo ve o f friends

,no regard to the public go o d, should

make us depart from them. Hence,w hen any do ubt arises co n

cern ing the mo rality o f an actio n,it is plain this canno t be deter

mined by comput ing the public go o d wh ich in that particular caseit is attended w ith

,but o n ly by comparing it w ith the Eternal

Law o fReaso n . He w ho squares his actio ns bythis rule can neverdo amiss

,though thereby he sho uld bring himself to poverty

,death,

o r disgrace : no,no t tho ugh he sho uld invo lve his family

,his

friends,his country

,in all tho se evi ls w h ich are accounted the

greatest and mo st insuppo rtable to human nature. Tendernessand ben evo lence o f temper are o ften mo t ives to the best and

greatest actions , but w e must no t make them the so le rule o f our

act io ns : they are pass io ns ro o ted in our nature,and

,like all o ther

8 The Theo logical Utilitarianism o f

Berk eley here , as e lsewhere , enco urages thisreference to eternal rules o f reaso n ,’ and tothe immutability, un iversality, and neces

sity o f moral distinctio ns—language foreignt o the purely secular and experien tialutilitarian theory. His reverence fo r law ,

in

co ntrast to empirical calculatio ns by indi

viduals o f the perso nal utility o f particularactio ns

,is apparent in these passages. But

if the criterio n o f these ‘eternal law s’ is

their tendency to promo te general happiness, a do or is still o pen to the questio ns o f

casuistry, in the endeavo ur to determine andapply them. Cf. sect. 53 .

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1 16 P assive Oéea’z

'

euce : upon tue

missio n from Go d,and no t fo r the sake o f the part icular natural

go o ds, as health o r life,w h i ch some men m ight have reaped from

them. From all w h ich it seems suffi cien t ly plain that w e can

n o t be at a lo ss w h ich w ay to determin e, in case w e think Go d’sow n metho ds the pro perest to o btain His en ds

,and that it is our

duty to co py after them,so far as the frailty o f o ur nature will

permit .

15 . Thus far in general, o f the nature and necessity o f M o ralRules

,and the criterio n o r mark w hereby they maybe kn ow n .

As fo r the part iculars,from the fo rego ing disco urse, the principal

o f them may w itho ut much difficulty be deduced. It hath been

shewn that the Law o f N ature is a system o f such rules o r preceptsas f that

,if they be all o f them

,at all t imes

,in all places

,and by

all men observed,they will necessarily promo te the well-being

o f mank ind,so far as it is attainable byhuman act io ns. N ow

,

let any o ne w ho hath the use o f reaso n take but an impartialsurvey o f the general frame and c i rcumstan ces o f human nature

,

and it w i ll appear plain ly to h im that the co nstant observatio no f truth

,fo r instan ce

,o f just ice

,and chastity hath a n ecessary

co nn ex io n w ith their un iversal w el l-being, that, therefo re, theyare to be esteemed virtues o r dut ies , and that ‘Tho u shalt no t

fo rswear thyself,

’ ‘Tho u shalt n o t commit adultery,

’ ‘Thou shaltn o t steal

,

’are so many unalterable mo ral rules

,wh ich to vio late

in the least degree is vice o r sin . I say, the agreement o f thesepart icular practical pro po sit io ns w ith the defin itio n o r criterionpremised do th so c learly result from the nature o f things thatit were a n eedless digressio n , in th is place, to en large upo n it.And

,from the same prin ciple

,by the very same reaso n ing, it

fo llow s that Lo yalty is a mo ral virtue,and ‘Tho u shalt n o t resist

the supreme pow er ’ a rule o r law o f nature,the least breach

w hereo f hath the inh eren t stain o f mo ral turpitude.

16. The miseries inseparable from a state o f anarchy are easilyimagined. So in sufficien t is the w it o r strength o f any singleman

,either to avert the evils

,o r pro cure the blessings o f life

,

and so apt are the w i lls o f different perso ns to co ntradict and

thw art each o ther,that it is abso lutely necessary several in

dependen t powers be combined together, under the direction (ifI may so speak) o f o ne and the same w i ll—1 mean the law o f the

P r inciples of Me Law of N atu r e. 1 1 7

so ciety. Without this there is no po liteness,no o rder

,no peace,

amo ng men, but the w o rld is o n e great heap o f misery and

co nfusio n , the stro ng as we l l as the weak,the wise as well as

the fo o l ish,standing o n all sides expo sed to all tho se calamities

w hich man can be liable to in a state w here he has no o thersecurity than the no t being po ssessed o f any th ing w h ich mayraise envy o r desire in ano ther. A state by so much mo re ihe ligible than that o f brutes as a reaso nable creature hath a greaterreflectio n and fo resight o f miseries than they. From all wh ichit plain ly fo llows

,that lo yalty

,o r submissio n to the supreme

autho rity,hath

,if un iversally practised in co njunct io n with all

o ther virtues,a necessary co nn exio n with the we ll-being o f the

w ho le sum o f mankind , and, by co nsequence, if the criterio n w e

have laid dow n be t rue,it is

,strict ly speaking, a mo ral duty, o r

branch o f natural religio n . And,therefo re

,the least degree o f

rebellio n is,with the utmo st strictness and pro priety

,a sin

n o t o n ly in Christians,but also in tho se w ho have the light o f

reaso n alo ne fo r their gu ide . N ay, upo n a tho rough and impart ialV iew

,this subm issio n w i ll

,I think

,appear o ne o f the very first

and fundamental law s o f nature , inasmuch as it is civil go vernmen t w h ich o rdain s and marks o ut the various relat io ns betweenmen

,and regulates property, thereby giving scope and laying a

fo undat io n fo r the exercise o f all o ther duties. And,in truth

,

who ever co n siders the co ndit io n o f man w i ll scarce co nceive itpo ssible that the practice o f any o n e mo ral virtue sho uld o btain

,

in the naked,fo rlo rn state o f nature .

1 7 . But,since it must be co nfessed that in all cases o ur actio n s

come n o t w ith in the direct io n o f certain fixed mo ral rules,it

may po ssibly be sti ll questio ned,whether o bedience to the supreme

power be n o t o ne o f tho se exempted cases,and co nsequen t ly

to be regulated by the pruden ce and discret io n o f every singleperson rather than adjusted to the rule o f abso lute n o n -resistance. I shal l therefo re endeavour to make it yet mo re plain , that‘ Thou shalt n o t resist the supreme pow er ’ is an undo ubtedprecept o f mo rality , as will appear from the fo llowing co n sideratio nS '

First,then

,submissio n to go vernmen t is a po in t impo rtant enough

to be established by a mo ral rule . Things o f insign ificant and

trifling co n cern are,fo r that Very reaso n

,exempted from the rules

1 I 8 Passive a dz'

euce upon tae

o f mo rality. But go vernment,o n wh ich so much depend the

peace,o rder

,and w ell-be ing, o f mank in d, canno t surely be tho ught

o f to o small impo rtan ce to be secured and guarded by a mo ralru le. Go vernmen t

,I say, w h ich is itself the prin cipal source

under heaven o f tho se part icular advantages fo r the pro curementand co n servat io n w hereo f several unquest io nable mo ral rules wereprescribed to men .

1 8. Seco ndly,o bedience to go vernmen t is a case un iversal

enough to fal l under the direct io n o f a law o f nature. N umberlessrules there may be fo r regulating affairs o f great co ncernment

,

at certain junctures,and to some part icular perso ns o r so cieties

,

wh ich,no tw ithstand ing, are no t to be esteemed mo ral o r natural

laws,but may be e ither to tally abro gated o r dispensed with ,

because the private ends they were in tended to promo te respecto n ly some particular perso ns

,as engaged in relatio ns no t fo unded

in the general nature o f man,w ho

,o n vario us o ccasio ns

,and in

different po stures o f things,may pro secute their ow n designs by

differen t measures,as in human pruden ce shall seem co nven ient.

But what re latio n is there mo re extensive and universal than that

o f subject and law ? This is co nfined to no part icular age o rc limate, but un iversally obtains

,at all times

,and in all places

,

w herever men live in a state exalted above that o f brutes. Itis,therefo re

,evident that the rule fo rbidding resistance to the

law o r supreme power is no t,upo n preten ce o f any defect in

po in t o f un iversality,to be excluded from the number o f the laws

o f nature.

19. Thirdly, there is ano ther co nsiderat io n which confirms thenecess ity o f admitt ing th is rule fo r a mo ral o r natural lawnamely, because the case it regards is o f to o n ice and diffi culta nature to be left to the judgmen t and determinat io n o f eachprivate perso n . Some cases there are so plain and obvious tojudge o f that they may safe ly be trusted to the pruden ce o f everyreaso nable man . But in all instan ces to determine

,whether a

civi l law is fitted to promo te the public interest , o r whethersubmissio n o r resistance will

,pro ve mo st advantageous in the

co nsequence , o r w hen it is that the general go o d o f a nationmay require an alteratio n o f go vernmen t , e ither in its fo rm

,or

in the hands w h ich admin ister it —these are po in ts to o arduousand in tricate, and w hich require to o great a degree o f parts,

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1 20 P assive Oéea’ieuce upon tae

a level w i th o ther crimes against n ature . To wh i ch I answerthat it is true

,there are certain natural an tipathies implanted in

the soul,whi ch are ever the mo st last ing and insurmountable ,

but,as custom is a second nature

,whatever aversio ns are from

our early childho o d co ntinually infused into the mind give it so

deep a stain as is scarce to be distinguished from natural complex io n . And

,as it do th hen ce fo llow

,that to make all the

inward ho rro rs o f sou l pass fo r infal l ible marks o f sin were thew ay to establish erro r and superstit ion in the wo rld , so

,o n the

o ther hand,to suppo se all act io n s lawful which are unattended

with tho se starts o f nature would pro ve o f the last dangero us con

sequen ce to virtue and mo ral ity. Fo r,these pertain ing to us as

men,w e must no t be directed in respect o f them byany emo tions

in our blo o d and spirits,but by the dictates o f so ber and impart ial

reaso n . And,if there be anywho fi nd they have a less abho rrence

o f rebe llio n than o f o ther villan ies,all that can be inferred

from it is,that th is part o f their duty w as no t so much reflected

o n,o r so early and frequent ly in culcated into their hearts, as

it o ught to have been . Since without quest io n there are o thermen w ho have as tho rough an aversion fo r that as fo r anyo thercrime 15

2 2 . Again ,it will probably be objected that submissio n to

go vernment differs from mo ral duties in that it is founded in a

co n tract ”,which

,upo n the vio lation o f its co nditions, do th of

co urse become vo id,and in such case rebellio n is lawful : it hath

n o t therefo re the n ature o f a sin o r crime,

. w hich is in itselfabso lutely unlaw fi il, and must be committed o n no pretext w hatso ever.—N ow

,passing over all inquiry and dispute con cern ing

the first obscure rise o f go vernment,I o bserve its being founded

o n a co ntract maybe understo o d in a twofo ld sense —either, first,that several independen t perso ns

,finding the insufferable ia

co nven ience o f a state o f anarchy,where every o ne was governed

by his ow n will,co nsented and agreed together to payan abso lute

submission to the decrees o f some certain legislative , which,15 Il diso it ordinairement qu il avo it nu

aussi grand élo ignemen t po ur cc péché laque po ur assassiner le mo nde, o n po ur vo lersun les grands chemins

, et qu’enfi n il n

’

yavo rt rien qui fut plus co ntraire a so n

naturel .' He (Mr . Pascal) used to say he

had as great an abho rrence o f rebellion as o f

murder, o r ro bbing o n the high-way, and

that there w as no th ingmore sho cking to his

nature.—Vide M . P ascal, p.—AUTHOR.

1"Cf. Lo cke’

s Treatise on Government,Bk . II. ch . 8.

P r inciples of t/z e Law of N atur e. 1 2 1

though sometimes they may bear hard o n the subject, yet must

sure ly prove easier to be governed by than the vio lent humoursand unsteady o ppo site wills o f a mult itude o f savages. And , in

case w e admit such a compact to have been the o riginal fo undat io no f civi l go vernmen t

,it must even o n that suppo sit io n be he ld

sacred and invio lable.

23. O r,seco ndly

,it is meant that subjects have co ntracted with

their respect ive so vereigns o r legislato rs to pay, n o t an abso lute,

but co nditio nal and lim ited,submissio n to thei r laws

,that is

,

upon co ndit io n ,and so far fo rth

,as the observat io n o f them

shal l co n tribute to the public go od : reserving sti ll to themselvesa right o f superin tending the laws

,and judging whether they are

fitted to promo te the public go o d o r n o , and (in case they o r

any o f them th ink it needful) o f resisting the h igher powers,and changing the who le frame o f go vernment by fo rce : w h ichis a right that all mank ind

,whether single perso ns o r so ciet ies

,

have o ver tho se that are deputed by them. But,in th is sense

,a

co n tract canno t be admitted fo r the ground and measure o f civi lobedience

,ex cept o ne o f these tw o th ings be c learly shew n :

either,first

,that such a co n tract is an express kno w n part o f the

fundamen tal co n stitutio n o f a natio n,equally allow ed and un

questio n ed by all as the commo n law o f the land , o r,seco ndly

,

if it be n o t express,that it is at least n ecessari ly implied in

the very nature o r n o t io n o f civil po lity,wh ich suppo ses it is

a thing man ifest ly absurd,that a number o f men should be

o bliged to live under an un limited subjectio n to civil law,rather

than co n tinue w ild and independen t o f each o ther. But to me

it seems mo st eviden t that n either o f tho se po ints w ill ever beproved .24. And ti ll they are pro ved beyond all co ntradict io n

,the

do ctrin e built upo n them o ught to be rejected w ith detestat io n .

Since,to represen t the h igher pow ers as deputies o f the peo ple

man ifest ly tends to dimin ish that aw e and reveren ce wh ich all

go o d men sho uld have fo r the laws and go vernmen t o f thei rcount ry. And to speak o f a co nditio n

,limited lo yalty

,and I

kn ow no t what vague and undeterm in ed co ntracts,is a mo st

effectual means to lo o sen the bands o f c ivi l so ciety , than w h ichno thing can be o f mo re misch ievo us co nsequence to mank ind .But

,after all

,if there be any man who either canno t o r w ill

1 2 2 P assive Ooea’ience upon tne

no t see the absurdity and pern iciousness o f tho se n o t io ns,he

wo uld,I do ubt no t

,be co nvinced with a w itn ess

,in case they

sho uld o nce become current,and every private man take it in

h is head to be lieve them true,and put them in practice .

25 . But there still remains an object ion w hich hath the appearan ce o f some strength against w hat has been said : N amely

,

that,whereas civi l po lity is a th ing en tirely o f human institutio n

,

it seems co ntrary to reaso n to make submissio n to it part of

the law o f nature,and no t rather o f the civi l law . Fo r

,how

can it be imagined that nature should dictate o r prescribe a

natural law about a thing wh ich depen ds o n the arbitrary humouro f men

,no t o n ly as to its k ind o r fo rm,

wh ich is very variousand mutable

,but even as to its ex isten ce , there being no w here

to be found a civil go vernment set up by nature—In answ er tothis

,I o bserve

,first

,that mo st mo ral precepts do presuppo se some

vo lun tary act io n s,o r pacts o f men

,and are nevertheless esteemed

laws o f nature . Pro perty is assigned , the s ign ificat io n o f w o rdsascertained

,and matrimo ny co n tracted—by the agreement and

co nsent o f mankind , and, fo r all that, it is n o t do ubted whethertheft, falseho o d, and adu ltery be pro h ibited by the law o f nature.

Lo yalty,therefo re

,though it sho uld suppo se and be the result o f

human in stitutio n s,may, fo r all that

,be o f natural o bligation .

I say, seco ndly,that

,no tw ithstanding particular so cieties are

fo rmed bymen,

'

and are no t in all places alike,as things esteemed

natural are w o nt to be, yet there is implanted in mankind a

natural tendency o r dispo sit io n to a so cial life. I call it natural,

because it is un iversal,and because it necessarily results from

the differences wh ich distinguish man from beast , the peculiarwan ts, appetites

,facult ies

,and capacities o f man being exact ly

calculated and framed fo r such a state,insomuch that without

it it is impo ssible he should live in a condit io n in any degreesuitable to his nature. And

,since the bo nd and cement o f

so ciety is a submissio n to its law s,it plain ly fo llows that this

duty hath an equal right with any o ther to be thought a law

o f nature . And sure ly that precept w h ich enjo in s obedience toc ivil law s canno t itse lf

,with any pro priety, be accoun ted a civil

law , it must therefo re either have n o obl igat io n at all o n the

co n science, o r, if it hath , it must be derived from the un iversalvo ice o f nature and reaso n .

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1 24 P assive Ooea’ienee upon tne

prescribing certain determinate un iversal rules, to be the commonmeasure o f mo ral act io n s. And

,if w e allow the n ecessity o f

these,and at the same t ime th ink it lawful to tran sgress them

w henever the public go o d shall seem to require it,w hat is this

but in wo rds indeed to enjo in the o bservat io n o f mo ral rules,

but in effect to leave every o ne to be guided byh is ow n judgmen t ?than which n o th ing can be imagined mo re pern icious and

destructive to mankind,as hath been already pro ved . Seco ndly,

th is same po in t ma be co llected from the example set us by

the Autho r o f nature,w ho

,as w e have above o bserved 19

,acts

acco rding to certain fix ed law s, wh ich He will n o t t ransgressupo n the account o f acciden tal evi ls arising from them. Suppo sea prin ce o n w ho se life the w e lfare o f a k ingdom depends to falldown a precipice

,w e have n o reaso n to th ink that the un iversal

law o f gravitat io n wo uld be suspended in that case. The likemaybe said o f all o ther law s o f nature

,which w e do n o t fi nd to

admit o f except io n s o n part icular accounts.

28. And as,witho ut such a steadin ess 19 in nature, w e should

so o n,in stead o f th is beaut iful frame

,see n o th ing but a diso rderly

and co nfused chao s , so,if o n ce it become curren t that the

mo ral act io n s o f men are n o t to be guided by certain defin iteinvio lable rules

,there w ill be n o lo nger found that beauty, o rder,

and agreemen t in the system o f rat io nal beings, o r mo ral wo rld,w h ich w ill then be all co vered o ver w ith darkn ess and vio lence.

It is true,he w ho stands clo se to a palace can hardly make a

right judgmen t o f the architecture an d symmetry o f its severalparts

, the nearer ever appearing dispro po rt io nably great . And,

if w e have a m ind to take a fair pro spect o f the o rder and generalwe ll~ being w h ich the inflex ible law s o f nature and mo rality deriveo n the wo rld, w e must

,if I may so say, go o ut o f it

,and

imagine o urse lves to be distan t spectato rs o f all that is transactedand co ntained in it , o therw ise w e are sure to be deceived bythe to o n ear view o f the litt le presen t interests o f o urselves,o ur friends

,o r o ur country ‘20

.

The right understanding o f w hat hath been said will,I think

,

affo rd a clear so lut io n to the fo l lowing diffi cult ies29 . First , it may perhaps seem to some that

,in co n sequence

18 Sect. 14 .1° Cf. P r inciples of Human Knowledge, sect. 30

—32.

2° Cf. Guardian , No . 70 , 83 .

P r inciples of Me Law of N atur e. 1 2 5

o f the fo rego ing do ctrine, men will be left to thei r ow n privatejudgmen ts as much as ever. Fo r

,first

,the very being o f the

laws o f nature , seco ndly,the criterio n whereby to know them ,

and,th ird ly

,the agreemen t o f any part icular precept with that

criterio n are all to be disco vered by reaso n and argumentat io n ,

in which every man do th n ecessarily judge fo r h imse lf : hen ce ,upo n that suppo s itio n

,there is place fo r as great co nfusio n ,

unsteadin ess,and co ntrariety o f o pin io ns and act io ns as upo n

any o ther. I answ er,that however men may differ as to w hat

were mo st pro per and beneficial to the public to be do ne o r

omitted o n part icular o ccasio ns,when they have fo r the mo st

part narro w and interested views , yet, in gen eral co nc lusio ns,drawn from an equal and en larged view o f th ings, it is n o t

po ssible there should be so great, if any, disagreemen t at all

amo ngst candid rat io nal inquirers after truth .

30. Seco ndly,the mo st plausible preten ce o f all again st the

do ctrine w e have premised co ncern ing a rigid indispensableobservat io n o f mo ral rules is that w hich is founded o n the co n

siderat io n o f the public weal ” . Fo r,since the commo n go o d o f

mank ind is co n fessedly the end w hich God requires sho uld bepromo ted by the free act io ns o f men

,it may seem to fo llow that

all go o d men ought ever to have this in view,as the great mark

to which all thei r endeavours should be directed , if, therefo re ,in any particular case, a strict keeping to the mo ral rule shallpro ve man ifest ly inco nsisten t w ith the public go od, it may betho ught agreeable to the w ill o f God that in that case the ruledo es restrain an ho nest disin terested perso n, from acting fo r thatend to w h ich the rule itself w as o rdained . Fo r

,it is an axiom

that the end is mo re ex cellent than the means,

’w h ich

,deriving

the ir go o dness from the end,may no t come in competitio n

with it .3 1 . In answer to th is

,let it be o bserved

,that n o thing is a

law merely because it co nduceth to the public go o d, but becauseit is decreed bythe w i ll o f Go d, w h ich alo n e can give the sanct io no f a law o f nature to any precept , n either is any thing, ho wexpedient o r plausible so ever

,to be esteemed law ful o n any o ther

acco unt than its being co in ciden t with, o r no t repugnant to,

21 See Lo cke'

s Treatise on Government, Bk . II. ch . 19 .

1 26 P assive Oéea’z

'

eme afi on flee

the laws promulgated by the vo ice o f nature and reaso n . Itmust indeed be allowed that the ratio nal deduct io n o f tho se

laws is founded in the intrinsic tenden cy they have to promo te

the we ll-being o f mank ind,o n co ndit io n they are un iversally

and co nstant ly observed . But,though it afterwards comes to

pass that they accidentally fai l o f that end,o r even promo te the

co n trary,they are neverthe less binding, as hath been already

pro ved . In sho rt,that who le diffi culty may be reso lved by the

fo llowing distinct io n—In framing the general laws o f nature, itis granted w e must be en t irely guided by the public go o d o f mank ind

,but no t in the o rdinary mo ral act io n s o f our lives . Such

a rule,if un iversally observed

,hath

,from the nature o f things,

a n ecessary fitness to promo te the general w ell-being o f mankindtherefo re it is a law o f nature . Th is is go o d reaso n ing. But

if w e should say, such an act io n do th in th is instance producemuch go od, and no harm to mankind , therefo re it is lawfulth is w ere wro ng. The rule is framed w ith respect to the go o do f mank ind , but our practice must be always shaped immediatelyby the rule. They w ho think the public go o d o f a natio n to be

the so le measure o f the o bedien ce due to the civi l power seemno t to have co n sidered this dist inctio n .

3 2. If it be said that some n egat ive precepts, e. g.‘Thou

shalt no t k i ll,

’do admit o f limitat io n

,sin ce o therw ise

'

it wereun lawful fo r the magistrate

,fo r a so ldier in a batt le

,o r a man

in his ow n defence,to ki ll ano ther —I answer

,when a duty is

expressed in to o general terms, as in this instan ce, in o rder toa dist inct declarat ion o f it

,- either tho se terms may be changed

fo r o thers o f a mo re limited sense,as kill fo r murder

,o r else

,

from the general pro po sitio n remain ing in its ful l latitude, ex

ceptio ns maybe made o f tho se precise cases w h ich,no t agreeing

with the n o t io n o f murder,are no t pro h ibited by the law o f

nature. In the fo rmer case there is a lim itatio n , but it is o n lyo f the sign ificat io n o f a single term to o general and impro per,by substituting ano ther mo re pro per and particular in its place.

In the latter case there are ex ceptio ns , but then they are no t

from the law o f nature,but from a mo re general pro po sitio n

wh ich , besides that law ,in cludes somewhat mo re

,which must

be taken away in o rder to leave the law by itself clear and

determinate. From neither o f which co n cessio ns will it fo llow

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1 2 8 P assive Oéea’ienee upon Me

o ther natural o r mo ral dut ies,I think that assertio n to be man i

festly false , fo r th is plain reaso n , because it wo uld then ce fo llow,a man may law fi i lly commit any sin whatso ever to preserve hislife

,than w h i ch no thing can be mo re absurd.

34 . It canno t indeed be denied that the law of nature rest rainsus from do ing tho se things wh ich may injure the life o f anyman

,and co nsequently our o w n . But

,no twithstanding all that

is said o f the o bligat iven ess and prio rity o f the law o f selfpreservat io n

, yet, fo r aught I can see,there is no particular law

w hich o bliges any man to prefer his o w n tempo ral go od,no t

even life itself,to that o f ano ther man

,much less to the obser

vat io n o f any o ne mo ral duty. This is what w e are to o readyto perfo rm o f our ow n acco rd , and there is mo re need o f a lawto curb and restrain

,than there is o f o ne to excite and inflame

o ur se lf-lo ve.

35 . But,seco ndly

,tho ugh w e should grant the duty o f self

preservation to be the first and mo st necessary o f all the po sitiveo r affi rmative laws o f nature , yet, fo rasmuch as it is a maximallow ed by all mo ralists

,that ‘

evil is never to be committed, tothe end go o d may come o f it

,

’it will thence plain ly fo llow that

n o n egative precept ought to be transgressed fo r the sake of

o bserving a positive o ne , and therefo re,since w e have shewn,

Tho u shalt no t resist the supreme power,

’to be a negative law

o f nature,it is a necessary co nsequen ce that it may no t be

t ransgressed under pretence o f fulfi lling the po sitive duty of selfpreservat io n .

36 . A seco nd erro neous ground o f our adversaries,whereon

they lay a main stress,is that they ho ld the public go od o f a

particular natio n to be the measure o f the o bedience due fromthe subject to the civi l pow er

,w h ich therefo re may be resisted

w hen so ever the public go o d shall verily seem to require it. But

this po in t hath been already co ns idered , and in trut h it can givesmal l difi ‘lCUltY to who ever understands lo yalty to be o n the

same fo o t with o ther mo ral dut ies en jo ined in negat ive precepts,all wh ich, though equally calcu lated to promo te the general wellbe ing, may no t nevertheless be limited o r suspended under pretexto f giv ing w ay to the end

,as is plain from what hath been

premised o n that subject .3 7 . A third reaso n which they insist o n is to this eflect

P r in ciples of Me Law of N atur e. 1 29

All civil autho rity o r right is derived o riginally from the peo ple ,but no bo dy can t ransfer that to ano ther wh ich he hath no t him

self, therefo re,since n o man hath an abso lute un l imited right

o ver his ow n life,the subject canno t transfer such a right to the

prin ce (o r supreme power), w ho co n sequen tly hath no such un

limited right to dispose o f the lives o f his subjects. In case,

therefo re,a subject resist his prin ce

,w ho

,acting acco rding to

law,maketh an unjust

,tho ugh legal, attempt o n his life

,he do es

him no w ro ng , since w ro ng it is no t,to preven t ano ther from

seiz ing what he hath no right to : w hen ce it sho uld seem to

fo llow that,agreeably to reaso n , the prin ce, o r supreme power

,

whereso ever placed,may be resisted . Having thus endeavoured

to _state their argumen t in its clearest light, I make this answer :First

,it is granted, no civil pow er hath an un limited right to

dispo se o f the life o f any man . Seco ndly,in case o n e man

resist ano ther invading that w hich he hath n o right to,it is

granted he do th him no wro ng. But,in the th ird place

,I deny

that it do th thence fo llow,the supreme power may co nso nan t ly

to reaso n be resisted , because that,altho ugh such resistance

wro nged no t the prince o r supreme power whereso ever placed,

yet it were in jurious to the autho r o f nature,and a V io lat io n o f

h is law,w h ich reaso n obligeth us to transgress upo n no account

whatso ever,as hath been demo nstrated.

38. A fo urth mistake o r prejudice which influenceth the im

pugners o f no n-resistance arises from the natural dread o f slavery,

chain s,and fetters

,w h ich inspires them w ith an aversion fo r any

th ing, which even metapho rically comes under tho se denominatio ns. Hence they cry out against us that w e wo u ld deprive themo f their natural freedom

,that w e are mak ing chains fo r mank ind

,

that w e are fo r enslaving them,and the l ike. But

,how harsh so

ever the sen tence mayappear, yet it is mo st true, that o ur appetites,even the mo st natural

,as o f ease

,plen ty

,o r life itself

,must be

chained and fettered by the laws o f nature and reas o n . Th isslavery

,if they will call it so

,o r subjectio n o f our passio ns to the

immutable decrees o f reaso n,tho ugh it maybe galling to the sen

sual part o r the beast, yet sure I am it addeth much to the dign ityo f that which is peculiarly human in o ur compo sit io n . This leadsme to the fifth fundamen tal erro r.39. N amely

,the mistaking the o bject o f passive o bedience.

VOL. 111. K

1 30 Passive Oéea’ieuee : upon M

We sho uld co nsider that when a subject endures the inso lenceand o ppressio n o f o ne o r mo re magistrates, armed with the

supreme civi l power,the o bject o f h is submission is

,in strict

t ruth,n o th ing else but right reason , wh ich is the vo ice o f the

Autho r o f nature. Think no t w e are so senseless as to imaginetyrants cast in a better mo uld than o ther men : n o

,they are the

wo rst and v ilest o f men,and fo r their ow n sakes have no t the

least right to o ur obedien ce. But the laws o f God and naturemust be o beyed

,and o ur o bedience to them is never mo re accept

able and sin cere than when it expo seth us to tempo ral calamities.40 . A sixth false gro und o f persuasio n to tho se w e argue against

is their n o t dist inguishin g between the natures o f po sitive and

n egative dut ies. Fo r,say they, since o ur active o bedience to the

supreme civil power is acknow ledged to be l imited,whymaynot

o ur duty o f no n-resistan ce be tho ught so to o ? The answer isplain , because po sit ive and negat ive mo ral precepts are no t of

the same nature—the fo rmer admitting such limitatio ns and ex

ceptio ns as the latter are o n n o account liable to,as hath been

already pro ved. It is very po ssible that a man,in obeying the

commands o f his lawful go verno rs, might transgress some law of

Go d co ntrary to them , wh ich it is no t po ssible fo r him to do

merely by a patien t suffering and no n-resistance fo r co nsciencesake. And th is furn ishes such a satisfacto ry and o bvio us so lutiono f the fo re-mentio ned diffi culty that I am n o t a litt le surprised tosee it in sisted o n

,bymen

,o therwise

,o f go o d sense and reason.

And so much fo r the grounds and reaso ns o f the adversaries ofno n-resistan ce.

I n ow pro ceed to the third and last th ing pro po sed,namely,

the co nsiderat ion o f the o bjection s drawn from the pretendedco nsequen ces o f no n-resistan ce” .

4 1 . First, then , it will be o bjected that,in co nsequence of that

no t io n , w e must be lieve that God hath,in several in stances, laid

the in n o cent part o f mankind under an unavo idable necessity ofenduring the greatest sufferings and hardsh ips without anyremedy ;

23 Some o f tho se referred to may be fo und in Lo cke.

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1 32 P assive Oéea’ieuee upon Me

somet imes at tended w ith heavy disadvantages and miseries o n

the part o f tho se w ho by a fi rm adhesio n to His laws endeavourto appro ve themselves in the eyes o f their Creato r. There are

in sho rt no rules o f mo rality,no t ex cepting the best

,but what

may subject go od men to great sufferings and hardships , w hichnecessarily fo l lows from the wickedn ess o f tho se they have to dealwith

,and but acciden tally from tho se go o d rules. And as

,o n the

o ne hand,it were in co nsisten t with the wisdom o f Go d

,by suffer

ing a retaliat io n o f fraud,perjury

,o r the like

,o n the head o f

o ffenders,to pun ish o n e t ransgressio n by ano ther : so , o n the o ther

hand,it were inco ns isten t w ith His justice to leave the go od and

inno cent a ho peless sacrifice to the wicked. Go d therefo re hathappo in ted a day o f retribut io n in ano ther life

,and in t his w e have

His grace and a go o d co nscien ce fo r our suppo rt . We should nottherefo re repine at the D ivine laws

,o r shew '

a frowardness or

impatience o f tho se transien t sufferings they accidentally exposeus to

,w hich

,however grat ing to flesh and blo od

,w ill yet seem of

small moment,if w e compare the litt leness and fi eetingness of

this present wo rld with the glo ry and etern ity o f the next.43. From what hath been said

,I th ink it is plain that the

premised do ct rine o f n o n-resistance were safe,though the evils

incurred thereby should be al low ed never so great . But perhaps,

upo n a strict examinatio n , they will be found much less than bymany they are thought to be. The misch ievous effects w hich are

charged o n that do ctrin e maybe reduced to these tw o po intsFirst

,that it is an enco uragement fo r all governo rs to become

tyrants,by the pro spect it gives them o f impun ity o r n o n-resist

an ce. Seco ndly,that it renders the o ppression and cruelty o f

tho se w ho are tyran ts mo re in suppo rtable and vio len t,bycutting

o ff all o ppo sit io n,and co nsequent ly allmeans o f redress. I shall

co nsider each o f these distinctly—As to the first po int, either youwill suppo se the governo rs to be go od o r i ll men . If they are

go o d,there is no fear o f their becoming tyrants. And if they are

i ll men,that is

,such as po stpo n e the observat io n o f Go d’s laws

to the satisfying o f the ir ow n lusts,then it can be no security to

them that o thers w i ll rigidly observe tho se mo ral precepts whichthey fi nd themselves so pro ne to t ransgress.44 . It is indeed a breach o f the law o f nature fo r a subject,

tho ugh under the greatest and mo st unjust sufferings, to lift up

P r inciples of Me Law of N atur e. 133

his hand against the supreme power. But it is a mo re heinousand inexcusable vio latio n o f it fo r the perso n s invested with thesupreme power to use that power to the ruin and destruct io n o f

the peo ple committed to their charge. What en couragemen t

therefo re can any man have to th ink that o thers will n o t bepushed o n by the stro ng implanted appet ite o f self-preservatio n ,to commit a crime

,w hen he himself commits a mo re brut ish and

unnatural crime,perhaps witho ut any pro vo catio n at all ? O r is

it to be imagin ed that they w ho dai ly break God’s laws, fo r thesake o f some litt le pro fit o r transient pleasure, will n o t be tempted,by the lo ve o f pro perty

,liberty

,o r life itself

,to transgress that

single precept w hich fo rbids resistance to the supreme power ?45 . But it will be demanded—To what purpo se then is thisduty o f no n-resistan ce preached, and pro ved, and recommended toour pract ice, if, in all like liho o d

,when things come to an ex

tremity, men will never observe it ? I answ er,to the very same

purpo se that any o ther duty is preached. Fo r,what duty is there

w hi ch many,to o many

,upo n some con siderat io n o r o ther

,may

no t be prevai led o n to transgress ? Mo ralists and divines do no t

preach the dut ies o f nature and religio n w ith a view o f gain ingmankind to a perfect o bservatio n o f them that they kn ow is no tto be do ne. But

,however

,our pain s are answered

,if w e can

make men less sinners than o therwise they wo uld be , if, byo ppo sing the fo rce o f duty to that o f present in terest and passio n ,w e can get the better o f some temptatio ns

,and balan ce o thers

,

whi le the greatest sti ll remain invincible.

46. But, grant ing those w ho are invested with the supreme

power to have all imaginable security that no cruel and barbaro ust reatment whatever could pro voke thei r subjects to rebellio n

, yet

I believe it maybe just ly questio ned, whether such security wouldtempt them to mo re o r greater acts o f cruelty than jealousy

,

distrust,suspicio n

,and revenge may do in a state less secure .

—And so far in consideratio n o f the first po int,name ly

,that the

do ctrine o f no n-resistan ce is an encouragement fo r go verno rs tobecome tyran ts.47 . The seco nd mischievous effect it w as charged w ith is

,that

it renders the o ppressio n and crue lty o f tho se w ho are tyran tsmo re insuppo rtable and vio len t

,by cutting o ff all o ppo sitio n

,and

co nsequent ly allmeans o f redress. But,if things are rightly co n

1 34 P assive Obedience upon Me

sidered,it w ill appear that redressing the evils o f go vernmen t by

fo rce is at best a very haz ardous attempt , and what o ften puts thepublic in a w o rse state than it w as befo re. Fo r

,e ither yo u sup

po se the power o f the rebels to be but smal l,and easily crushed

,

and then th is is apt to in spire the go verno rs with co nfi denceand cruelty. O r

,in case you suppo se it mo re co nsiderable

,so

as to be a match fo r the supreme power suppo rted by the publictreasure

,fo rts

,and armies

,and that the who le nat io n is engaged

in a civi l w ar —the certain effects o f th is are,rapine

,blo o dshed

,

misery,and co nfusio n to all o rders and parties o f men

, greaterand mo re insuppo rtable by far than are known under any themo st abso lute and severe tyranny upo n earth . And it may be

that,after much mutual slaughter, the rebe l lio us party may

prevai l . And if they do prevail to destro y the go vernment inbeing, it may be they will substitute a better in its place

,o r

change it into better hands. And may n o t this come to passwitho ut the expense

,and to i l

,and blo od o f w ar ? Is no t the

heart o f a prin ce in the hand o f God ? May He no t therefo regive him a right sense o f his duty

,o r may He n o t call him

out o f the wo rld by sickn ess,acciden t

,o r the hand o f some

desperate rufi ian,and send a better in his stead ? When I speak

as o f a mo narchy,I wo uld be understo o d to mean all so rts of

go vernmen t,w hereso ever the supreme power is lo dged. Upon

the w ho le,I th in k w e may clo se w ith the heathen ph ilo sopher

,

w ho thought it the part o f a wise man never to attempt thechange o f go vernmen t by fo rce, w hen it could no t be mendedw ithout the slaughter and ban ishment o f his co un trymen : but to

sit st ill,and pray fo r better t imes 94 . Fo r

,this w aymaydo , and the

o ther may n o t do , there is un certain ty in bo th co urses. The

differen ce is that in the w ay o f rebellion w e are sure to increasethe public calamities, fo r a time at least

,though w e are no t sure

o f lessen ing them fo r the future.

48. But,though it sho uld be acknowledged that, in the main,

submissio n and patien ce o ught to be recommended, yet, men

will be sti ll apt to demand, w hether extrao rdinary cases mayno t2‘

[P lato in Epist . vii.] The woAtr eIas yer aBoAfi s [Ail WpOWPG'

PEW: (fr ompa

ssage referred to is“

the fo llo w ing : fi vev (pv'

yfi s It a l apa'

yfi s Err/Spar p); SuvarbyAG'WW'MEV , i t

,

“ i, KaAws afrr qfi (pair/aur a if yl'

yM O'OaL apfa

'rny, fi auxlav 52"M w w w oa b 6 ‘ M AN" M797 6 fla '

r afws s’

peiu. d‘

yow a eb’

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r yaOd animi r e xalp frr e dwoeaveiaea i Aé'ywv, fi lau 52: 1ra

'

r pf8t v ii miAei .

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136 P assive Oéea’ienc

'

e upon Me

and safety o f a nat io n than preach ing up the power o f resistanceto the peo ple.

5 0. Further,it will pro bably be objected as an absurdity in the

do ctrine o f passive o bedience,that it enjo ineth subjects a blind

implicit submissio n to the decrees o f o ther men , which is um

becoming the dign ity and freedom o f reaso nable agen ts , who

indeed o ught to pay obedience to their superio rs,but it should

be a ra t io nal o bedience,such as arises from a knowledge of the

equity o f thei r laws,and the t enden cy they have to promo te

the public go od. To which I answer,that it is no t likely a

governmen t should suffer much fo r wan t o f having its lawsinspected and amended by tho se w ho are n o t legal ly entit led toa share in the management o f affairs o f that nature. And it

must be co nfessed the bulk o f mankind are by their circumstancesand o ccupatio ns so far unqualified to judge o f such matters

,

that they must necessarily pay an implicit deference to some o r

o ther , and to whom so pro perly as to tho se invested with thesupreme power ?5 1. There is an o ther object io n against abso lute submission

,

wh ich I sho uld no t have ment io ned but that I fi nd it insistedo n by men o f so great no te as Gro tius and Puffendo rfi fi

,who

th ink our no n-resistan ce should be measured by the intention of

tho se w ho first framed the so cie ty. N ow,say they, if w e suppose

the quest io n put to them,whether they meant to lay every

subject under the necessity o f cho o sing death,rather than in any

case to res ist the cruelty o f his superio rs,it canno t be imagined

they wo uld answer in the affirmat ive. Fo r,this were to put

themselves in a wo rse co nditio n than that which they endeavouredto avo id by entering in to so ciety. Fo r

,although they were

befo re obn o xious to the injuries o f many,they had nevertheless

the power o f resist ing them. But now they are bound,without

anyo ppo sitio n at all,to endure the greatest injuries from those

w hom they have armed with thei r ow n st rength. Wh ich is byso much wo rse than the fo rmer state

,as the undergo ing an

execut io n is wo rse than the haz ard o f a battle. But (passing byall o ther ex ceptions w h ich this metho d o f arguing may be liablet o ), it is evident that a man had better be expo sed to the

LGro tius De yure Belli et P acts, lib. I. N atures et Gentium, lib.VII. cap.vn. sect.chap. lV. sect . 7 ; et Puff endorf De fare —Avr uoa .

P r inciples of Me Law of N atur e. 1 37

abso lute irresistible decrees,even o f o ne single person, Who se

ow n and posterity’s true interest it is to preserve him in peaceand plenty

,and pro tect him from the injuries o f all mankind

beside,than remain an o pen prey to the rage and avarice o f

every w icked man upo n earth,w ho either exceeds him in strength,

o r takes him at an advantage. The t ruth o f this is confirmed,as wel l by the constant experien ce o f the far greater part o fthe wo rld

,as by what w e have already o bserved co ncern ing

anarchy,and the inco nsistence o f such a state with that manner

o f life which human -nature requires. Hen ce it is plain the

o bjection last men tio ned is bui lt o n a false suppo sit io n , viz .

That men,by quitting the natural state o f anarchy fo r that o f

abso lute non-resisting obedien ce to go vernment, would put themselves in a wo rse co ndit io n than they w ere in befo re.

5 2. The last objectio n I shal l take no tice of is,that, in

pursuance o f the premised do ct rine,where no exceptio ns, no

limitatio ns,are to be allowed o f

,it should seem to fo llow men

were bound to submit wi tho ut making any o ppo sit ion to usurpers,o r even madmen

,po ssessed o f the supreme autho rity. Which is

a no tio n so absurd,and repugnan t to common sense, that the

foundat io n o n which it is bui lt mayjust ly be called in question .

N ow,in o rder to clear this po int

,I o bserve the limitat io n o f

mo ral duties maybe understo o d in a two fo ld sense—either, first,as a distinction applied to the t erms o f a pro po sition, wherebythat wh ich was expressed befo re to o generally is limited to a

particular acceptat ion , and th is,in t ruth

,is no t so pro perly

limiting the duty as defin ing it. O r,seco ndly

,it maybe under

stoo d as a suspending the observat ion o f a duty fo r avo idingsome ext rao rdinary inco nven ience

,and thereby co nfin ing it to

certain o ccasions. And in this last sense only, w e have shewnnegative duties no t to admit o f limitat ion . Having premisedthis remark

,I make the fo llowing answ er to the object io n

namely,that byvirtue o f the duty o f no n-resistan ce w e are no t

o bliged to submit the dispo sal o f our l ives and fo rtunes to the

discretio n either o f madmen,o r o f all tho se w ho by craft o r

vio len ce invade the supreme pow er , because the object o f the

submission enjo ined subjects by the law o f nature is,from the

reason of the thing,man ifestly limited so as to exclude bo th the

o ne and the o ther. Which I shall no t go about to prove, because

1 38 P assive Ooea’ience : upon Me

I believe no bo dy has den ied it. N o r do th the annexing suchlimits to the o bject o f o ur obedien ce at all limit the duty itself,in the sen se w e except against .53. [27 In mo rality the eternal rules o f action have the same

immutable un iversal truth with pro po sit io n s in geomet ry. N eithero f them depends o n circumstan ces o r accidents, being at all t imesand in all places

,witho ut limitat io n o r except io n

,true .

‘Thoushalt n o t resist the supreme civi l power ’ is n o less co nstant andunalterable a rule

,fo r mo delling the behavio ur o f a subject toward

the go vernmen t, than ‘mult iply the height by half the base ’

is

fo r measuring a triangle. And,as it wo uld no t be thought to

detract from the un iversality o f th is mathematical rule that it

did n o t exact ly measure a field which w as n o t an exact triangle,so ought it no t to be tho ught an argumen t against the un iversality o f the ru le prescribing passive o bedien ce that it do es no t

reach a man’s pract ice in all cases where a go vernment is nu

h inged,o r the supreme power disputed. There must be a triangle,

and yo u must use your senses to know this,befo re there is ro om

fo r applying your mathemat ical rule . And there must be a civilgo vernment

,and you must kn ow in who se hands it is lo dged,

befo re the mo ral precept takes place. But,w here the supreme

power is ascertained,w e sho uld no mo re do ubt o f our submissio n

to it,than w e wou ld doubt o f the w ay to measure a figure we

know to be a triangle ]54 . In the vario us changes and fluctuatio ns o f go vernment

,

it is impo ssible to prevent that co n tro versies sho uld sometimesarise co ncern ing the seat o f the supreme power. And in suchcases subjects canno t be den ied the l iberty o f judging fo r themselves

,o r o f taking part with some, and o ppo sing o thers

,accord

ing to the best o f their judgmen ts , allwhich is co nsistent withan exact observat io n o f their duty

,so lo ng as

,w hen the co nsti

tutio n is clear in the po in t,and the o bject o f thei r submission

undo ubted, no pretext o f in terest,friends

,o r the public go od,

can make them depart from it . In sho rt,it is acknowledged

that the precept enjo in ing no n-resistance is l imited to particularo bjects, but no t to part icular o ccasio ns. And in this it is like

‘

37 This sectio n w as added in the third o f moral rules w ith which it opens.. Cf,

edit io n,

It IS remarkable fo r the stro ng sect. 12 .

expressio n o f the eternity and immutability

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144 E ssays in Me Gua r dian .

argumen t,an d says

,By free I mean the use o f the

understanding in endeavo uring to fi nd o ut the mean ing o f any

pro po sit io n w hatso ever,in co n sidering the n ature o f the evidence

fo r o r again st it , and in judging o f it acco rding to the seemingfo rce o r w eakn ess o f the evidence .

’ As so o n as he has deliveredth is defin it io n

,from w h ich o ne w o u ld ex pect he d id no t design

to shew a part icular in clinat io n fo r o r against any th ing befo rehe had co nsidered it

,he gives up all t it le to the character of

a Free-thinker,w ith the mo st apparen t prejudice against a body

o f men whom o f all o ther a go o d man w ou ld be mo st carefuln o t to vio late

,I mean men in ho ly o rders . Perso ns w ho have

devo ted themselves to the service o f Go d are ven erable to all

who fear Him , and it is a certain characteristic o f a disso luteand ungo verned mind, to rai l o r speak disrespectfully o f them ingen eral. It is certain that in so great a crow d o f men some

will intrude w ho are o f tempers very unbecoming their function ,but because ambit ion and avarice are somet imes lodged in that

bo som w h ich o ught to be the dwe lling o f sanct ity and devo tion,

must th is un reaso nable autho r vi lify the who le o rder ? He hasno t taken the least care to disguise his being an enemy to the

perso ns against whom he writes,no r anywhere granted that the

institutio n o f religio us men to serve at the altar,and instruct

such w ho are no t as w ise as h imself,is at all necessary o r desir

able , but pro ceeds, without the least apo logy, to undermine theircredit

,and frustrate thei r labo urs . Whatever clergymen, in disputes

again st each o ther,have unguardedly uttered is here reco rded in

such a manner as to affect re ligio n itself, bywrest ing co ncessionsto its disadvan tage from its o w n teachers.

If th is be t rue,as sure anyman that reads the D iscourse must allow

it is,and if religio n is the stro ngest t ie o f human so ciety

,in what

manner are w e to t reat this o ur commo n enemy,w ho promo tes the

growth o f such a sect as he calls Free-thinkers ? He that sho uld burna ho use, and justify the act io n byassert ing he is a free agent, wouldbe mo re excusable than th is autho r in uttering what he has fromthe right o f a Frec-thinker. But there are a set o f dry

,jo yless

,dull

fe l lows, w ho want capacit ies and talents to make a figure amongst

mankind upo n benevo len t and generous principles, that think tosurmo unt their o w n natural meanness

,by laying o ffences in the

w ay o f such as make it the ir endeavour to ex ce l upo n the received

Collz'

as’

D iscour se of Fr ee-faint ing. 145

maxims and ho nest arts o f life. If it were po ssible to laugh at so

melancho ly an affair as w hat haz ards salvat io n,it would be no

unpleasant inquiry to ask what sat isfactio ns they reap, whatextrao rdinary grat ificatio n o f sense

,o r what delicious libertin ism

th is sect o f Free-thinkers en jo y,after gett ing lo o se o f the laws

wh ich co nfine the passio ns o f o ther men ? Wo uld it no t be a

matter o f mirth to fi nd,after all

,that the heads o f this growing

sect are so ber wretches,w ho prate who le even ings o ver co ffee,

and have no t themselves fi re eno ugh to be any further debaucheesthan merely in prin ciple ? These sages o f in iquity are, it seems

,

themse lves o n ly speculat ively wicked,and are co ntented that all

the abando ned young men o f the age are kept safe from reflect io nby dabbling in the ir rhapso dies

,witho ut tast ing the pleasures fo r

which their do ctrines leave them unacco untable . Thus do heavymo rtals

, on ly to grat ify a dry pride o f heart, give up the interests

o f ano ther wo rld,without en larging the ir gratifi catio ns in th is ,

but it is certain there are a so rt o f men that can puz z le truth,

but canno t enjo y the satisfact ion o f it . Th is same Free-th inkeris a creature unacquain ted with the emo tio ns w h ich po ssess greatminds when they are turned fo r religio n

,and it is apparent that

he is untouched with any such sen sat io n as the rapture o f devot io n . Whatever o n e o f these sco rners may think, they certain lywant parts to be devout , and a sense o f piety towards heaven

,

as we ll as the sense o f any th ing e lse,is live ly and warm in

propo rt io n to the facult ies o f the head and heart. This gent lemanmaybe assured he has no t a taste fo r what he pretends to decry

,

and the po o r man is certain ly mo re a blo ckhead than an atheist .I must repeat that he w ants capac ity to re lish what true piety is ,and he is as capable o f writ ing an hero ic po em as making a

fervent prayer. When men are thus low and narrow in theirapprehensions o f th ings, and at the same t ime vain

,they are

naturally led to th ink every th ing they do n o t understand no t to

be understo o d. Their co nt radictio n to w hat is urged by o thersis a necessary co n sequence o f the ir incapac ity to receive it . The

atheistical fellows w ho appeared the last age did no t serve the

devil fo r nought,but revelled in excesses suitable to the ir prin

ciples , while in these unhappy days misch ief is do ne fo r misch ief’ssake. These Free-thinkers

,w ho lead the lives o f recluse students

fo r n o o ther purpo se but to disturb the sent iments o f o ther men,

VOL. 111. L

146 E ssays in Me Guardian.

put me in mind o f the mo nstrous recreat io n o f tho se late w ildyouths

,w ho

,w itho ut pro vo cat io n , had a w anto n ness in stabbing

and defac ing tho se they met with . When such w riters as th is,

w ho has n o spirit but that o f malice,pretend to info rm the age,

mo ho cks and cut-thro ats may well set up fo r wits and men of

pleasure .

It w ill be perhaps expected,that I sho uld pro duce some instances

o f the i ll in tent io n o f this Free-thinker, to suppo rt the treatment Ihere give him. In h is 5and page he says :

audly. The priests thro ugho ut the wo rld differ about scriptures,and the autho rity o f scriptures . The Bramins have a bo ok o f

scripture called the Shaster. The Persees have the ir Z undavastaw .

The Bo n z es o f Ch ina have bo o ks w ritten by the disciples of

Fo -he,w hom they cal l the “ Go d and Savio ur o f the w o rld

,who

w as bo rn to teach the w ay o f salvat io n,and to give satisfaction

fo r allmen’

s sins.

”The Talapo ins o f Siam have a bo o k o f scrip

ture w ritten bySommo no codom,w ho

,the Siamese say, w as bo rn

o f a virgin ,” and w as “ the Go d expected by the un iverse.

”The

Dervises have the ir Alco ran .

’

I believe there is n o o ne will d ispute the autho r’s great impart iality in set t ing dow n the accounts o f these different religions.And I th ink it is pretty eviden t he de livers the matter with an air

w h ich betrays that the h isto ry o f ‘o n e bo rn o f a virgin ’

has as muchautho rity w ith him from St . Sommo no co dom as from St .Matthew.

Thus he treats revelat io n . Then,as to philo so phy

,he tells you,

p . 136, C icero pro duces this as an in stance o f a probableo pin io n

,that they w ho study ph ilo so phy do n o t believe there

are anyGo ds and then,from co n siderat io n o f vario us no tions,

he affirms Tully co ncludes,

that there can be no thing afterdeath .

’

As to what he misrepresents o f Tully,the sho rt sentence On

the head o f th is paper is en ough to o ppo se , but w ho can havepat ience to reflect upo n the assemblage o f impo stures amo ngwh ich o ur autho r places the re ligio n o f his coun try ? As fo r mypart

,I cann o t see any po ssible in terpretat io n to give th is wo rk,

but a design to subvert and ridicule the autho rity o f Scripture.The peace and tranquillity o f the n atio n

,and regards even above

tho se,are so much co n cerned in this matter that it is diffi cult

to express suffic ien t so rrow fo r the o ffender,o r indignatio n against

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148 Essays in Me Guar a’z’

au .

thing itself is eviden t to all o ur facult ies. Lo ok in to the an imalsystem,

the passio ns, senses,and lo como t ive powers —is no t the

l ike co ntrivance and pro priety o bservable in these to o ? Are theyno t fitted to certain ends

,and are they n o t by nature directed to

pro per o bjectsIs it po ssible then that the smallest bo dies should, by a manage

men t superio r to the w it o f man,be dispo sed in the mo st excellent

manner agreeable to their respect ive natures ; and yet the spiritso r souls o f men be neglected

,o r managed by such rules as fall

sho rt o f man’s understanding ? Shall every o ther passio n be rightlyplaced by nature

,and shal l that appet ite o f Immo rtality

,natural

to allmank ind,be alo ne misplaced

,o r designed to be frustrated ?

Shall the industrious applicat io n o f the inferio r an imal powers inthe meanest vo catio ns be an swe red by the ends w e pro pose

,and

shall no t the generous effo rts o f a virtuous mind be rewarded ? Ina wo rd

,shall the co rpo real wo rld be all o rder and harmony

,the

intellectual d isco rd and co nfusio n ? He who is bigo t enough tobelieve these things must bid adieu to that natural rule of ‘

rea

so n ing from analo gy,’ must run co unter to that maxim o f commonsense

,That men ought to fo rm thei r judgments o f things unex

perienced from what they have experienced.’If any thing lo oks like a recompen ce o f calamitous virtue on

th is side the grave,it is e ither an assurance that thereby we

o btain the favo ur and pro tect io n o f heaven,and shall

,whatever

befals us in th is, in ano ther life meet with a just return ; o r elsethat applause and reputatio n w h ich is thought to attend virtuousact ions. The fo rmer o f these

,o ur free-thinkers , out of their

singular wisdom and benevo lence to mank ind,endeavour to erase

from the minds o fmen . The latter can never be justly distributedin this life

,where so many ill act io n s are reputable

,and so many

goo d actions disesteemed o r misin terpreted ; where subtle hypocrisy is placed in the mo st engaging light, and modest virtue liesconcealed , where the heart and the sou l are hid from the eyeso f men

,and the eyes o f men are dimmed and vitiated. Plato’s

sense in relatio n to this po in t is co n tained in his Go rgias, wherehe intro duces So crates speaking after this manner

‘ It w as in the reign o f Saturn pro vided by a law,which the

go ds have since con tinued dow n to this t ime,That they who had

lived virtuously and pious ly upo n earth,sho uld after death enjoy

N atur al Gr ouua’s to expect a Futur e Suz ie. 149

alife full o f happiness,in certain islands appo inted fo r the habita

at io n o f the blessed : but that such as have lived wickedly shouldgo into the receptacle o f damned souls, named Tartarus, there to

suffer the pun ishmen ts they deserved. But in all the reign o f

Saturn, and in the beginn ing o f the reign o f Jo ve, living judges

were appo inted,by whom each person w as judged in his l ife-t ime

in the same day o n wh ich he w as to die. The co nsequen ce o f

w hich was,that they o ften passed wro ng judgments. Pluto , there

fo re,w ho presided in Tartarus

,and the guardians o f the blessed

islands,finding that o n the o ther side many unfit perso ns were

sent to their respective domin io ns, complained to Jo ve , who

promised to redress the evil. He added,the reaso n o f these

unjust pro ceedings are that men are judged in the bo dy. Hence

many co nceal the blemishes and imperfect io ns o f their minds bybeauty

,birth and riches , no t to mentio n that at the t ime o f

trial there are crowds o f witnesses to attest the ir having livedw e ll . These things mislead the judges, who being themselvesalso o f the number o f the living

,are surro unded each with his

o w n bo dy,as with a vei l throw n o ver his mind . Fo r the future,

therefo re,it is my intent io n that men do no t come o n their trial

ti ll after death,when they shall appear befo re the judge, disro bed

o f all their co rpo real o rnaments. The judge h imself to o shallbe a pure unvei led spirit

,beho lding the very so ul, the naked soul

o f the party befo re him. With this view I have already co nst i;tuted my so n s, M ino s and Rhadaman thus, judges, w ho are nat iveso f Asia , and fEachus

,a nat ive o f Euro pe. These

,after death

,

shall ho ld the ir court in a certain meadow,from w h ich there are

tw o ro ads,leading the o ne to Tartarus

,the o ther to the islands o f

the

From this,as from numberless o ther passages o f his w ritings,

maybe seen Plato ’s o pin io n o f a Future State. A thing therefo rein regard to us so comfo rtable

,in itself so just and ex cel lent

,a

thing so agreeable to the analogy o f nature,and so un iversal ly

credited byall o rders and ranks o f men,o f all nat io ns and ages,

what is it that should move a few men to reject ? Surely theremust be someth ing o f prejudice in the case . I appeal to the

secret thoughts o f a Free-thinker,if he do es no t argue w ithin

himself after this manner —The senses and faculties I enjo y at

presen t are visibly designed to repair o r preserve the bo dy from

1 50 E ssays in the Guardian .

the injuries it is l iable to in its present circumstances : but in an

eternal state,Where no decays are to be repaired, no o utward

injuries to be fenced against, w here there are n o flesh and bo nes,

nerves o r blo o d-vessels,there will certain ly be no ne o f the senses

and that there sho uld be a state o f l ife witho ut the senses is

in co nceivable.

But as th is manner o f reaso n ing pro ceeds from a poverty of

imaginat ion and narrowness o f soul in tho se that use it, I shallendeavour to remedy tho se defect s, and o pen the ir views

,by

laying befo re them a case wh ich,be ing naturally po ssible, may

perhaps recon cile them to the belief o f what is supernaturallyrevealed .Let us suppo se a perso n bl ind and deaf from his birth

,who

,

being grown to man’s estate

,is,by the dead palsy o r some o ther

cause,deprived o f his feeling

,tast ing

,and smelling

,and at the

same t ime has the impediment o f his hearing remo ved,and the

fi lm taken from h is eyes. What the fi ve sen ses are to us,that

the touch,taste and smell were to him. And any o ther ways of

percept io n,o f a mo re refined and extensive nature

,were to him as

inco n ce ivable as to us tho se are w h ich will o ne daybe adaptedto perceive tho se things wh ich eye . hath n o t seen

,no r ear heard,

n e ither hath it en tered in to the heart o f man to co nceive.

’ And

it w ould be just as reaso nable in him to co n clude,that the lo ss of

tho se three sen ses could n o t po ssibly be succeeded by any new

in lets o f percept io n,as in a mo dern Free-thinker to imagine

there can be no state o f life and percept io n without the senses

he enjo ys at presen t . Let us further suppo se the same person’seyes

,at their first o pen ing, to be struck with a great variety of

the mo st gay and pleasing objects,and his ears with a melodious

co n so rt o f vo cal and instrumen tal music. Beho ld him amaz ed,ravished

,transpo rted , and yo u have some distant representation,

some fain t and glimmering idea o f the ecstatic state o f the soulin that art icle in wh ich she emerges from this sepulchre of fleshin to Life and Immo rtality .

N . B. It has been o bserved by the Christians,that a certain

ingen io us fo reigner 7 , w ho has publ ished many exemplary jests for

.

7 M . Deslandes, a French Free-think er (bo rn 1690- ~ dicd w ho came abo ut this

t ime to England. See p . 1 5 7 .

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1 5 2 E ssays in tee Guar a’z'

au .

Operat io n s without the co n curren ce o f the w i ll, began to th ink a

w aymaybe fo und o ut fo r separat ing the so u l fo r some t ime fromthe bo dy

,w ithout any injury to the latter , and that

,after much

meditat io n o n that subject,the abo ve-ment io ned virtuo so com

po sed the Snuff he then gave me , wh ich, if taken in a certainquant ity

,wo uld n o t fai l to disengage my so ul from my body.

Your soul (co nt inued he) being at liberty to transpo rt herse lf witha tho ught Wherever she pleases

,mayenter into the Pineal Gland

Of the mo st learn ed ph i lo so pher , and,being so placed, become

spectato r Of all the ideas in his mind,wh ich would instruct her

in a much less time than the usual metho ds . I returned himthanks

,and accepted his presen t

,and with it a paper Of directions.

You may imagine it w as no small improvemen t and diversionto pass my time in the Pineal Glands Of phi lo sophers, po ets,beaux

,mathemat icians

,ladies

,and statesmen . On e while, to

trace a theo rem in mathematics thro ugh a lo ng labyrinth o f

intricate turn s and subtleties o f thought , ano ther, to be co nsciousOf the sublime ideas and comprehensive views o f a philo sopher,witho ut any fat igue o r wasting Of my ow n spirits. Sometimes, towander through perfumed groves, o r enamelled meadows, in the

fan cy Of a po et : at o thers,to be present when a battle o r a sto rm

raged, o r a glittering palace ro se in his imaginat io n , o r to beho ldthe pleasures Of a country life

,the passio n Of a genero us love, o r

the warmth o f devo tio n wro ught up to rapture. Or (to use the

wo rds o f a very ingen ious autho r) toBeho ld the raptures which a writer know s,Wh en in his breast a vein o f fancy glow s,Beho ld h is business w hile he w o rks the mine.

Beho ld his temper when he sees it shine

These gave me in co n ceivable pleasure. N o r w as it an unplea

sant en tertainment sometimes to descen d from these sublimeand magn ificent ideas to the impert inences Of a bean

,the dry

schemes o f a co ffee-house po lit ician,o r the tender images in the

mind Of a young lady. And as,in o rder to frame a right idea of

human happiness,I thought it expedient to make a t rial Of the

vario us man ners wherein men o f differen t pursuits were affected ,I o n e day en tered into the Pineal Gland Of a certain perso n who

Essay o n the Difi'

erent S tyles of P oetry This po em was publishedano nymo usly in 17 13.

A Visit to tne Pineal Gland. 1 5 3

seemed very fi t to give me an insight into all that wh ich co nst itutes the happiness o f him who is called ‘

a man Of pleasure.

’

But I found myself no t a litt le disappo inted in my n o t ion Of the

pleasures which attend a vo luptuary, who has shaken o ff the

restraints o f reaso n .

‘His in tel lectuals,I Observed

,were gro wn unserviceable by to o

litt le use,and his senses were decayed and wo rn out by to o much.

That perfect inactio n o f the h igher powers prevented appetite inprompt ing him to sensual gratifi cations , and the outrunn ingnatural appet ite pro duced a lo ath ing instead Of a pleasure. Ithere beheld the intemperate cravings o f youth

,witho ut the

enjo yments o f it , and the weakn ess o f Old age, witho ut its tranquillity. When the passio ns were teaz ed and roused by some

powerful Object,the effect w as

,no t to del ight o r so o th the mind,

but t o to rture it between the return ing extremes o f appetite and

sat iety. I saw a w retch racked,at the same t ime

,with a painful

remembran ce Of past miscarriages, a distaste o f the present Objectsthat so licit his senses

,and a secret dread Of futurity. And I

co uld see no manner Of relief o r comfo rt in the soul o f th ismiserable man

,but w hat co n sisted in prevent ing his cure, by

inflaming his passio ns and suppressing h is reaso n . But,though it

must be owned he had almo st quenched that l ight w h ich his

Creato r had set up in his so ul, yet in spite o f all his effo rts

,I

Observed at certain seaso n s frequent flashes Of remo rse strikethrough the glo om,

and interrupt that satisfaction he enjo yed inhiding his ow n defo rmit ies from himself.

‘ I w as also present at the o riginal fo rmation o r productio n Of

a certain bo ok in the mind Of a Free-thinker,and

,believing it

maybe no t unacceptable to let you into the secret manner and internal principles by w hich that phe nomenon w as fo rmed

,I shall

in mynext give you an account Of it . I am,in the mean t ime

,

Yo ur mo st obedient humble servant,

Ulysses Co smopo lita.

’

N . B. M r . Iro nside has late ly received o ut Of France ten poundavo i rdupo is weight o f th is phi lo so ph ical Snuff

,and gives n o t ice

that he will make use Of it,in o rder to distinguish the real from

the pro fessed sen t imen ts o f all perso ns o f eminence in court,city

,

town,and country.’

154 E ssays in in Guardian .

THE PINEAL GLAND OF A FREE-THINKER

lEgri somnia.—HOR. Ars P oet. v . 7 .

A sick man'

s dreams.

MY co rrespo ndent,who has acquired the faculty Of entering

into o ther men’s tho ughts, having, in pursuance to a fo rmer letter,

sen t me an account Of certain useful discoveries he has made bythe help o f that inventio n

,I shall commun icate the same to the

publick in this paper.

MR. IRONSIDE,

‘On the r 1th dayo f October, in the year 1 7 12, having left mybo dy lo cked up safe in my study, I repaired to the Grecian coffeehouse

,whe re

,entering into the Pin eal Gland Of a certain eminent

Free-thinker,I made direct ly to the highest part of it

,wh ich is

the seat o f the Understanding, expecting to fi nd there a comprehensive kn owledge o f all things human and divine , but, to mynosmal l aston ishment

,I fo und the place narrower than o rdinary,

insomuch that there was n o t any ro om fo r a miracle, pro phecy, o rseparate spirit.Th is o bliged me to descend a sto ry lower

,in to the Imagination,

which I found larger, indeed, but co ld and comfo rtless. I disco vered Prejudice in the figure o f a woman standing in a co rner,with her eyes clo se shut

,and her fo re-fi ngers stuck in her ears ,

many wo rds in a co n fused o rder,but spoken w ith great emphasis

,

issued from her mouth. These being conden sed by the co ldnessOf the place, fo rmed a so rt Of mist

,through which methought I

saw a great castle with a fo rtificat io n cast round it, and a toweradjo in in g to it that through the windows appeared to be filledwith racks and halters. Beneath the castle I could discern vastdungeons

,and all abo ut it lay scattered the bones o f men. It

seemed to be garriso ned by certain men in black,o f gigantick

siz e, and mo st terrible fo rms. But,as I drew near

,the terro r Of

the appearan ce van ished , and the castle I found to be on ly a1° Guardian , No . 39, April 25 , 17 13.

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1 56 Essays in tne Guar dian .

They began the assault w ith a loud o utcry and great co nfusio n .

I,fo r my part, made the best o f my w ayand re-entered my ow n

lo dging. Some t ime after,inquiring at a bo o kse l ler’s fo r A

D iscourse on Free-thinking, w hich had made some no ise,I met

w ith the represen tatives Of all tho se n o t io ns drawn up in the same

co nfused o rder upo n paper. Sage N esto r,I am

Your mo st obedien t humble servant,

Ulysses Co smopo lita.

’

‘N . B. I went ro und the table,but could no t fi nd a w it o r

mathemat ician amo ng them.

’

I imagine the acco un t here given maybe useful in directing tothe pro per cure o f a Free-th inker. In the first place

,it is plain

h isUnderstanding wants to be Opened and en larged, and he shouldbe taught the w ay to o rder and metho dise his ideas , to w hich end

the study o f the mathematics may be useful. I am farther o fOpin io n

,that as his Imaginat io n is fil led with amusemen ts

,arising

from prejudice,and the Obscure o r false lights in which he sees

things, it will be necessary to bring him in to go o d company, andnow and then carry him to church , by wh ich means he mayin

t ime come to a right sense o f rel igio n , and wear Off the illimpressio ns he has received . Lastly

,I advise w ho ever undertakes

the refo rmatio n o f a mo dern Free-thinker,that above all things

he be careful to subdue h is Van ity , that being the principal mo tivewhich prompts a litt le gen ius to dist inguish itself bysingularitiesthat are hurtful to mank ind.O r

,if the passio n Of Van ity

,as it is fo r the mo st part very

stro ng in yo ur Free-thinkers,canno t be subdued

,let it be w o n

o ver to the in terest o f religio n,bygiving them to understand that

the greatest Gem? o f the age have a respect fo r th ings sacred ,that thei r rhapso dies fi nd n o admirers

,and that the name Free

thinker has, like Tyrant o f Old,degen erated from its o riginal

sign ificat io n , and is now supposed to deno te someth ing co ntraryto w it and reaso n . In fi ne

,let them know that whatever tempt

atio n s a few men o f parts might fo rmerly have had,from the

n ove lty o f the th ing, to Oppo se the received o pin io ns OfChristians,yet that now the humour is w o rn o ut

,and blasphemyand irre l igion

Tag P ineal Gland of a F r ee-Mink” . I 5 7

are distinctio ns which have long sin ce descended down to lackeysand drawers.But it must be my business to prevent all pretenders in thiskind from hurt ing the igno ran t and unwary. In o rder to this, I

commun icated an intelligence w h ich I received o f a gen t leman’s

appearing very so rry that he w as no t wel l during a late fi t o f

sickness, contrary to his own do ctrin e,which o bliged him to be

merry upo n that o ccasio n,except he w as sure o f recovering.

Upon this advice to the wo rld, the fo llowing advert isemen t go ta place in the Port-50]

‘WHEREAS in the paper called the Guardian, o f Saturday ther i th ofApril instan t, a co ro llary reflection was made o n M o nsieurD a member o f the ro yal academy o f sciences in Paris,autho r o f a bo o k lately published

,en t itled

,

A Ph ilo logical Essay, o r Reflex ions on the death o f Freeth inkers

,with the characters o f the mo st eminent perso ns o f bo th

sexes,ancient and modern

,that died pleasantly and un co n cerned,

8m,”so ld by J. Baker in Pater-no ster-Row—suggest ingas if that

gen tleman,now in Lo ndon

,“ w as very much out o f humour

,in

a late fi t o f sickness, till he w as in a fair way o f reco very —thisis to assure the public

,that the said gen tleman n ever expressed

the least co n cern at the appro ach o f death,but expected the fatal

minute with a mo st hero ical and philo so phical resignation , o f

wh ich a co py o f verses he wro te,in the seren e intervals o f his

distemper, is an invincible pro o f.’All that I con tend fo r is

,that th is gentleman l l was out o f

humour when he was sick , and the advertiser,to co nfute me

,says

,

that ‘in the serene intervals o f his distemper,

’that is

,when he

was no t sick, he wro te verses. I shal l no t retract my advertisement till I see tho se verses

,and I w ill choose what to be lieve then

,

except they are underwritten by his nurse,no r then ne ither

,

except she is an house-keeper. I must tie this gen t leman clo seto the argumen t , fo r, if he had no t actually his fit upo n him

,there

is no thing courageous in the th ing,no r does it make fo r his

purpo se,no r are they hero ic verses.

n M. Deslandes ; of, p. 150. His Re under the abo ve title. Deslandes is alsoflex ions sur les GrandsHommes qui santmar l author o f the Literatum Olium,

referred tom plar

’

sanlant, w as published in Londo n in p. 158, and o f a Histo ire Critique de la1713, and translated into English byBoyer, Pbilosopbie, which appeared in 1 741.

I 58 Essays in Me Guar dian .

The po in t o f being merry at the ho ur o f death is a matter thato ught to be sett led by divines , but the publisher o f the PhilologicalEssay

pro duces his ch ief autho rit ies from Lucret ius, the earl o fRo chester

,and Mr. Jo hn D ryden

,w ho were gent lemen that did

no t think themselves obliged to pro ve all they said, o r else provedtheir assert io ns

,by saying o r swearing they were all fo o ls that

believed to the co ntrary. If it be abso lutely necessary that a man

sho u ld be facet ious at his death,it wou ld be very well if these

gent lemen,mo nsieurD andM r . B 19

,wou ld repent betimes,

and no t trust to a death-bed ingenuity , by what has appearedh itherto

,they have o n ly raised our lo nging to see their po st

humous wo rks.

The autho r o f Poetn Rustican tis L iteratum Otium is but a merephraseo lo gist , the ph i lo logical publisher is but a translato r , but Iexpected better usage from M r. Abe l Ro per who is an o riginal.

PLEASURES, NATURAL AND FANTASTICAL

qua: po ssit facere 8c servare beatum.

Hon . E1) . I . v. 2 .

To make men happy, and to k eep them SO .—CREECH.

IT is o f great use to con sider the Pleasures which co nstitutehuman happiness

,as they are dist inguished in to natural and fan

tast ical. N atural pleasures I call tho se,wh ich

,no t depending on

the fashio n and caprice o f any particular age o r nat io n,are suited

to human nature in general, and were intended byPro vidence as

rewards fo r the using o ur facult ies agreeably to the ends fo r wh ichthey were given us. Fantastical pleasures are tho se which

,having

n o natural fitness to de light o ur minds,presuppo se some particular

w h im o r taste accidentally prevail ing in a set o f peo ple,to which

it is o w ing that they please.

N ow,I take it that the tranqui llity and cheerfu ln ess with which

I have passed my life are the effect o f having,ever s ince I came

to years o f discret io n,co nt inued my in clinat io ns to the fo rmer

so rt o f pleasures. But,as my experience can be a rule o n ly to my

‘2 Co njectured to be M r . Budgell.1” Guardian , N o . 49, Thursday, M ay 7, 1713.

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160 Essays in Me Guar dian .

fo rce o f gen ius o r acquired kn ow ledge, but o n ly byun learn ing thefalse n o tio ns in sti lled by custom and educatio n .

The various objects that compo se the wo rld w ere by naturefo rmed to delight our sen ses : and as it is this alo n e that makesthem desirable to an unco rrupted taste

,a man may be said na

turally to po ssess them,when he po ssesseth tho se enjo yments

wh ich they are fitted by nature to yield. Hence it is usual w ithme to co nsider myself as having a natural pro perty in every o bjectthat admin isters pleasure to me. When I am in the country

,all

the fi ne seats n ear the place o f my residen ce, and to wh ich I haveaccess

,I regard as mine. The same I th ink o f the groves and

fields w here I walk,and muse o n the fo lly o f the civil landlo rd in

Lo ndo n,w ho has the fantast ical pleasure o f drain ing dry ren t into

his co ffe rs,but is a st ranger to fresh air and rural enjo ymen ts. By

these princ iples I am po ssessed o f half a do z en o f the finest seatsin England, wh ich in the eye o f the law belo ng to certain o f myacquain tan ce

,w ho being men o f business cho o se to live near the

court.In some great families

,where I cho o se to pass my time, a

stranger wo uld be apt to rank me with the o ther domestics , but,in my ow n tho ughts and natural judgmen t, I am master of thehouse

,and he w ho go es by that name is my steward

,who eases

me o f the care o f providing fo r myself the conven iencies and

pleasures o f life .

When I w alk the streets,I use the fo rego ing natural maxim

(viz . That he is the true po ssesso r o f a thing w ho enjo ys it,and

n o t he that owns it witho ut the enjo ymen t o f it) to co nvincemyself that I have a pro perty in the gaypart o f all the gilt chariotsthat I meet

,which I regard as amusements des igned to delight my

eyes, and the imaginat io n o f tho se k ind peo ple w ho sit in them

gaily attired o n ly to please me. I have a real,and they on ly an

imaginary pleasure from their exterio r embe llishments. Upo n the

same prin ciple,I have disco vered that I am the natural pro prieto r

o f all the diamo nd n eck laces,the cro sses

,stars

,bro cades

,and

embro idered clo thes wh ich I see at a play o r birth-n ight , as givingmo re natural de light to the spectato r than to tho se that wear them.

And I lo o k o n the beaus and ladies as so many paraquets in an

aviary, o r tu lips in a garden , designed pure ly fo r my diversio n .

A gallery o f pictures, a cabin et o r library that I have free access

P leasures, N a tural and Fantasti

'

cal. 16 1

to,I think my own . In a wo rd

,all that I desire is the use o f

things,let who will have the keeping of them. By wh ich maxim

I am grown o ne o f the richest men in Great Britain , with th isdifference

,that I am no t a prey to myown cares, o r the envy o f

o thers .

The same principles I fi nd o f great use in myprivate eco n omy.As I canno t go to the price o f h isto ry-paint ing, I have purchasedat easy rates several beaut ifully designed pieces o f landscape and

perspective,which are much mo re pleasing to a natural taste than

unknown faces o r Dutch gambo ls,though do ne by the best masters

my co uches, beds , and window-curtains are o f Irish stuff, which

tho se o f that nation wo rk very fi ne,and with a delightful m ixture

o f co lo urs “ . There is no t a piece o f china in my house , but Ihave glasses o f all so rts, and some tinged with the finest co lo urs,which are no t the less pleasing

,because they are domest ic

,and

cheaper than fo reign toys. Every thing is neat,entire

,and c lean

,

arid fitt ed to the taste o f o n e w ho had rather be happy than be

thought r ich.Every day, numberless inno cent and natural gratifi catio ns o ccur

to me,while I beho ld my fel low creatures labouring in a to ilsome

and absurd pursuit o f trifi es ,—on e,that he may be called by a

particular appellatio n , ano ther,that he may wear a particular

o rnamen t,whi ch I regard as a bit o f ribband that has an agreeable

effect o n my sight, but is so far from supplying the place o f meritw here it is no t

,that it serves o n ly to make the want o f it mo re

co nspicuo us. Fair weather is the joy o f my soul , about noo n Ibeho ld a blue skywith rapture, and receive great conso latio n fromthe ro sy dashes o f light which ado rn the clouds o f the mo rn ingand even ing. When I am lost amo ng green trees

,I do no t envy

a great man with a great crowd at his levee. And I o ften layas ide thoughts o f go ing to an o pera that I may enjo y the silen tpleasure o f walking by mo on light

,o r viewing the stars spark le in

the ir az ure ground , which I lo o k upo n as part of my po ssessio ns,n o t w ithout a secret indignat io n at the tastelessness o f mo rtal menw ho

,in their race through life

,o verlo ok the rea l enjo yments o f it .

But the pleasure which naturally affects a human mind with themo st lively and transpo rting touches, I take to be the sense that

Cf. Q z erist, Q 1. 64—69.

VOL. I” . M

162 E ssays in Me Guardian .

w e act in the eye o f infin ite wisdom; power, and go o dness, thatwill crown o ur virtuous endeavo urs here with a happiness hereafter

,large as o ur desires, and last ing as o ur immo rtal souls.

Th is is a perpetual spring o f gladness in the mind. Th is lessenso ur calamit ies, and doubles our jo ys . W itho ut th is the higheststate o f life is insipid, and with it the lowest is a paradise . Whatunnatural wretches then are tho se w ho can be so stupid as to

imagin e a merit,in endeavouring to rob virtue o f her suppo rt,

and a man o f his present as we l l as future bl iss ? But as I havefrequen t ly taken o ccasio n to an imadvert o n that species o f mo rtals,so I pro po se to repeat my an imadversio ns o n them,

t i ll I see somesymptoms o f amendment .

FUTURE REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS 15

quis en im virtutem amplectitur ipsam,

Praamia si to llas ? JUV. Sat. 10 . v. 14 1 .

Fo r who w ould virtue fo r herself regard,Or w ed, w itho ut the portio n o f rew ard —DRYDr-:N .

IT is usual with po lemical writers to o bject i ll designs to theiradversaries. Th is turns their argumen t in to sat ire

,w hich, instead

o f shew ing an erro r in the understanding, tends o n ly to expo se themo rals o f tho se they write against . I shall no t act after thismanner with respect to the Free-th inkers. Virtue

,and the happi

ness o f so ciety are the great ends which allmen ought to promo te,and some o f that sect wo uld be thought to have at heart above therest o f mank ind. But

,suppo sing tho se w ho make that pro fession

to carry o n a go o d design in the simplicity o f their hearts, andacco rding to their best knowledge, yet it is much to be feared,tho se we ll-mean ing so uls

,whi le they endeavoured to recommend

virtue,have in reality been advancing the interests o f vice, which

as I take to pro ceed from their ign o rance o f human nature, we

15 Guardian , No . 55 , Thursday, May 14, 1 7 13.—Cf. Alcipbron , Dial. III.

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164 Essays in Me Guardian .

likely to be gui lty o f anydeep design , who pro claim aloud to the

wo rld that they have less mo t ives to ho nes ty than the rest of

their fe llow-subjects , w ho have all the inducements to the ex erciseo f any virtue which a Free-thinker can po ssibly have, and besidesthe ex pectat io n o f n ever-ending happiness o r misery as the co use

quen ce o f their cho ice.

Are n o t men actuated by their passio ns,and are no t ho pe and

fear the mo st powerfu l o f our passions ? And are there any o bjectswhich can rouse and awaken o ur ho pes and fears, like tho se

pro spects that warm and penetrate the heart o f a Christian,but

are n o t regarded by a Free-th inker ?It is no t o n ly a c lear po int that a Christ ian breaks thro ugh

stro nger engagements whenever he surrenders h imself to commita criminal actio n

,and is stung w ith a sharper remo rse after it

,

than a Free-thinker , but it sho uld even seem that a man who

believes no future state,would act a fo o l ish part in being tho

rough ly ho nest. Fo r what reaso n is there w hy such a one shouldpo stpo ne his ow n private interest o r pleasure to the do ing hisduty ? If a Chr istian fo rego es some present advantage fo r the sakeo f his co nscience

,he acts acco untably

,because it is with the view

o f gain ing some greater future go o d. But he that,having no such

V iew,should yet co nscien tious ly deny himse lf a present go o d in

any in c ident where he may save appearances is altogether ass tupid as he that wo uld trust him at such a juncture.It will

,perhaps

,be said that virtue is her ow n reward

,that

a natural gratificat io n attends goo d actio ns,wh ich is alo ne suffi

c ient to excite men to the perfo rmance o f them. But althoughthere is no thing mo re lovely than virtue

,and the practice o f it is

the surest way to so lid natural happiness even in this l ife , yettitles

,estates

,and fantastical pleasures are mo re ardently sought

after bymo st men than the natural gratifi catio ns of a reaso nablemind , and it canno t be den ied that virtue and inno cence are no t

always the readiest methods to attain that so rt of happiness.Besides

,the fumes o f passio n must be allayed

,and reaso n must

burn brighter than o rdinary,to enable men to see and relish all

the native beaut ies and delights o f a virtuous life. And though w eshou ld grant our Free-thinkers to be a set o f refined spirits,capable o n ly o f being enamoured o f virtue

, yet what would becomeo f the bulk o f mank ind who have gross understandings, but lively

Tnougnts on P ullie Senools and Un iver sities. 165

senses and stro ng passio ns ? What a deluge o f lust and fraud and

vio lence would in a litt le t ime o verflow the who le nat ion if

these wise advo cates fo r mo rality w ere un iversally hearken ed to ?Lastly

,o ppo rtun ities do somet imes o ffer in which a man may

wickedly make his fo rtun e,o r indulge a pleasure

,witho ut fear o f

tempo ral damage,either in reputat io n

,health

,o r fo rtune . In such

cases,w hat restraint do they lie under w ho have no regards beyo nd

the grave ? the inward compunct io ns o f a wicked,as we l l as the

jo ys o f an upright mind, being grafted o n the sense o f ano therstate.

The thought,

‘ that our existence terminates with this life,’ do thnaturally check the soul in any generous pursuit, co n tract herview s

,and fix them o n tempo rary and selfish ends. It dethro nes

the reas o n,extinguishes all n o ble and hero ic sent iments

,and

subjects the mind to the slavery o f every present passio n . The

w ise heathens o f ant iquity were no t igno rant o f this , hen ce theyendeavo ured by fables and co njectures

,and the glimmerings o f

nature,to po ssess the minds o f men with the belief o f a future

state, which has been since brought to light by the Go spel, and is

now mo st inconsistently decried bya few weak men , who wouldhave us believe that they promo te virtue by turn ing religion intoridicule.

THOUGHTS ON PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES

O fortunato s nimrum, sua si bona norint l

VIBG. Georg. 2 . v. 458.

To o happy, if they knew their happy state.

UPON the late e lectio n o f king’s scho lars,my curio sity drew me

to Westminster Scho o l. The sight o f a place where I had n o t

been fo r many years revived in my thoughts the tender images o fmych i ldho o d, which by a great length o f t ime had co n tracted a

so ftness that rendered them inexpressibly agreeable. As it is

1° Guardian , No . 62 , Friday, May 22 , 17 13 .

1 66 E ssays in Me Guardian .

usual w ith me to draw a secret unenvied pleasure from a thousandin cidents o verlo oked by o ther men

,I threw myself in to a sho rt

t ranspo rt,fo rgett ingmyage, and fancyingmyself a scho o l-boy.

Th is imaginat io n w as stro ngly favoured by the presence o f so

many young bo ys, in w ho se lo oks w ere legible the sprightly passio nso f that age, w hich raised in me a so rt o f sympathy. Warm blo odthrilled through every vein , the faded memo ry o f tho se enjo ymen ts that. o nce gave me pleasure put o n mo re live ly co lo urs

,

and a thousand gayamusemen ts filled mymind .It w as no t without regret that I w as fo rsaken by this w akingdream. The cheapn ess o f puerile delights, the guilt less joytheyleave upo n the mind

,the blo omingho pes that lift up the soul in

the ascen t o f life,the pleasure that attends the gradual o pen ing of

the imaginat io n and the dawn o f reaso n,made me th ink mo st

men found that stage the mo st agreeable part o f their journey.When men come to riper years

,the inno cen t diversio n s which

exalted the spirits,and pro duced health o f bo dy

,indo lence o f

mind,and refreshing slumbers

,are to o o ften ex changed fo r cri

minal delights which fill the so ul with anguish and the bo dy withdisease . The gratefu l emplo ymen t o f admiring and rais ing themse lves to an imitat io n o f the po lite style

,beaut iful images, and noble

sentiments o f anc ient autho rs,is abando ned fo r law -Latin

,the

lucubratio ns o f o ur palt ry n ewsmo ngers, and that sw arm o f vilepamph lets w h ich co rrupt o ur taste

,and infest the public. The

ideas o f virtue w h ich the characters o f hero es had imprinted o n

thei r minds in sensibly w ear out,and they come to be influenced

by the nearer examples o f a degenerate age.

In the mo rn ing o f l ife,w hen the so ul first makes her entrance

in to the w o rld,all th ings lo ok fresh and gay, their novelty sur

prises,and every litt le glitter o r gaudy co lo ur transpo rts the

stranger. But by degrees the sen se grow s callous,and w e lo se

that exquis ite re lish o f trifi es, by the t ime o ur minds sho uld besuppo sed ripe fo r rat io nal en tertainments. I cann o t make thisreflect io n w ithout being touched w ith a commiseratio n o f that

species called Beaus,the happiness o f tho se men n ecessarily ter

minating w ith their chi ldho o d , w ho,from a w ant o f knowing

o ther pursuits, co ntinue a fo ndness fo r the de lights o f that age

after the re lish o f them is decayed .Pro viden ce hath w ith a bount iful hand prepared variety of

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168 E ssays in tne Guardian .

the same account they meet with en co uragemen t and pro tect io nfrom all christian states

,as being esteemed a necessary means to

have the sacred o racles and primit ive traditio ns o f Christ ian itypreserved and understo o d. And it is well kn own that

,after a

lo ng n ight o f igno rance and superst it io n,the refo rmat io n o f the

church and that o f learn ing began together, and made pro po rtio nable advances

,the latter having been the effect o f the fo rmer

,

wh ich o f co urse engaged men in the study o f the learned languages and o f antiquity.O r

,if a Free-thinker is igno rant o f these facts

,he may be

co nvinced from the man ifest reaso n o f the th ing. Is it no t plainthat o ur ski ll in literature is o w ing to the kno w ledge o f Greekand Lat in

,w h ich

,that they are sti ll preserved amo ng us

,can be

ascribed o n ly to a re ligio us regard ? What e lse sho uld be the cause

w hy the youth o f Christendom,abo ve the rest o f mankind

,are

educated in the painful study o f tho se dead languages, and that

religio us so ciet ies sho uld peculiarly be emplo yed in acquiring thatso rt o f kn owledge, and teaching it to o thers ?And it is mo re than pro bable that

,in case our Free-th inkers

co uld o nce ach ieve their glo rious design o f s inking the credit ofthe christ ian rel igio n , and causing tho se revenues to be withdrawnwh ich thei r w iser fo refathers had appo inted to the suppo rt and

en co uragemen t o f its teach ers,in a litt le t ime the Shaster would

be as intelligible as the Greek Testament , and w e w ho wantthat spirit and curio sity wh ich dist inguished the an cient Grecianswo uld by degrees re lapse in to the same state o f barbarism w hicho verspread the no rthern natio ns befo re they were en lightened byChrist ian ity.Some

, perhaps, from the i ll tenden cy and vile taste whichappear in thei r w rit ings, may suspect that the Free-th inkers are

carrying on a mal ic io us des ign against the Belles Lettres : fo r mypart

,I rather co nceive them as un th inking wretches o f sho rt views

and narrow capacities,w ho are no t able to penetrate into the

causes o r co nsequences o f things.

Fenelo n’

s D emonstration . 169

V III.

FENELON’

S DEMONSTRATION ”.

j upiter est quodcunque. vides .—LUCAN .

Where’er yo u turn yo ur eyes, ’tis Go d you see.

I had th is mo rn ing‘

a very valuable and k ind presen t sen t me

of a translated wo rk o f a mo st excellent fo reign writer, w ho

makes a very con siderable figure in the learned and christianwo rld. It is entit led

,

‘ADemo nstrat ion of the Existen ce,Wisdom and Omn ipo ten ce o f Go d

,drawn from the knowledge o f

N ature,part icularly o fMan

,and fitted to the meanest capacity,’ by

the Archbisho p o fCambray,Autho r o f Telemachus , and translated

from the French by the same hand that Englished that exce l len tpiece. This great autho r

,in the writ ings wh ich he has befo re

produced,has man ifested an heart fu l l o f virtuo us sentiment s

,

great ben evo lence to mankind, as well as a sincere and ferven tpiety towards his Creato r. His talents and parts are a very greatgo o d to the w o rld, and it is a pleasing th ing to beho ld the po litearts subservient to re ligio n, and recommending it from its naturalbeauty. Lo o king o ver the letters o f my co rrespo ndents, I fi ndo ne wh ich ce lebrates this Treatise

,and recommends it to my

readers.

To the GUARDIAN.

‘SIR,

‘ I think I have somewhere read,in the writ ings o f o ne whom

I take to be a friend o f yours,a saying which struck me very

much,and as I remember it w as to th is purpo se : The existen ce

o f a God is so far from being a th ing that wants to be pro ved,that I think it is the o n ly thing o f w h ich w e are '

certain . Th isis a spright ly and just expression , how ever, I dare say, yo u willno t be displeased that I put you in mind o f saying something o n

the Demo nstrat io n o f the Bisho p o f Cambray. A man o f his

talents view s all th ings in a light difl'erent from that in w hich‘7 Guardian , No . 69 ,

Saturday, M ay 30. Fenelon’

s Demonstration de Z'

Ex istence de1 71 3. This paper is claimed fo r Berk eley Dieu , w as translated into English by Abe]in the Gent. Mag , 1 780. p. 1 25 . It is also Boyer. Lo ndo n, 1713 .

attributed to Steele. The First Part o f

1 70 E ssays in tne Gua rdian .

o rdinary men see them,and th e devout dispo sit ion o f his soul

turns all tho se talen ts to the impro vement o f the pleasures o f a

go o d life. His style clo thes phi lo so phy in a dress almo st poetic,

and his readers enjo y in full perfectio n the advan tage,whi le they

are reading him,o f being what -he is. The pleasing represent

atio n of the animal powers in the beginn ing o f his wo rk, and hisconsiderat io n o f the nature o f man with the addition o f reaso n inthe subsequent discourse

,impresses upo n the mind a strong satis

factio n in itself,and grat itude towards Him who bestowed that

superio rity o ver the brute wo rld. These thoughts had such an

effect upon the autho r himself that he has ended his discoursewith a Prayer. This ado rat io n has a sublimity in it befitting hischaracter

,and the emo t ion s o f his heart flow from wisdom and

knowledge. I thought it wo uld be pro per fo r a Saturday’s paper,and have t ranslated it to make you a present o f i t. I have no t

,as

the translato r w as o bliged to do,co nfined myself to an exact

version from the o riginal,but have endeavoured to express the

spirit of it,by tak ing the liberty to render his tho ughts in such a

w ayas I should have uttered them if they had been myown . It

has been o bserved that the private letters o f great men are the

best pictures o f their souls,but certain ly their private devo tions

w o uld be st i ll mo re instruct ive,and I know no t why they should

no t be as curious and entertain ing.

If you insert this Prayer, I kn ow no t but I maysend you, forano ther o ccasio n

,o ne used bya very great w it o f the last age,

w h ich has al lusio ns to the erro rs o f a very wild life,and I believe

yo u will think is written w ith an un commo n spirit . The personw hom I mean was an exce llent writer

,and the publicatio n o f th is

prayer o f his maybe, perhaps, some k ind o f an tido te against theinfection in his o ther writ ings. But th is supplication o f the

bisho p has in it a mo re happy and un tro ubled spirit , it is (if thatis n o t saying someth ing to o fo nd) the wo rship o f an angel concerned fo r tho se who had fallen

,but h imself stil l in the state of

glo ry and inno cence. The bo o k ends with an act o f devo tio n, toth is effect

O myGo d Ifthe greater number o f mankind do no t d iscoverThee in that glo rio us show o f N ature w hich Thou hast placed befo reo ur eyes, it is no t because Tho u art far from every o ne of us.

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17 2 Essays in t/z e Guardian .

nature but Thee,O myGo d ! Tho u, and o n ly Thou, appearest in

every thing. When I co nsider Thee, O Lo rd, I am swallowed up

and lost in contemplat ion o f Thee. Every thing besides thee,

even my own existen ce,van ishes and disappears in the co n tem

platio n o f Thee. I am lo st to myself and fall into n o th ing whenI think o n Thee. The man w ho do es no t see Thee has beheldno thing, he w ho does no t taste Thee

,has a relish o f no thing.

His being is vain,and his life but a dream. Set up Thyself, O

Lo rd,set up Thyself that w e may beho ld Thee. As wax con sumes

befo re the fi re,and as the smoke is driven away

,so let thine

en emies van ish out o f thy presen ce. How unhappy is that soulw ho

,w ithout the sense o f Thee

,has n o God

,no ho pe

,no comfo rt

to suppo rt him ! But how happy the man w ho searches,s ighs, and

thirsts after Thee ! But he o n ly is ful ly happy on whom Thou liftestup the light o fThyco untenance, who se tears Thou hast wiped away,and w ho enjoys in Thy loving-k indness the completion o f all his

desires . How lo ng, how lo ng, 0 Lo rd, shal l I wait fo r that daywhen I shal l po ssess

,in Thy presen ce

,fulness o f joyand pleasures

fo r evermo re ! O my God, in th is pleasing ho pe, my bo nes t e

jo ice and cry out,Who is like unto Thee ! Myheart melts away,

and my so ul faints within me, when I lo ok up to Thee who art

the God o fmy life, and my po rt io n to all etern ity.’

NARROWNESS OF FREE-THINKERS“ .

—men tisque capacius aliac .—Ovid.Met. 1. r. v. 76.

Of thoughts enlarg'

d, and more exalted mind.

As I w as the o ther day taking a so l itary walk in St. Paul’s, Iindulged mythoughts in the pursuit o f a certain analo gy betweenthat fabric and the Christian Church in the largest sense. The

divin e o rder and eco n omy o f the o ne seemed to be emblematicallyset fo rth by the just

,plain

,and majestic arch itecture o f the o ther.

And as the o ne co nsists o f a great variety o f parts un ited in the

same regular design , acco rding to the truest art,and mo st exact

"3 Guardian , No . 70, M o nday, June 1, 1713.

N ar r ow ness of Fr ee-tninéer s. 1 7-3

pro po rtio n , so the o ther co ntains a decen t subo rdinat io n o f members

,various sacred institut io ns

,sublime do ctrin es, and so lid

precepts o f mo rality digested in to the same design, and with an

admirable co n curren ce tending to o ne view,the happin ess and

exaltat io n of human nature.

In the midst o f my co ntemplat io n, I behe ld a flyupo n o n e o f

the pillars , and it stra ightway came in to my head, that th is same

flywas a Free—thinker. Fo r it requi red some comprehen sio n in theeye o f the spectato r

,to take in at o ne view the various parts o f

the building,in o rder to observe their symmetry and design . But

to the fly,w ho se pro spect w as co nfined to a litt le part o f o ne o f

the sto nes o f a single pillar, the jo in t beauty o f the who le o r the

dist in ct use o f its parts were in co nspicuous, and,

no thing couldappear but small inequal it ies in the surface o f the hewn sto ne,wh ich in the view o f that insect seemed so many defo rmed ro cksand precipices .

The thoughts o f a Free-thinker are emplo yed o n certain minuteparticularities o f rel igio n , the diffi culty o f a single text, o r the

unaccountableness o f some step o f Providence o r po in t o f do ctrin eto his narrow faculties

,without comprehending the sco pe and

design o f Chr istian ity,the perfectio n to wh ich it raiseth human

nature,the light it hath shed abro ad in the wo rld

,and the clo se

co n nection it hath as we ll with the go od o f public so ciet ies as withthat o f part icular perso n s .

This raised in me some reflect io ns on that frame o r dispo sit ionwhich is called largeness o f mind,’ its necessity towards fo rminga true judgment o f things, and

,where the sou l is no t in curably

stinted by nature,w hat are the likeliest metho ds to give,

it

en largement.

It is evident that Ph ilo so phy do th o pen and en large the min dby the general v iews to wh ich men are habituated in that study,and by the co ntemplatio n o f mo re numerous and distant o bjectsthan fall with in the sphere o f mankind in the o rdinary pursuits o fl ife. Hence it comes to pass that ph ilo so phers judge o f mo st

things very different ly from the vulgar. Some instances o f th ismaybe seen in the Theaetetus o f Plato , w here So crates makes the

fo llo w ing remarks,

'

amo ng o thers o f the like natureWhen a phi lo so pher hears ten thousand acres ment ioned as a

great estate, he lo oks upon it as an inco nsiderable spo t,having

1 74 Essays in tne Guardian .

been used to co ntemplate the who le glo be o f earth. Or when hebeho lds a man elated with the no bility o f his race because he can

reckon a series o f seven rich an cesto rs,the philo so pher thinks him

a stupid igno rant fel low,who se mind canno t reach to a general

view o f human nature,wh ich would shew him that w e have all

innumerable ancesto rs,among whom are crowds of rich and po o r

,

k ings and slaves,Greeks and Barbarians.’ Thus far So crates

,who

w as acco unted wiser than the rest o f the Heathens fo r no tio nsw h ich approach the nearest to Christian ity.As all parts and branches o f Phi loso phy, o r Speculative knowledge, are useful in that respect

,Astro n omy is peculiarly adapted

to remedy a little and narrow spirit. In that science there are

go o d reasons assigned to pro ve the sun an hundred thousand timesbigger than our earth

,and the distance o f the stars so pro digious,

that a canno n-bullet co nt inuing in its o rdinary rapid mo tion,wo uld no t arrive from hence at the n earest o f them in the spaceo f an hundred and fifty thousand years. These ideas wonderfullydilate and expand the mind . There is something in the immensity o f this distance that sho cks and o verwhelms the imaginat io n ,it is to o big fo r the grasp o f a human in tellect : estates, provinces,and kingdoms van ish at its presen ce . It were to be wished a

certain prince 19,who hath enco uraged the study o f it in his subjects,

had been himself a pro ficient in astro n omy. This might haveshewed him how mean an ambit io n that was which terminated ina sma ll part o f what is its elf but a po int

,in respect to that part of

the un iverse which lies within o ur view.

But the Christian Rel igio n enn obleth and en largeth the mindbeyo nd any o ther pro fession o r science whatso ever. Upon thats cheme, while the earth, and the t ransient enjo ymen ts of this life,shrink into the narrowest dimens io ns

,and are accounted as ‘the

dust of a balance,the dro p o f a bucket

, yea, less than no thing,’the in tellectual wo rld Opens wider to our V iew. The perfectionso f the Deity, the nature and exce llen ce o f virtue

,the dign ity of

the human soul,are displayed in the largest characters. The

mind o f man seems to adapt itself to the different nature o f itso bjects , it is contracted and debased by being co nversant in littleand low things

,and feels a pro po rtio nable en largement arising

from the co ntemplatio n o f these great and sublime ideas.1” Lew is XIV .

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1 76 Essays in the Guardian .

ON SHORT-SIGHTEDNESS OF MIND20

Certum vo to pete fi nem.—HOR . Ep. 2 . l . 1 . v . 56.

To w ishes fi x an end.

THE w riters o fmo rality assign tw o so rts ofGo o ds. The one is initself desirable , the o ther is to be desired

,n o t o n account of its

ow n excellency,but fo r the sake o f some o ther thing which it is

in strumental to obtain . These are usually dist inguished by theappellat io n s o f End and M eans. We are prompted bynature todesire the fo rmer

,but that w e have any appet ite fo r the latter is

o w ing to cho ice and deliberat io n .

But as w ise men engage in the pursuit of means from a fartherview o f some natural go o d with w hich they are co nnected , foo ls,w ho are actuated byimitat io n and n o t by reaso n

,blindly pursue the

means,witho ut any design o r pro spect o f applying them. The

result w hereo f is,that they en tai l upon themselves the anxiety

and to i l,but are debarred from the subsequent delights wh ich arise

to wiser men , sin ce their views, no t reach ing the end,terminate

in tho se th ings w h ich, altho ugh they have a relat ive go odness, yetco ns idered abso lute ly are indifferent

,o r it maybe evil.

The princ iple o f this misco nduct is a certain sho rt-sightednessin the m ind. And as th is defect is bran ched fo rth into inh umerable erro rs ih life

,and hath infected all ranks and co nditio ns of

men,so it mo re eminen tly appears in three species—the Critics,

Mi sers,and Free—th inkers . I shall endeavo ur to make go od this

o bservatio n with regard to each Of them. And first o f the Critic.Pro fit and pleasure are the ends that a reasonable creaturewouldpro po se to Obtain bystudy, o r indeed by anyo ther undertaking.Tho se parts o f learn ing wh ich re late to the imaginatio n

,as elo

quence and po et ry,pro duce an immediate pleasure in the mind.

And sublime and usefu l truths,when they are co nveyed in apt

al lego ries o r beaut iful images, make mo re dist inct and lastingimpressio ns , by w hich means the fancy becomes subservient to

2° Guar dian , No . 77, Tuesday, June 9 ,17 13 .

On !yr Ji had. 17 7

the understanding, and the mind is at the same t ime delightedand instructed. The exercise of the understanding in the disco veryo f truth is likew ise attended with great pleasure, as wel l as immediate pro fit. It no t o n ly strengthens our fa cult ies, purifies thesoul

,subdues the passions , but, besides these advantages, there is

also a secret joy that flo w s fro m in tellectual Opera t io ns , pro po rtio ne dto the nobleness of the faculty, and no t t he less affectingbecause inward and unseen.

But the mere exercise o f the memo ry as such,instead o f bring

ing pleasure o r immediate benefit, is a th ing o f vain irksomen ess

and fa tigue,especially when emplo yed in t he acquisitio n o f

languages, which is, of all o thn the mo st dry and painful o cenpatio n . There must b e therefo re someth ing further pro po sed , o r aw ise man w ould never enga ge in it. And, indeed, the very reaso no f the th ing plain ly int imates that the mo tive which firstdrew men to affect a knowle dge in dead to ngues w as that theylo o ke d o n them as means to co nvey mo re useful and en tertain ingkno w le dge into their minds.There are nevertheless cer tain critics

,w ho

,seeing that Greek

and Latin are in request, jo in in a th o ught less pursuit o f tho selanguages, without a ny further v iew . They loo k o n the ancien tautho rs

,but it is w ith an eye to phmseo logy, o r certain minute

part iculars wh ich are valuable fo r no o ther reaso n but because

they are despised and fo rgo tten by the rest of mankind . The

d ivine max ims o f mo rality,the exact pictures o f human life

, the

pro fo rmd disco veries in the arts and sciences, just thoughts, brightimages sublime sentimen ts, are o ver lo oked

,w hile the mind is

learned ly taken up in verbal remarks.

a critic ever known to read Plato w ith a co ntemplativemind , o r Gitu to , in o r der t o imbibe the noble sentimen ts o f v irtueand a p ublic spirit which are co nspicuous in the writings o f that

great man , or to peruse the Greek o r Roman h isto rian s,w ith a n

intentio n t o fo rm his own life upo n the plan o f the illustriouspa tterns theyexh ibit to our view ? Plato wro te in Greek. Ci cero ‘

s

Latin is fi ne. And it o ften lies in a man’s w a y t o quo te the

ancient histo rians .

There is no entertainment upo n earth mo re no ble and befitt inga reaso nable mind than the perusal o f go o dautho rs , o r that betterqualifies a man to pas s his life w ith sat isfac tio n to himself

, or

VOL. 111. x

I 78 E ssays in t/z e Guar dian .

advan tage to the p ubl ic. But w here men o f sho rt views and

mean so uls give themselves to that so rt o f emplo yment whichnature never designed them fo r

,they

,indeed

,keep o ne ano ther in

co un tenan ce , but, in stead o f cult ivat ing and ado rn ing their ownminds

,o r acquiring an ability to be useful to the wo rld

,they reap

no o ther advantage from their labo urs than the dry co nso lationarising from the applauses they bestow upo n each o ther.And the same weakness

,o r defect o f the mind from whence

Pedantry takes its rise do es likewise give bi rth to Avarice. Wo rdsand money are bo th to be regarded as o n lymarks o f th ings. And asthe knowledge o f the o ne

,so the po ssessio n o f the o ther is of no

use,un less directed to a further end. Amutual commerce could

no t be carried o n amo ng men if some commo n standard had notbeen agreed upo n

,to which the value o f all the various products

o f art and nature were reducible,and wh ich might be o f the same

use in the co nveyan ce o f pro perty as wo rds are in that of ideas.Go ld

,by its beauty, scarceness, and durable nature, seems designed

by Pro vidence to a purpo se so excellen t and advantageous to

mankind . Upo n these co nsiderat io ns that metal came first intoesteem. But such w ho canno t see beyo nd what is n earest in thepursuit

,beho lding mankind touched w ith an afi’ectio n fo r go ld,

and being igno ran t o f the true reaso n that intro duced this odd

passio n in to human nature,imagine some intrinsic wo rth in the

metal to be the cause o f it . Hence the same men who,had they

been turn ed to w ards learn ing,w o uld have emplo yed themselves in

laying up w o rds in the ir memo ry,are

,by a different application,

emplo yed to as much purpo se in treasuring up go ld in their coffers.They differ o nly in the o bject , the prin ciple o n wh ich they act,and the inw ard frame o f mind

,is the same in the Critic and the

M iser.And upo n a tho rough o bservatio n

,o ur mo dern sect of Free

thinkers w i ll be found to labour under the same defect with tho setw o inglo rious species. Their sho rt views are terminated in the

next o bjects,and their specio us pretences fo r liberty and truth are

so many in stances o f mistaking the means fo r the end. But the

setting these po ints in a clear light must be the subject of anotherpaper.

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180 E ssays in Me Guardian .

deserve we l l o r ill bo th o f the wo rld and o f h imself. I have in a

late paper observed,that men w ho have no reach o f tho ught

do o ft misplace the ir affect io n s o n the means,without respect

to the end,and by a prepo stero us desire o f things in themselves

indifferent fo rego the en jo ymen t o f that happiness which thosethings are instrumen tal to o btain . This o bservation has beenco n sidered with regard to Critics and M isers ; I shall now applyit to Free-thinkers.Liberty and truth are the main po in ts which these gentlemenpretend to have in view , to pro ceed therefo re methodically, Iwill endeavour to shew

,in the first place

,that liberty and truth

are no t in themselves desirable,but o n ly as they relate to a

farther end. And seco ndly,that the so rt o f liberty and truth

(allow ing them tho se names) wh ich o ur Free-thinkers use all

the ir industry to promo te,is dest ructive of that end

,viz .

human Happiness ; and co nsequent ly that species,

as such,

instead o f being en couraged o r esteemed,merit the detestation

and abho rren ce o f all ho nest men . In the last place,I design

to shew that,under the preten ce o f advancing liberty and truth,

they do in reality promo te the tw o co n trary evils.As to the first po in t

,it has been o bserved that it is the duty

o f each particular perso n to aim at the Happiness o f his fellowcreatures ; and that as this view is of a wider or narrowerexten t

,it argues a mind mo re o r less virtuous. Hence it

fo llows that a liberty o f do ing go o d actio ns w hich conduceto the fe licity o f mankind

,and a kn owledge o f such truths as

might e ither give us pleasure in the con templation of them,o r direct our co nduct to the great ends o f l ife, are valuableperfect io ns. But shall a go o d man

,therefo re

,prefer a liberty

to commit murder o r adultery befo re the who lesome restrainto f divine and human laws ? O r shall a wise man prefer thekn owledge o f a troublesome and afflicting truth befo re a

pleasan t erro r that would cheer his soul with joy and comfort,and be attended with no i ll co nsequences ? Surely no man of

commo n sense would thank him w ho had put it in his powerto execute the sudden suggest io ns o f a fi t o f passion o r mad

n ess,o r imagine h imself o bliged to a perso n who

,by fo rwardly

in fo rming him o f il l news,had caused his soul to anticipate

that so rro w w h ich she wo uld never have fe lt so long as the

ungratefu l truth lay co ncealed .

Happz'

ness oéstm ctea’ éy Fr ee 18 I

Let us then respect the Happiness of our species, and in thislight examine the pro ceedings o f the Free-thinkers. From w hat

giants and mo nsters would these kn ight-errants unde rtake to

free the wo rld ? From the ties that re ligio n impo se th o n our

minds,from the expectatio n o f a future judgment, and from

the terro rs o f a troubled co nscien ce,

no t by refo rming men’slives

,but by giving en couragement to their vices. What are

tho se impo rtant truths o f which they wo uld co nvince mank ind ?That there is no such thing as a wise and just Pro viden ce ;that the mind of man is co rpo real ; that religio n is a statetrick

,co ntrived to make men ho nest and virtuous, and to pro

cure a subsistence to o thers fo r teaching and exho rt ing them

to be so , that the go o d tidings o f Life and Immo rtal ity bro ughtto light by the Go spel are fables and impo stures : from believ

ing that w e are made in the image o f Go d,they w o uld degrade

us to an o pin io n that w e are o n a level with the beasts thatperish . What pleasure o r what advan tage do these n o t io nsbring to mankind ? Is it o f any use to the public that go o d mensho uld lo se the comfo rtable pro spect. o f a reward to the ir virtue

,

o r the w icked be en couraged to persist in their impiety,from

an assuran ce that they shall no t be pun ished fo r it hereafter.Allow ing, therefo re, these men to be patro ns o f liberty and

truth, yet it is o f such truths and that so rt o f liberty w hich

makes them justly be lo oked upo n as enemies to the peace and

happiness o f the wo rld. But upo n a tho rough and impartialview it will be found that their endeavours

,instead o f advanc

ing the cause o f liberty and'

truth,tend o n ly to in tro duce

slavery and erro r amo ng men . There are tw o parts in o ur

nature,the baser

,which con sists o f our senses and passio ns

,

and the mo re no ble and ratio nal,which is pro perly the human

part, the o ther being commo n to us with brutes. The inferio rpart is generally much stro nger, and has always the start o f

reaso n,which if

,in the perpetual struggle between them

,it

were no t aided from heaven by re ligio n would almo st un iversally be vanquished

, and man become a slave to his passio ns,

which as it is the most grievous and shameful slavery,so it is

the genuine result of that liberty w hich is pro posed by o verturning religio n . N o r is the o ther part of their design betterexecuted . Lo o k into their pretended truths , are they no t so

I 82 E ssays in fi re Guar dian .

many w retched absurdit ies, maintained in o ppo sitio n to the

light o f nature and divine reve lat io n by sly inuendo s and co ldjests

,by such pit iful so ph isms and such co nfused and indigested

n o t io ns that o n e would vehemen tly suspect tho se men usurpedthe name o f Free-thinkers with the same view that hypo critesdo that o f go dliness, that it may serve fo r a clo ke to coverthe co ntrary defect ?I shall clo se this discourse with a parallel reflex ion on these

th ree species,w ho seem to be allied by a certain agreement in

medio crity o f understanding. A Crit ic is en tirely given up to

the pursuit o f learn ing, when he has go t it,is his judgment

clearer,his imaginat io n livelier, o r h is manners mo re po lite

than tho se o f o ther men ? Is it o bserved that a M iser,when he

has acquired his superfluous estate,eats

,drinks

,o r sleeps w ith

mo re sat isfact io n,that he has a cheerfuller mind

,o r relishes

any o f the enjoyments o f life better than his neighbours ? TheFree-thinkers plead hard fo r a licence to th ink freely , theyhave it : but what use do they make o f it ? Ar e they eminentfo r any sublime discoveries in any o f the arts and sciences ?have they been autho rs o f any inventio ns that conduce to the

well-being o f mankind ? Do thei r writings shew a greater deptho f design

,a clearer method

,o r mo re just and co rrect reasoning

than tho se of o ther men ?There is a great resemblance in their gen ius

,but the Critic

and M iser are o n ly ridiculo us and co ntempt ible creatures, whilethe Free-thinker is also a pern icious o ne .

THE CHRISTIAN IDEAS OF GOD 22

M ens agitar—VraG. zEn . 6. v. 772 .

A mind informs the mass.

To o n e w ho regards th ings with a ph ilo sophical eye, andhath a so ul capable o f being delighted with the sense that

22 Guardian , N o . 88 , M o nday, June 22, no t included in Dr . George Berkeley’s list1 7 13 . Th is and the fo l low ing Essay are o f his father’s papers. It is alleged that

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184 E ssays in we Guardian .

living thing, and the breath o f all mank ind. The Lo rd makethpo o r and maketh rich . He bringeth low and l ifteth up. He

k i lleth and maketh alive. He woundeth and He healeth. ByHim k ings reign , and prin ces decree justice

,and no t a sparrow

falleth to the ground without Him. All angels, autho rities,and

powers are subject to Him. He appo inteth the mo o n fo r seasons,

and the sun knoweth His go ing down . He thundereth with Hisvo ice

,and directeth it under the who le heaven

,and His light

n ing un to the en ds o f the earth . Fire and hail,snow and

vapour,wind and sto rm

,fulfil His wo rd . The Lo rd is King

fo r ever and ever,and His domin io n is an everlast ing dominion .

The earth and the heavens shall perish,but Thou

,O Lo rd

,re

mainest . They all shall w ax o ld as do th a garmen t,and as a

vesture shalt Tho u fo ld them up, and they shal l be changed ;but Tho u art the same

,and Thy years shal l have no end. God is

perfect in knowledge , His understanding is infin ite. He is the

Father o f lights. He lo oketh to the ends o f the earth,and

seeth under the who le heaven . The Lo rd beho ldeth all the

ch i ldren o f men from the place o fHis habitatio n,and considereth

all their wo rks. He kn oweth o ur down-sitting and up—rising.

He compasseth o ur path and co unteth our steps. He is acquaintedwith all our ways 5 and when w e enter our clo set and shut ourdo o r He seeth us. He knoweth the th ings that come into our

mind,every o ne o f them : and no thought can be withho lden

from Him. The Lo rd is go od to all,and His tender mercies

are o ver allHis wo rks. He is a Father o f the fatherless,and a

judge o f the w idow. He is the Go d o f peace,the Father of

merc ies,and the Go d o f all comfo rt and co nso lat ion . The Lord

is great , and w e kn o w Him no t ; His greatness is unsearchable.Who butHe hath measured the waters in the ho llow o f His hand,and meted o ut the heavens w ith a span ? Thine

,O Lo rd

,is

the greatness,and the power

,and the glo ry, and the victory,

and the majesty. Tho u art very great, Tho u art clo thed withho nour. Heaven is Thy thro ne and earth is Thyfo o tsto o l .’Can the mind o f a phi lo so pher rise to a mo re just and mag

n ifi cent,and at the same time a mo re amiable idea o f the Deity

than is here set fo rth in the stro ngest images and mo st emphaticallanguage ? And yet this is the language o f shepherds and fishermen.

The i lliterate Jews and po o r persecuted Christians retained these

T/z e C/Wz'

stz'

an Ideas of God. 185

noble sentimen ts,while the po lite and powerful natio ns o f the

earth were given up to that so tt ish so rt o f wo rsh ip o f wh ichthe fo l lowing elegant descriptio n is ex tracted from o ne o f the

inspired writers.Who hath fo rmed a go d, and mo lten an image that is pro

fi table fo r no thing ? The smith with the to ngs bo th w o rketh inthe coals and fash io neth it with hammers

,and wo rketh it with

the strength o f his arms : yea he is hungry and h is strengthfai leth . He drinketh no water and is faint . A man plantethan ash

,and the rain do th no urish it . He burneth part thereo f

in the fi re. He ro asteth ro ast. He warmeth h imself. And the

residue thereo f he maketh a god. He falleth down un to it,

and wo rshippeth it,and prayeth un to it

,and saith

,Deliver me

,

fo r thou art my go d. N o ne co nsidereth in his heart,I have

burnt part o f it in the fire, yea also,I have baked bread upo n the

co als thereo f : I have ro asted flesh and eaten it , and shal l I makethe residue thereo f an abominat io n ? Shall I fal l down to the

sto ck o f a tree ? ’In such c ircumstances as these

,fo r a man to declare fo r free

thinking,and disengage h imself from the yoke o f ido latry, were

do ing ho nour to human nature,and a wo rk well becoming the

great asserters o f reaso n . But in a church,where o ur ado ratio n

is directed to the supreme Being, and (to say the least) w hereis n o th ing e ither in the o bject o r manner o f wo rship that co n

tradicts the light o f nature , there, under the preten ce o f free

th ink ing, to rail at the rel igio us inst itut io ns o f their co un try,

sheweth an undist inguishing gen ius that mistakes o ppo sitio n fo rfreedom o f thought . And

,indeed

,no twithstanding the pretences

o f some few amo ng our Free-th inkers,I can hardly th ink there

are men so stupid and inco nsistent w ith themselves,as to have

a serio us regard fo r N atural Religio n , and at the same t ime use

their utmo st endeavours to destro y the credit o f tho se sacredWritings, which as they have been the means o f bringing theseparts o f the w o rld to the know ledge o f natural religio n , so in

case they lo se thei r autho rity o ver the minds o f men,w e sho uld

o f co urse sink into the same ido latry wh ich w e see pract isedb y o ther un en lightened nat io n s.If a perso n who exerts h imself in the mo dern w ay o f free

th inking he no t a stupid ido later, it is unden iable that he co n

186 Essays in the Guardian.

tributes all he can to the mak ing o ther men so,

e ither byigno rance o r design 5 which lays him under the d ilemma

,I will

no t say o f be ing a fo o l o r knave,but o f incurring the co ntempt o r

detestat io n o f mankind.

X III.

CHRISTIAN IDEAS OF A FUTURE STATE23

Igneus est o llis vigor, et coelestis origoSeminibus VIRG. E n . 6. v . 730.

They bo ast ethereal vigo ur, and are fo rm'

d

From seeds o f heavenly birth .

THE same facu lty o f reason and understanding,wh ich placeth

us abo ve the brute part o f the creatio n,do th also subject o urminds

to greater and mo re man ifo ld disquiets than creatures o f an

inferio r rank are sensible o f. It is by this that w e anticipatefuture disasters

,and oft create to ourselves real pain from

imaginary evils, as wel l as multiply the pangs arising from those

which canno t be avo ided.It beho ves us therefo re to make the best use o f that sublimetalen t

,wh ich

,so long as it co nt inues the instrument o f passion,

wil l serve o n ly to make us mo re miserable,in propo rtion as we

are mo re excellen t than o ther be ings.It is the privilege o f a th ink ing being to withdraw from the

objects that so licit his senses,and turn his thoughts inward on

himself. Fo r my own part I o ften mitigate the pain arisingfrom the little misfo rtunes and disappo in tments that checkerhuman l ife by this introversio n o f myfaculties, where in I regardmy ow n so ul as the image o f her Creato r, and receive greatco nso lat io n from beho lding tho se perfect io ns which testify herdivin e o riginal

,and lead me in to some knowledge of her everlast

ing archetype.

But there is no t any pro perty o r circumstance o f my beingthat I co n template with mo re joy than my Immo rtal ity. I caneasi ly o verlo ok any present momen tary so rrow

,when I reflect

“3 Guardian.No . 89, Tuesday, June 23 , 1713.

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I 88 Essays in Me Guardian .

fo r ever and ever. They shall receive a crown o f glo ry whichfadeth n o t away.’These are cheering reflect io ns ; and I have o ften wo ndered

that men co uld be fo und so dull and ph legmat ic as to preferthe tho ught o f ann ih ilatio n befo re them , o r so ill-natured as to

endeavo ur to persuade mankind to the disbelief o f w hat is so

pleasing and pro fitable even in the pro spect , o r so blind as

no t to see that there is a Deity,and if there be

,that this

scheme o f th ings flows from his attributes,and evident ly co r

respo nds with the o ther parts o f his creatio n .

I know n o t how to accoun t fo r th is absurd turn o f thought,

except it pro ceed from a w an t o f o ther emplo ymen t jo ined withan affectat ion o f singularity. I shal l

,therefo re

,info rm our

mo dern Free-th inkers o f tw o po ints w hereo f they seem to be

igno rant . The first is,that it is n o t the being singular, but

being singular fo r something, that argues either ex trao rdinaryendowments o f nature

,o r benevo len t in ten t ions to mankind,

w h ich draws the admirat io n and esteem o f the wo rld. A mis

take in th is po int naturally arises from that co n fusio n o f thoughtwh ich I do no t remember to have seen so great instances of

in anywriters as in certain mo dern Free-th inkers.The o ther po int is

,that there are innumerable o bjects within

the reach o f a human mind,and each o f these o bjects may be

viewed in innumerable lights and po sitio n s,and the relations

aris ing between them are innumerable. There is, therefo re, aninfin ity o f th ings w hereo n to emplo y their thoughts

,if not

w ith advantage to the wo rld,at least with amusement to them

se lves, and witho ut offen ce o r prejudice to o ther people. If

they pro ceed to exert the ir talent o f free-thinking in this way,they may be inn o cen tly dull, and no o ne take any no tice o f it.

But to see men without e ither w it o r argumen t pretend to run

do w n divine and human laws,and treat their fellow-subjects with

co ntempt fo r pro fessing a belief o f tho se po ints o n which the

presen t as well as future interest o f mankind depends,is no t to be

endured . Fo r myo w n part, I shall omit no endeavours to rendertheir perso ns as despicable

,and their practices as o dious, in the

eye o f the wo rld, as they deserve.

M o r al A tiraetion . 189

X IV .

MORAL ATTRACTION 24

Homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto .

TER. Heaut. Act . I . Sc. I

I am a man, and have a fellow -feeling o f every thing belo nging to man .

IF w e co nsider the w ho le sco pe o f the creatio n that lies w ithinour V iew, the mo ral and intel lectual, as wel l as the natural andco rpo real

,w e shal l perceive througho ut a certain co rrespo n dence

o f the parts, a similitude o f o perat io n and un ity o f design, wh ichplain ly demo nstrate the un iverse to be the wo rk o f o ne infin itelygo od and wise Be ing , and that the system o f th inking beings isactuated by laws derived from the same d ivine power w hicho rdained tho se by wh ich the co rpo real system is upheld .From the co ntemplatio n o f the o rder

,mo tio n

,and co hesio n o f

natural bo dies,ph i lo so phers are n ow agreed that there is a mutual

attractio n between the mo st distant parts at ‘ least o f this so larsystem. All tho se bo dies that revo lve ro und the sun are draw n

towards each o ther,and towards the sun

,by some secret

,un ifo rm

and never-ceasing prin ciple. Hen ce it is that the earth (as wel las the o ther planets) without flying off in a tangent line, co n stant lyro lls about the sun , and the mo o n abo ut the earth

,w itho ut desert

ing her compan io n in so many tho usand years. And as the largersystems o f the un iverse are held together by th is cause

,so like

wise the particular glo bes derive their co hesio n and co nsisten cefrom it .

N ow,if w e carry our tho ughts from the co rpo real to the mo ral

wo rld,w e may observe in the Spirits o r M inds o f men a like

principle o f attract io n,whereby they are draw n together in com

munities,clubs

,families

,friendships

,and all the various species o f

so ciety. As in bo dies,where the quan tity is the same, the attrac

tio n is strongest between tho se wh ich are placed n earest to eacho ther

,so it is likewise in the minds o f men

,me teris par z

'

éus,be

tween tho se wh ich are mo st nearly related . Bo dies that are placedat the distance o f many millio ns o f mi les mayn evertheless attract

2' Guardian , No . 1 26, Wednesday, August 5 , 171 3.

I 90 Essays in Me Guardian .

and co nstant ly o perate o n each o ther,although th is actio n do not

shew itself by an un io n o r appro ach o f tho se distant bo dies,so

lo ng as they are withheld by the co n trary fo rces o f o ther bo dies,

wh ich,at the same t ime

,attract them different ways, but would,

o n the suppo sed remo val o f all o ther bodies,mutually appro ach and

un ite with each o ther. The like ho lds with regard to the humanso ul

,who se affect ion towards the individuals o f the same species

w ho are distantly related to it is rendered inco nspicuous by itsmo re powerful attract io n tow ards tho se w ho have a nearer relatio nto it. But as tho se are removed the tenden cy which befo re layco ncealed do th gradual ly disclo se itse lf.A man w ho has no fami ly is mo re stro ngly attracted towards

his friends and neighbours , and, if absent from these,he naturally

falls in to an acquaintance with tho se o f his ow n city o r countryw ho chance to be in the same place. Tw o Englishmen meetingat Rome o r Co nstantin o ple so o n run into a fami liarity. And in

China o r Japan Euro peans would think the ir being so a go od reaso n fo r their un it ing in part icular co nverse . Farther

,in case w e

suppo se ourselves translated into Jupiter o r Saturn,and there to

meet a Chinese o r o ther mo re distant native o f our ow n planet,

w e shou ld lo ok o n him as a n ear relatio n,and readily commence a

friendsh ip with him. These are natural reflect io ns,and such as

may co nvince us that w e are linked by an imperceptible chain to

every individual o f the human race .

The several great bo dies wh ich compo se the so lar system are

kept from jo in ing together at the commo n cen tre o f gravity bytherect i linear mo t io n s the Autho r o f nature has impressed o n each ofthem , w h ich, co ncurring w ith the attract ive principle

,fo rm their

respective o rbits ro und the sun : upo n the ceasingo fw h ich mo tio ns,the gen eral law o f gravitatio n that is now thwarted would shew

itse lf by drawing them all into o n e mass. After the same manner,in the parallel case o f so ciety

,private passio ns and mo tio ns o f the

so ul do o ften o bstruct the o perat io n o f that benevo lent un iting ihstinct implan ted in human nature , wh ich, n o twithstanding, do thstill exert

,and will no t fail to shew itself when tho se o bstructio ns

are taken away .The mutual gravitatio n o f bo dies canno t be ex plained anyo ther

w ay than by reso lving it in to the immediate o perat io n o f God,w ho n ever ceases to dispo se and actuate his creatures in a manner

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192 E ssays in Me Guardian .

shall all men know that yo u are my disciples, if you love o ne

ano ther.’I w i ll n o t say that what is a mo st sh in ing pro o f o f our religion

is no t o ften a reproach to its pro fesso rs , but th is I think very plain,that

,whether w e regard the analo gy o f nature

,as it appears in the

mutual attract ion o r gravitat io ns o f the mundane system,in the

general frame and co n stitut io n o f the human so ul,o r last ly

,in the

ends and aptnesses which are disco verable in all parts o f the visibleand inte llectual w o rld

,w e shall n o t do ubt but the precept w hich

is the characterist ic o f o ur re ligio n came from the Autho r of

nature. Some o f our mo dern Frec-th inkers would indeed insinuatethe christian mo rals to be defect ive, because (say they) there is no

ment io n made in the go spe l o f the virtue o f friendshipfi

. Thesesagacious men (if I maybe al lowed the use o f that vulgar saying)‘ can no t see the wo o d fo r trees.’ That a religio n whereof themain drift is to in spire its pro fesso rs with the mo st noble and disinterested spirit o f lo ve

,charity

,and benefi cence to all mankind

,

o r,in o ther wo rds

,w ith a friendsh ip to every individual man

,

sho uld be taxed with the wan t o f that very virtue,is surely a.

glaring evidence o f the blindness and prejudice o f its adversaries.

25 See Shaftcsbury'

s Essay on the Freedom of WWand Humour , Pt. II. sect. 3.

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1 96 An E ssay {aw ar ds pr even ting

and a go o d Christ ian . But the present age abo undeth with injudicio us patro ns o f liberty

,w ho

,no t dist inguish ing between that

and licent io usn ess,take the surest metho d to discredit what they

w o uld seem to pro pagate. Fo r,in effect

,can there be a greater

affro n t o ffered to that just freedom o f thought and act ion wh ich isthe prerogat ive o f a rat ional creature, o r can any thing recommendit less to ho nest minds

,than under co lour thereo f to obtrude

scurrility and pro faneness on the wo rld ? But it hath been alwayso bserved o f w eak men

,that they know n o t how to avo id o ne

extreme witho ut runn ing in to ano ther.To o many o f this so rt pass upo n vulgar readers fo r great autho rs,

and men o f pro fo und tho ught , no t o n acco unt o f any superio rityeither in sense o r style

,bo th wh ich they po ssess in a very moderate

degree, n o r o f any disco veries they have made in arts and sciences,

wh ich they seem to be l it tle acquain ted with , but purely becausethey flatter the passio ns o f co rrupt men

,w ho are pleased to have

the c lamo urs o f co n science si lenced,and tho se great po ints of

the Christian re ligio n made suspected which withheld them fromman y vices o f pleasure and interest

,o r made them uneasy in the

commission o f them.

In o rder to promo te that laudable design o f effacing all sense ofreligion from amo ng us

,they fo rm themselves into assemblies

,and

pro ceed with un ited co unsels and endeavours , with what success,

and with what merit tow ards the public,the effect to o plain ly

shews. I w il l no t say these gent lemen have fo rmed a direct designto ruin thei r country

,o r that they have the sense to see half the ill

co n sequences wh ich must n ecessarily flow from the spreading of

their o pin io ns , but the nat io n fee ls them,and it is high time the

legislature put a sto p to them.

I am no t fo r placing an invidious power in the hands of the

clergy,o r complying with the narrowness o f any mistaken z ealo ts

w ho should incline to persecute D issen ters. But,w hatever

co nduct commo n sense,as well as Christ ian charity

,obligeth

us to use towards tho se who differ from us in some po ints o f

religio n , yet the public safety requireth that the avowedI

co ntem

n ers o f all religio n should be severe ly chastised. And perhaps itmay be n o ea sy matter to assign a go o d reaso n w hy blasphemyagainst Go d sho uld no t be inquired into and pun ished with thesame rigo ur as treason against the k ing.

tae Ru in of Gr eat B r itain . 197

Fo r,though w e mayattempt to patch up o ur affairs, yet it will

be to no purpo se , the finger o f Go d will unravel all o ur vain projects, and make them snares to draw us in to greater calamit ies

,if

w e do no t refo rm that scandalous l ibert in ism which (whateversome shallow men maythink) is o ur wo rst symptom,

and the surestpro gno stic o f o ur ruin .

Industry is the natural sure w ayto wealth . This is so true thatit is impo ssible an industrio us free peo ple sho uld wan t the n eces

sat ies and comfo rts o f l ife,o r an idle enjo y them under any fo rm

o f go vernmen t 3 . M o ney is so far useful to the public as it pro

mo teth industry,and credit having the same effect is o f the same

value with mo ney , but mo ney o r credit circulating through a

natio n fromhand to hand,without pro ducing labo ur and industry

in the inhabitan ts,is direct gaming 3 .

It is no t impo ssible fo r cunn ing men to make such plausibleschemes as maydraw tho se w ho are less sk ilful in to their ow n and

the public ruin : But surely there is no man o f sense and ho nesty butmust see and ow n

,whether he understands the game o r no t

,that

it is an e viden t fo lly fo r any peo ple, in stead o f pro secuting the o ldhonest metho ds o f industry and frugality

,to sit dow n to a public

gaming-table, and play o ff their mo ney o n e to ano ther.The mo re metho ds there are in a state fo r acquiring riches w ith

out industry o r merit,the less there will be o f either in that state ,

this is as eviden t as the ruin that attends it. Besides, whenmo ney is sh ifted from hand to hand in such a blind, fo rtuitous manner that some men shall from no thing in an instan t acquire vastestates Without the least desert , wh i le o thers are as sudden lystripped o f plent ifu l fo rtunes, and left o n the parish by their ow navarice and credulity

,what can be ho ped fo r, o n the o ne hand, but

abando ned luxury and wan to nness, o r,o n the o ther, but extreme

madness and despair ?In sho rt

,all pro jects fo r growing rich by sudden and ex trao r

dinarymethods,as they o perate vio len tly on the passio ns o f men

,

and en co urage them to despise the slow mo derate gains that are tobe made by an ho nest industry, must be ruino us to the public,and even the winners themselves will at length be invo lved inthe publ ic ruin .

9 Cf. Q uer ist, Q u. 1—47 , 2 17—254, &c.

I 98 An E ssay tow ar ds pr even ting

It is an easy matter to co ntrive pro jects fo r the en co uragemen to f industry I w ish it were as easy to persuade men to put them in

pract ice. There is no co untry in Euro pe where there\

is so muchcharity co l lected fo r the po o r

,and no ne where it is so i ll managed.

If the po o r-tax fixed w as fixed at a medium in every parish, takenfrom a calculatio n o f the last ten years

,and raised fo r seven years

by act o f parliament,that sum (if the commo n est imate be no t

very wro ng), frugally and prudent ly laid o ut in wo rkho uses, wouldfo r ever free the nation from the care o f pro viding fo r the poo r,and at the same t ime co nsiderably impro ve o ur manufactures.

W e might by these means rid our streets o f beggars , even the

ch i ldren,the maimed

,and the blind

,might be put ina w ayo f do ing

someth ing fo r their live liho o d. As fo r the small number o f tho sew ho byage o r in fi rmities are utterly in capable o f all emplo yment,they might be maintained by the labour o f o thers , and the publicwould receive no small advantage from the industry o f tho se who

aren ow so great a burden and expense to it 4 .

The same tax,co n t inued three years lo nger, might be very use

fully emplo yed ih making h igh ro ads, and rendering rivers navigable—tw o th ings o f so much pro fit and o rnament to a nation

,

that w e seem the on ly peo ple in Euro pe w ho have neglected them 5.

So that in ’

the space o f ten years the public maybe fo r ever freedfrom a heavy tax

,industry en co uraged, commerce facilitated

,and

the w ho le country impro ved,and all this o n ly by a frugal honest

management,witho ut raising o ne penny extrao rdinary.

The number o f peo ple is bo th mean s and mo tives to industry 6.It sho uld therefo re be o f great use to enco urage pro pagatio n

,by

al lowingsome reward o r privilege to tho se w ho have a certain num

ber o f children , and, o n the o ther hand,enacting that the public

shal l inherit half the unen tailed estates o f all w ho die unmarried ofe ither sex .

Besides the immediate end pro po sed by the fo rego ing methods,they furn ish taxes upo n passenge rs, and dead bachelo rs, which are

in n o so rt grievous to the subject,and may be applied towards

clearing the public debt, w hich, allmankind agree, highly co ncern

4 We have here a characteristic recognitio n 5[This w as published befo re turnpikes

o f abuses apt to accompany po or-rates, and w ere erected.]suggest io ns o f means fo r correcting them.

6 Cf. Q eer z'

st, 03 . 62 , 87, 130 , 206, 217.Cf. Q uerist, O_u. 3 75—381 ,

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200 A n E ssay tow ards pr even ting

wh ich,if set o n fo o t in cheap parts o f the country

,would employ

many hands,and save mo ney to the natio n

,as wel l as bring it

from abro ad 9 . Pro jects fo r improving o ld manufactures,o r setting

up new o nes,sho uld n o t be despised in a trading coun try, but the

mak ing them pretences fo r sto ck-jo bbing hath been a fatal impo sit io n .

As industry dependeth upo n trade,and this

,as we ll as the pub

lic security,upo n o ur navigatio n

,it co n cern eth the legislature to

pro vide that the number o f our sailo rs do no t decrease—to which itw ould very much co nduce

,if a law w ere made proh ibit ing the pay

ment o f sai lo rs in fo reign parts , fo r it is usual with tho se on

bo ard merchant-men as so o n as they set fo o t o n sho re to receivethe ir pay, which is so o n spen t in rio to us living, and when they haveempt ied thei r po ckets

,the temptat io n o f a pisto le presen t mo ney

never faileth to draw them into any fo reign service . To this (if Imay credit the info rmat io n I have had from some English facto rsabro ad) it is ch iefly owing

,that the Ven et ians

,Span iards

,and

o thers have so many English o n board the ir ships. Some merchantsindeed and masters o f vessels may make a pro fit in defraudingtho se po o r wretches

,when they pay them in strange co in (which

I have been assured o ften amounts to twe lvepence in the crown),as w el l as in ridding themse lves o f the charge o f keeping themw hen they se ll the ir sh ips

,o r stay lo ng in po rt , but the public lose

bo th the mo ney and the men,w ho

,if their arrears were to be

cleared at home,would be sure to return

,and spend them in their

o w n co un try. It is a shame this abuse should no t be remedied.

Frugality o f mann ers is the no urishmen t and st rength o f bodiespo litic. It is that by which they grow and subsist

,unti l they are

co rrupted by luxury , the natural cause o f their decay and ruin . Of

th is w e have examples in the Persians,Lacedemon ians

,and

Roman s : no t to men tion many later governmen ts wh ich havesprung up, co nt inued awh ile

,and then perished by the same na

tural causes. But these are,it seems

,o f no use to us , and, in spite

o f them,w e are in a fair w ay o f becoming ourselves ano ther use

less example to future ages.

M en are apt to measure natio nal pro sperity by riches. It wouldbe righter to measure it by the use that is made o f them.

Where9 Cf. Q uer ist, Q u. 64

—69 , 144 .

t/z e Ruin of Gr eat B r itain . 20 1

they promo te an ho n est commerce amo ng men,and are mo t ives

to industry and virtue,they are

,without doubt

,o f great advan

tage , but where they are made (as to o o ften happens) an instrument to luxury

,they enervate and dispirit the bravest peo ple. So

just is that remark o f Mach iavel—that there is no truth in the

commo n saying,mo ney is the nerves o f w ar , and though w e may

subsist to lerably fo r a t ime amo ngst co rrupt neighbo urs, yet if ever

w e have to do with a hardy,temperate

,rel igio us so rt o f men

,w e

shall fi nd,to our co st

,that all our riches are but a po o r exchange

fo r that s implicity o f manners which w e despise in o ur ancesto rs.

This so le advantage hath been the main suppo rt o f all the republicsthat have made a figure in the wo rld , and perhaps it might be no i l lpo licy in a k ingdom to fo rm itself upo n the manners o f a republic .

Simplicity o f manners may be mo re easily preserved in a t e

public than a monarchy , but if o nce lo st maybe[

so o ner reco veredin a mo narchy

,the example o f a co urt being o f great efficacy

,

either to refo rm o r to co rrupt a peo ple , that alo ne were sufficientto discountenance the w earing o f go ld o r si lver, either in clo thes o requipage

,and if the same were pro h ibited by law

,the saving so

much bull io n wou ld be the smallest ben efit o f such an institutio n—there being no th ing mo re apt to debase the virtue and go o dsense o f o ur gentry o f bo th sexes than the trifling van ity o f appare lwh ich w e have learned from Fran ce, and which hath had such vis

ible ill co nsequen ces o n the gen ius o f that peo ple. Wiser natio nshave made it the i r care to shut o ut this fo lly by severe law s and

penalt ies,and its spreading amo ng us can fo rebo de n o go o d, if

there be any truth in the observat io n o f o ne o f the ancients, thatthe direct way to ruin a man is to dress him up in fi ne clo thes.

It canno t be den ied that luxury o fD ress 10 giveth a light behaviourto our women

,wh ich may pass fo r a small o ffence, because it is a

commo n o ne,but is in t ruth the source o f great co rrupt io ns. Fo r

this very o ffence the pro phet Isaiah deno un ced a severe judgmen t

against the ladies o f his time . I shall give the passage 11 at length :Mo reo ver

,the Lo rd saith

,Because the daughters o f Z io n are

haughty,and walk with stretched fo rth necks and wanto n eyes,

walking and mincing as they go , and making a tink ling with the irfeet

,therefo re the Lo rd will smite with a scab the crown o f the

1° Cf. Q z erist, Q u . 10 2, 103, 141 , 144—149, 422, 452

—45 7 .

11 Isaiah iii. 16- 24 .

20 2 An E ssay tow ar ds pr even ting

head o f the daughters o f Z io n,and the Lo rd will disco ver their

secret parts. In that day the Lo rd will take away the bravery oftheir t inkling o rnaments abo ut their feet

,and the ir cauls, and their

ro und t ires like the mo o n,the chains

,and the bracelets

,and the

mufflers,the bonnets

,and the o rnaments o f the legs

,and the

headbands,and the tablets

,and the ear-rings

,the rings and no se

jewels,the changeable suits o f apparel

,and the mant les

,and the

wimples,and the crisping—pins

,the glasses, and the fi ne linen, and

the ho o ds and the vails. And it shal l come to pass that insteado f a sweet smel l there shal l be st ink , and in stead o f a girdlea ren t , and instead o f w ell-set hair

,baldness

,and instead o f a

stomacher,a girding o f sackc lo th and burn ing instead o f beauty.’

Th e scab,the sten ch

,and the burn ing are terrible pestilential

symptoms,and our ladies would do w e l l to co nsider they may

chance to resemble tho se o f Z io n in the ir pun ishment as w ell asthe ir o ffence .

But dr ess is no t the o n ly th ing to be refo rmed,sumptuary laws

are usefu l in many o ther po ints . In fo rmer t imes the naturalplainness and go o d sense o f the English made them less n ecessary.But ever sin ce the luxurious reign o f King Charles the Seco nd w ehave been do ing vio len ce to our natures

,and are by this time so

much altered fo r the wo rse that it is to be feared the very same

dispo sitio ns that make them necessary will fo r ever h inder themfrom being enacted o r put in execut io n .

A private fami ly in diffi cult circumstan ces,allmen agree, ought

to me lt dow n their plate,walk o n fo o t

,retren ch the number of

the ir servants,wear n either jewels no r rich clo thes

,and deny

themse lves expens ive diversio n s , and w hy no t the public ? Had

anything like th is been done,our taxes had been less

,o r

,w hich

is the same thing, w e should have fe lt them less. But it is veryremarkable that luxury w as n ever at so great a height, n o r spreadso gen eral ly thro ugh the nat io n

,as during the expense o f the

late wars,and the heavy debt that sti ll lieth upo n us.

Th is vice draweth after it a train o f evils w h ich cruelly infestthe public , factio n , ambitio n, envy, avarice, and that of the wo rstk ind, being much mo re hurtful in its co n sequen ces

,tho ugh n ot so

infamo us as penury . It w as the great art o f Cardinal Richelieu,by en co uraging luxury and expense

,to impo verish the French

n o bility and rende r them altogethe r dependen t o n the crown,

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204 A n Essay tow ards pr eventing

several appetites fo r gaming, dressing, intriguing, and luxuriouseat ing and drinking. It is a mo st sk ilful abridgmen t, the veryquin tessence

,the abstract o f all tho se senseless van ities that have

ever been the ruin o f fo o ls and detestat io n o f wise men . And all

th is,under the n o tio n o f an e legan t entertainment

,hath been

admitted amo ng us , though it be in truth a co ntagio n o f the wo rstk ind. The plague

,dreadfu l as it is

,is an evil o f sho rt duration ,

cit ies have o ften reco vered and flo urished after it , but when was

it known that a peo ple bro ken and co rrupt by luxury recoveredthemse lves ? N o t to say that gen eral co rrupt io n o f manners neverfaileth to draw after it some heavy judgmen t o f w ar

,famine

,o r

pestilence. Of this w e have a fresh instance in o ne of the most

debauched tow n s o f Euro pe ”,and no bo dy knows how so on it may

be o ur o wn case. Th is e legant entertainment is indeed suspendedfo r the presen t

,but there remains so stro ng a pro pensio n towards

it that,if the wisdom o f the legislature do es no t interpo se

,it will

so o n return,with the addit io nal temptation o f having been fo rbid

fo r a time. It were stupid and barbarous to declaim against keeping up the spirit o f the peo ple bypro per diversio ns, but then theyshould be pro per

,such as po lish and impro ve their minds

,or

in crease the strength and act ivity o f their bodies , no ne of whichends are an swered by the Masquerade

,no mo re than by those

Fren ch and Italian fo llies,w h ich to our shame

,are impo rted and

enco uraged at a time when the natio n ought to be to o grave fo rsuch t rifles.It is n o t to be believed what influence public diversions have on

the spirit and manners o f a peo ple. The Greeks wisely saw this,and made a very serio us affair of the ir public spo rts. For the same

reaso n it w i ll perhaps seem wo rthy the care o f our legislature toregulate the public diversio n s byan abso lute prohibitio n o f tho se

w h ich have a direct tenden cy to co rrupt o ur mo rals,as well as by

a refo rmatio n o f the Drama —wh ich,when right ly managed, is

such a no ble entertainment,and gave tho se fi ne lesso ns o f mo rality

and go od sense to the Athen ians o f o ld, and to our British gentryabo ve a cen tury ago , but fo r these last n inety years hath entertained us

,fo r the mo st part

,with such wretched things as spo il

in stead o f impro ving the taste and manners o f the audience.13[M arseilles.]—Aur non . In 1 720 the to have carried o ff o f the inha

‘

bit

plague bro ke o ut in Marseilles, and is said an ts .

tae Ruin of Gr eat B r itain . 205

Tho se w ho are attent ive to such pro po sitio ns o nly as may fil ltheir po ckets w i ll pro bably slight these things as trifles below thecare o f the legis lature. But I am sure all ho nest th inking men ‘

must lamen t to see their country run headlong in to all tho se

luxurious fo llies, which , it is evident,have been fatal to o ther

natio ns, and will undoubtedly pro ve fatal to us also,if a t imely

stop he no t put to them.

Public spirit,that glo rious principle o f all that is great and

go od,is so far from being cherished o r enco uraged that it is

become ridiculo us in this en lightened age, wh ich is taught tolaugh at every thing that is serious as we ll as sacred. The same

atheistical narrow spirit,cen tering all our cares upon private in ter

est,and co n tracting all our ho pes with in the enjo yment o f th is

present life,equally pro duceth ,a neglect o f what w e ow e to Go d

and our country. Tu lly 14 hath lo ng sin ce observed ‘ that it isimpossible fo r tho se w ho have no belief o f the immo rtality o f thesoul

,o r a future state o f rewards and punishments, to sacrifice

their particular in terests and passio ns to the public go o d, o r havea generous co n cern fo r po sterity,’and our ow n experience co n fi rm

eth the truth o f this o bservatio n .

In o rder therefo re to reco ver a sense o f public spirit,it is to be

wished that men were first affected with a true sense o f religio n ,pro en

'

s et focis, having ever been the great mo tive to courage and

perseverance in a public cause.

It would likewise be a very useful po licy, and warranted by theexample o f the wisest go vernments, to make the natural love o f

fame and reputatio n subservient to promo ting that noble principle .

Triumphal arches,co lumns

,statues

,inscriptio ns, and the like

monuments o f public serv ices, have, in fo rmer t imes, been fo undgreat incen tives to virtue and magnan imity , and would pro bablyhave the same effects o n Engl ishmen whi ch they have had o n

Greeks and Romans. And perhaps a pillar o f infamy wo uld befound a pro per and exemplary pun ishmen t in cases o f signal publicvillainy

,where the lo ss o f fo rtune, liberty, o r life, are no t pro po r

Among the passages in w hich Cicero human soul w ere discussed by various w ritersrefers to a future life, the Editor has no t in Berkeley'

s trme, e.g. Co llins, Discourse offound one w hich ex actly correspo nds w ith Free-thinking, pp . 135

—140, 85 0. Cf. mo tto

the versio n given here . The opinio ns o f prefi x ed to Alczpbron .

Cicero regarding the immortality o f the

206 A n E ssay tow ar ds pr even ting

tio ned to the crime , o r where the ski ll o f the o ffender,o r the

nature o f his o ffence,may screen him from the letter o f the law .

Several o f these are to be seen at Gen oa,M ilan, and o ther

tow n s o f Italy,where it is the custom to demo lish the ho use of a

cit i z en who hath conspired the ruin o f his country,o r been guilty

o f any eno rmo us crime towards the public,and in place thereo f to

erect a monument o f the crime and criminal,described in the

blackest manner. We have no thing o f this so rt that I know,but

that which is commo n ly called the M o nument 15,w h ich in the last

age was erected fo r an affair no w ay mo re at ro cious than the

mo dern unexampled attempt o f men easy in ’

their fo rtunes,and

unpro vo ked byhardsh ips o f any so rt, in co o l blo od, and with openeyes

,to ruin their native country. Th is fact will never be fo r

go tten,and it were to he wished that w ith it the public detestatio n

thereo f may be t ransmitted to po sterity,which would in some

measure vindicate the ho no ur o f the presen t,and be a useful lesson

to future ages.

Tho se no ble arts o f arch itecture,sculpture

,and painting do not

o n ly ado rn the public but have also an influence o n the mindsand manners o f men

,fi lling them with great ideas

,and spiriting

them up to an emulat io n o f wo rthy actio ns. Fo r this cause theywere cult ivated and enco uraged by the Greek cit ies, w ho vied witheach o ther in bui lding and ado rn ing thei r temples, theatres, po rtico s

,and the l ike public wo rks

,at the same t ime that they dis

couraged private luxury , the very reverse o f o ur co nduct .To propo se the bui lding a parliament ho use

,courts o f justice

,

ro yal palace,and o ther public edifices

,suitable to the dign ity of

the nat io n,and ado rn ing them with paint ings and statues

,which

may transmit memo rable things and perso ns to po sterity,would

probably be laughed at as a vain affair,o f great expense, and little

use to the public , and it must be owned w e have reduced our

se lves to such straits that any pro po sit io n o f expense suiteth illwith our presen t circumstances. But

,how pro per soever this

pro po sal may be fo r the t imes, yet it comes so pro perly into a

discourse o f public spirit that I co uld n o t but saysometh ing o f it.And at ano ther t ime it will no t seem un reaso nable

,if we co nsider

[The So uth-sea project .]—AUT110R. Fire o f Lo ndo n . The Fire was attributedThe allusio n is to the M onumen t

'

erected to a Po pish plo t, in an inscription added in

( 1671—167 7) to commemo rate the Great 168 1 , and erased in 1831 .

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208 An Essay tow ards pr even ting

the little woman ish passio ns o f o bst inacy,resentment

,and revenge,

steadily promo te the true in terest o f their country, in tho se greatclear po in ts o f piety

,industry

,so briety o f manners, and an ho nest

regard fo r po sterity, w hich, allmen o f sense agree,are essential to

public happiness. There would be someth ing so great and go odin th is co nduct as must necessarily overbear all calumny and

o ppo sitio n . But that men sho uld act reaso nably is rather to bewished than ho ped .I am we l l aware

,that to talk o f public spirit

,and the means o f

retrieving it , must, to narrow so rdid minds,be matter o f jest and

ridicule,how co nfo rmable so ever it be to right reaso n , and the

maxims o f ant iquity. Tho ugh o ne would th ink the mo st selfishmen might see it w as their interest to enco urage a spirit in o thers

,

by w h ich they,to be sure

,must be gainers. Yet such is the

co rruptio n and fo lly o f the present age that a public spirit ist reated like igno ran ce o f the wo rld and want o f sense , and all

the respect is paid to cunn ingmen , w ho bend and wrest the publicin terest to the ir ow n private ends

,that in o ther times hath been

tho ught due to tho se w ho were generous enough to sacrifice theirprivate in terest to that o f their country.Such pract ices and such max ims as these must necessarily ruin

a state . But if the co ntrary should prevai l,w e mayhope to see

men in pow er prefer the public wealth and secur ity to their own,

and men o f money make free gifts, o r lend it w ithout interest tothei r coun try. Th is

,how strange and incredible so ever it may

seem to us,hath been o ften do ne in o ther States. And the natural

English temper co n sidered,together with the fo rce o f example

,no

o ne can tel l how far a pro po sal fo r a free gift maygo amo ng themo n ied men

,when set o n fo o t by the legislature

,and en co uraged

by tw o o r three men o f figure,w ho have the spirit to do a generous

thing,and the understanding to see it is every private man’s

interest to suppo rt that o f the public.If they w ho have their fo rtunes in money should make a vo lun

tary gift,the public wo uld be eased

,and at the same time main tain

its credit . N o r is a gen ero us lo ve o f their co untry the on ly mo tivethat should induce them to this. Commo n equity requires that allsubjects sho uld equally share the public burden , and commo n sense

shews that tho se w ho are fo remo st in the danger sho uld no t be themo st backward in co ntributing to prevent it .

tne Ruin of Gr eat B r itain . 209

Befo re I leave this subject,I canno t but take no t ice o f that mo st

infamous practice o f Bribery,than which n o th ing can be mo re

Oppo site to public spirit,since every o ne w ho takes a bribe plain ly

owns that he prefers his private in terest to that o f his country.This co rrupt io n is become a nat io nal crime

,having infected the

lowest as we ll as the h ighest amo ngst us,and is so general and

no to rious that,as it cann o t be matched in fo rmer ages, so it is to

be ho ped it w i ll n o t be imitated bypo sterity.Th is calls to mind an o ther gui lt

,which w e po ssess in a very

eminent degree , there being no nat io n under the sun w here so lemn

Perjury is so commo n,o r w here there are such temptat io ns to it .

The making men swear so o ften in the ir ow n case,and w here

they have an interest to co nceal the t ruth,hath gradually wo rn o ff

that awful respect w h ich w as o nce thought due to an appeal toAlmighty Go d , insomuch , that men no w -a-days break their fastand a custom-ho use o ath with the same peace o f mind. It is a

po licy peculiar t o us,the o bl iging men to perjure o r betray them

selves,and hath had no o ne go o d effect

,but many very ill o nes.

Sure I am that o ther nat io ns,w ithout the hundredth part o f our

swearing,co ntrive to do their bus in ess at least as w el l as w e do .

And perhaps o ur legislature w ill think it pro per to fo llow the i rexample. Fo r

,whatever measures are taken

,so lo ng as w e lie

under such a lo ad o f guilt as n atio nal Perjury and nat ional Bribery,it is impo ssible w e can pro sper.

This po o r nat io n hath so rely smarted o f late, and to ease the

present smart,a sudden remedy (as is usual in such cases) hath

been tho ught o f. But w e must beware n o t to mistake an ano dynefo r a cure.

Where the V itals are touched, and the w ho le mass o f

humo urs vit iated,it is no t enough to ease the part pained , w e

must lo ok farther,and apply gen eral co rrect ives , o therwise the i ll

humo ur may so o n shew itself in some o ther part .The South-sea affair

,how sen sible so ever, is n o t the o riginal

evil,o r the great source o f o ur misfo rtunes , it is but the natural

effect o f tho se prin ciples w h ich fo r many years have been propagated with great industry. And

,as a sharp distemper, by reclaim

ing a man from intemperance, may pro lo ng his l ife, so it is no t

impo ssible but this public calamity that l ies so heavy o n the

natio n mayprevent its ruin . It would certain ly prove the greatestVOL. 111. P

2 10 An Essay towards pr even ting

o f blessings, if it should make all ho nest men o f o ne party , if itshould put religio n and virtue in co untenance, resto re a sense o f

public spirit,and co nvin ce men it is a dangero us fo lly to pursue

private aims in o ppo sition to the go o d o f their coun try , if itshould turn our thought from co z enage and sto ck-jobbing to industryand frugal metho ds o f life , in fi ne, if it sho uld revive and

inflame that nat ive spark o f Brit ish wo rth and hon our, which hathto o lo ng lain smo thered and o ppressed.With th is view I have

,amo ng so many pro jects fo r remedying

the i ll state o f o ur affairs in a part icular instance,ventured to

publish the fo rego ing general h ints, w hich as they have been

thrown together from a z eal fo r the public go o d, so I heart ily wishthey maybe regarded neither mo re no r less than as they are fittedto promo te that end.

Though it must be owned that little can be ho ped ifwe co nsiderthe co rrupt degen erate age w e live in . I know it is an o ld fo llyto make peevish complain ts o f the t imes

,and charge the common

failures o f human nature o n a part icular age. One may nevertheless venture to aflirm that the present hath brought fo rth new

and po rten to us villain ies,no t to be paralle led in our own o r any

o ther h isto ry. We have been lo ng preparing fo r some greatcatastr o phe. Vice and villainy have by degrees grown reputableamo ng us , o ur in fi dels have passed fo r fi ne gent lemen

,and our

venal t raito rs fo r men o f sense,w ho knew the wo rld. We have

made a jest o f public spirit l fi , and can ce lled all respect fo r whatevero ur law s and re ligio n repute sacred. The o ld English modesty isquite wo rn off

,and in stead o f blushing fo r o ur crimes

,w e are

ashamed o n ly o f piety and virtue. In sho rt,o ther nat io ns have

been wicked,but w e are the first w ho have been wicked upon

principle.

The truth is,our symptoms are so bad that

,n o twiths tanding

all the care and vigi lance o f the legislature, it is to be feared thefinal perio d o f our State approaches. Stro ng co nstitutio ns, whetherpo litic o r natural

,do n o t fee l light diso rders. But when they are

sensibly affected,the distemper is fo r the mo st part vio lent and o f

an i ll progn o stic. Free go vernments like o ur o wn were plantedby the Go ths in mo st parts o f Euro pe , and, though w e all know

‘6 Cf. Max ims concerning Patriotism, 26.

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A P R O P O S A L

BETTER SUPPLYING OF CHURCHES IN OUR

FOREIGN PLANTATIONS,

AND FOR

CONVERTING THE SAVAGE AMERICANS

CHRISTIANITY,

COLLEGE BE ERECTED IN THE SUMMER ISLANDS, OTHERWISE

CALLED THE ISLES OF BERMUDA.

The harvest truly is great , but the labo urers are few .—LUKE x . 2.

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2 16 A P r oposal, (f t .

o f preaching dependeth in go o d measure o n the character and skillOf the preacher. Fo rasmuch as mankind are mo re apt to co pycharacters than to practise precepts

,and fo rasmuch as argument

,

to attain its fu ll strength,do th no t less require the life o f Z eal

than the w eight o f reaso n , and the same do ctrine wh ich makethgreat impressio n when delivered with decen cy and address lo sethvery much o f its fo rce by passing thr o ugh awkward o r unskilfulhands.

N ow the clergy sent o ver to America have proved, to o manyo f them

,very mean ly qualified bo th in learn ing and mo rals fo r the

discharge Of their oflice . And indeed litt le can be expected fromthe example o r in struct io n o f tho se w ho quit thei r native countryo n n o o ther mo t ive than that they are unable to pro cure a liveliho o d in it

,wh ich is kn ow n to be o ften the case.

TO this may be imputed the smal l care that hath been taken to

co nvert the n egro es Of our Plantat io ns,w ho

,to the infamy Of

England and scandal o f the wo rld,co nt inue heathen under Chr is

t ian masters,and in Christ ian coun tries. Wh ich co uld never be

,

if our planters were right ly in structed and made sensible that theydisappo in ted their o wn baptism byden ying it to tho se w ho belo ngto them , that it would be o f advantage to their affairs to haveslaves w ho sho uld ‘

Obey in all th ings thei r masters acco rding tothe flesh

,no t w ith eye

-service as men-pleasers,but in singleness

o f heart,as fearing God that go spel liberty co n sists with tem

po ral servitude , and that their slaves wo uld o n ly become betterslaves bybeing Christian .

And though it be allow ed that some Of the clergy in o ur Co lo nieshave appro ved themselves men o f merit

,it w i ll at the same time

be al low ed that the mo st z ealo us and able missio nary from England must fi nd h imse lf but i ll qualified fo r co nvert ing theAmericanheathen

,if w e co nsider the differen ce Of language, their wild way

o f living,and

,above all

,the great jealo usy and prejudice w h ich

savage natio n s have towards fo re igners, o r innovat io ns intro ducedby them.

These considerat io ns make it eviden t,that a Co llege o r

Seminary in tho se parts is very much wanted , and therefo re the

pro viding such a Seminary is earnest ly pro po sed and recommendedto all tho se w ho have it in their power to co ntribute to so go oda w o rk. By this

,tw o ends wou ld be Obtained

A P r oposal, ( i t . 2 1 7

First, the youth Of our English Plantat ions might be themselvesfitted fo r the min istry , and men o f merit would be then glad tofill the churches of their native country

,wh ich are now a drain

fo r the very dregs and refuse o f o urs .

At present,there are

,I am to ld

,many churches vacant in our

Plantations, and many very i ll supplied , n o r can all the vigilanceand wisdom Of that great prelate 2

,w ho se peculiar care it is

,prevent

this,so lo ng as the afo resaid churches are supplied from England .

And supplied they must be with such as can be picked up inEngland o r Ireland

,unt il a nursery Of learn ing fo r the education

of the natives is founded. This indeed might provide a co nstantsuccessio n Of learned and exemplary pasto rs , and what effect thismight be suppo sed to have o n thei r flo cks I need no t say.

Secondly,the children o f savage Americans

,brought up in such

a Seminary,and well instructed in religio n and learn ing

,might

make the ablest and pro perest missio naries fo r spreading thego spel among their countrymen , w ho would be less apt to suspect

,

and readier to embrace a do ctrine recommended by neighbourso r relations

,men o f thei r ow n blo o d and language, than if it were

propo sed by fo reigners,w ho w ould no t improbably be thought to

have designs o n the l iberty o r pro perty of their co nverts.The young Americans n ecessary fo r this purpo se may, in the

beginning,be pro cured

,e ither by peaceable metho ds from tho se

savage natio ns wh ich bo rder o n o ur Co lo n ies, and are in friendship with us

,o r by taking capt ive the children o f o ur enemies.

It is pro po sed to admit in to the afo resaid Co llege o n ly suchsavages as are under ten years o f age, befo re evil habits havetaken a deep roo t , and yet no t so early as to prevent retain ingtheir mo ther-tongue

,wh ich should be preserved by intercourse

amo ng themselves.It is farther pro po sed to ground these young Americanstho roughly in religion and mo rality, and to give them a go o dtincture of o ther learn ing, part icularly Of eloquence, histo ry, andpractical mathematics , to wh ich it may no t be improper to add

some skill in physic.If there were a yearly supply o f ten o r a do z en such missionaries

sent abroad into their respect ive countries, after they had received9 Bishop o f Lo ndo n ( then Bishop Gibson) .

2 18 A P r oposal, 69 7 .

the degree o f master o f arts in the afo resaid Co llege, and ho lyo rders in England (t ill such t ime as Episco pacy be established intho se parts it is hardly to be do ubted but

,in a litt le time

,the

w o rld wo uld see go o d and great effects thereo f.Fo r

,to any co nsidering man , the emplo ying American mis

sio naries fo r the co nversio n o f America will,Of all o thers

,appear

the mo st likely metho d to succeed , especially if care be taken

that,during the who le co urse Of their educatio n, an eye should

be had to their missio n , that they sho uld be taught betimes toco nsider themselves as trained up in that so le view

,witho ut any

o ther pro spect Of pro vision o r emplo yment , that a Z eal fo r religio nand lo ve Of their coun try sho uld be early and co nstant ly insti lledin to their minds

,by repeated lectures and admo n itions , that they

should no t o n ly be incited by the commo n to pics o f religio n and

natur e,but farther an imated and inflamed by the great examples

in past ages o f public spirit and virtue, to rescue their countrymenfrom their savage manners to a life o f civility and re ligio n .

If his Majesty would gracio usly please to grant a Charter fo ra Co llege to be erected in a pro per place fo r these uses

,it is

to be hoped a fund may be so o n raised,by the co n tribut io n Of

w el l—dispo sed perso ns,sufficien t fo r bui lding and endowing the

same . Fo r,as the necessary expense wo uld be small

,so there

are men Of religio n and human ity in England,who wo uld be

pleased to see any design set fo rw ard fo r the glo ry o f God and

the go o d o f mankind 4 .

A small expen se wo uld suffice to subsist and educate the

American missio naries in a plain simple manner,such as might

make it easy fo r them to return to the co arse and po o r methodso f life in use amo ng thei r coun trymen , and no thin g can co n

tribute mo re to lessen this expense,than a judicio us cho ice Of

the Situatio n where the Seminary is to stand.Many things o ught to be co n sidered in the cho ice o f a situation .

It should be in a go o d air in a place where provisio ns are cheap3 The fi rst See established in any o f the Church in Sco tland.

British Co lo n ies w as that o f No va Sco tia, Abo ve £ 5000 w as subscribed fo r them 1 787 . Dr. Seabury o f Connecticut was purpo se so o n after the P r oposal was pubthe fi rst Bisho p in the United States. He lished. Cf. P.S. p. 231 .

w as co nsecrated in 1 784 by Bishops o f the

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2 20 A P r oposal, 69 7 .

Indians w ho live o n the Co nt in en t will n o t suffer their childrento learn English o r Dutch

,lest they sho uld be debauched by

conversingwith their Euro pean neighbo urs , wh ich is a melancho lybut stro ng co nfirmat ion o f the truth o f what hath been now

advan ced.A general intercourse and co rrespo ndence with all the English

Co lo n ies,bo th o n the Islands and the Co nt inen t

,and with o ther

parts Of America,hath been befo re laid down as a necessary

circumstance,the reaso n whereo f is very eviden t . But this cir

cumstance is hardly to be found. For,o n the Co n tinent

,where

there are n either inns,no r carriages, no r bridges o ver the rivers

,

there is no travelling by land between distant places. And the

English sett lemen ts are reputed to extend alo ng the sea-coast

fo r the space Of fifteen hundred miles. It is therefo re plain therecan be n o co nven ient commun icat io n between them o therw isethan by sea , no advantage therefo re

,in this po int

,can be gained

by sett ling o n the Co ntinent .There is ano ther co nsideratio n which equally regards the Co n

tinen t and the Islands,that the general co urse Of trade and cor

respo ndence l ies from all tho se Co lo n ies to Great Britain alone.

Whereas,fo r o ur present purpo se

,it would be necessary to pitch

upo n a place,if such could be fo und

,w hich maintains a co nstant

intercourse w ith all the o ther Co lo n ies,and who se commerce lies

ch iefly o r alto gether (no t in Euro pe, but) in America.

There is but o ne spo t that I can fi nd to w h ich this circumstanceagrees , and that is

,the Is les o f Bermuda

,o therwise called the

Summer Islands 7 . These,having no rich commo dity o r manu

facture,such as sugar

,tobacco

,o r the like

,wherewithal to trade

7 These islands, equidistant betw een the

West Indies and British N orth America, andabo ut six hundred miles from the Co ntinent ,now asso ciated w ith the bright visio n o f

Berkeley, w ere th e dread o f sailors fo r

some time after their ex istence w as made

know n , early in the six teenth century.

They are called Summer Islands from Sir

Geo rge Summers ( o r Somers), who w as

wrecked there in 1609. He and his comrades w ere unexpectedly charmed by theirplace o f refuge. Bermuda became famedfo r its delightfu l climate , and w as a reso rto f Royalists and Ro undheads during thetro ubles o f the time. The po et Waller,after his co ndemnatio n by Parliament , is

said to have passed mo nths in 1643 in

Bermuda, w hich , in his Battle of the SummerIslands, he has described w ith enthusiasm,

as enjoying perpetual spring, and off eringthe mo st beautiful residence in the w orld.And Andrew Marvell , in his po em Ber

mudas, celebrates the‘ isle so lo ng unknow n ,

And yet far k inder than o ur own ,’

w ith its grateful shelter.Safe from the sto rms, and prelates' rage.

’

Shakespeare, to o , as well as Waller and

M arvel l , helps to invest this romantic regio nw ith a halo o f imagination . See Tempest,Act i. Scene 2 ,

‘the still-vex '

d Bermo o thes.’

A P r oposal, ( i t . 2 2 1

to England, are obliged to become carriers fo r America,as the

Dutch are fo r Euro pe. The Bermudans are excellent ship-wrightsand sailors, and have a great number o f very goo d slo ops

,which

are always passing and repassing from all parts o fAmerica. Theydrive a co nstant trade to the islands o f Jamaica

,Barbado es

,

Antigua, 860 , with butter, o nio ns, cabbages, and o ther roo ts and

vegetables, which they have in great plen ty and perfection . Theyhave also some smal l manufactures Of jo iner’s wo rk and matting

,

which they export to the Plantat io ns o n the Cont inent. HenceBermudan slo o ps are Oftener seen in the po rts o f America thanin anyo ther. And

, indeed, by the best info rmat io n I could get,it appears they are the o nly peo ple o f all the British Plantationswho ho ld a general co rrespo nden ce with the rest.And as the commerce o f Bermuda renders it a very. fit place

wherein to erect a Seminary,so likewise do th its situation

,it

being placed between our Plantatio ns o n the Continen t and tho sein the Isles

,so as equally to respect bo th. To which may be

added, that it lies in the w ay o f vessels passing from Americato Great Britain , all which makes it plain that the youth

,to

be educated in a Seminary placed in the Summer Islands wouldhave frequen t o ppo rtun it ies o f go ing th ither and co rrespondingwith their friends. It must indeed be owned that some will beobliged to go a lo ng w ay to any o ne place which w e suppo sereso rted to from all part s o f o ur Plantations , but if w e wereto loo k out a spo t the n earest appro ach ing to an equal distancefrom all the rest

,I be lieve it would be found to be Bermuda. It

remains that w e see whether it enjo ys the o ther qualities o r

conditions laid down as wel l as this.The Summer Islands are situated near the latitude o f thirtythree degrees , no part o f the wo rld enjo ys a purer air

,o r a mo re

temperate climate, the great o cean which environs them at o ncemo derating the heat o f the so uth winds, and the severity Of theno rth-west . Such a lat itude o n the Co ntin ent might be thoughttoo ho t , but the air in Bermuda is perpetually fanned and keptcoo l by sea-breez es, w hich render the weather the mo st healthyand delightful that co uld be wished, being (as is affirmed bypersons who have lo ng lived there) o f o ne equal teno r almo stthroughout the who le year, like the latter end of a fi ne May,

insomuch that it is reso rted to as the Mo ntpelier OfAmerica.

2 2 2 A P r oposal, 69 7 .

N o r are these isles (if w e may believe the accounts given o f

them) less remarkable fo r plenty than fo r health , there being,

besides beef, mutton,and fow l

, great abundance Of fruits,and

garden-stuff o f all kinds in perfectio n : to this, if w e add the greatplen ty and variety o f fi sh which is every day taken o n their coasts

,

it w o uld seem,that a Seminary co uld nowhere be supplied with

better provisio ns, o r cheaper than here.

Abo ut fo rty years ago , upon cutt ing down many tall cedarsthat sheltered their o range trees from the no rth wind (whichsomet imes blows even there so as to affect that delicate plant),great part Of their o range plantatio ns suffered , but o ther cedarsare since grown up, and no do ubt a litt le industry would againpro duce as great plenty Of o ranges as ever w as there heretofo re.

I ment ion th is because some have inferred from the presentscarcity o f that fruit, fo r w h ich Bermuda w as once so famo us

,

that there hath been a change in the so i l and climate fo r thewo rse. But th is

,as hath been Observed

,pro ceeded from ano ther

cause,wh ich is now in great measure taken away.

Bermuda is a cluster o f small islands,wh ich lie in a very narrow

compass,co ntain ing

,in all

,no t quite twenty thousand acres.

Th is gro up o f isles is (to use M r. Waller’s expressio n b) walled

round w ith ro cks,wh ich render them inaccessible to pirates

o r en emies , there being but tw o narrow entrances,bo th wel l

guarded by fo rts. It would. therefo re be impo ssible to fi nd any

where a mo re secure retreat fo r studen ts.The t rade Of Bermuda co nsists o n ly in garden-stuff, and some

po o r manufactures,princ ipally Of cedar and the palmetto-leaf.

Bermuda hats are w o rn by our ladies : they are made Of a so rto f mat

,o r (as they cal l it) platting made o f the palmetto-leaf,

wh ich is the o n ly commo dity that I can fi nd expo rted from Bermudato Great Britain , and as there is n o pro spect Of making a fo rtuneby th is small trade

,so it canno t be suppo sed to tempt the Fellows

Of the Co llege to engage in it,to the n eglect Of thei r peculiar

business,which might po ssibly be the case e lsewhere.

8 Bermuda, wall’d w ith ro cks, who do es Th'

Hesperian garden boasts o f no ne

no t know ? so fair ;That happy island where huge lemons Where shining pearl , coral, and manygrow , a po und,

And orange trees, which go lden fruit On the rich shore, o f ambergris isdo bear, fo und.

’

WALLER’S Battle of the Summer Islands.

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2 24 A P r oposal, 69 7 .

pruden ce,spirit

,and z eal

,as well as competen t learn ing, w ho

sho uld be led to it by o ther mo t ives than the necessity o f pickingup a main tenance. Fo r

,upo n th is view

,w hat man o f merit can

be suppo sed to quit his nat ive coun t ry,and take up with a po o r

co llege subsistence in ano ther part o f the wo rld, where there are

so many co n siderable parishes actually vo id,and so many o thers

i ll supplied fo r w an t o f fitt ing incumbents ? Is it likely thatFel lowships o f fifty o r sixty pounds a year sho uld tempt abler o rwo rthier men than benefi ces o f many t imes the ir value PAnd except able and wo rthy men do first engage in this affair

,

with a reso lut io n to exert themse lves in fo rming the manners of

the youth,and giving them a pro per educatio n

,it is evident the

M issio n and the Co l lege will be but in a very bad w ay. Thisin co nven ience seems the mo st diffi cult to pro vide against, and ifno t pro vided again st , it will be the mo st likely to obstruct anydesign o f this nature. So true it is

,that where igno rance o r i ll

manners o nce take place in a Seminary,they are sure to be handed

do w n in a successio n o f i lliterate o r w o rthless men .

But th is apprehensio n,w h ich seems so well grounded, that a

Co llege in any part o f America w ould either lie unprovided,o r be

wo rse pro vided than their churches are,hath n o place in Bermuda ,

there being at this t ime several gen tlemen 9,in all respects very

w e l l qualified,and in po ssessio n o f go o d preferments and fair

pro spects at home,w ho

,having serio usly co nsidered the great

benefits that may arise to the Church and to Man kind from suchan undertak ing, are ready to engage in it

,and to dedicate the

remainder o f their lives to the in struct ing the youth o fAmerica,and pro secut ing the ir ow n studies

,upo n a very mo derate sub

sistence,in a ret iremen t

,so sw eet and so secure

,and every way

so well fitted fo r a place o f educatio n and study,as Bermuda.

Thus much the writer hereo f thought h imself obliged to sayo f his asso c iates. Fo r h imself he can o n ly saythat, as he valuesno prefermen t upon earth so much as that o f being employed inthe execut ion o f th is des ign , so he ho pes to make up fo r o therdefects, by the sin cerity o f his endeavo urs.

In Euro pe,the pro testant religio n hath o f late years co nsiderably

lo st gro und, and America seems the like liest place wherein to

9 See P.S. p. 230.

A Pmposal, (0

9°C. 22 5

make up fo r what hath been lo st in Euro pe,pro vided the pro per

metho ds are taken . O therwise the Span ish missio naries in the

south,and the Fren ch in the n o rth

,are mak ing such a progress

,

as may o ne day spread the rel igio n o f Rome,and with it the

usual hatred to Pro testants,th ro ughout all the savage nat io ns

o f America , which wo uld pro bably end in the utter ext irpatio no f our Co lo n ies

,o n the safety w hereo f depends so much o f the

nat io n’s wealth, and so co nsiderable a branch o f his M ajesty’srevenue .

But,if this scheme were pursued

,it wo uld in all pro babi lity

have much greate r influen ce o n the Americans than the utmo stendeavo urs o f po pish emissaries can po ssibly have w ho

,from the

differen ce o f co untry,language, and in terest

,must lie under far

greater difliculties and disco uragements than tho se whom w e

suppo se yearly sen t o ut from Bermuda to preach amo ng the ircoun trymen .

It canno t indeed be den ied,that the great number o f po o r

regulars,inured to hard l iving

,and brought up in an implicit

o bedien ce to their superio rs,hath h itherto given the Church o f

Rome,in regard to her missio n s , great advan tage o ver the re

fo rmed churches . But,from what hath been said

,it is

,I th ink

,

eviden t,that this advan tage maybe o verbalanced byo ur emplo ying

American missio naries.N o r is the ho nour o f the crown

,nat ion , and church o f England

,

unco n cerned in this scheme , w hich, it is to be ho ped, will remo vethe repro ach w e have so lo ng lain under

,that w e fal l as far sho rt

o f our n eighbo urs o f the Romish c ommun io n in z eal fo r propagating re ligio n , as w e surpass them in the so undn ess and purityo f it . And at the same t ime that the do ing w hat may be so

easi ly do ne takes away our repro ach , it will cast n o smal l lustreo n his Majesty’s re ign, and derive a blessing from Heaven o n

his admin istrat io n , and tho se w ho live under the influence thereo f.

Men o f narrow minds have a peculiar talen t at o bject io n,be ing

n ever at a lo ss fo r someth ing to sayagainst whatso ever is no t o fthe ir ow n pro po sing. And perhaps it will be said, in o ppo sit io nto th is pro po sal , that if w e thought o urselves capable o f gain ingco nverts to the Church , w e ought to begin with infi dels, papists,and dissen ters o f all denominat io ns, at home, and to make pro

VOL. 111. Q

2 26 A P r oposal, 69 7 .

selytes o f these befo re w e th ink o f fo re igners , and that therefo reo ur scheme is again st duty. And

,farther

,that

,co nsidering the

great o ppo sitio n which is found o n the part o f tho se w ho differfrom us at home

,no success can be expected among savages

abroad , and that therefo re it is against reaso n and ex perien ce .

In answer to'

this,I say, that religio n like light is imparted

witho ut being dimin ished. That whatever is do ne abroad can

be no h indrance o r let to the co nversio n o f infi dels o r o thersat home . That tho se w ho engage in this affair imagine theywill no t be missed

,where there is no wan t o f scho o ls o r clergy ,

but that they maybe o f singular service in co untries but thin lysupplied with either

,o r altogether deprived o f bo th : that our

Co lo n ies being o f the same blo o d,language, and religio n , with

o urselves,are in effect o ur co untrymen . But that Christ ian

charity,no t being limited by tho se regards, do th ex tend to all

mankind . And this may serve fo r an answer to the first po int,

that our design is again st duty.To the seco nd po in t I answer , that igno rance is no t so in

curable as erro r , that yo u must pul l down as well as build,erase

as wel l as imprint,in o rder to make pro selytes at home : whereas

,

the savage Americans,if they are in a state purely natural

,and

un impro ved by education,they are also un incumbered with all

that rubbish o f superstit io n and prejudice,wh ich is the effect o f

a wro ng o ne . As they are less instructed,they are withal less

co nceited,and mo re teachable ! And n o t being vio lent ly attached

to any false system o f their ow n,are so much the fitter to receive

that which is true. Hen ce it is eviden t that success abroad oughtn o t to be measured bythat w h ich w e observe at home

,and that

the inference wh ich w as made from the difi iculty o f the o ne to

the impo ssibility o f the o ther,is altogether groundless.

It hath mo re the appearan ce o f reason to object (w hat w i l lpo ssibly be objected by some) that this scheme hath been alreadytried to n o purpo se

,several Indians having returned to their

savage mann ers after they had been taught to write and read,

and instructed in the Christian religio n , a clear pro o f that theirnatural stupidity is n o t to be o vercome by educatio n .

In answ er to this,I say, that the scheme no w propo sed hath

never been tried,fo rasmuch as a tho rough education in religion

and mo rality, in D ivine and human learn ing, do th no t appear

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2 28 A P r oposal, ( bi

o .

w h ich induced the crown to send the first English Co lon ies thither,do th appear from the Charter 10 gran ted byKing James I to the

adven turers in Virgin ia. (See Purchas’s Pilgrims, vo l. iv. b. i . c.And it is n ow but just (what might then seem charitable), thatthese po o r creatures should receive some advantage with respectto their spiritual in terests from tho se w ho have so much improvedtheir tempo ral by sett ling amo ng them.

It is mo st t rue,no twithstanding o ur present co rruptions

,that

there are to be fo und in no country under the sun men o f betterin c linatio n s

,o r greater abi lit ies fo r do ing go o d, than in England.

But it is as true that success,in many cases

,depends no t upon

z eal,industry

,wealth

,learn ing

,o r the like facult ies

,so much

as o n the metho d w herein these are applied . We o ften see a

small pro po rt io n o f labour and ex pense in o ne w ay bring that

abo ut,which in o thers a much greater share o f bo th could n ever

effect . It hath been myendeavour to disco ver this w ay o r metho din the presen t case. What hath been do ne

,I submit to the

judgmen t o f all go o d and reaso nable men , w ho , I am persuaded,w i ll never reject o r discourage a pro po sal o f this nature

,o n the

sco re o f slight objectio ns,surmises

,o r diffi cult ies

,and thereby

render themse lves chargeable with the having prevented tho sego o d effects w h ich might o therwise have been pro duced by it .Fo r it is

,after all

,po ssible

,that unfo reseen difficult ies may

arise in the pro secutio n o f th is design , many th ings may retard,and many th ings may threaten to o bstruct it . But there is hardlyany enterprise o r scheme whatso ever

,fo r the public go o d, in

which difficult ies are no t o ften shewing themselves,and as o ften

o vercome by the blessing o f God upo n the pruden ce and reso lut io no f the undertakers , though, fo r aught that appears

,the present

scheme is as like ly to succeed,and attended with as few diffi

culties,as any o f this kind can po ssibly be.

Fo r,to any man w ho co nsiders the D ivine power o f re l igio n

,

the innate fo rce o f reaso n and virtue,and the mighty effects o ften

1° The Charter is granted by the King miserable ignorance o f the true kn ow ledgeexpressly, because

‘so noble a w ork may, and w orship o f God, and may in time

by the Pro vidence o f Almigh ty Go d, here bring the infi dels and savages ( living in

after tend to the glory o f his Divine Ma tho se parts) to human civility, and to a

jesty, in pro pagating o f Christian religio n settled and quiet go vernment .’to such people as yet live in darkness and

A P r oposal, (3 7 . 2 29

wro ught by the co nstant regular o peratio ns even o f a weak and

small cause , it will seem natural and reasonable to suppo se,that

rivulets perpetually issuing fo rth from a fo untain o r reservo ir o flearn in g and re ligio n , and streaming through all parts o f America

,

must in due t ime have a great effect,in purging aw ay the i ll

manners and irreligio n o f o ur Co lo n ies,as we ll as the blindness

and barbarity o f the nat io n s round them : especially if the re

servo ir be in a clean and private place,where its waters

,o ut

o f the w ayo f anything that may co rrupt them,remain c lear and

pure , o therwise they are mo re likely to po llute than purify theplaces through wh ich they flow .

The greatness o f a ben efact io n is rather in pro po rtio n to the

number and want o f the receivers than to the liberality o f the

giver. A wise and go od man would therefo re be frugal in the

managemen t o f his charity : that is,co ntrive it so that it might

extend to the greatest wants o f the greatest number o f his fellowcreatures. N ow the greatest w an ts are spiritual w ants

,and by

all accoun ts these are n owhere greater than in our Western Plantatio n s

,in many parts whereo f D ivine service is n ever perfo rmed

fo r wan t o f c lergymen , in o thers,after such a manner and by

such hands as scandaliz e even the w o rst o f their o w n parishio ners ,w here many English, in stead o f gain ing co nverts

,are themselves

degen erated into heathen s, being members o f n o church,w ithout

mo rals,witho ut faith

,without baptism. There can be

,therefo re

,

in n o part o f the Christian wo rld a greater wan t o f spiritualthings than in our Plantat io ns.

And,o n the o ther hand

,no part o f the Gent ile wo rld are so

inhuman and barbarous as the savage Americans,who se chief

emplo ymen t and delight co nsisting in cruelty and revenge , theirl ives must o f all o thers be mo st o ppo site

,as wel l to the light

o f nature as to the spirit o f the go spel . Now,to reclaim these

po o r wretches, to preven t the many to rments and crue l deathswh ich they dai ly inflict o n each o ther

,to co n tribute in anyso rt

to put a sto p to the numberless ho rrid crimes wh ich they commitw itho ut remo rse

,and in stead thereo f to in tro duce the practice

o f virtue and piety,must surely be a w o rk in the highest degree

becoming every sin cere and charitable Chr istian .

Tho se w ho wish well to re ligio n -and mankind will need no

o ther mo tive to fo rward an undertaking calculated fo r the service

2 30 A P yoposal, 69 7 ,

o f bo th. I shall,nevertheless

,beg leave to o bserve, that w ho ever

would be glad to cover a multitude o f sins by an extensive and

w e l l-judged charity, o r who ever,from an ex cellent and go dlike

temper o f m ind,seeks o ppo rtun ities o f do ing go od in his genera

t io n,w ill be pleased to meet w ith a scheme that so peculiarly

puts it in his power,w ith small trouble o r expense

,to pro cure

a great and last ing benefit to the wo rld .Ten pounds a year would (if I mistake n o t) be sufficient todefray the expense o f a yo ungAmerican in the Co llege o f Ber

muda,as to diet

,lo dging, c lo thes

,bo o ks

,and educat io n : and

if so,the interest o f tw o hundred po unds may be a perpetual

fund fo r maintain ing o ne missio nary at the Co llege fo r ever ,and in th is successio n many

,it is to be ho ped

,may become

powerfu l instruments fo r co nvert ing to Christian ity and civil lifewho le nat io n s w ho now sit in darkness and the shadow o f death

,

’

and w ho se crue l brutal manners are a disgrace to human nature .

A benefact io n o f this k ind seems to en large the very beingo f a man

,extending it to distant places and to future t imes ,

inasmuch as unseen countries and after ages may fee l the effects

o f his bounty,w h i le he h imself reaps the rew ard in the blessed

so ciety o f all tho se,w ho

,having turned ‘many to righteousness

,

shine as the stars fo r ever and ever.’

[H P .S .—Since the fo rego ing Proposal was first made public, his

Majesty hath been gracio usly pleased to grant a Charter 12 fo rerect ing a Co llege by the name o f St . Paul’s Co llege in Bermuda,fo r the uses abo vementio ned. Which Co llege is to co ntain a

Presiden t and n ine Fe llows. The first President appo inted bycharter is Geo rge Berkeley, D .D .

,and Dean o f Derry. The three

Fe llows named in the charter are William Thompso n,Jo nathan

Rogers, and James King, Masters o f Arts and Fe llows o f Trin ityCo llege n ear Dublin ” . The n ominatio n o f a Presiden t is reservedto the Crown . The elect io n o f Fel lows is vested in the Pres ident

11 Added in the later issues o f the P ro

posal in 1725 , and also contained in theedition published in the Miscellany.

1” The Charter w as granted in June 1725 .

The subsequent diffi culties and disappo int ~

ments which Berkeley enco untered, and thespirit in w hich he met them, appear in his

Co rrespo ndence w ith Thomas Prior, in that

and the three fo llow ing years. He sailedfo r Rho de Island in September 1728.

13 Thompso n , Rogers, and King w ereelected Fellow s o f Trinity ; the fi rst in 1 713,the seco nd in 1 716 , and the third in 1720.

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V E R S E S ,

ON THE

PROSPECT OF PLANTING ARTS AND LEARNING

AM ER ICA I.

THE Muse,disgusted at an age and clime

Barren o f every glo rio us theme,

In distant lands n o w w aits a. better t ime,

Pro ducing subjects w o rthy fame :In happy climes

,w here from the gen ial sun

And virgin earth such scenes ensue,

The fo rce o f art by nature seems outdo ne,

And fan cied beauties by the true :In happy climes the seat o f inno cen ce

,

Where nature guides and virtue rules,

Where men shall no t impo se fo r truth and sense

The pedantry o f courts and scho o ls :There shall be sung an o ther go lden age,

The rise o f empire and o f arts,

The go o d and great inspiring epic rage,The w isest heads and n oblest hearts.

N o t such as Euro pe breeds in her decay ,Such as she bred w hen fresh and young,When heaven ly flame did an imate her clay

,

By future po ets shal l be sung.

Westw ard the co urse o f empire takes its w ay,

The fo ur first Acts already past,

A fifth shal l c lo se the D rama w ith the day,

Time’s n o blest o ffspring is the last .1 Published in Berk eley’s M iscellany in Colonies, vo l. iii. p. 470 , no te) , it is said

175 2 . The time at w hich theyw ere written that they w ere compo sed there ; o thersis do ubtful . In the Rbode Island His assign them to the perio d o f the publicator ical Collections , III. 36 ( see Anderso n’s tio n o f the P r oposal, o r so o n after.Histo ry of [be Cbur eb of England in tbe

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236 A Sermon [ fi r eaenea’ oefo r e lee S ociety fo r

a mo re pure and spiritual k ind,the rest less mo tio n o f the mind

from o ne terrene object o r pursuit to ano ther, and o ften a fl ighto r endeavour abo ve them all towards someth ing unknown

,and

perfect ive o f its nature,are so many signs and to kens o f this

better state,wh ich in the style o f the go spel is termed Life

Eternal.And as this is the greatest go od that can befal us

,the very

end o f o ur being,and that alo ne which can crown and sat isfy

o ur w ishes,and w itho ut wh ich w e shal l be ever restless and

uneasy , so every man w ho know s and acts up to his true interestmust make it his prin cipal care and study to o btain it : and

,in

o rder to this,he must endeavour to live suitably to his calling

,

and o f con sequen ce endeavour to make o thers obtain it to o . Fo r,

how can a Christ ian shew himself wo rthy o f his cal ling o therwisethan by perfo rming the duties o f it ? And w hat Christian dutyis mo re essen tial ly so than that o f charity ? And what objectcan be found upo n earth mo re deserving o ur charity than the

souls o f men ? O r how is it po ssible fo r the mo st ben efi cent

spirit to do them better service than by promo t ing their bestand mo st last ing interest, that is, by putting them in the w ay

that leads to Eternal Life ?What this Eternal Life w as

,o r how to come at it

,were po ints

unknow n to the heathen wo rld. It must be owned,the wise men

o f o ld,w ho fo llowed the light o f nature

,saw

,even bythat light,

that the soul o f man w as debased,and bo rne downwards

,contrary

t o its natural bent,by carnal and terrene objects , and that

,

o n the o ther hand,it w as exalted

,purged, and in some so rt

assimilated to the Deity,by the co ntemplatio n o f truth and

practice o f virtue 2. Thus much in general they saw o r surmised .

But then about the w ayand means to kn ow the one,o r perfo rm

the o ther,they w ere much at a lo ss. They w ere no t agreed co n

cern ing the true end o f mankind —which,as they saw

,w as

mistaken in the vulgar pursuits of men z , so they found it muchmo re easy to co nfute the erro rs o f o thers than to ascertain the

t ruth themselves. Hen ce so many divis io n s and disputes about

a po int w hich it mo st impo rted them to kn ow,in somuch as it

w as to give the bias to human life, and govern the w ho le ten o ro f their act io ns and co nduct .

‘9 Cf. S ir is, sects. 294— 298, 30 1

—303 , 338—341 , 366, 367.

tee P r opagalz'

on of fi le Gospel. 2 37

But when Life and Immo rtal ity were bro ught to light by the

Go spel, there could remain“

no dispute abo ut the chief end and

felicity o f man,n o mo re than there co uld abo ut the means o f

obtain ing it , after the express declarat io n o f our blessed Lo rd inthe wo rds o f my text This is Life Eternal

,that they may know

thee, the o n ly t rue Go d,and Jesus Christ w hom thou hast sen t .

’

Fo r the right understanding o f which w o rds w e must o bserve thatby the kn ow ledge o f Go d is n o t mean t a barren speculat io n

,e ither

o f ph i lo so phers o r scho last ic divines,no r any no t io nal tenets

fitted to pro duce disputes and dissensio n s amo ng men , but, o n

the co ntrary,a ho ly pract ical knowledge, wh ich is the so urce

,

the ro o t,o r prin ciple o f peace and un io n

,o f faith

,ho pe

,charity

,

and universal o bedience. A man may frame the mo st accurateno t io ns

,and in o ne sen se attain the exactest kno w ledge o f Go d

and Christ that human faculties can reach,and yet, n o tw ithstand

ing all th is,be far from kn owing them in that saving sen se .

Fo r St . John tells us,that who so ever sinneth hath n o t seen

Christ,no r known him

’

(John i ii . And again , ‘He that

lo veth no t knoweth no t God’

(1 [John iv. To know Go d as

w e o ught, w e must love him , and lo ve him so as w ithal tolove o ur brethren

,his creatures and his children . I say, that

kn owledge o f Go d and Christ wh ich is Life Eternal impliesun iversal charity

,w ith all the duties ingrafted thereon , o r ensuing

from then ce , that is to say, the lo ve o f Go d and man . And

our Lo rd expressly saith,

‘He that hath my commandments,and keepeth them

,he it is that lo veth me

’

( John xiv.From all which it is evident that th is saving knowledge o f God

is inseparable from the knowledge and pract ice o f his will ,the explicit declaratio n whereo f, and o f the means to perfo rmit are co ntain ed in the go spe l

,that D ivin e instrument o f grace

and me rcy to the so ns o f men . The metaphysical knowledge o f

God,co nsidered in h is abso lute nature o r essen ce, is o ne thing,

and to know him as he stands related to us as Creato r, Redeemer,and Sanctifi er is ano ther. The fo rmer kind o f knowledge (whatever it amoun ts to ) hath been , and may be, in Gent iles as w e llas Christ ians, but no t the latter, wh ich is Life Eternal 3 .

3 N o te how a relative and practical intentio n o f this Disco urse to recommend,‘ know ledge ’

o f God, w hich co nsists in the is at the o utset distinguished from a sup

Christian life , and which it is the main po sed abso lute o r metaphysical know ledge

238 A Sermon preaenea’ oefo r e Me S ociety for

From what hath been said,it is a plain co nsequen ce that w ho

ever is a sin cere Christian canno t be indifferen t about bringingo ver o ther men to the kno w ledge o f Go d and Christ , but thatevery o ne o f us

,who , hath any claim to that t itle

,is indispensably

obliged, in duty to God and in charity to his n eighbo ur, to desireand promo te

,so far as there is o ppo rtun ity

,the co nversion o f

heathens and infi dels,that so they may become partakers o f Life

and Immo rtality. Fo r ‘ this is Life Eternal,to know thee the

o n ly true God,and Jesus Christ whom thou hast sen t .

’

In my present disco urse upon wh ich wo rds,I shall

,

First,Co n sider in general the obligat io n that Christians lie

under,o f bringing o ther men to the Kn owledge of the o n ly

true God,and o f Jesus Christ. And

,

Seco ndly,I shall co nsider it in referen ce to this laudable So ciety

,

instituted fo r the Pro pagat io n o f the Go spel.And

,under each head

,I pro po se to o bviate such diffi culties as

may seem to retard,and intermix such remarks as shall

appear pro per to fo rward so go o d a wo rk.

N ow,although it be very evident that w e can really have

neither a just z eal fo r the glo ry o f God,no r a benefi cent lo ve

o f man,without wish ing and endeavouring, as o ccasion serves

,

to spread the glad t idings o f salvat io n,and bring tho se w ho are

ben ighted in the shadow o f death to Life Eternal,by the Know

ledge o f the o n ly t rue God,and o f Jesus Christ whom he hath

sent , yet th is duty,plain and undo ubted as it seems

,happen s

to be to o o ften o verlo oked,even by tho se who se attention to o ther

po ints would make o ne th ink their neglect o f th is no t an effecto f lukewarm indifferen ce so much as o f certain mistaken no t io nsand suppo sit ion s . Tw o prin cipal con siderat ions o ccur

,wh ich

,in

th is part icular,seem to have slackened the industry o f some

,

o therwise Z ealous and serious Ch rist ians.

O ne I apprehend to be this—that it is surmised the Christian

o f Deity. Cf. Alcz’

pbron ,Dial . IV. sect . nature o f religio us kn ow ledge and of divine

16—22, and Dial . VII. , (publish ed in the mysteries is discussed.

same year w ith this Discourse,) in wh ich the

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240 A S ermon pr eaonea’ lefo r e tne S ociety f or

co nc lude again st n either. Fo r,as w e know no t when that sup

po sed t ime o f general infide lity is to be,o r whether it will be

at all, so,if it were ever so sure

,and ever so n ear

,it would

n evertheless become us to take care that it mayno t be an effecto f our ow n part icular indifferen ce and n eglect .But

,if w e take o ur n o tio ns

,n o t from the un certain interpreta

t io n o f a part icular tex t,but from the who le teno r o f the D ivin e

o racles,from the express promise and reiterated predict io ns o f

o ur blessed Lo rd and h is apo stles,w e shal l be lieve

,that ‘Jesus

Christ is h igh ly exalted o f Go d , to the end,that at his name

every knee shall bow,and every to ngue co nfess that he is the

Lo rd,to the glo ry o f God the Father ’ (Ph i l. ii. 9 That

‘ he must reign t ill he hath put all enemies under his feet ’

( I Co r . xv. That ‘ he is with us alway,even unto the end

o f the wo rld’ (M att . x xviii . And that the church o f the livingGo d

,the pillar and ground o f truth, is so far from being destro yed

byhuman means,

‘ that the gates o f he ll (all the infernal pow ers)shall no t prevail against it ’ (M att . xvi. Let us therefo reban ish all such co n ceits as may seem to just ify o ur indo len ce

,

as may reaso n us out o f all co urage and vigo ur in the race thatis set befo re us , let us no t

,I say, slacken o ur ow n hands

,no r

enfeeble our ow n knees,by preco n ceived fan cies and suppo sit io ns,

co n sidering that as the success o f all en terprises in great measuredepends o n the spirit o f the undertakers

,so no thing is mo re apt

to raise a spirit than ho pe , no r to depress it than despo ndency.We ought therefo re to shake off every vain fear in o ur spiritualwarfare. The number

,the presumptio n

,and the abilities o f

tho se w ho take counse l together against the Lo rd and again sthis An o inted should no t dishearten

,but rather excite and en

co urage us to stand in the gap.

Ano ther co nsiderat io n that may po ssibly withho ld diverssincere believers from co ntribut ing their endeavours fo r bringingmen to the know ledge o f God and Christ

,and thereby to Eternal

Life,is—the w ant o f M iracles in the presen t age . M en natural ly

cast about fo r reaso ns to co untenan ce the part they take . And

as the gift o f miracles w as o f mighty influen ce and help to tho sew ho w ere commissio ned to spread abro ad the light o f the go spelin its first promulgat io n , so no preten ce o ffers itself mo re natu

té e P r opagation of the Gospel. 24 1

rally to excuse a man from executing anypurpo se than the wan to f autho rity, wh ich , in the o pin io n o f men

,canno t be witho ut

a just commiss io n,n o r this un less dist inguished by tho se pro per

means and powers that have been kn own to attend it . N ow,

with regard to this defect o f miracles,I shall beg leave to make

tw o o bservat io nsFirst

,It is to be o bserved that if w e have no t mirac les w e have

o ther advantages which make them less necessary now than in

the first spreading o f the go spel. Who le nat io ns have found thebenefit o f Chr ist’s re ligio n , it is pro tected by prin ces, establishedand encouraged by laws, suppo rted by learn ing and arts

,recom

mended by the experien ce o f many ages, as wel l as by the au

tho rity and example o f the wisest and mo st kn owing men .

Certain ly,if the greatest part o f mankind are Gent i les o r Maho

metans,it canno t be den ied that the mo st knowing, mo st learned,

and mo st impro ved nat io ns pro fess Ch rist ian ity,and that even

the M ahometans themse lves bear test imo ny to the D ivin e missio no f Jesus Christ . Whereas

,therefo re

,in the beginn ing, a few

illiterate wanderers,o f the mean est o f the peo ple

,had the prejudices

,

the learn ing, and the power o f their ow n as wel l as o ther natio ns,

in o ne wo rd,the w ho le w o rld

,to o ppo se and overcome : tho se

w ho at th is day engage in the pro pagatio n o f the go spel,do it

upo n terms in many respects far mo re easy and advantageous.It is power again st weakness, civility again st barbarism,

know

ledge again st ign o ran ce, some o r o ther if no t all these advan tages,

in the presen t t imes,attending the progress o f the Christ ian

religio n,in whatever part o f the wo rld men shall attempt to

plant it .In the Seco n d place

,w e may reflect that if w e have no t the

gift o f miracles th is is a go o d reason w hyw e should exert mo restro ngly tho se human mean s w h ich God hath put in o ur power ,and make o ur o rdinary facult ies, w hether o f the head

,o r the

hand,o r the tongue

,our interest

,our credit

,o r o ur fo rtun e

,sub

servient to the great Giver o f them , and cheerfully co ntributeo ur humble mite towards hasten ing that t ime where in all nat io n swhom thou hast made shall come and wo rship befo re thee

,O

Lo rd,and shall glo rify thy name

’

(Psal. lxxxvi. It is at leasta plain case, that the wan t o f apo sto lical gifts should no t be pleadedas a bar to our do ing that which in no respect

,e ither o f diffi culty o r

VOL. 111. R

24 2 A Sermon preaenea’ defor e Me S ocz

'

ely fo r

danger, equals o r approaches the apo sto lical o ffi ce. What preten cecan this supply fo r men’s being quite unconcerned abo ut the

spreading o f the go spel,o r the salvatio n o f souls , fo r men’s

fo rgetting that they are Christians, and related to human k ind ?How can this justify their o verlo o king o ppo rtun it ies which liein thei r way, their no t co ntributing a smal l part o f their fo rtunetowards fo rwarding a design wherein they share n either painsno r peri l , the no t bestowing o n it even the cheap assistanceo f their speech

,attention

,counsel

,o r countenance

,as o ccasio n

o ffers ? How un like is this wo rldly, selfish indifferen ce to thataccoun t w h ich St. Paul gives o f h imself

,that he so ught no t his

o wn profit,but the pro fit o f many

,that they may be saved’

( 1 Co r. x. And yet herein he expected the Co rinthians (andthe same reaso n will ho ld fo r us) should be like him , fo r he

subjo ins,

‘Be ye fo llowers o f me as I also am o f Christ .’

Having considered the duty in general, I come now to treato f it w ith reference to America

,the peculiar province o f this

ven erable So ciety 5 w hich I suppose wel l info rmed o f the stateand progress o f religio n in that part o f the wo rld

,by their co r

responden ces with the clergy upo n the ir missio n . It may n evertheless be expected that o ne w ho had been engaged in a designupon this very V iew

,w ho hath been upon the place

,and resided

a co ns iderable t ime in o ne o f o ur Co lo n ies,should have observed

somew hat w o rth repo rting. It is to be hoped,therefo re

,that o ne

part o f my audience will pardo n w hat the o ther may perhapsexpect, wh i le 1 detain them with the narrative of a few th ingsI have observed

,and such reflect io ns as thereupon suggested them

selves , some part of which may possibly be found to ex tend toother Co lo n ies.

Rhode Island, with a po rt ion o f the adjacent Co nt inent underthe same go vernment, is inhabited by an English Co lo ny, co n

sisting chiefly o f sectaries o f many differen t denominat io ns,w ho

seem to have wo rn of part o f that prejudice which they inherited

5 The o riginal design o f the So ciety British dominio n, and to carry it among the( founded in 1 70 1) was to spread Chris Indian natio ns beyond—America being thentianity in the parts o f America subject to regarded as the opening fo r missio ns.

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244 A Sermon pr eaenea’ oefo r e tile S ociety for

rather than Ch ristians) imagined they had a right to treat o n the

fo o t o f Canaan ites o r Amalekites—to gether with an irratio nalco n tempt o f the blacks

,as creatures of ano ther species

,who had

no right to be instructed o r admitted to the sacraments—havepro ved a main obstacle to the co nversion of these po o r peo ple.To this may be added

,an erro neous n o tion that the being

baptiz ed is in co nsistent with a state of slavery. To undeceivethem in this particular

,which had to o much weight, it seemed

a pro per step,if the o pin io n o f his Majesty’s Atto rney and

So licito r-General could be pro cured. Th is o pin io n they charitablysent o ver

,signed with their ow n hands , which was acco rdingly

printed in Rho de Island,and dispersed thro ughout the Plantat io ns.

I heart ily wish it may pro duce the intended effect. It mustbe ow ned

,our refo rmed planters

,with respect to the natives

and the s laves,might learn from tho se o f the Church o f Rome

how it is their interest and duty to behave. Bo th Fren ch and

Span iards have intermarried with Indians, to the great strengt h,secu rity

,and in crease

,o f their Co lon ies. They take care to

inst ruct bo th them and their n egroes in the popish religion, tothe repro ach o f tho se who pro fess a better. They have alsobisho ps and seminaries fo r clergy , and it is no t found that theirCo lon ies are wo rse subjects

,o r depen d less on theirmo ther-coun try,

o n that account.It shou ld seem

,that the like liest step towards convert ing the

heathen w ou ld be to begin with the English planters , who seinfluen ce will fo r ever be an o bstacle to propagating the go spel,till they have a right sense o f it themselves, which wo uld shewthem how much it is their duty to impart it to o thers. The

missio naries employed by this venerable So ciety have done, and

cont inue to do,go o d service

,in bringing those planters to a

serious sen se of religion,which

,it is hoped

,will in time extend

to o thers. I speak it knowingly,that the ministers o f the go spel

,

in tho se provinces which go by the name of N ew England,sent

and suppo rted at the expense o f this So ciety, have“

,by their

sobriety o f manners,discreet behaviour

,and a competent degree

o f useful knowledge,shewn themselves wo rthy the cho ice o f tho se

w ho sent them , and particularly in l iving on a mo re friendlyfo o t w ith their brethren o f the separation , who , o n their part

,

were also very much come o ff from that narrowness o f spirit

lne P r opagation of fi re Gospel. 245

wh ich fo rmerly kept them at such an unamicable distance fromus . And as there is reaso n to apprehend that part o f Americacould n o t have been thus dist inguished, and pro vided with sucha number o f pro per perso n s

,if o ne half o f them had n o t been

supplied out o f the dissent ing seminaries o f the country,w ho

,

in pro po rt ion as they attain to mo re liberal impro vements o f

learn ing, are o bserved to quit the ir prejudice towards an episco palchurch : so I verily th ink it might in crease the number o f such

useful men,if pro visio n were made to defray their charges in

comin g h ither to receive ho ly o rders -passing and repassing theo cean

,and tarrying the n ecessary t ime in Lo ndo n

,requiring an

expen se that many are n o t able to bear. It wo uld also be an

en co uragement to the missionaries in general, and probably produce go o d effects

,if the allowance o f certain missio naries were

augmented, in pro po rt io n to the services they had do ne,and the

t ime they had spent in the ir missio n . These hints I ventureto suggest, as n o t unuseful in an age wherein all human en

couragements are found mo re necessary than at the first propagatio n o f the go spe l . But they are

,with all due deferen ce and

respect,submitted to the judgment o f th is ven erable audien ce .

After all,it is hardly to be expected that

,so lo ng as Infidelity

prevai ls at home,the Christian religio n should thrive and flo urish

in our Co lo n ies abro ad. M ankind, it must be owned,left to

themselves,are so much bewildered and ben ighted with respect

to the o rigin of that evil which they feel,and from wh ich they

are at a lo ss abo ut the mean s o f being freed, that the do ctrin eso f the lapsed state o f man

,his reco nciliatio n by Christ, and

regenerat io n by the Spirit, may reaso nably be hoped to fi nd an

easy admissio n—as bringing with them l ight and comfo rt,in to

a mind n o t hardened by impen itency, n o r fo reclo sed by pride,n o r biassed by prejudice . But such is the van ity o f man that

n o prejudice o perates mo re powerfully than that in favour o f

fash ion , and n o fash io ns are so much fo llowed by o ur Co lon iesas tho se o f the mo ther-co untry, w hich they often ado pt in the irmo des o f living

,to their great inco nven ience, w ithout allowing

fo r the disparity o f circumstan ce o r c limate. This same humourhath made Infidelity (as I fi nd it to o credibly repo rted) spreadin some o f our wealthy Plantat io ns , uneducated men being mo re

246 A S ermo n p r eac/lea’ oefo r e the S ociety fo r

apt to tread in the steps o f libertines and men o f fash io n , thanto mo de l themse lves by the laws and in st itut io n s o f thei r mo therco un try

,o r the lives and pro fessio ns o f the virtuous and religious

part o f it .But this is no t all. Wh i le tho se abro ad are less dispo sed toreceive

,some at home are

,perhaps

,less dispo sed to pro pagate

the go spel, from the same cause . It is to be feared,I say, that

the prevai ling to rren t o f Infidelity,w hich staggers the faith o f

some,may co o l the z eal and damp the spirit o f o thers

,w ho

,

judging from the event and success o f tho se who impugn the

Church o f Chr ist,may po ssibly entertain some scruple o r surmise

,

w hether it may no t be,fo r the present at least

,abando ned by

Pro viden ce,and that human care must ineffectually interpo se

,

till it shall please God, yet once mo re to shake no t the earth

o n ly,but also the heavens.’ This po int had been touched befo re,

but deserves farther co nsiderat io n : to the end,that the peculiar

impiety o f a pro fane age, may n o t be a bar to tho se very endeavours

,which itself renders mo re necessary

,and calls fo r mo re

lo udly now than ever.Whatever man may think, the arm o f the Lo rd is no t sho rtened .

In all this prevalen cy o f Atheism and Irreligio n , there is n o

advantage gained by the powers o f darkness,either against God

,

o r godly men,but o n ly against their own wretched part isans.

The Christian dispensat io n,is a dispensat ion o f grace and favour.

The Christ ian Church a so ciety o f men entit led to this grace,

o n perfo rming certain co nditio ns. If th is so ciety is dimin ished,

as tho se w ho remain true members o f it suffer n o lo ss to them

selves,so Go d lo seth no right, suffereth no detriment

,fo rego eth

no go o d , his grace resisted o r unfruitful being no mo re lo stt o h im than the l ight o f the sun shin ing o n desert places

,o r

amo ng peo ple w ho shut their eyes.Besides, this excess

,th is unstemmed to rrent o f pro faneness

,

may po ssibly, in the co nclusio n,defeat itself

,co nfirm what it

meant to ext irpate,and

,instead o f destro ying

,pro ve a means

o f preserving o ur re ligio n , the evil fruits and effects thereo fbeing so no to rious and flagrant, and so sensibly felt

,as in all

l ikeliho o d to be able to o pen the eyes and rouse the attentio no f tho se w ho may be blind and deaf to every argumen t and

co nsideratio n . O r,w ho know s but the Christian Church

,co r

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248 A Sermon pr eaMea’ oefo r e Me S ociety fo r

co nvin ced that the law o f M o ses and the Jewish eco nomy werefigures and shadows o f the evangelical, w e n eed o n ly lo o k intothe Epist le to the Hebrews. Mayw e n o t therefo re

,in pursuance

o f this same analogy, suppo se a simi lar treatment o f the Jewishand Christ ian Church ?Let us then see

,o n what terms the fo rmer sto od with Go d,

in o rder to disco ver what the latter may reaso nably expect . The

so lemn denunc iat io n to the Jew s w as,

‘ If tho u shalt hearkendiligently unto the vo ice o f the Lo rd thy God, to o bserve and

to do all his commandments which I command thee th is day,that the Lo rd thyGod will set thee o n h igh abo ve all the nat io nso f the earth’ (Deut . x xviii . But

,in case o f disobedien ce

,it

is added amo ng many o ther threats and maledict ions,

‘The

Lo rd shall smite thee with blasting and w ith mi ldew : and

thy heaven that is o ver thy head shall be brass,and the earth

that is under thee shall be iro n ’

(Deut . xxviii . 22, And

again,

‘The Lo rd shall smite thee w ith madness,and blind

ness,and asto n ishment o f heart ’ (Deut . x xvii i . Have no t

the peo ple o f this land drawn down upo n it,bymo re ways than

o n e,the just judgments o f Heaven ? Surely w e have fe lt in a

metapho r the first o f the fo rement io ned judgmen ts , and the lasthath been literal ly fulfilled upo n us. Is it no t visible that w e

are less knowing, less virtuous, less reaso nable, in pro po rt io n as

w e are less re ligious ? Are w e no t grown drunk and giddy withvice

,and van ity

,and presumpt io n

,and free-thinking, and ex tra

vagance o f every kind,to a degree that w e may truly be said

to be smitten with madness,and blindness

,and asto n ishment o f

heartAs ancien t ly mo st unchristian schisms and disputes

,jo ined

with great co rruptio n o f mann ers,made w ay fo r the Mahometan

in the east,and the papal domin io n in the west , even so here

at home in the last century, a weak relian ce upo n human po liticsand pow er o n the o ne hand

,and en thusiast ic rage o n the o ther

,

together w ith carnal mindedness o n bo th,gave o ccasion to in tro

duce Atheism and Infide lity. If the tempo ral state and o utwardfo rm o f the Jewish church w as

,upon their defectio n

,o verturned by

invaders , in l ike manner,when Christ ians are no lo nger go verned

by the light o f evangelical truth, when w e resist the Spirit o f

Go d,are w e n o t to expect that ‘ the heaven above will be as

Me P r opagation of Me Gospel. 249

brass,’ that the D ivine grace will no lo nger shower down o n o ur

o bdurate hearts, that our Church and pro fessio n will be blastedby licen tious sco rners

,tho se madmen who in spo rt scatter fi re

brands, arrows, and death ? As all this is no mo re than w e mayreaso nably suppo se will ensue upo n o ur backsliding

,so w e may,

with equal reaso n,hope it will be remedied upon our return

to Go d.

From what hath been said it fo llows—that in o rder to pro pagatethe Go spe l abroad

,it is necessary w e do it at home, and extend

our charity to domestic infi dels,if w e would co nvert o r preven t

fo reign o nes. So that a view o f the declin ing state o f religionhere at home

,o f tho se th ings that pro duced this declensio n , and

o f the pro per metho ds to repair it, is naturally connected withthe subject o f this discourse. I shall therefo re beg your pat ien ce,wh i le I just ment ion a few remarks o r hints

,to o o bvio us

,perhaps,

in themse lves to be new o r unknown to any present, but to olittle visible in their effects to make o ne think they are

,byall,

much attended to .

Some,preferring po ints no tio nal o r ritual to the love o f God

and man,consider the nat io nal Church o n ly as it stands oppo sed

to o ther Chr istian so cieties. These generally have a z eal w ithoutknowledge

,and the effects are suitable to the cause , they really

hurt what they seem to espouse. O thers,mo re so licitous abo ut

the disco very o f truth than the pract ice o f ho liness, emplo y themselves rather to spy o ut erro rs in the Church than enfo rce itsprecepts. These, it is to be feared, po stpone the great interestso f re ligio n to po ints of less co ncern in any eyes but their ow n .

But sure ly theywould do well to co nsider that an humble, thoughconfused and indistinct

,faith

,in the bond o f charity

,and pro

duct ive o f go o d wo rks,is much mo re evangelical than anyaccurate

disput ing and co nceited know ledge.

A Church which contains the fundamen tals, and no thing sub

vers ive o f tho se fundamen tals,is no t to be set at nought byany

particu lar member , because it mayno t,in every po int

,perhaps

,

co rrespo nd with his ideas, no , no t though he is sure o f being inthe right . Pro bably there never w as

,o r will be

,an established

Church in this wo rld witho ut visible marks o f human ity upo n it.St.Paul suppo seth that, ‘ on the foundation of Jesus Christ there

2 50 A S ermon pr eacnea’ oefo re Me S ociety fo r

will be human superstructures o f hay and stubble ’ (1 Co r. iii .th ings light and trivia]

,wro ng o r superst it io us

,wh ich indeed is a

natural co n sequen ce o f the weakness and igno rance o fman . But

where that living fo undatio n is right ly laid in the mind, there w i llno t fai l to grow and spring from thence tho se virtues and graces,wh ich are the genuine effects and tokens o f true faith, and whichare by n o means in co n sisten t w ith every erro r in theo ry

,o r every

needless rite in wo rsh ip.The Christ ian religio n w as calculated fo r the bulk o f mankind,

and therefo re canno t reaso nably be suppo sed to co nsist in subt leand n ice no t io ns. From the t ime that divin ity w as co n sideredas a scien ce

,and human reason enthro n ed in the san ctuary o f

Go d,the hearts o f its pro fesso rs seem to have been less under

the influence o f grace. From that t ime have grown many un

christ ian dissensio ns and co ntro versies,o f men

‘kn ow ing no th ing,but do t ing about quest io ns and strifes o f w o rds

,whereo f cometh

envy,strife

,rail ings, evil surmises

,perverse disput ings o f men

o f co rrupt minds and dest itute o f truth ’ ( 1 Tim. vi. 4, Doubtless

,the making rel igio n a no tional thing hath been o f infin ite

disservice. And whereas its ho ly mysteries are rather to be re

ceived with humility o f faith,than defined and measured by the

accuracy o f human reaso n , all attempts o f th is k ind, howeverwel l intended

,have visibly fai led in the event , and

,in stead o f

reco nciling in fi dels,have

,by creat ing disputes and heats amo ng

the pro fesso rs o f Christ ian ity,given no small advantage to its

enemies.

To co nclude : if w e pro po rt io ned o ur z eal to the impo rtanceo f things if w e co uld lo ve men who se o pin io n s w e do no t

appro ve , if w e kn ew the wo rld mo re and liked it less , if w ehad a due sense o f the D ivine perfectio n and o ur ow n defects ,if o ur chief study w as the wisdom from abo ve

,described bySt.

Paul , and if,in o rder to all this

,that were do ne in places o f

educatio n which canno t be done so well o ut o f them—I say, if

these steps were taken at home,wh i le pro per measures are carry

ing o n abro ad,the one would very much fo rward :

o r facil itatethe o ther. As it is no t meant so it must no t be understo o d

,that

fo reign attempts sho uld wait fo r domestic success,but o n ly that

it is to be w ished they may co—o perate . Certain ly if a just and

rat io nal, a genuine and sin cere,a w arm and vigo rous piety, an i

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li I Ii ll If

DISCOURSE ADDRESSED TO INFIDELMATHEMATICIAN.

WHEREIN rs EXAMINED WHETHER THE OBJECT, PRINCIPLES,

INFERENCES OF THE MODERN ANALYSIS ARE MORE DISTINCTLY

CONCEIVED, OR MORE EVIDENTLY DEDUCED, THAN RELI

GIOUS MYSTERIES AND POINTS OF FAITH.

First cast o ut the beam o ut o f thine o wn eye and then shalt thou see clearly to castthe mo te o ut o f thy bro ther’s eye.’—MATT. c. vn . v. 5.

I 7 34

I O

C O N T E N T S .

Mathematicians presumed to be the great masters o f reason . Hence

an undue deference to their decisio ns w here they have no right to

decide . This o ne cause o f infi delity.

Th eir principles and metho ds to be examined w ith the same freedomw hich they assume w ith regard to the principles and mysteries o f

re ligio n . In w hat sense and how far geometry is to be allow ed an

impro vement o f the mind .

F lux io ns the great obj ect and employment o f the pro fo und geometric ians in the present age. What these flux io ns are.

M oments o r nascent increments o f flow ing quantities diffi cu lt to co n

ceive . F lux io ns o f different o rders. Seco nd and third fi ux io nsobscure mysteries.Differences, i.e. increments o r decrements in fi nite ly small, used by

fo reign mathematicians instead o f flux io ns o r ve lo cities o f nascent

and evanescent increments.

D ifferences o f vario us o rders, i.e. quantities in fi nite ly less than quantitiesinfi nite ly litt le ; and infi nitesimal parts o f infi nitesimals o f infi nite

simals, &c . w itho ut end o r limit.Mysteries in faith unjustly o bjected against by tho se who admit them

in science.

M o dern Analysts suppo sed by themsel ves to ex tend their view s evenbeyo nd in fi n ity : de luded by their ow n Species o r symbo ls.

M etho d fo r fi nding the flux io n o f a rectangle o f tw o indeterminate

I I .

J

1 2 .

1 3 .

14 .

1 5 .

quantities, shew ed to be illegitimate and false.

Imp licit deference o f mathematical men fo r the great autho r o fflux io ns.

Their earnestness rather to go o n fast and far , than to set o ut w arilyand see their w ay distinct ly.

M omentums diffi cult to comprehend. No middle quantity to be ad

mitted betw een a fi nite quantity and no thing, w itho ut admittinginfi nitesimals.

The flux io n o f anypow er o f a flow ing quantity. Lemma premised ino rder to ex amine the metho d fo r fi nding such flux io n .

The ru le fo r the flux io ns o f pow ers attained by unfair reaso ning.

The afo resaid reaso n ing farther unfo lded, and shew ed to be illogical.N0 true co nc lusio n to be just ly draw n by direct co nsequence frominco nsistent suppo sitio ns. The same rules o f right reaso n to be oh

served , w hether men argue in symbo ls o r in w o rds.

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256 CONTEN TS .

38. Flux io ns, w hether the velo cities w ith w hich infi nitesimal differences aregenerated.

39 . F lux io ns o f flux io ns o r seco nd fi ux io ns, whether to be co nceived as

velo cities o f velo cities, o r rather as ve lo cities o f the seco nd nascent

increments.40. Flux io ns co nsidered, sometimes in o ne sense, sometimes in ano ther ;

o ne w h ile in themselves, ano ther in their expo nents hence co nfusio n

and obscur ity.

4 1 . Iso cro nal increments, whether fi nite o r nascent , propo rtio nal to theirrespective velo cities.

4 2 . Time suppo sed to be divided into moments : increments generated intho se moments and ve lo cities propo rt io na l to tho se increments.

43. Flux io ns, seco nd, third, fo urth, &c ., w hat they are, how obtained, and

h ow represented . What idea o f velo city in a moment o f time and

po int o f space.

44 . Flux io ns of all o rders inco nceivable .

45 . Signs o r exponen ts co nfo unded with the flux io ns.

46 . Series o f expressio ns o r o f no tes easily co ntrived. Wh ether a series o fmere velo cities, o r o fmere nascent increments co rresponding thereunto , be as easily co nceived.

47 . Ce lerities dismissed, and instead thereof o rdinates and areas intro duced .

Analogies and expressio ns usefu l in the mo dern quadratures, mayyetbe useless fo r enabling us to co nceive flux io ns. No right to apply the

ru les w ithout knowledge o f the principles.48. M etaphysics o fmo dern Analysts mo st incomprehensible.

49. Analysts employed about no tio nal shadowy entities. Their logics as

ex ceptio nable as their metaphysics.50. Occasio n o f this address. Conc lusio n . (meries.

T H E A N A L Y S T :

A DISCOURSE ADDRESSED TO AN INFIDEL MATHE

MATICIAN 1.

1 . THOUGH I am a stranger to your perso n , yet I am no t,Sir

,

a stranger to the reputat io n yo u have acquired in that brancho f learn ing w hich hath been your peculiar study , n o r to the

autho rity that yo u therefo re assume in th ings fo reign to your professio n , n o r to the abuse that you, and to o many mo re o f the like

1 The Analyst,‘by the author o f the

M inute P bilo sopber ,’

w as fi rst published by

J .To nso n in the Strand , ’ inMarch 1 734—themo nth in w hich its autho r w as promo ted tothe bisho pric o f Cloyne , and w ithin the

perio d o f h is residence in Lo ndo n , after hisreturn from America. He w as then engaged

w ith the Free-think ers. The Analyst, ad

dressed to Dr . Halley, be longs to that dis

cussio n . It is an argumentum ad bomz’

nem,

as regards the mathematician , but virtuallyan analogical vindicatio n o f the mysteries o freligio us faith . Mathematicians, so Berk eleyargues, unreaso nablycomplain o fthe scien tifi c

incomprehensibility o f religio n—seeing that

their o w n science is itself u ltimately incomprehensible, and co n tains co nclusio ns sup

po rted by reaso nings w hich are specu lativelyinsuff icient .

The New to nian do ctrine o f Flux ions isthe ex ample o ffered by him in pro o f o f this.Flux io ns and moments, he urges, are un

representable in imaginatio n ; and the de

mo nstratio ns by w hich they are suppo rted,how ever useful in regard to the resultreached, are in a strictly scientifi c view un

satisfactory. M athematicians, in sho rt,

accept in their o w n science w hat they rejectin Christianity : flux io ns, lik e Christianity,w hen reso lved into their fi rst principles,invo lve co nceptio ns w hich transcend human

understanding ; and , as expounded by New

to n , contain reaso nings w hich canno t be

reco nciled w ith logic , although mathema

ticians are ready to receive them o n his

authority.

In his criticism Of the New tonian do ctrine,Berkeley mak es a perfectly legit imate use

VOL. I I I.

o f the w eapons affo rded him by the ill

defi ned gro undw ork o f the metho d as he

fo und it . M r . D e M o rgan , indeed , in his

paper o n the Early Histo ry of lnfi n z'

tesimals

in England , maintains that New to n’

s do c

trine w as diff erent at diff erent perio ds ;that up to 1704 he used in fi nitely smallquantities , that in that year, in his Q to

dr atur a Curvarum, he reno unced the ln

fi nitely small quantity, but in a mannerw hich w o uld lead o ne to suppo se he had

never held it that Berk eley,in theAnalyst,

co u ld no t , o r w o uld n o t , see that the

New to n o f 1687 and the N ew to n o f 1704w ere o f tw o differen t mo des o f tho ught ;and that he accordingly arrays the in fi nitelysmall moments o f the P r incipia ,

and theirrejectio n in compariso n o f

‘fi nite quantities,

against the declarat io n o f the Q t adratura

Curr/d r um, that the smallest po ssible errorsmust no t be neglected .

The reaso nings in the Analyst w ere fo reshado w ed in the P r inciples of Human

Knowledge ( sect . 1 23 almo st a

quarter o f acentury before . The discussio n

o f the functio n o f language in relatio n to

general ideas, in the ‘ Intro ductio n ’to the

P r inciples , and in relatio n to the mysterieso f faith , in Alcipbr on ,

Dial . VII., may be

compared w ith the fo llo w ing tract .The publicat io n o f the Analyst w as the

signal fo r a mathematico -metaphysical o rmathemat ico -theo lo gical co n tro versy which

lasted fo r years, w hich gave rise to morethan thirty pamphlets and artic les, and in

w hich some o f the chief British mathema

ticians o f the time w ere invo lved. (Cf. pp.

30 1—302 , no te .)

2 58 me A nalyst :

character,are know n to make o f such undue autho rity, to the

misleading o f unw ary perso n s in matters o f the h ighest co n cernment

,and w hereo f yo ur mathemat ical know ledge can by n o mean s

qualify yo u to be a competen t judge. Equity indeed and go o dsen se w o u ld in c line o ne to disregard the

‘ judgmen t o f men,in

po in ts w hich they have no t co n s idered o r examined . But severalw ho make the loudest c laim to tho se qualit ies do n everthelessthe very thing they w ou ld seem to despise

,clo th ing themse lves

in the livery o f o ther men’

s o pin io n s,and putting o n a general

deferen ce fo r the judgmen t o f yo u, Gent lemen,w ho are presumed

to be o f allmen the greatest masters o f reaso n,to be mo st co n

versant abo ut dist inct ideas,an d never to take th ings upo n trust

,

but alw ays clearly to see yo ur w ay, as men who se co nstant em

plo yment is the deducing truth by the justest inference from the

mo st eviden t prin ciples. With th is bias o n their minds,they

submit to your dec isio n s w here yo u have no right to decide . And

that th is is o ne sho rt w ay o f making In fi dels, I am credibly ihfo rmed .2 . Whereas then it is suppo sed that yo u apprehend mo re dis

t in ctly, co nsider mo re clo sely, infer mo re just ly, and co ncludemo re accurate ly than o ther men

,and that you are therefo re less

re ligious because mo re judicious , I shal l claim the privilege o f

a Free-th inker , and take the liberty to inquire in to the o bject,

principles,a nd metho d o f demo nstratio n admitted by the mathe

maticians o f the present age, w ith the same freedom that you

presume to treat the principles and mysteries o f Religio n ; to theend that all men may see w hat right yo u have to lead

,o r w hat

en co uragement o thers have to fo llo w you . It hath been an o ld

remark , that Geomet ry is an exce llen t Logi c. And it must beo w ned that when the defin itio ns are clear ; w hen the po stu latacanno t be refused , no r the ax ioms den ied , w hen from the distinctco ntemplat io n and compariso n o f figures, their pro perties are

derived, bya perpetual w ell-co nnected chain o f co n sequences,the

o bjects be ing sti ll kept in V iew,and the attent io n ever fixed upon

them ; there is acquired a habit o f reaso n ing, clo se and exact andmetho dical—w h ich habit strengthens and sharpens the mind

,and

be ing transferred to o ther subjects is o f general use in the inquiryafter t ruth . But ho w far th is is the case o f o ur geometrical analysts,i t may be w o rth w h ile to co n sider .

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2 60“ T/ie A nalyst

percept io n o f o bjects extreme ly m inute,even so the Imaginatio n ,

w h ich facu lty derives from sen se,is very much strained and

pu z z led to frame c lear ideas o f the least part icles o f t ime,o r the

least incremen ts generated therein : and much mo re so to com

prehend the moments,o r tho se incremen ts o f the flowing quan

t it ies in statu narcen t z’

,in thei r very first o rigin o r beginn ing to

exist,befo re they become fin ite part ic les. And it seems sti ll mo re

diffi cult to co n ceive the abstracted ve lo cities o f such nascent

imperfect en tit ies. But the ve lo cit ies o f the velo cit ies—the seco nd,th i rd

,fourth

,and fifth ve lo c it ies, Sta—ex ceed

,if I mistake no t

,

all human understanding. The further the mind analyseth and

pursueth these fugitive ideas the mo re it is lo st and bewildered ,the o bjects

,at first fleet ing and minute

,soo n van ishing out o f

sight . Certain ly, in any sen se,a seco nd o r th i rd fluxio n seems

an o bscure M ystery. The incipient ce lerity o f an incipientcelerity, the nascent augment o f a nascen t augment

,z'

. e. o f a

th ing wh ich hath n o magn itude—take it in what light you please,the c lear co ncept io n o f it w i ll

,if I mistake n o t

,be fo und impo s

sible , w hether it be so o r no I appeal to the t rial o f every th inkingreader. And if a seco nd fluxion be inco n ce ivable

,w hat are w e to

think o f thi rd,fo urth

,fifth flux io ns

,and so o n w itho ut end P

5 . The fo re ign mathemat ician s are suppo sed by some,even o f

o ur ow n, to pro ceed in a manner less accurate

,perhaps

,and

geometrical, yet mo re in telligible. In stead o f flow ing quant ities

and the ir flux io n s,they co nsider the variable fin ite quantities as

increasing o r dimin ish ing by the co n t inual additio n o r subductio no f infin ite ly small quant it ies. Instead o f the velo cit ies w herewithincrements are gen erated, they co nsider the in cremen ts o r de

cremen ts themse lves,w h ich they call differen ces

,and wh ich are

suppo sed to be infin itely small . The difference o f a line is an

infin itely l itt le line , o f a plane an infin ite ly litt le plane. Theysuppo se fin ite quant it ies to co nsist o f parts infin ite ly litt le

,and

curves to be po lygo n s, w hereo f the sides are infin ite ly litt le,wh ich

by the angles they make o ne with ano ther determin e the curvityo f the line. N ow to co nceive a quant ity infin itely small—thatis, infin itely less than any sen sible o r imaginable quantity, o r any

the least fi n ite magn itude—is, I co nfess, abo ve my capacity. Butto co n ceive a part o f such infin itely small quantity that shall best ill infin ite ly less than it

,and co nsequen t ly tho ugh mult iplied

Addr essed to an I nfidel 26 1

infin itely shall never equal the minutest fin ite quantity,is,I

suspect , an infin ite diffi culty to anyman whatso ever , and will beal lo w ed such by tho se w ho candidly saywhat they think ; providedthey really think and reflect

,and do n o t take things upo n trust.

6. And yet in the calculus which metho d serves to allthe same inten ts and ends w ith that o fflux io ns

,our mo dern analysts

are no t co nten t to co nsider o n ly the differen ces of fin ite quant it iesthey also co nsider the differen ces o f tho se differences, and the differences o f the differen ces o f the first differences : and so o n ad

infi n itum. That is,they co nsider quant ities infin itely less than the

least discern ible quantity , and o thers infinitely less than tho se ih

fin itely smal l o nes , and st i ll o thers infin itely less than the precedinginfi nitesimals

,and so o n w itho ut end o r limit. Insomuch that w e

are to admit an infin ite successio n o f infi nitesimals, each infin itelyless than the fo rego ing

,and infin ite ly greater than the fo llowing.

As there are first, seco nd, third, fo urth, fifth, 8Cc. fluxio ns

,so there

are differen ces,first

,seco nd

,th ird

,fo urth

,& c. in an infin ite pro

gressio n tow ards no th ing,w h ich you sti ll appro ach and n ever

arrive at . And (which is mo st strange) although you shou ld takea millio n o f millions o f these in fi n itesimals, each whereo f issuppo sed infin itely greater than some o ther real magn itude , and

add them to the least given quan t ity,it shall never be the bigger.

Fo r th is is o ne o f the mo dest postulata o f our mo de rn mathe

mat ician s,and is a co rner-sto n e o r ground-wo rk o f thei r specu

latio ns.

7 . All these po ints,I say, are suppo sed and believed by certain

rigo rous ex acto rs o f eviden ce in religio n, men w ho pretend to

believe no further than they can see . That men w ho have beenco nversan t o n ly about clear po ints should w ith diffi culty admito bscure o nes might no t seem altogether unaccountable . But he

w ho can digest a seco nd o r th ird fluxio n , a seco nd o r th ird differen ce

,n eed no t

,methinks

,be squeamish about any po in t in

D ivin ity. There is a natural presumptio n that men’s facult ies are

made alike. It is o n th is suppo sit io n that they attempt to argueand co nvin ce o ne ano ther. What therefo re shall appear eviden t lyimpo ssible and repugnant to o n e may be presumed the same to

ano ther. But with what appearance o f reaso n shall anyman presume to say that mysteries may no t be o bjects of faith

,at the

26 2 Tne A nalyst

same t ime that he h imse lf admits such obscure mysteries to bethe o bject o f scien ce P8 . It must indeed be ackn owledged the mo dern mathemat ician s

do n o t co n sider these po ints as mysteries, but as clearly co nceivedand mastered by thei r comprehensive minds. They scruple n o t

to say that by the help o f these n ew analyt ics they can penetrateinto in fin ity itse lf : that they can even extend thei r views beyo ndinfin ity that thei r art comprehends no t o n ly infin ite

,but infin ite

of infin ite (as they express it), o r an in fin ity o f infi n ites. But,

no twithstanding all these assertio ns and pretensio n s,it may be

just ly quest io n ed w hether,as o ther men in o ther inquiries are o ften

deceived bywo rds o r terms,so they likewise are n o t w o nderful ly

dece ived and de luded by their ow n peculiar signs,symbo ls

,o r

spec ies. N o thing is easier than to devise expressions o r no ta

t io n s fo r fluxio ns and in fi nitesimals o f the first,seco nd

,third

,

fo urth,and subsequent o rders

,pro ceeding in the same regular

fo rm without end o r limit as. x . x . ac d c. o r dx . ddx . dddx . ddda’x . (t r.

These expressio ns,indeed

,are clear and dist inct

,and the mind

finds no diffi culty in co nceiving them to be co ntinued beyond anyassignable bo unds. But if w e remove the vei l and lo ok undern eath

,if,laying aside the expressio n s

,w e set o urselves attentively

to co nsider the th ings themselves wh ich are suppo sed to be ex

pressed o r marked thereby,w e shall disco ver much empt iness

,

darkn ess,and co n fusio n , nay, if I mistake n o t

,direct impo ssibi

lities and co ntradict io ns. Whether th is be the case o r no,every

th ink ing reader is en treated to examin e and judge fo r h imself.

9. Having co n sidered the o bject,I pro ceed to co nsider the

prin ciples o f this new analysis by momentums,fluxio ns

,o r ih

fi n itesimals , wherein if it shall appear that your capital po ints,

upo n wh ich the rest are suppo sed to depend,include erro r and

false reaso n ing , it w i ll then fo llow that yo u, w ho are at a lo ssto co nduct yourselves

,cann o t w ith any decen cy set up fo r guides

to o ther men . The main po int in the metho d o f flux io ns is too btain the fi ux io n o r momentum o f the rectangle o r pro duct o f

tw o in termediate quantit ies. Inasmuch as from thence are de

rived rules fo r o btain ing the fi ux io ns o f all o ther pro ducts and

po w ers , be the co effic ien ts o r the‘ index es w hat they w i ll

,integers

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2 64 Ti mAnalyst

o f a t canno t be o btained by legit imate reaso n ing. If a man,

bymetho ds n o t geometrical o r demo nstrat ive, shall have sat isfiedh imse lf o f the usefu lness o f certain rules , w hich he afterw ardsshall pro po se to his disciples fo r undoubted truths ; which he undertakes to demo nstrate in a subt le mann er

,and by the he lp o f n ice

and intricate n o t io n s , it is no t hard to co nceive that such hisdisciples may, to save themse lves the t rouble o f th inking, he inclined to co nfound the usefulness o f a rule with the certaintyo f a truth

,and accept the o ne fo r the o ther , espec ial ly if they

are men accustomed rather to compute than to th ink , earnestrather to go o n fast and far

,than so licito us to set o ut warily and

see their w ay distinct ly.1 1 . The po ints o r mere l imits o f nascen t lines are undoubtedly

equal,as having n o mo re magn itude o ne than ano ther

,a limit

as such being n o quantity. If by a momentum yo u mean mo rethan the very init ial limit

,it must be e ither a fin ite quant ity o r an

infin itesimal . But all finite quan t it ies are express ly exc luded fromthe n o t io n o f a momen tum. Therefo re the momentum must be

an infin itesimal . And,indeed

,tho ugh much art ifice hath been

emplo yed to escape o r avo id the admissio n o f quantities infinite lysmall

, yet it seems ineffectual. Fo r aught I see, yo u can admitno quant ity as a medium between a fin ite quantity and no thing,w ithout admitting in fi n itesimals. An increment generated ina fin ite part icle o f t ime is itse lf a fin ite particle , and canno ttherefo re be a momentum. Yo u must therefo re take an infi ni

tesimal part o f t ime wherein to generate your momentum. It

is said,the magn itude o fmoments is n o t co nsidered , and yet these

same momen ts are suppo sed to be divided into parts. This is no teasy to co nceive

,n o mo re than it is w hyw e sho uld take quant ities

less than A and B in o rder to obtain the increment o f AB,o fwhich

pro ceeding it must be own ed the fi nal cause o r mo tive is o bvious ,but it is no t so o bvious o r easy to explain a just and legitimatereaso n fo r it

,o r show it to be geometrical.

12 . From the fo rego ing principle, so demo nstrated, the generalru le fo r finding the flux io n o f any power o f a flow ing quant ityis der ived 5 . But

,as there seems to have been some inw ard

scruple o r co n sc iousness o f defect in the fo rego ing demo nstrat io n,and as th is finding the flux io n o f a given pow er is a po int of

5[Philosophie N aturalis P r incipia Mathematica, lib. II. lem.

Addr essed to an I nfidel JlIatfi ematz'

ez

'

an . 265

primary impo rtan ce,it hath therefo re been judged pro per to

demonst rate th e same in a differen t manner,independen t o f the

fo rego ing demo nstrat io n . But whether th is o ther metho d be mo relegitimate and co nc lusive than the fo rmer

,I pro ceed n ow to ex

amin e , and in o rder thereto shal l premise the fo llow ing lemma‘ If

,with a view to demo n strate any pro po sitio n, a certain po in t

is suppo sed,by virtue o f w h ich certain o ther po ints are attain ed ,

and such suppo sed po int he itself afterw ards destro yed o r re

jected by a co n trary suppo sit io n , in that case, all the o ther po intsattained thereby

,and co nsequent thereupon

,must also be de

stro yed and rejected,so as from then cefo rw ard to be no mo re

suppo sed o r applied in the demo n strat io n .

’ This is so plain as

to need n o pro o f.13. N ow

,the o ther metho d o f obtain ing a rule to fi nd the

flux io n o f any pow er is as fo llows. Let the quant ity or flow

un ifo rmly,and be it pro po sed to fi nd the fluxio n o f x

". In the

same t ime that x by flow ing becomes x + 0,the power x ” becomes

as+ 0 l i.e. by t he method o f infin ite series7272—71

x”

natty”- 1 2 860

,2

and the in crementso and n ox

” ‘ 1+ omen

—2+ &C.

are one to ano ther asnn—n

I to nx"‘ 1

+ earn—2 & c.

2

Let now the in crements van ish,and their last pro po rtio n will

be 1 to nxn—l

. But it should seem that this reaso n ing is no t

fair o r co nclusive . Fo r when it is said,let the in crements van ish

,

i.e. let the increments be no thing, o r let there be no in crements,

the fo rmer suppo sit io n that the incremen ts w ere something, o r

that there were increments,is destro yed

,and yet a co n sequen ce

o f that suppo sitio n,t.e. an expressio n go t by virtue thereo f

,is

retained. Wh ich,by the fo rego ing lemma, is a false w ay o f

reason ing. Certain ly when w e suppo se the incremen ts to van ish,

w e must suppo se their pro po rt io n s,their expressio n s

,and every

thing else derived from the suppo sit io n o f their existence,to

van ish w ith them.

14 . To make this po in t plain er,I shall unfo ld the reason ing

,

and pro po se it in a ful ler light to your view. It amo unts therefo re

2 66 T/z e Analyst :

to this,o r mayin o ther wo rds be thus expressed. I suppo se that

the quan t ity 3: flows,and by flow ing is in creased, and its in

crement I call a, so that by flow ing it becomes x + o . And as

x increaseth,it fo llows that every powe r o f x is likewise increased

in a due pro po rtio n . Therefo re as x becomes so o,x"w i ll become

x + o that is,acco rding to the metho d o f infin ite series,

7272 71

x”

nox"—1 & c.

And if from the tw o augmen ted quan tit ies w e subduct the ro o tand the power respectively

,w e shall have remain ing the tw o

incremen ts,to w it

,

nn n

0 and n ox”—1

oox"" 2 8 m.

2

w h ich increments,being bo th divided by the commo n diviso r a,

yie ld the quo tien ts7271—71

1 and mat- 1

+2

w hich are therefo re expo nents o f the ratio of the increments.Hitherto I have suppo sed that x flows

,that x hath a real incre

ment,that a is someth ing. And I have pro ceeded allalo ng on that

suppo sition,without which I sho uld no t have been able to have

made so much as o ne single step. From that suppo sition it is

that I get at the incremen t o f x",that I am able to compare it

w ith the incremen t o f x,and that I fi nd the pro po rtio n between

the tw o increments. I now beg leave to make a new suppo sitio nco ntrary to the first, i.e. I w ill suppo se that there is no increment

o f x,o r that 0 is no thing , wh ich seco nd suppo sit io n dest roys my

first,and is inco ns istent w ith it

,and therefo re with everything

that suppo seth it. I do n evertheless beg leave to retain mar—1,which is an expression o btain ed in virtue o f myfirst suppo sit ion,w hich necessarily presuppo sed such suppo sitio n

,and which co uld

n o t be obtained without it. All which seems a mo st inco nsistentw ay o f arguing, and such as w ould n o t be allowed o f in Divin ity.

15 . N o thing is plainer than that no just co nclusio n can be

directly drawn from tw o in co nsistent suppo sitio ns. You mayindeed suppo se anything po ssible , but afterwards you may n o t

suppo se anything that dest ro ys w hat yo u first suppo sed : o r, if

yo u do, you must begin de n ow . If therefo re yo u suppo se that

the augments van ish , i.e. that there are no augments, you are to

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2 68 The Analys t

in any o ther o f w hich , I believe, men wo uld hardly admit sucha reaso n ing as th is

,wh ich in mathematics is accepted fo r demo n

stratio n .

1 7 . It may no t be amiss to o bserve that the metho d fo r findingthe flux io n o f a rectangle o f tw o flowing quan t it ies, as it is set

fo rth in the Treat ise o f (madi atures,differs from the abo ve

ment io ned taken from the seco nd bo o k o f the Principles,and is

in effect the same with that used in the calculus dif eren t z’

alz’

s fi . Fo r

the suppo sing a quant ity infin itely dimin ished, and therefo re re

jecting it, is in effect the reject ing an infi n itesimal , and indeedit requires a marve llo us sharpness o f discernmen t to be able to

distinguish betw een evanescen t incremen ts and infinitesimal differences. It mayperhaps be said that the quant ity being infin ite lydimin ished becomes n o thing, and so no thing is rejected. But

,

acco rding to the received principles,it is eviden t that no geo

metrical quantity can by any divisio n o r subdivisio n whatso everbe exhausted

,o r reduced to no thing. Co n sidering the vario us

arts and devices used bythe great autho r o f the flux ionarymetho d ,in how many lights he placeth h is flux io n s and in w hat differentw ays he attempts to demo nstrate the same po in t , o ne w o uld beinc lined to th ink

,he w as h imself suspic ious o f the justness o f his

ow n demo nstrat io n s,and that he w as n o t en ough pleased with

any no t io n steadily to adhere to it . Thus much at least is plain,

that he ow ned h imself sat isfied co ncern ing certain po in ts w hichnevertheless he wou ld n o t undertake to demo n strate to o thers 7 .Whether th is sat isfactio n aro se from ten tative methods o r in

ductio n s,which have o ften been admitted by mathematicians

(fo r instan ce, by D r . Wallis,in his Arithmet ic o f In fi nites), is

w hat I shall no t pretend to determine . But,w hatever the case

might have been w ith respect to the autho r,it appears that his

fo l low ers have show n themse lves mo re eager in applying hismetho d

,than accurate in examin ing his prin ciples.

18. It is curio us to o bserve w hat subtlety and ski ll this greatgen ius emplo ys to struggle with an in superable diffi culty , and

thro ugh what labyrin ths he endeavours to escape the do ctrineo f in fi n itesimals , w h ich as it in trudes upo n him whether he willo r n o

,so it is admitted and embraced by o thers witho ut the least

6

[Analyse des Infi n iment P etits, Part I. 7

[See Letter to Co l lins, N o v . 8,pro p .

—AUTH0R . The New to n o f the —Au'r n o n . John Co l lins, the mathema

Q tadratura ( 1 704) differs from the New to n tician,born 16 24 , died 1683 .

o f the P r incipia

Addr essed to an I nfidel 2 69

repugnance —Le ibn it’z . and his fo llow ers in their calculus diflrerentlalis mak ing no manner o f scruple

,first to suppo se

,and seco ndly

to reject,quant ities infin ite ly small , with what clearness in the

apprehen sio n and justness in the reaso n ing, any thinking man ,w ho is no t prejudiced in favo ur o f tho se th ings, may easily discern .

The no t io n o r idea o f an infi n itesimal quan tity, as it is an o bjectsimply apprehended by the mind, hath been already co nsidered 8 .I sha ll n ow o n ly observe as to the metho d o f gett ing rid o f suchquant it ies

,that it is do ne w itho ut the least ceremo ny. As in

flux io ns the po in t o f first impo rtance,and w h ich paves the w ay

to the rest,is to fi nd the flux io n o f a pro duct o f tw o indeterm inate

quant it ies,so in the calculus dif eren tiulis (w h ich metho d is sup

po sed to have been bo rrowed from the fo rmer with some smallalterat io ns) the main po in t is to o btain the differen ce o f such

pro duct . N ow the ru le fo r this is go t by rejecting the pro ducto r rectangle o f the differen ces. And in gen eral it is suppo sed thatno quan t ity is bigger o r lesser fo r the addit ion o r subduct io n o f

its infin itesimal : and that co nsequen t ly n o erro r can arise fromsuch reject io n o f in fi nitesimals.

19. And yet it should seem that,w hatever erro rs are admitted

in the premises,pro po rt io nal erro rs o ught to be apprehended in

the co nclusio n,be they fin ite o r infin itesimal : and that therefo re

the duplfi eia o f geometry requires no thing should be neglected o r

rejected. In an sw er to this yo u will perhaps say, that the co n

elusio ns are accurate ly true,and that therefo re the principles and

metho ds from whence they are derived must be so to o . But this

inverted w ayo f demo nstrat ing yo ur principles by your co nclus io n s,as it w ould be peculiar to you gent lemen , so it is co ntrary tothe ru les o f logic. The truth o f the co nc lusio n w i ll n o t pro veeither the fo rm o r the matter o f a syllogism to be true , inasmuchas the i llat io n might have been w ro ng o r the premises false, andthe co nc lusio n neverthe less true

,tho ugh n o t in virtue o f such

i llat io n o r o f such premises . I say that in every o ther scien cemen pro ve the ir co nc lusio n s by the ir principles

,and n o t their

prin c iples by the co n c lusio ns. But if in yo urs you sho uld al lowyo urselves th is unnatural w ayo f pro ceeding, the co nsequence wo uldbe that you must take up w ith Inductio n , and bid adieu to Demo n

stratio n . And if you submit to this,yo ur autho rity w i ll n o lo nger

lead the way in po in ts o f Reaso n and Science .

3[Sect

'

5 and —AUTHOR.

2 70 Tne Analyst

20 . I have no co ntro versy about yo ur co nclusio ns, but o n lyabo ut your logic and metho d ho w yo u demo nstrate Pw hat o bjectsyo u are co nversant w ith

,and w hether yo u co nce ive them clearly ?

what prin ciples yo u pro ceed upo n , how sound they maybe , andhow yo u apply them ? It must be remembered that I am no t

co ncern ed about the truth o f yo ur theo rems, but o nly abo ut thew ay o f coming at them , whether it be legit imate o r illegitimate,clear o r obscure

,scien t ific o r tentative. To prevent all po ssibility

o f your mistaking me,I beg leave to repeat and insist

,that I

co n sider the geomet rical analyst as a logician, i.e. so far fo rth

as he reaso n s and argues , and his mathematical co nc lusio ns, no tin themse lves

,but in their premises , no t as true o r false

,useful

o r insign ifican t , but as derived from such prin ciples,and by such

in ferences. And,fo rasmuch as it mayperhaps seem an unacco unt

able parado x that mathemat ic ians sho uld deduce true propo sitio nsfrom false principles

,be right in the co n clusio n and yet err in

the premises , I shall endeavo ur part icularly to explain why thismay come to pass

,and show how erro r may bring fo rth truth,

tho ugh it can no t bring fo rth science.

2 1 . In o rder therefo re to clear up this po int, w e w i ll supposefo r instan ce that a tangen t is to be draw n to a parabo la

,and

examine the progress o f th is affair as it is perfo rmed byinfin itesimald ifferences. Let AB be a curve

,the abscisse AP : x

,the o rdi

nate PB z y, the difference o f the

abscisse PM —dx,the difference

o f the o rdinate RN : dy. N ow,

by suppo sing the curve to be a

po lygo n , and co nsequent ly BN,

the increment o r difference o f

the curve,to be a straight l ine

co inc iden t w ith the tangent, andthe different ial triangle ERN to

be s imilar to the triangle TPE,

the subtangent PT is fo und a

fo urth pro po rt ional to RN RB

PB : that is,to dy dx y.

Hence the subtangen t will beydx

7. But herei n there is an

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Th e A n a lyst2 7 2

and because y} = Px >JP

!w ill be equal t o x . Therefo re subst ituting

th ese values in st ead o f m and or w e shall have

2 x 277?

2yn + nn

w h ich being reduced givesn n dydy

2y 2y

23. N o w,I o bserve

,in the first place

,that the co nclusion comes

o ut right , n o t because the rejected square o f dy w as infinitelysmall

,but because this erro r w as compensated by ano ther co ntrary

and equal erro r. I o bserve,in the seco nd place

,that w hatever is

rejected,be it ever so smal l

,if it be real

,and co nsequently makes

a real erro r in the premises,it will pro duce a pro po rtio nal real

erro r in the co nclusio n . Yo ur theo rems therefo re canno t be accurately true, no r yo ur problems accurately so lved

,in virtue of

premises which themselves are no t accurate , it being a rule inlo gic that conclusio sequitur partem deéiliorem. Therefo re

,I observe

,

in the th ird place,that when the conclusio n is evident and the

premises o bscure,o r the co nclusio n accurate and the premises

inaccurate,w e may safely pro nounce that such co nclusion is

n e ither evident n o r accurate,in virtue o f tho se o bscure inaccurate

premises o r prin ciples , but in virtue o f some o ther principles,

w h ich perhaps the demo nstrato r himself never knew o r thought of.

I o bserve,in the last place

,that ' in case the differences are sup

po sed fin ite quantities ever so great, the conclusio n will nevertheless come o ut the same : inasmuch as the rejected quant itiesare legitimately thro w n o ut

,no t fo r thei r smallness

,but for

an o ther reaso n,to w it

,because o f co ntrary erro rs

,which

,destroy

ing each o the r,do

,upo n the who le

,cause that no thing is really,

tho ugh something is apparent ly,thrown out . And this reason

h o lds equally w ith respect to quant ities fin ite as well as infin lt esimal

, great as w e l l as small,a fo o t o r a yard lo ng as well as

the min utest in cremen t .

in iiiofif;t

lie

liuuer illust rat io n o f this po in t

,I shal l co nsider it

e lus io n’ I Sh al

g

l

l

gni‘mc

t

l

h

pro ce ed ing in fi n ite quan t it ies to the con

Y en mak e use o f o n e in fi n itesimal. Suppose

n + z .

Addr essed to an I nfidel M attz ematz’

ez'

an . 2 73

the straight line M g’Lcuts the curve AT in the po ints R and 8.

Suppose LR a tangent at the po int R,AN the abscisse

,

and OS o rdinates. Let AN be pro duced to O,and RP be

drawn paral lel to N O. Suppo se AN x,NR y, N O 11

,PS z

,

the subsecant M N s. Let the equat ion y= x x express the

nature o f the curve : and suppo sing y and as increased by theirfin ite in crements w e get whence the

fo rmer equat io n being subducted,there remains z = 2v fu 'u.

And by reaso n o f simi lar triangles

27,

wherein if fo r y and it w e substitute their values,we get

wx x x x

2 x v w 2 at+ 1:

And suppo sing NO to be infin itely dimin ished,the subsecant NM

will in that case co incide with the subtangen t NL , and u as an

infin itesimal maybe rejected, w hence it fo llows thatat:

2 x 2

which is the true value o f the subtangent. And,since this w as

o btained by o ne o n ly erro r,5. e. by o nce eject ing one on ly infi

n itesimal,it should seem

,co ntrary to what hath been said

,that

an infin itesimal quantity o r differen ce maybe neglected o r thrownaway

,and the conclusio n nevertheless be accurately true

,although

there was no double mistake o r rectifying of o ne erro r by another,

VOL. III. T

2 74 The A nalyst

as in the first case. But,if th is po int be tho rough ly co n sidered,

w e shall fi nd there is even here a double mistake, and that o ne

compen sates o r rectifi es the o ther. Fo r,in the first place, it was

suppo sed that when N O is infin ite ly dimin ished o r becomes an

infin itesimal then the subsecant N M becomes equal to the sub

tangen t N L . But th is is a plain mistake , fo r it is eviden t thatas a secant canno t be a tangent, so a subsecant canno t be a sub

tangent . Be the difference ever so small, yet st ill there is a

differen ce. And,if N O be in fin ite ly small, there will even then

be an infin itely small difference between NM and N L . Therefo reNM o r S w as to o little fo r yo ur suppo sit io n (when you suppo sed itequal to N L) , and this erro r w as compensated by a seco nd erro rin thro w ing out w

,which last erro r made s bigger than its true

value,and in lieu thereo f gave the value o f the subtangent. This

is the t rue state o f the case,however it maybe disguised. And

to this in reality it amounts,and is at bo ttom the same thing, if

w e sho uld pretend to fi nd the subtangent by having first found,from th e equatio n o f the curve and simi lar triangles, a generalexpressio n fo r all subsecants

,and then reducing the subtangent

under this general rule,by co nsidering it as the subsecant when u

van ishes o r becomes no thing .

25 . Upon the who le I o bserve,First

,that re can never be

n o thing, so lo ng as there is a secant . Seco ndly,that the same

lin e cann o t be bo th tangen t and secan t. Thirdly,that when 'v or

N O 9 van isheth,PS and SR do also van ish

,and with them the

pro po rt io nality o f the similar trian gles. Co nsequent ly the who leexpress io n , w h ich was o btained by means thereo f and groundedthereupo n , van isheth when fu van isheth. Fourth ly

,that the me

tho d fo r finding secants o r the expression o f secants, be it ever sogen eral, canno t in commo n sense ex tend anyfarther than to all

secan ts whatso ever : and,as it n ecessarily suppo sed simi lar tri

angles, it canno t be suppo sed to take place where there are not

similar t rian gles. Fifthly, that the subsecant will always be lessthan the subtangent, and can n ever co in cide with it , whichco inciden ce to suppo se wou ld be absurd , fo r it would be suppo sing the same line at the same t ime to cut and no t to cut

ano ther given lin e , which is a man ifest co ntradictio n,such as

[See the forego ing fi gure.]—AU'r x-10R.

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2 76 me Analyst :

there is no in cremen t,un less w e reject at the same time with

the in crement itself every co nsequence o f such increment, i. e.whatso ever co uld n o t be o btained by suppo sing such increment.It must nevertheless be acknowledged that the pro blem is rightlyso lved

,and the co n clusion true

,to wh ich w e are led by this

metho d. It will therefo re be asked, how comes it to pass thatthe throwing out o is attended with no erro r in the co nclusion ?I answer

,the true reaso n hereo f is plain ly th is : because g being

un it, go is equal to o : and therefo re

ax + a

the equal quantit ies go and 0 being destro yed by contrarysigns.27 . As

,o n the o ne hand, it were absurd to get rid o f o by

saying, Let me cont radict myself, let me subvert my own hypothesis , let me take it fo r granted that there is no increment

,at

the same time that I retain a quantity which I could never havego t at but byassuming an in cremen t : so

,o n the o ther hand

,it

would be equally wro ng to imagine that in a geometrical demonstratio n w e maybe allowed to admit any erro r

,though ever so

small, o r that it is possible, in the nature o f things, an accurate

conclusion sho uld be derived from inaccurate principles. Therefo re 0 canno t be thrown out as an infin itesimal

,o r upo n the

principle that infi n itesimals may be safely n eglected , but o nlybecause it is destro yed by an equal quant ity with a negative sign

,

when ce o—po is equal to n o thing. And as it is i llegitimate toreduce an equat ion

,by subducting from o ne side a quantity when

it is no t to be destroyed,o r when an equal quantity is no t sub

ducted from the o ther side o f the equat io n : so it must be alloweda very lo gical and just metho d o f arguing to co nclude that if fromequals e ither no thing o r equal quant ities are subducted they shallstil l remain equal. And this is a true reaso n why no erro r is atlast pro duced by the rejecting o f 0. Which therefo re must notbe ascribed to the do ctrine o f differen ces

,o r infi n itesimals

,0r

evanescen t quantities,o r momentums

,o r flux io ns.

28. Suppo se the case to be general,and that x “ is equal to the

area ABC, when ce by the metho d o f flux ions the o rdinate is found,nx

n - l,w h ich w e admit fo r true, and shall inquire how it is arrived

at. N ow if w e are content to come at the co nclusion in a summary w ay, by suppo sing that the ratio o f the fluxions o f x and x

"

Addr essed to an I nfidel 2 7 7

is found 11 to be 1 and nxn r l

,and that the o rdinate o f the area is

co nsidered as its flux ion,w e shal l no t so clearly see our w ay, o r

perceive how the truth comes out—that metho d as w e haveshewed befo re being o bscure and illogical. But if w e fairlydelineate the area and its in cremen t

,and divide the latter into

tw o parts BCFD and CFH 19,and pro ceed regular ly by equatio n s

between the algebraical and geometrical quant it ies,the reaso n o f

the thing will plain ly appear. Fo r,as x

" is equal to the areaABC

,so is the increment o f or

"equal to the in crement o f the

area,i. e. to BDHC that is to say

nox’“ 1

7l

2

_

&c. BDFC CFH .

And o n ly the first members o n each side o f the equat io n beingretained

,nox

n ‘ lz BDFC : and dividing bo th sides by0 o r BD

,w e

shall get nx"—1—BC. Admitting therefo re that the curvilinear

space CFH is equal to the rejectaneous quan tity7272—72

w arn- 2+ & C.

,

and that when th is is rejected o n o ne side,that is rejected o n the

o ther,the reaso nmg becomes just and the co n clusion true. And it

is all o ne whatever magn itude yo u al low to BD ,w hether that o f

an infin itesimal differen ce o r a fin ite inc rement ever so great . It

is therefo re plain that the suppo sing the rejectan eous algebraicalquantity to be an infin itely small o r evan escent quantity, and

therefo re to be n eglected, must have pro duced an erro r,had it

n o t been fo r the curvilinear spaces being equal thereto , and at

the same time subducted from the o ther part o r side o f the equat io n

,agreeably to the axiom

,If from aguals you suéduct eguals, the

remainders w ill ée egual. Fo r tho se quantit ies wh ich by the ana

lysts are said to be n eglected, o r made to van ish,are in reality

subducted. If therefo re the co n clusion be true,it is abso lutely

necessary that the fin ite space CFH be equal to the remainder o fthe increment expressed by

” 72

2

—71

aan” " z SCC.

equal,I say, to the fin ite remainder o f a fin ite increment .

29. Therefo re,be the power what you please, there will arise

o n o ne side an algebraical expressio n,o n the o ther a geometrical

1'[Sect . —Aur no n .

‘2[See the fi gure in sect . —Au'

rnon.

2 78 T/ie Analyst :

quant ity, each o f wh ich naturally divides itself into three members. The algebrai cal o r fi ux io nary express io n , into o ne wh ichinc ludes n e ither the expressio n o f the increment o f the abscissn o r o f any power thereo f , ano ther which inc ludes the expressio no f the increment itse lf , and the third in cluding the expressio n o f

the powers o f the in cremen t. The geometrical quantity also o r

w ho le increased area co nsists o f th ree parts o r members—the firsto f which is '

the given area , the seco nd a rectangle under theo rdinate and the in crement o f the absciss , and the th ird a curvilinear space. And, comparing the homo logous o r co rrespo ndentmembers o n bo th s ides

,w e fi nd that as the first member of the

expressio n is the expression o f the given area,so the seco nd

member of the expressio n will express the rectangle o r seco ndmember o f the geometrical quant ity, and the third

,co ntain ing

the powers o f the increment, will express the curvilin ear space, o rth ird member o f the geometrical quantity. This hin t may perhaps be further extended, and applied to go o d purpo se

,by tho se

w ho have le isure and curio sityfo r such matters. The use I makeo f it is to shew

,that the analysis canno t o btain in augments o r

differen ces,but it must also obtain in fin ite quant it ies

,be they

ever so great,as was befo re o bserved.

30. It seems therefo re,upon the who le

,that w e may safely

pro nounce the con clusio n canno t be right,if in o rder thereto any

quan tity be made to van ish,o r be neglected—except that either

o ne erro r is redressed byano ther , o r that, secondly, o n the sameside o f an equatio n equal quant ities are destro yed by co ntrarysigns

,so that the quant ity w e mean to reject is fi rst ann ihilated ,

o r,lastly

,that from the oppo site sides equal quanti ties are sub

ducted. And therefo re to get rid o f quantit ies by the receivedprin ciples o f flux io ns o r o f differences is neither go o d geometryno r go od logic. When the augments van ish

,the velo cities also

van ish. The velo cities o r flux io ns are said to be primo‘

and ultimo,as the augments nascen t and evanescent. Take therefo re the ratioo f the evanescen t quan tities

,it is the same with that of the

flux io ns. It w ill therefo re answer all intents as wel l. Why thenare flux io ns intro duced ? Is it no t to shun o r rather to palliatethe use o f quant ities infin itely small ? But w e have n o no tio nw hereby to con ceive and measure vario us degrees o f velo citybesides space and t ime , o r, w hen the times are given , besides

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2 80 Tfi e Analyst :

man ner,therefo re, as a sai lo r may pract ically apply certain rules’

derived from astro nomy and geomet ry,the prin ciples whereo f

he do th n o t understand , and as any o rdinary man may so lvedivers numerical questio ns, by the vulgar rules and operationso f arithmet ic

,wh ich he perfo rms and applies without knowing

the reaso ns o f them : even so it cann o t be den ied that you mayapply the rules o f the flux io nary metho d : yo u may compare and

reduce part icular cases to general fo rms : yo u may o perate and

compute and so lve pro blems thereby, no t o n ly without an actualattent io n to

,o r an actual kn owledge o f

,the gro unds o f that

metho d,and the prin ciples whereo n it depends

,and whence it

is deduced,but even witho ut having ever co nsidered o r com

prehended them .

33. But then it must be remembered that in such case,

although you may pass fo r an artist,comput ist

,o r analyst

, yet

yo u may n o t be justly esteemed a man o f science and demo nstratio n . N o r should any man, in virtue o f being conversantin such o bscure analyt ics

,imagine his ratio nal facult ies to be

mo re improved than tho se o f o ther men wh ich have beenexercised in a differen t manner and o n different subjects , muchless erect h imself into a judge and an o racle co n cern ing mattersthat have no so rt o f co nn exio n with o r dependen ce o n those

spec ies,symbo ls

,o r signs, in the managemen t whereo f he is so

co nversan t and expert . As yo u, w ho are a ski lful computisto r analyst

,may n o t therefo re be deemed sk ilful in anatomy , o r

“vice rversa,as a man w ho can dissect with art may, nevertheless,

be igno rant in yo ur art o f comput ing : even so you may bo th,n o tw ithstanding your peculiar ski l l in yo ur respective arts

,be

alike unqualified to decide upo n logic, o r metaphysics, o r ethics,

o r religio n . And this w ould be true,even admitting that you

understo o d your ow n principles and co u ld demo nstrate them.

34. If it is said that flux io ns maybe expounded o r expressedby fin ite lines pro po rt io nal to them , wh ich fin ite lines, as theymay be dist in ctly ‘co nceived and kn own and reaso ned upo n

,so

they may be subst ituted fo r the flux ions,and their mutual

re latio n s o r pro po rtio n s be co ns idered as the pro po rt ions o f

flux io ns—byw h ich means the do ctrin e becomes clear and usefulI an sw er that if, in o rder to arrive at these fin ite lines propo rt io nal to the flux io ns

,there be certain steps made use o f

Addr essed to an I nfidel M a tfi enz attoz’

an . 28 1

wh ich are obscure and in co nceivable,be tho se fin ite lin es them¢

se lves ever so clearly co n ce ived,it must nevertheless be ac

knowledged that your pro ceeding is no t clear no r yo ur metho dscien tific. Fo r instance

,it is suppo sed that AB being the absciss

,

BC the o rdinate,and VCH a tangent o f the curve AC

,Bl o r

CE the in crement o f the absciss,Er the in cremen t o f the

o rdinate,wh ich pro duced meets VH in the po int T and Co the

incremen t o f the curve. The right line Cc being pro duced toK,there are fo rmed three small triangles

,the rectilin ear CEr

,

the mixti linear CEo,and the rect i linear triangle CET. It is

evident these three triangles are differen t from each o ther,the

rect ilinear CEc being less than the mixt ilin ear CEc,who se sides

are

.

the three in cremen ts abo ve ment io ned,and this still less

than the triangle CET. It is suppo sed that the o rdinate to mo vesin to the place BC

,so that the po int e is co in ciden t with the

po in t C , and the right line CK,and co n sequen t ly the curve Co

,

is co inciden t with the tangent CH . In which case the mix ti

linear evanescen t triangle CEc will,in its last fo rm

,be similar

to the triangle CET : and its evanescent sides CE,Er

,and Co

,

will be pro po rtio nal to CE,ET

,and CT

,the sides o f the triangle

CET. And therefo re it is co nc luded that the flux io n s o f the

lines AB,BC

,and AC

,being in the last rat io o f the ir evanescent

in crements,are pro po rt io nal to the sides o f the triangle CET

,

o r,w h ich is all o ne

,o f the triangle VEC similar thereunto 18

.

It is part icularly remarked and insisted o n by the great autho r,

that the po ints C and a must n o t be distan t o ne from ano ther,

by any the least interval whatso ever : but that , in o rder to fi ndthe ultimate pro po rt io ns o f the l ines CE

,Er

,and Cr (i. e. the

13 [Intro ri ad Q uadraturam Curvaram.]—Auruo x .

28 2 Tfi e Analyst :

pro po rt io ns o f the fluxio ns o r ve lo cities) expressed by the finitesides o f the triangle VBC, the po in ts C and 5 must be accuratelyco in ciden t

,i. e. o n e and the same. A po int therefo re is co n

sidered as a triangle, o r a triangle is suppo sed to be fo rmed ina po int . Wh ich to co n ceive seems quite impo ssible. Yet

some there are w ho,though they shrink at all o ther mysteries

,

make no diffi culty o f their ow n,w ho strain at a gnat and

swallow a camel .35 . I know no t whether it be wo rth wh ile to o bserve

,that

po ssibly some men may ho pe to o perate by symbo ls and suppo sit io ns

,ih such so rt as to avo id the use o f flux io n s

,momentums

,

and in fi n itesimals,after the fo llo w ing manner. Suppo se x to

be an absciss o f a curve,and 7. an o ther absciss o f the same

curve . Suppo se also that the respective areas are x x x and x x x

and that 15—96 is the in crement o f the absciss,and x x x—x x x the

in cremen t o f the area,witho ut co n sidering how great o r how

small tho se in cremen ts maybe. D ivide now x x x—x x x by z —x,

and the quo tien t will be z z + z x + x x z and,suppo sing that z .

and x are equal,the same quo tient will be 3x x , w h ich in that

case is the o rdinate,wh ich therefo re may be thus o btained

independen t ly o f flux ion s and infi nitesimals. But herein is a

direct fallacy : fo r,in the first place

,it is suppo sed that the

absc isses z . and x are unequal,without which suppo sit ion no

o ne step co uld have been made , and in the seco nd place,it is

suppo sed they are equal , w h ich is a man ifest in co nsistency,and

amoun ts to the same thing that hath been befo re co nsidered 14.And there is indeed reaso n to apprehend that all attempts fo rsett ing the abstruse and fi ne geometry o n a right foundation ,and avo iding the do ctrine o f velo cities

,momentums

,&c.

,will

be fo und impracticable,t i ll such t ime as the object and end o f

geometry are better understo o d than h itherto they seem to havebeen . The great autho r o f the metho d o f flux io ns fe lt thisdiffi culty, and therefo re he gave in to tho se n ice abstract ionsand geometrical metaphysics w ithout which he saw no th ingcould be do ne o n the received principles : and w hat in the _wayo f demo n strat io n he hath do ne with them the reader will judge.

It must, indeed, be acknowledged that he used flux io ns

,like the

[Sect . —AUTHOR .

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2 84 Tfi e Analyst :

OP,&c . in thei r respective n ascent estates. Yo u may pro ceed

and co nsider these velo cit ies themselves as flowing o r in creasingquantit ies

,tak ing the velo cities o f the velo cit ies

,and the velo

cit ies o f the ve lo cities o f the velo cit ies, i. e. the first, second,th ird, &c . ve lo cities ad infi nitum : w h ich succeeding series of

velo cities maybe thus expressed, a . t—a . o—2 6+ a . d—3r—36—a&c.

,wh ich yo u may call by the names o f first

,seco nd, th ird, fourth

fluxio ns. And fo r an apter expressio n yo u may deno te the

variable flowing line KL,KM

,KN

,&c . by the letter x , and

the first flux io ns byx, the seco nd by x,the third by x

,and so on

ad infi n itum.

37 . N o th ing is easier than to assign names,signs

,o r expres

sio n s to these flux io ns , and it is no t difficult to compute and

o perate bymean s o f such signs . But it will be fo und much mo red ifficult to omit the s igns and yet retain in o ur minds the thingswh ich w e suppo se to be sign ified by them . To co nsider the exponents

,whether geometrical

,o r algebraical, o r flux io nary, is no

diffi cult matter. But to fo rm .a precise idea o f a third ve lo city fo rinstan ce

,in itself and by itself, Hos opus, lair lat or . N o r indeed is

it an easy po in t to fo rm a c lear and d ist inct idea o f anyvelo cityat all

,exc lus ive o f and prescinding from all length o f time and

space as also from all no tes,sign s, o r symbo ls whatso ever . This,

if I may be allo w ed to judge o f o thers by myself, is impo ssible.

To me it seems eviden t that measures and signs are abso lutelynecessary in o rder to co n ceive o r reaso n abo ut ve lo c ities , and thatco nsequent ly

,w hen w e think to co n ceive the ve lo cit ies simply and

in themselves,w e are de luded byvain abstractio n s .

38. It mayperhaps be tho ught by some an easier metho d o f

co n ce iving flux io n s to suppo se them the ve lo cit ies wherewith theinfin itesimal differences are generated . So that the first flux io nsshall be the velo cit ies o f the first differences

,the seco nd the velo

cit ies o f the seco nd differences,the th ird flux io ns the velo cities o f

the th ird differen ces,and so o n ad infi n itum. But

,n o t to mentio n

the in surmo un table diffi culty o f admitt ing o r co nce iving infi nitesimals

,and infi nitesimals o f in fi nitesimals

,& c.

,it is evident

that th is n o t io n o f flux io n s w o uld no t co nsist with the greatautho r’s view , w ho held that the minutest quantity ought no t

to be neglected, that therefo re the do ctrine o f infin itesimal differ

Addr essed to an Infidel M atfi ematz’

ez

’

an . 285

ences was no t to be admitted in geometry,and w ho plain ly

appears to have in tro duced the use o f velo cit ies o r fluxio ns,o n

purpo se to exclude o r do without them.

39. To o thers it may po ssibly seem that w e should fo rm a justeridea o f flux ions by assuming the fin ite, un equal, iso chro nal in crements KL

,LM

,M N

,&c .

,and co n sidering them in statu nascen ti

,

also their incremen ts in statu nascen ti,and the nascen t in cremen ts

o f tho se in cremen ts,and so o n

,suppo sing the first nascen t in cre

ments to be pro po rtio nal to the first flux io n s o r velo cit ies,the

nascent incremen ts o f tho se increments to be pro po rt io nal to theseco nd fluxions

,the th ird nascen t incremen ts to be pro po rtio nal to

the th ird fluxio ns,and so o nwards . And

,as the first flux io ns are

the ve lo cities o f the first nascent increments,so the seco nd flux io ns

maybe co nceived to be the velo cities o f the seco nd nascen t increments

,rather than the ve lo cities o f velo cit ies. By w h ich mean s

the analo gy o f flux io ns may seem better preserved, and the no t io nrendered mo re in telligible .

40. And indeed it sho uld seem that in the w ay o f o btain ing theseco nd o r third flux io n o f an equat io n the given flux io ns were co n

sidered rather as in cremen ts than velo cit ies. But the co nsideringthem sometimes in o ne sen se

,sometimes in ano ther

,o ne wh i le in

themselves,ano ther in their expo n ents

,seems to have o ccasio ned

no small share o f that co n fusio n and obscurity wh ich are found inthe do ctrine o f flux io ns. It may seem therefo re that the no t io nmight be sti l l men ded

,and that instead o f flux io ns o f flux ions

,Or

flux ions o f flux io ns o f flux io ns,and instead o f seco nd

,th ird

,o r

fo urth,8cc. flux io ns o f a given quant ity, it might be mo re co n

sistent and less liable to exceptio n to say, the fluxion o f the firstnascent increment

,i. e. the seco nd fluxio n the flux io n o f the

seco nd nascent in crement, i. e. the th ird flux ion , the flux io n o f

the th i rd nascent in crement,i. e. the fourth fluxion—wh ich flux ions

are co nce ived respect ive ly pro po rt io nal,each to the nascent prin

ciple o f the incremen t succeeding that whereo f it is the flux io n .

4 1. Fo r the mo re dist in ct co n cept io n o f all wh ich it may beco nsidered that if the fin ite in crement LM 15 be divided into the

iso chro nal parts Lm, mn , n o, oM and the in crement M N into the

parts Mp, pg, gr , rN iso chro nal to the fo rmer , as the who le increments LM

,MN are pro po rt io nal to the sums o f their describing

‘5[See the forego ing scheme in sect . -Aur uo x .

286 T/te Analyst

velo cities,even so the homo logous particles Lm, Mp are also pro

po rt io nal to the respect ive acce lerated ve lo cit ies with wh ich theyare described. And

,as the ve lo city with wh ich Mp is generated,

ex ceeds that with w hich Lm was gen erated, even so the part icleMp exceeds the part icle Lm. And in general, as the iso chronalvelo cit ies describing the partic les o f M N exceed the iso chronalve lo cities describing the particles o f LM

,even so the particles o f

the fo rmer exceed the co rrespo ndent part icles o f the latter. And

th is will ho ld,be the said part icles ever so small . M N therefo re

will exceed LM if they are bo th taken in the i r nascen t statesand that excess will be pro po rtio nal to the ex cess o f the velo city 6abo ve the velo city a . Hen ce w e may see that th is last account offlux io n s comes

,in the upsho t

,to the same th ing with the first 16.

42 . But,no tw ithstanding what hath been said

,it must st ill be

ackn owledged that the fin ite part ic les Lm o r Mp, though‘

taken

ever so small,are no t pro po rtio nal to the velo cities a and 5 , but

each to a series o f ve lo cit ies changing every moment,o r wh ich is

the same thing,to an accelerated velo city

,by wh ich it is gene

rated during a certain minute part icle o f t ime : that the nascentbeginn ings o r evanescen t endings o f fin ite quant it ies

,wh ich are

produced in momen ts o f infin itely small parts o f t ime,are alo ne

pro po rtio nal to given velo cit ies : that therefo re , in o rder to con

ceive the first flux io ns,w e must con ceive t ime divided into mo

men ts,increments generated in tho se moments

,and ve lo cities

pro po rt ional to tho se increments : that,in o rder to co nceive seco nd

and th ird flux io ns,we must suppo se that the nascen t principles o r

momen taneous in cremen ts have themse lves also o ther momentameo us incremen ts

,w hich are pro po rt io nal to their respect ive gene

rat ing velo c it ies : that the ve lo cit ies o f these seco nd momentan eo us in cremen ts are seco nd flux io ns : tho se o f their nascentmomentaneous in crements third flux io ns . And so o n ad infi nitum.

43. By subducting the in cremen t generated in the first momentfrom that generated in the seco nd

,w e get the in crement o f an

in crement . And by subduct ing the velo city generat ing in the firstmoment from that generat ing in the seco nd

,w e get a flux io n of a

flux io n . In like manner,by subduct ing the differen ce o f the velo

c it ies generat ing in the tw o first momen ts from the excess o f theve lo city in the th ird above that in the seco nd momen t

,w e o btain

16[See the forego ing scheme in sect. —AUTHOR.

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288 TimAnalyst .

o f this last o rdinate w as the o rdinate o f yet ano ther curve , and so

o n ad infi n itum. But w ho can co nce ive how the flux io n (whetherve lo city o r nascen t increment) o r an o rdinate sho uld be itself ano rd inate ? O f mo re than that each preceding quant ity o r fluent isrelated to its subsequen t o r fluxio n

,as the area o f a curvi lin ear figure

to its o rdinate , agreeably to what the autho r remarks,that each

preceding quant ity in such series is as the '

area o f a curvilinearfigure, w hereo f the absciss is z

,and the o rdinate is the fo llowing

quan tity ?47 . Upo n the w ho le it appears that the ce lerit ies are dismissed

,

and in stead thereo f areas and o rdinates are intro duced. But,

however expedient such analogies o r such expressions may befo und fo r facilitating the mo dern quadratures

, yet w e shall no tfi nd any light given us thereby in to the o riginal real nature of

flux io n s , o r that w e are enabled to frame from thence just ideaso f flux io n s co n sidered in themse lves. In all this the generalult imate drift o f the autho r is very clear

,but his prin ciples are

o bscure . But perhaps tho se theo ries o f the great autho r are not

minutely co nsidered o r canvassed by h is disciples , w ho seem

eager, as w as befo re h in ted,rather to o perate than to know

,

rather to apply his rules and his fo rms than to understand hisprin ciples and enter into his n o tio ns. It is neverthe less certainthat

,in o rder to fo l low him in his quadratures

,they must fi nd

fluen ts from flux io ns , and in o rder to th is,they must know to

fi nd flux io n s from fluents and in o rder to fi nd flux io n s,they must

first kn ow w hat flux io ns are . O therwise they pro ceed withoutclearn ess and witho ut sc ience . Thus the direct metho d precedesthe inverse

,and the know ledge o f the prin ciples is suppo sed in

bo th . But as fo r o perat ing acco rding to rules,and by the help of

general fo rms, whereo f the o riginal principles and reaso ns are no t

understo od,th is is to be esteemed merely techn ical. Be the prin

ciples therefo re ever so abstruse and metaphysical,they must be

studied by who ever wo uld comprehend the do ct rine o f flux ions.

N o r can anygeometrician have a right to apply the rules o f the

great autho r,without first co nsidering his metaphysical no t ions

w hence they w ere derived . These,how necessary so ever in o rder

to scien ce—w h ich can never be o btained without a prec ise,clear,

and accurate co nceptio n o f the prin ciples—are nevertheless byseveral care lessly passed o ver , w hi le the expressio ns alo ne are

Addr essed to an Infidel 289

dwelt o n and co nsidered and treated with great ski ll and management

,then ce to o btain o ther expressio ns by metho ds suspicio us

and indirect (to say the least) if co nsidered in themselves, howeverrecommended byInductio n and Autho rity—tw o mo t ives which are

acknowledged sufficien t to beget a ratio nal faith and mo ral persuasio n

,but no thing h igher.

48. Yo u may po ssibly ho pe to evade the fo rce o f all that hath

been said,and to screen false principles and inco n s isten t reaso n

ings, by a general preten ce that these o bject io n s and remarksare metaphysical. But th is is a vain pretence . Fo r the plainsense and truth o f w hat is advan ced in the fo rego ing remarks,I appeal to the understanding o f every unprejudiced in tel ligen treader. To the same I appeal

,w hether the po ints remarked

upo n are no t mo st incomprehen sible metaphysics. And meta

physi cs no t o f mine,but your o wn . I w o uld no t be understo o d

to infer that yo ur no t io n s are false o r vain because they are

metaphysical. N o th ing is either true o r false fo r that reaso n .

Whether a po int be cal led metaphysical o r n o avails lit tle .

The quest io n is,whether it be c lear o r o bscure

,right o r wro ng,

w ell o r i l l deduced49. Altho ugh momentan eo us in crements

,nascent and evanes

cent quantit ies,'

flux io ns and infi nitesimals o f all degrees are in

truth such shadowy en t it ies,so diffi cult to imagine o r co nceive

dist inct ly,that (to say the least) they canno t be admitted as

prin ciples o r objects o f c lear and accurate scien ce , and althoughthis obscurity and incomprehen sibility o f yo ur metaphysics hadbeen alo ne sufficien t to al lay your preten sio ns to eviden ce , yet ithath

,if I mistake no t

,been farther shew n

,that your inferences are

no mo re just than yo ur co n cept io n s are clear,and that your logics

are as except io nable as your metaphysics. It should seem,there

fo re,upo n the w ho le

,that your co nc lusion s are n o t attain ed byjust

reaso n ing from c lear principles : co n sequent ly,that the emplo y

ment o f mo dern analysts,how ever useful in mathematical cal

culatio n s and co nstructio ns,do th no t habituate and qualify the

m ind to apprehend clearly and infer just ly , and,co nsequen t ly

,

that you have no right, in virtue o f such habits,to dictate o ut

o f yo ur pro per sphere,beyo nd which your judgment is to pass

fo r no mo re than that o f o ther men .

VOL. III . U

290 Tfi e Anab/sf

50 . Of a lo ng t ime I have suspected that these mo dernanalytics w ere no t scientifi cal

,and gave some h ints 19 thereo f to

the public abo ut tw en ty-fi ve years ago . Since wh ich t ime, Ihave been diverted by o ther o ccupatio n s

,and imagined I might

emplo y myself better than in deducing and laying together mythoughts o n so n ice a subject. And though o f late I have beencalled upo n to make go o d my suggestio ns , yet , as the perso nw ho made th is cal l do th no t appear to th ink mature ly enoughto understand either tho se metaphysics w h ich he wou ld refute

,

o r mathemat ics wh i ch he wo uld patro n i z e,I sho uld have spared

myself the tro uble o f w rit ing fo r his co nvict io n . N o r shouldI now have troubled you o r myself with this address

,after so

lo ng an in termissio n o f these studies,w ere it no t to prevent

,

so far as I am able,yo ur impo sing o n yo urself and o thers in

matters o f much h igher momen t and co ncern . And,to the end

that yo u may mo re clearly comprehend the fo rce and design of

the fo rego ing remarks, and pursue them sti ll farther in youro w n meditat io ns

,I shal l subjo in the fo llowing Q ieries.

Q uery 1. Whether the o bject o f geometry be no t the propo rt io ns o f assignable ex tensio n s ? And whether there be anyneed o f co nsidering quant ities either infin ite ly great o r infinitelysmal l ?Ou. 2 . Whether the end o f geometry be no t to measure assign

able fin ite ex ten sio n ? And w hether this pract ical view did no t

first put men o n the study o f geometry ?Ou. 3. Whether the m istaking the o bject and end o f geometry

hath no t created n eedless diffi culties,and wro ng pursuits in that

science ?Ou. 4 . Whether men may pro perly be said to pro ceed in a

scient ific metho d,without c learly co n ce iving the object they are

co nversant about,the end pro po sed

,and the metho d bywhich it

is pursued ?Ou. 5 . Whether it do th no t suffi ce

,that every assignable num

ber o f parts may be co n tained in some assignable magn itude ?19 See P r inciples of Human Know ledge, abso lute and abstract space , time, and mo

sect . 1 23 w ith w h ich , as w ell as w ith tio n , and o n infi nity, the fo llow ing Q ICI'ICS

the reaso n ings in the same treatise against may be compared.

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2 9 2 Tfi e A nalyst

ravelling the metho ds used in mathematics would no t shew a

bigo try in mathemat icians ?Ou. 16. Whether certain maxims do no t pass current among

analysts which are sho cking to go o d sense ? And whether thecommo n assumpt io n

,that a fin ite quant ity divided by no thing

is infin ite,be no t o f th is number ?

Ou. 17 . Whether the co nsidering geometrical diagrams abso

lutely o r in themse lves,rather than as representat ives o f all

assignable magn itudes o r figures o f the same k ind, be no t a

prin cipal cause o f the suppo sing fin ite extensio n infin itely divis ible , and o f all the diffi cult ies and absurdities co nsequentthereupo n ?Ou. 18. Whether

,from geometrical pro po sit io ns being general,

and the lin es in diagrams be ing therefo re general substitutes o r

representat ives,it do th n o t fo llow that w e may n o t limit o r

co nsider the number o f parts in to wh ich such part icular linesare divisible ?Ou. 19. When it is said o r implied

,that such a certain line

de lin eated o n paper co ntain s mo re than any assignable numbero f parts

,w hether anymo re in truth o ught to be understo od

,than

that it is a sign indifi '

erently representing all fin ite lines,be they

ever so great . In wh ich re lative capacity it co ntains, z'

. e. standsfo r mo re than any assignable number o f parts ? And whetherit be no t altogether absurd to suppo se a fin ite line

,co nsidered

in itself o r in its o w n po sit ive nature,shou ld co ntain an infinite

number o f parts ?Ou. z o . Whether all argumen ts fo r the infin ite divisibil ity of

fin ite exten sio n do no t suppo se and imply,e ither gen eral abstract

ideas, o r abso lute external ex ten sio n to be the o bject o f geometry ?And

,therefo re, whether, alo ng with tho se suppo s itio ns, such

arguments also do no t cease and van ish ?Ou. 2 1 . Whether the suppo sed infin ite divisibi lity o f finite

extensio n hath n o t been a snare to mathematician s and a tho rnin their sides ? And whether a quant ity infin itely dimin ishedand a quan tity infin itely small are no t the same thing ?014 22 . Whether it be necessary to co nsider ve lo cit ies o f has

cent o r evanescent quan t ities,o r momen ts

,o r in fi n itesimals ?

And w hether the in tro ducing o f things so inco nceivable be no t

a repro ach to mathematics ?

Addr essed to an Infidel 293

Q u. 23. Whether inco nsistencies can be truths ? Whetherpo ints repugnant and absurd are to be admitted upon any sub

jects, o r in anyscien ce ? And w hether the use o f in fi nites o ught tobe allowed as a suffi cien t pretext and apo lo gy fo r the admittingo f such po ints in geometry ?Ou. 24. Whether a quant ity be no t pro perly said to be known

,

when w e know its pro po rtio n to given quantities ? And w hetherthis propo rtio n can be known but by expressio n s o r exponents

,

either geometrical,algebraical

,o r arithmet ical ? And w hether

expression s in lines o r species can be useful but so far fo rth as

they are reducible to numbers ?On. 25 . Whether the finding o ut pro per expressio ns o r no tatio ns

o f quantity be no t the mo st general character and tendency o f

the mathematics ? And arithmetical o perat io n that wh ich limitsand defines the ir use ?Ou. 26. Whethe r mathematicians have sufficient ly co nsidered

the analogy and use o f sign s ? And how far the specific limitednature o f things co rrespo nds thereto ?Ou. 2 7 . Whether because

,in stating a general case o f pure

algebra,w e are at full liberty to make a character den o te e ither

a po sitive o r a n egat ive quan tity, o r no thing at all,w e may

therefo re,in a geometrical case

,limited by hypo theses and reaso n

ings from particular pro perties and relatio ns o f figures, claimthe same licen ce ?Ou. 28. Whether the shifting o f the hypo thesis

,o r (as w e may

cal l it) the fallacz'

a suppositiom'

s be no t a so ph ism that far and Wideinfects the mo dern reaso n ings,

'

bo th in the mechan ical ph iloso phyand in the abstruse and fi ne geometry ?On. 29. Whether w e can fo rm an idea o r no t io n o f velo citydist inct from and exclusive o f its measures

,as w e can o f heat

distin ct from and exclusive o f the degrees o n the thermometerbywh ich it is measured ? And whether this be no t suppo sed inthe reaso n ings o f mo dern analysts ?Ou. 30 . Whether mo t io n can be co n ceived in a po int o f space ?

And if mo tion canno t, whether velo city can ? And if n o t, whethera first o r last velo city can be co n ce ived in a mere limit

,either

in itial o r final,o f the described space ?

Q u. 3 1 . Where there are no increments,whether there can be

any ratio o f increments ? Whether no things can be considered

294 T/re A n alyst :

as pro po rtio nal to real quant it ies ? O r whether to talk o f theirpro po rt io ns be no t to talk no n sen se ? Also in what sense we

are to understand the pro po rt io n o f a surface to a l ine, of an

area to an o rdinate ? And w he ther species o r numbers, thoughpro perly expressing quantit ies wh ich are no t homogeneo us, mayyet be said to express their pro po rtio n to each o ther ?Ou. 3 2 . Whether if all assignable circles may be squared, thecircle is no t

,to all intents and purpo ses, squared as we ll as the

parabo la ? O r whether a parabo lical area can in fact be measuredmo re accurately than a circular ?On . 33 . Whether it would no t be righter to appro ximate fairly

than to endeavour at accuracy by so phisms ?Q u. 34 . Whether it would no t be mo re decen t to pro ceed bytrials and inductio ns

,than to pretend to demo nstrate by false

princ iples ?Ou. 35 . Whether there be n o t a w ay o f arriving at truth

,

altho ugh the principles are no t scientific,n o r the reaso ning

just ? And whether such a w ay o ught to be cal led a knack o r

a science ?Ou. 36. Whether there can be scien ce o f the co nclusio n wherethere is no t [

22evidence] of the princ iples ? And whether a mancan have [ZZ evidence] o f the principles without understandingthem ? And therefo re

,whether the mathematicians o f the present

age act l ike men o f scien ce,in tak ing so much mo re pains to

apply the ir principles than to understand them ?Ou. 37 . Whether the greatest gen ius wrest ling with false prin

ciples may no t be fo i led ? And w hether accurate quadraturescan be obtained without new postulata o r assumpt io ns ? And

if no t, whether tho se which are in tel ligible and co nsistent

o ught no t to be preferred to the co ntrary ? See sect . 28

and 29.

Ou. 38. Whether tedious calculat io ns in algebra and fluxio ns be.

the like liest metho d to impro ve the mind ? And whether men’sbe ing accustomed to reaso n altogether about mathematicals ign s and figures do th no t make them at a lo ss how to reasonw itho ut them ?Ou. 39. Whether, whatever readiness analysts acquire in stating2” Evidence , in all the co llected editio ns o f Berkeley's Works science , in the original

o r 1734 editi o n .

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296 T/z e A nalyst :

geometry, men may n o t have admitted false prin ciples and

w ro ng metho ds o f reaso n ing ?Whether

,although algebraical reaso n ings are admitted

to be ever so just, when co nfined to signs o r species as generalrepresentat ives o f quan t ity

, you may no t neverthe less fall intoerro r

,if,when yo u limi t them to stand fo r part icular th ings, you

do no t limit yourself to reaso n co nsistent ly w ith the nature of

such part icular th ings ? And whether such erro r ought to beimputed to pure algebra ?Ou. 47 . Whether the view o f mo dern mathematicians do th no trather seem to be the coming at an expressio n by artifice, thanthe coming at scien ce by demo n stratio n ?Ou. 48. Whether there may no t be sound metaphys ics as well

as unsound ? So un d as wel l as unsound logic ? And Whetherthe modern analytics may no t be brought under o ne o f thesedenominatio ns

,and w h ich ?

Ou. 49. Whether there be no t real ly a philosophia prima, a cer

tain tran scendental science superio r to and mo re extensive thanmathemat ics

,which it might behove our mo dern analysts rather

to learn than despise ?Ou. 50. Whether

,ever sin ce the reco very o f mathematical

learn ing, there have n o t been perpetual disputes and controversies amo ng the mathematicians ? And whether this do th no tdisparage the eviden ce of their methods ?Ou. 5 1. Whether an yth ing but metaphysics and lo gic can open

the eyes o f mathematicians and extricate them o ut o f theird ifficult ies ?Ou. 5 2 . Whether

,upo n the received prin ciples

,a quantity can

by any divisio n o r subdivisio n,though carried ever so far

,be

reduced to no th ing ?Whether, if the end o f geometry be practice

,and this

pract ice be measuring, and w e measure o n ly assignable extensions, it will no t fo llow that un limited appro ximatio ns completelyanswer the intent io n o f geometry ?On. 54 . Whether the same th ings wh ich are now done by

infi n ites may no t be do ne by finite quan t ities ? And whetherth is would no t be a great relief to the imaginations and understandings o f mathemat ical men ?Ou. 55 . Whether tho se ph i lomathemat ical physicians

,anato

Addressed to an Infidel Matfi eenatz’

ez

’

an . 297

mists, and dealers in the an imal eco nomy, w ho admit the do ctrineo f flux io ns with an implicit faith

,can with a go o d grace in sult

o ther men fo r believing w hat they do no t comprehend ?Ou. 56. Whether the co rpuscularian

,experimen tal

,and mathe

matical philo so phy,so much cultivated in the last age, hath n o t

to o much engro ssed men’s atten tio n , some part whereo f it mighthave usefully emplo yed ?Ou. 57 . Whether

,from th is and o ther co ncurring causes, the

minds o f speculative men have no t been bo rne downw ard,to the

debasing and stupifying o f the h igher faculties ? And whether w emayn o t hen ce acco unt fo r that prevailing narrowness and bigo tryamo ng many w ho pass fo r men o f science

,their in capacity fo r

things mo ral, intellectual, o r theo logical, their pro neness to measure all truths by sense and experien ce of an imal life ?Ou. 5 8. Whether it be really an effect o f think ing

,that the same

men admire the great autho r fo r his flux io n s,and deride him fo r

his religio n ?Ou. 59. If certain phi lo so ph ical virtuo si o f the presen t age have

n o re ligio n, whether it can be said to be wan t o f faith ?Whether it be no t a juster way o f reason ing, to re

commend po ints o f faith from their effects,than to demo nstrate

mathemat ical principles by their co nclusio ns ?Ou. 6 1 . Whether it be no t less except io nable to admit po ints

abo ve reaso n than co ntrary to reaso n ?Ou . 62 . Whether mysteries may no t with better right be al

lowed o f in D ivine Faith than in human science ?Ou. 63 . Whether such mathemat icians as cry out against mys

teries have ever examined their o w n prin ciples ?Ou. 64 . Whethermathematicians

,w ho are so del icate in re ligio us

po in ts,are strict ly scrupulous in their ow n science ? Whether they

do no t submit to autho rity,take th ings upo n t rust

,and believe

po ints inco n ceivable ? Whether they have no t their mysteries,and

what is mo re,their repugnan ces and co n tradict io ns ?

Ou. 65 . Whether it might no t become men w ho are puz z led andperplexed abo ut thei r ow n prin ciples

,to judge w arily

,candidly

,

and mo dest ly co ncern ing o ther matters ?Ou. 66. Whether the mo dern analyt ics do n o t furn ish a stro ng

argumen tum ad hominem against the ph i lomathemat ical infi dels o f

these times

2 98

Whether fo llows from above-ment io ned remarks,

that accurate and just reaso n ing is the pecu liar character o f thepresen t age ? And whether the mo dern growth o f infidelity can beascr ibed to a distin ctio n so truly valuable ?

Tne And lysl

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A D E F E N C E

FREE-THINK ING IN MATHEMAT ICS 1.

I . WHEN I read yo ur D efence of the British M athematicians,I

cou ld no t,Sir

,but admire yo ur

undoubting assurance th ings so easily dispro ved.1 This Defence, published in Lo ndo n in

M arch , 1 735 (printed fo r I. To nso n), isBerk e ley’s reply to the celebrated attack

o n the Analyst, by Dr. Jurin , under thename o f Philalethes Cantabr igiensis, in his

Geometry no Friend to Infi delity ; o r a De~

fence of Sir Isaac N ew ton and the Britis h

Mathematicians. In a Letter to theAuthor

of the Analyst. This fi rst tract o f Jurinappeared in May, 1734 . In the fo l low ingyear, there was a rejo inder to Berkeley’sDefence, by Philalethes, entitled The MinuteM athematician o r the Free-thinker no j ustThinker , set forth in a Second Letter to the

Author of theAnalyst, co ntain ing a Defenceof Sir Isaac N ew ton and the Br itish Mathe

maticians against a late P amphlet entitled‘ADefence of Free-thinking in Mathematics.

’

To this letter, dated June 13 , 1 735 , and

published in the fo l low ing mo nth , Berkeleymade no reply.

Early in 1 735 , Mr . Walton’s ( o f Dublin)Vindication of Sir Isaac N ew to n

’

s Flux ions,and his Catechism of the Autho r of the

Minute P hilosopher fi i lly answered ap

peared . To the former o f these Berkeleyreplied in the Appendix to the fo llow ingDefence (see pp. 333 and to th e latterin his third tract in the Analyst contro

versy—Reasons for no t replying to M r .

Walton’

s Full Answ er (see pp. 337M r. Walto n rejo ined in an Answ er to the

Reasons fo r no t replying to Mr . Walton’

s

FullAnsw er , co ntained in an Appendix to

the seco nd editio n o f his Catechism. Withthis the co n tro versy betw een Berkeley and

Walto n ended .

courage in assert ing w ith suchTh is to me

The fo llow ing pamph lets and articles alsobe lo ng to the Analyst co ntro versyA Discour se concern ing the N at ure and

Cer tain ty of Sir Isaac N ew ton’

s Methods ofFlux ions , an d of P r ime and Ultimate Ra

tios. By Benjamin Robins, F.R.S. This

Discourse w as published in September. 1 735 .

It w as review ed in the Republic of Letter so f the fo llow ing mo nth . In the December

number o f that w o rk , in the same year, thereis a review by Robins himself o f the ‘

o h

jectio ns,’

in the preceding critique, to the

do ctrine o f fi ux ro ns and ultimate propo rt ions ;w ith remarks o n the metho ds taken to o h

viate them.

’

The co ntro versyw as co ntinuedin the fo rm o f a series o f articles betw eenRobins and Philalethes Cantabr igz

'

ensis,w hich appeared in the Republic of Lettersin January, April , July, and August , 1 736 .

Dr. Pembert o n also appeared as a party inthe co ntro versy. A series o f nine articles andrejo inders betw een Pemberto n and Jurin is

to be fo und in th e Works of the Lear ned , inthe successive mo nths from February tillOctober , 1 737.In 1 736 ,

the Rev Th omas Bayes publishedan In troduction to the Do ctrine of Flux ions,and Defence of the Mathematicians againstthe Obj ectio ns of the Autho r of the Analyst ,so far as they ar e designed to afi ct the

GeneralMethods of Reason ing. In the fo l

low ing year Mr. James Smith pro duced Anew Treatise on Flux ions. A sho rt ano nymo us Explanation of Flux ions w as publishedin 1 741 . In 1745 appeared The Harmonyof the Ancien t and Modern Geometry as

ser ted : in answ er to the Call of the Autho r

302 A D efence Of‘

seemed unacco untable, t ill I reflected o n what you say (p.when

,upo n myhaving appealed to every th inking reader, whether

it be possible to frame any clear co n ceptio n of Fluxions, youexpress yourself in the fo llowing manner-J Pray

,Sir

,who are

tho se thinking readers you appeal to ? Are they geometricians, o rpersons who l ly igno ran t o f geometry ? If the fo rmer

,I leave it

to them : if the latter,I ask

,How wel l ar e they qualified to judge

o f the metho d o f flux io n s ? ’ It must be ackn owledged you seem

by this dilemma secure in the favour o f o ne part o f your readers,

and the igno ran ce o f the o the r. I am n everthe less persuadedthere are fair and candid men amo ng the mathematicians. And

fo r tho se w ho are n o t mathemat ician s, I shall endeavo ur so to

unveil this mystery,and put the c ontro versy between us in such

a light as that every reader o f o rdinary sense and reflection maybe a competent judge thereo f.2. You express an ext reme surprise and con cern

,that I should

take so much pains to depreciate o ne of the no blest sciences,to

disparage and traduce a set o f learned men,who se labours so

greatly conduce to the ho nour o f th is is land (p. to lessen thereputatio n and autho rity o f Sir Isaac N ewton and his fo llowers

,

by shewing that they are no t such masters o f reason as they aregenerally presumed to be , and to depreciate the science theypro fess, by demo nstrat ing to the w o rld that it is not of thatclearness and certainty as is commo n ly imagined.’ All which

,

you insist, ‘appears very strange to you and the rest o f that famous

Un iversity, w ho plain ly see o f how great use mathematica l learning is to mankind.’ Hence you take o ccas io n to declaim on the

usefulness o f mathematics in the several branches,and then to

redouble your surprise and amaz emen t (p. 1 2 and —To all

wh ich declamatio n I reply, that it is quite beside the purpo se.

of the Analyst upon the celebrated Mathematicia ns of the present age, to clear up w hathe styles their obscure Analytics. This lastand forgo tten tract consists o f papers

from ‘ Jurin , A Letter to Esq”

Co lin Maclaurin , the Sco ttish mathematician,published his Treatise o n Flux ions in 1742.The Analyst,

’says Pro fesso r Kelland, did

given in to the Royal So ciety in 1742 , andtreats Flux io ns as a particular branch o f analleged more general reaso ning, called thedo ctrine o f max iminor ity and min imaj o r ity.

In 1 739, Robins publishedRemarks o n Euler,Smith , and Jurin , to which Jurin replied inthe same year. A rejo inder w as publishedbyRobins in 1 740 , which drew an answ er

go o d service to science, if in no o ther way.at least by giving o ccasion to this last w ork .

The principles o f the method had been

previo uslyex hibited in a concise and obscuremanner ; Maclaurin developed them aftei' themanner o f the ancient geometers.’Berkeleyrefers to theAnalyst controversy

in Sir is, sect. 2 71 , no te.

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304 A D efence of

perhaps, w ho live in the Un iversity, mayno t be apprised o f th isbut the in telligent and observing reader, w ho l ives in the wo rld,and is acquainted w ith the humo ur o f the times and the characterso f men

,is well aware there are to o many that deride mysteries

and yet admire fi ux io ns , Who yie ld that faith to a mere mo rtalwh ich they deny to Jesus Christ, who se religio n they make it theirstudy and bus iness to discredit. The own ing th is is n o t to own

that men w ho reaso n well are en em ies to religio n,as yo u w ould

represen t it : on the contrary, I endeavour to shew that such menare defective in po in t o f reaso n and judgmen t

,and that they do

the very th ing they would seem to despise.

6 . There are,I make no do ubt

,amo ng the mathematicians

many sin cere believers in Jesus Chr ist : I know several suchmyse lf : but I addressed myA nalyst to an infidel , and

,o n very

go o d gro unds, I suppo sed that, besides him,there w ere o ther

deriders o f faith who had neverthe less a pro found veneratio n forfluxions : and I w as willing to set fo rth the in consisten ce o f suchmen . If there be no such th ing as infi dels who pretend to knowledge in the mo dern analysis

,I own myse lf misinfo rmed

,and

shall gladly be found in a mistake , but even in that case,my

remarks upo n flux ions are no t the less true , no r will it fo llowthat I have no right to examin e them o n the fo o t o f human

scien ce, even though religio n w ere quite unco n cerned,and though

I had no end to serve but truth . But you are very angry (p. | 3and 14) that I should enter the lists with reaso n ing in fi dels, andattack them upo n their pretens io n s to scien ce : and hence youtake o ccasio n to shew your spleen against the clergy. I will nottake upo n me to say that I kno w yo u to be a M inute Philo sopheryourse lf , but I know the M inute Ph i lo sophers make just suchcomplimen ts as you do to our church

,and are just as angry as you

can be at anyw ho undertake to defend religio n by reaso n . If we

reso lve all into faith,they laugh at us and our faith : and if we

attempt to reason , they are angry at us : they pretend w e get out

o f o ur pro vin ce, and they recommend to us a blind implicit faith.Such is the inconsisten ce o f o ur adversaries. But it is to be hopedthere w ill never be wanting men to deal with them at their ownw eapo ns , and to shew they are by no means tho se masters of

reaso n w h ich they wo uld fain pass fo r .

7 . I do n o t say, as yo u w o uld represent me,that w e have no

Fr ee—th z’

nhing in M athematics . 305

better reaso n fo r o ur re ligio n than you have fo r fluxio ns but I saythat an infidel

,w ho believes the do ctrine o f flux io n s

,acts a very

inco nsisten t part in pretending to reject the Christ ian re ligio nbecause he canno t be lieve what he do th no t comprehend , o r

because he canno t assen t witho ut evidence , o r because he canno t

submit his faith to autho rity. Whether there are such in fi dels,I submit to the judgment o f the reader. Fo r my ow n part I makeno do ubt o f it

,having seen some shrew d sign s thereo f myself, and

having been very credibly info rmed thereo f by o thers. N o r do ththis charge seem the less credible

,fo r yo ur being so sensibly to uched

,

and denying it w ith so much passio n . Yo u,in deed

,do no t st ick

to affi rm,that the perso ns w ho info rmed me are

‘a pack o f base

,

profligate , and impuden t liars’ (p. How far the reader w i llth ink fi t to ado pt yo ur passio ns

,I canno t say, but I can truly say,

the late ce lebrated M r . Addiso n is o n e o f the perso ns whom you

are pleased to characterise in these mo dest and mannerly terms .

He assured me that the infidelity o f a certain no ted mathema

t ician, st i ll living, w as o n e princ ipal reaso n assign ed by a w it ty

man2o f tho se t imes fo r his being an infide l. N o t that I imagine

geometry dispo seth men to infidelity : but that,from o ther causes

,

such as presumptio n,igno ran ce, o r van ity

,like o ther men

geometrician s also become infi dels,and that the suppo sed light

and eviden ce o f their science gains credit to their infidelity.8. Yo u repro ach me w ith calumny

,detract io n

,and artifice

(p. Yo u recommend such means as are inno cent and just,

rather than the criminal metho d o f lessen ing o r detract ing frommyo pponen ts Yo u accuse me o f the odium theologicwn , the

intemperate z eal o f divines,that I do stare super

cvz'

nr an tigen s

(p. with much mo re to the same effect —Fo r all w h ichcharge I depend o n the reader’s cando ur

,that he w ill n o t take

yo ur wo rd,but read and judge fo r h imse lf. In w h ich case he w i ll

be able to discern (tho ugh he sho uld be n o mathemat ic ian ) howpassio nate and unjust yo ur repro aches are

,and ho w po ss ible it is

fo r a man to cry o ut again st calumny and pract ise it in the same

breath . Co nsidering how impat ien t all man k ind are when theirprejudices are lo o ked into

,I do no t wo nder to see you rai l and

2 Dr. (Sir Samuel) Garth , who died in the mathematician referred to . See Sto ck’

s

January 1 719 , a few mo nth s before Addi-m Life of Berkeley,

son'

s ow n death . Dr . Halley is said to be

VOL. I II.

306 A D efence of

rage at the rate yo u do . But if your ow n imaginat io n be stro nglysho cked and mo ved

, you can no t therefo re co n clude that a sincereendeavo ur to free a scien ce

,so usefu l and o rnamental to human

l ife,from tho se subt let ies

,o bscurit ies, and parado xes which

rende r it inaccessible to mo st men,will be tho ught a criminal

undertak ing by such as are in their right mind . M uch less can

yo u ho pe that an i llustrious Sem inary o f learn ed men,w h ich hath

pro duced so many free-spirited inquiries after truth,will at once

en ter in to your passio ns,and degenerate in to a nest o f bigo ts.

9. I observe upo n the inco n s isten cy o f certain infidel analysts.I remark some defects in the prin ciples o f the mo dern analysis.I take the liberty decen t ly to dissen t from Sir Isaac N ewton.

I pro po se some helps to abridge the tro uble o f mathematicalstudies

,and render them mo re useful. What is there in all this

that sho uld make you declaim o n the usefulness o f practicalmathematics ? That sho uld mo ve yo u to cry out—Spain , inquiri

tion,odium theologicum ? By what figure o f speech do you extend

what is said o f the mo dern analysis to mathematics in general ,o r w hat is said o f mathematical infi dels to all mathematicians ,o r the co nfuting an erro r in science to burn ing o r hanging theautho rs ? But it is no thing new o r strange that men shouldcho o se to indu lge their passio n s

,rather than quit their opin io ns

,

ho w absurd so ever. Hence the frightful visio ns and tragicalupro ars o f bigo ted men , be the subject o f their bigo try w hat it w ill.A very remarkable instance o f th is you give (p. where

,upon

my having said that a deferen ce to certain mathematical infi dels,as I w as credibly in fo rmed

,had been o n e mo t ive to infidelity

, you

ask, with no sma ll emo t io n Fo r Go d’s sake are w e in England

o r in Spain ? ’ ‘ Is th is the language o f a fami liar w ho is whispering an inquisito r, Sec . And the page befo re yo u exclaim in the

fo llowing w o rds Let us burn o r hang up all the mathematiciansin Great Britain , o r hallo o the mob upo n them to tear them to

pieces every mo ther’s so n o f them,Tres Rutuluw e fnnt , laymen or

clergymen,8CC. Let us dig up the bo dies o f Dr . Barrow and

Sir Isaac N ewto n,and burn them under the gallows .

’

10 . The reader need no t be a mathemat ician to see how vainall th is tragedy o f yo urs is. And if he be as tho ro ughly satisfiedas I am that the cause o f flux io n s canno t be defended by reason,he w i ll be as little surprised as I am to see yo u betake yourself to

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308 A D efence of

Ano ther so rt there is w ho learn by rat e a set o f principles and

a w ay o f t hink ing wh ich happen to be in vo gue . These betraythemse lves by their anger and surprise

,w henever thei r principles

are freely canvassed. But you must no t expect that yo ur readerwill make h imself a party to yo ur passio ns o r your prejudices.I freel y ow n that Sir Isaac N ewto n hath shewed himself an extrao rdinary mathematician , a pro fo und naturalist

,a perso n o f the

greatest abilit ies and erudition . Thus far I can readily go , but Ican no t go the lengths that yo u do . I shall never say o f him as

you do,Vertigz

'

a prom u adoro (p. Th is same ado rat io n thatyou pay to him I wi ll pay o n ly to truth.

14 . You may, indeed, yo urself be an ido later o f whom you

please : but then you have no right to in sult and exclaim at o thermen

,because they do n o t ado re your ido l. Great as Sir Isaac

N ewto n w as,I think he hath

,o n mo re o ccas io ns than o ne

,shewed

h imself no t to be infal lible. Particularly,his demonstratio n of

the do ctrin e o f flux ions I take to be defective , and I canno t helpth inking that he w as no t quite pleased w ith it h imself. And yet

this do th no t h inder but the metho d may be useful,considered

as an art o f inventio n . You,w ho are a mathematician

,must

ackno w ledge there have been divers such metho ds admitted inmathemat ics

,w h ich are no t demo nstrat ive . Such

,fo r instance,

are the inductio ns o f Dr. Wallis,in his Arithmeti c of Infi nites,

and such what Harrio t,and

,after him

,Descartes

,have wro te con

cerning the ro o ts o f affected equat io ns. It will no t,neverthe less,

thence fo llow that tho se metho ds are useless ; but o n ly that theyare no t to be allowed o f as premises in a strict demo nstrat io n .

15 . N o great name upo n earth shal l ever make me accept thingso bscure fo r clear, o r so ph isms fo r demo nstrat io ns. N o r mayyou

ever ho pe to deter me from freely speaking what I freely think,by tho se arguments 4 6 inv idia wh ich at every turn you employagainst me. Yo u represent yourself (p. 5 2) as a man

‘who se h ighestambit io n is in the lowest degree to imitate Sir Isaac N ewto n .

’ Itmight, perhaps, have suited better with yo ur appellatio n o f P/az

’

l

a/et/aer,and been altogether as laudable

,if yo ur highest ambit io n had

been to discover truth . Very co n sisten tly w ith the character yo ugive o f yo urself, you speak o f it as a so rt o f crime (p. 70) to th ink itpo ssible yo u sho uld ever ‘ see farther

,o r go b eyo nd Sir Isaac N ew

to n .

’

And I am persuaded yo u speak the sentimen ts o f many mo re

F r ee-tbz'

né z’

ng in M at/z emafz'

cs. 309

besides yourself. But there are o thers who are no t afraid to siftthe prin ciples o f human scien ce

,w ho th ink it n o ho nour to imitate

the greatest man in his defects,w ho even think it no crime to

desire to know,no t o n ly beyo nd Sir Isaac N ewto n

,but beyo nd

all mank ind. And who ever thinks o therwise,I appea l to the

reader whether he can pro perly be ca lled a ph i lo so pher.16. Because I am no t gui lty o f your mean ido latry, you inveigh

against me as a perso n co nceited o f myow n abilit ies , n o t co n“

sidering that a perso n o f less abi lities may know mo re o n a

certain po int than o ne o f greater , no t co nsidering that a purblindeye, in a clo se and narrow view

,may discern mo re o f a th ing

than a much better eye in a mo re extensive pro spect , no t co n

sidering that this is to fix a we play ultra,to put a sto p to all future

inquiries ; lastly, no t co nsidering that this is in fact,so much as

in yo u lies, co nverting the republi c o f letters in to an abso lutemo narchy

,that it is even intro ducing a kind o f ph ilo so ph ic po pery

amo ng a free peo ple.

1 7 . I have said (and I venture st i ll to say) that a flux io n is

incomprehensible : that seco nd,th ird

,and fourth flux io n s are yet

mo re incomprehensible : that it is no t po ssible to co n ce ive a

simple infin itesimal : that it is yet less po ssible to co n ceive an

infin itesimal o f an infin itesimal,and so o nward 3. What have yo u

to sayin answer to this Do yo u attempt to clear up the no t io nof a fluxion o r a differen ce ? N o th ing like it. You o n ly ‘

assureme (upo n your bare wo rd) from your o wn experience

,and that

of several others whom yo u co uld name,that the do ctrine o f

fluxio ns may be clearly co nceived and dist inct ly comprehended ;and that if I am puz z led abo ut it and do no t understand it, yeto thers do .

’But can you think, Sir, I shall take yo ur wo rd, w hen

I refuse to take your M aster’s ?18. Upo n this po in t every reader o f common sense may judge

as w e ll as the mo st pro found mathematician . The simple appre

hensio n o f a thing defined is no t made mo re perfect by any

subsequent progress in mathemat ics. What any man eviden t lyknow s

,he knows as wel l as yo u o r Sir Isaac N ew to n. And every

o ne can know whether the o bject of this metho d be (as yo u w o uldhave us th ink) clearly co nceivable. To judge o f this no deptho f science is requisite, but o n ly a bare attention to what passes

3[Analysl, sect . 4 , 5 , 6 , &c.]—Av'm o n .

3 10 A D efence of

in his ow n mind . And the same is to be understo o d o f all defi n itio ns in all sc iences whatso ever. In no ne o f wh ich can it be

suppo sed that a man o f sense and spirit will take any defin it io no r principle upo n trust

,witho ut sifting it to the bo ttom

,and

t rying how far he can o r he canno t co n ceive it . This is thecourse I have taken

,and shall take

,however yo u and yo ur brethren

may declaim against it , and place it in the mo st invidio us light.19. It is usual with yo u to admo n ish me to lo ok o ver a second

t ime,to co nsult

,examine

,weigh the wo rds o f Sir Isaac. In

an swer to which I will venture t o say that I have taken as muchpain s as (I sincere ly believe) anyman living to understand thatgreat autho r, and to make sense o f his prin ciples. N o industry

,

n o r caut io n,no r attent io n

,I assure you, have been w ant ing on

my part. So that,if I do n o t understand him

,it is no t my

fau lt but my m isfo rtune . Upo n o ther subjects yo u are pleasedto complimen t me with depth o f tho ught and uncommonabilities (p. 5 and But I freely ow n

,I have no preten ce to

tho se things. The o n ly advantage I preten d to is that I havealways tho ught and judged fo r myse lf. And

,as I n ever had a

master in mathemat ics,so I fairly fo llowed the dictates o f my

o w n m ind in examin ing and censuring the autho rs I read upo nthat subject , with the same freedom that I used upo n any o ther ,taking n o thing upon trust

,and believing that no writer was in

fallible. And a man o f mo derate parts,w ho takes this painful

course in studying the prin ciples o f any science,maybe supposed

to walk mo re stirely than tho se o f greater abi lit ies, w ho set out

w ith mo re speed and less care .

20. What I in sist o n is—That the idea o f a fi ux io n,simply

co nsidered, is n o t at all impro ved o r amended by any progress,though ever so great, in the analysis : n either are the demonstratio ns o f the general rules o f that metho d at all cleared up byapplying them. The reaso n o f which is

,because

,in o perat ing

o r calculating, men do no t return to co ntemplate the o riginalprinciples o f the metho d

,which they co nstant ly presuppo se

,but

are emplo yed in w o rk ing,by no tes and symbo ls deno ting the

flux io n s suppo sed to have been at first explained,and acco rding

to rules suppo sed to have been at first demo nstrated . Th is I sayto en co urage tho se w ho are n o t far go n e in these studies

,to use

in trepidly the i r o w n judgmen t, without a blind o r a mean deference

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3 1 2 A D efen ce of

the great autho r no t o n ly as a w eak but an ill man , as a deceiverand an impo sto r. The reader w ill judge how just ly.2 2 . As to the rest o f yo ur co lo urings and glo sses, yo ur repro aches

and insults and outcries,I shall pass them over

,o n ly desiring the

reader n o t to take yo ur wo rd,but read w hat I have written

,and

he w i ll wan t no o ther answ er. It hath been o ften o bserved thatthe w o rst cause pro duceth the greatest clamo ur , and indeed youare so clamo rous througho ut yo ur defence that the reader

,although

he sho uld be no mathemat ician,pro vided he understands commo n

sense,and hath observed the w ays o f men

,w ill be apt to suspect

that you are in the wro ng. It should seem,therefo re

,that yo ur

brethren the analysts are but l itt le o bliged to you fo r th is new

metho d o f declaiming in mathemat ics. Whether they are mo reo bliged by yo ur reaso n ing I shall n ow examine.

23 . Yo u ask me (p. 32) w here I fi nd Sir Isaac N ewto n usingsuch expressio ns as the velo cit ies o f velo cit ies

,the seco nd

,third

,

and fo urth velo cities, &c . Th is you set fo rth as a pious fraudand unfair represen tatio n .

-I answer,that if acco rding to Sir

Isaac N ew to n a flux io n be the velo city o f an increment,then

acco rding to h im I may call the fluxio n o f a fi ux ion the velo cityo f a velo c ity. But fo r the truth o f the anteceden t see his. Introduct io n to the (madrature o f Curves

,w here his ow n wo rds

are—M otum” ruel incrementorum v elocitater n omim mdo flux z'

mer. See

also the seco nd lemma o f the seco nd bo o k o f his MathematicalPrinc iples o f N atural Philo so phy

,where he expresseth himself

in the fo llow ing manner—Velocitater incremen torum ac decrementorum,

qua : etiam,motus

,mutationer

,et flux ioner quan titatum n ominare licet.

And that he admits fi ux io ns o f flux io ns, o r seco nd,th ird

,fourth

fluxio ns, &c .,see his Treat ise o f the Q i

'

adrature o f Curves. Iask n ow

,Is it no t plain that if a flux io n be a velo city

,then the

flux io n o f a flux io n may, agreeably thereun to,be called the

velo city o f a velo city ? In like manner,if by a fi ux io n is meant

a nascen t augmen t,w i ll it n o t then fo l low that the fluxio n o f

a fi ux io n o r seco nd flux io n is the n ascent augment o f a nascen taugment ? Can anything be plain er ? Let the reader now judgew ho is unfair.24 . I had o bserved that the great autho r had pro ceeded ille

gitimately, in o btain ing the flux io n o r momen t o f the rectangle

Fnee—fl anking in M a tlcen mt z'

cs . 3 1 3

of tw o flowing quantities , and that he did no t fai rly get rid o f

the rectangle o f the momen ts. —In answer to th is you allegethat the erro r arising from the omissio n o f such rectangle (allowing it to be an erro r) is so smal l that it is in sign ificant . Thisyou dwel l upon and exemplify to no o ther purpo se but to amuse

your reader and mislead him from the quest ion , which in truthis no t co n cern ing the accuracy o f computing o r measuring in

pract ice,but co n cern ing the accuracy o f the reaso n ing in science.

That this w as real ly the case, and that the smallness o f the

practical erro r nowise co ncerns it,must be so plain to any o n e

who reads the Analyst that I wo nder how you could be igno ran tof it.

25 . You would fain persuade yo ur reader that I make an

absurd quarre l against erro rs o f no signifi cancy in practice, and

represent mathematicians as pro ceeding blindfo ld in their approx imat ions

,in all wh ich I canno t help th ink ing there is o n yo ur

part either great ign o rance o r great disingenuity. If yo u mean

to defend'

the reaso nableness and use o f appro ximat io ns o r o f

the metho d o f indivisibles,I have no th ing to say. But then

you must remember th is is n o t the do ctrine o f flux ions : it is

no ne o f that analysis with wh ich I am co ncerned . That I am

far from quarrell ing at appro x imat io n s in geometry is man ifestfrom the th irty—third and fi fty

-th ird queries in the A nalyst . And

that the metho d o f flux io n s pretends to somewhat mo re than themetho d o f indivisibles is plain , because Sir Isaac disc laimsthis metho d as no t geometrical 5 . And that the metho d o f

fluxio ns is suppo sed accurate in geometrical rigour is man ifestto who ever co nsiders what the great autho r writes abo ut it ,

especially in his Intro duct io n to the (madrature o f Curves,

where he saith,In reéns mathematicis errores quam minimz

'

n on

sant contemnendz’

. Wh ich expressio n you have seen quo ted in

the Analyst , and yet you seem ign o ran t thereo f,and indeed o f the

very end and design o f the great autho r o f th is his inventio n o f

flux ions.

26. As o ft as yo u talk o f fin ite quant it ies inco nsiderable in

practice,Sir Isaac disowns your apo logy. Cav e

,saith he

,in tel

lex eris fi nitas. And,altho ugh quan tit ies less than sensible may

[See the Scho lium at the end o f the fi rst section . Lib. 1. Ph i. Nat. P rin .

Matb.]—AU'

rnon .

3 14 A D ef ence of

be o f n o accoun t in practice, yet no ne o f your masters, no r

w ill even yo u yourself, ven ture to say they are o f n o accountin theo ry and in reaso n ing. The applicat io n in gro ss practiceis no t the po in t quest io n ed, but the rigo ur and justn ess o f the

reaso n ing. And it is eviden t that,be the subject ever so little

,

o r ever so in co nsiderable,th is do th no t h inder but that a perso n

t reat ing thereo f may commit very great erro rs in logic , whichlogical erro rs are in nowise to be measured by the sensible o r

pract ical in co nven ien ces thence arising,whi ch

,perchance

,may

be no ne at all. It must be owned that,after yo u have misled

and amused yo ur less qualified reader (as yo u call him), youreturn to the real po in t in co ntro versy

,and set yourself to

just ify Sir Isaac’s metho d o f gett ing rid o f the above-mentio nedrectangle. And here I must entreat the reader to o bserve howfairly you pro ceed .2 7 . First then you aflirm (p. ‘ that n either in the demon

stratio n o f the ru le’

fo r finding the fluxio n o f the rectangle o f

tw o flow ing quan tities, no r in anyth ing preceding o r fo l low ingit,is any ment io n

,so much as o nce

,made o f the increment of

the rectangle o f such flowing quan t it ies.

’N ow I aflirm the

direct co nt rary. Fo r,in the very passage by yo u quo ted in this

same page, from the first case o f the seco nd lemma o f the seco ndbo ok o f Sir Isaac’s Prin ciples

,beginn ing with Rectangulnm quodvis

motu perpetuo d uctum,and ending w ith igitur laterum incrementis

t otis 4 et 5 gen eratur rectangulz'

incremen tam 4 3 5A .

in th is very passage, I say, is express ment io n made o f the

increment o f such rectangle. As this is matter o f fact,I refer

it to the reader’s o w n eyes . O f what rectangle have w e herethe in crement ? Is it n o t plain ly o f that who se sides have a

and 5 fo r their incremen ta t ota,that is

,o f AB . Let any reader

judge whether it be no t plain from the w o rds,the sense

,and

the co ntext,that the great autho r in the end o f his demonstration

understands his incremen tmn as be lo nging to the rectangulum guodwis

at the beginn ing. Is no t the same also eviden t from the verylemma itself prefixed to the demo nstrat io n ? The sense whereofis (as the autho r there explains it), that if the moments o f the

flow ing quan tit ies A and B are called a and 5,then the

momen tum fu el mntat z'

o gen iti rectangulz'

AB w i ll be aB + 6A .

Either therefo re the co nclusio n o f the demo nstratio n is n o t the

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3 16 A D efence of

29. A page o r tw o after, yo u very candidly represent yo ur

case t o be that o f an ass between tw o bo tt les o f hay: it is

your o w n ex pressio n . The cause o f your perplexity is that yo ukn ow n o t w hether the velo city o f AB in creasing, o r o f AB

decreasing is to be esteemed the flux io n , o r pro po rt io nal to the

moment o f the rectangle. My o pin io n,agreeably to w hat hath

been premised,is that either may be deemed the flux io n . But

yo u tel l us (p. 49) ‘ that yo u think,the venerable gho st o f Sir

Isaac N ewto n w h ispers you, the velo city yo u seek fo r is n eitherthe o ne n o r the o ther o f these

,but it is the ve lo city wh ich the

flow ing rectangle hath no t w hi le it is greater o r less than AB,

but at that very instant o f t ime that it is AB .

’Fo r my part ,

in the rectangle AB co nsidered simply in itse lf,without either

increasing o r dimin ish ing,I can co nceive n o ve lo city at all.

And if the reader is o f my mind, he w ill n o t take e ither yourwo rd

,o r even the wo rd o f a gho st, how venerable so ever

,fo r

velo city w ithout mo tio n . You pro ceed and tel l us that,in like

man ner,the moment o f the rectangle is n either its incremen t

o r decremen t . Th is you would have us believe o n the autho rityo f his gho st, in direct o ppo sitio n to w hat Sir Isaac h imselfasserted w hen alive . Incremen ta (saith he) fuel decremen ta momen

tanea sué n omin e momen tornm in telligo : ita at incremen ta pro momen ti:

additit z z s sen afi rmat z'

fw'

s,ac decremen ta pro snéduct z

'

t z’

z'

s sen negativis

Isaéean tur . I will n o t in your style bid the reader believe me,

but believe his eyes.30. To me it verily seems that you have undertaken the

defence o f w hat you do no t understand . To mend the matter,

you say,‘

you do no t co n sider A B as lying at e ither ex tremityo f the moment

,but as extended to the middle o f it , as having

acquired the o n e half o f the moment,and as being about to

acquire the o ther , or,as having lo st o ne half o f it

,and being

abo ut to lo se the o ther.’—N ow,in the name o f truth

,I en treat

you to te ll what this momen t is,to the middle w hereo f the

rectangle is ex tended ? This moment,I say, w hich is acquired

,

which is lo st, w hich is cut in tw o,o r distinguished in to halves ?

Is it a fin ite quant ity,o r an infin itesimal

,o r a mere limit

,o r

n o thing at all ? Take it in w hat sense you will, I canno t makeyo ur defence either co nsisten t o r in tel ligible. Fo r

,if yo u take

it in either o f the tw o fo rmer sen ses, yo u co ntradict Sir Isaac

F r ee-flanking in M ataetn atics . 3 1 7

N ewto n . And,if yo u take it in either o f the latter

, you co n

tradict commo n sense , it being plain , that what hath no

magn itude, o r is no quan t ity,canno t be divided. And here I

must en treat the reader to preserve his ful l freedom o f mindent ire

,and no t w eakly suffer his judgmen t to be o verbo rn e by

your imaginat ion and your prejudices,by great names and

autho rit ies,by gho sts and visio ns

,and abo ve all by that extreme

sat isfactio n and complacen cy with wh ich you utter your strangeco nceits , if wo rds without a mean ing may be called so . Afterhaving given this un in te lligible accoun t

, you ask w ith yo uraccustomed air

,What sayyou, Sir ? Is th is a just and legit imate

reaso n fo r Sir Isaac’s pro ceeding as he did ? I think you must

acknow ledge it to be so .

’But

,alas ! I acknowledge no such

thing. I fi nd no sen se o r reaso n in what yo u say. Let the

reader fi nd it if he can .

3 1. In the next place (p. you charge me wi th want o f

caut ion .‘ Inasmuch (say yo u) as that quant ity wh ich Sir Isaac

N ewto n,thro ugh his

'

w ho le lemma,and all the several cases o f

it, '

co nstantly calls a momen t,witho ut confin ing it to be either

an increment o r decremen t,is byyou in co n siderately and arbitra

rily,and witho ut any shadow o f reaso n given

,suppo sed and

determined to be an in cremen t .’

-To w h ich charge I reply,that

it is as untrue as it is perempto ry. Fo r that,in the fo rego ing

citatio n from the first case o f Sir Isaac’s lemma,he ex pressly

determines it to be an in cremen t . And,as this part icular in

stance o r passage w as that which I o bjected to , it w as reaso nableand pro per fo r me to co n s ider the momen t in the same light .But

,take it in crement o r decremen t as yo u will, the o bj ectio ns

still lie,and the difliculties are equally in superable . Yo u then

pro ceed to exto l the great autho r o f the flux io narymetho d,and to

bestow some érnsqneries upo n tho se who unadvisedly dare to differfrom him. To all wh ich I shall give n o an swer.32 . Afterwards to remove (as you say) all scruple and diffi culty

about this afl'

air, yo u o bserve that the momen t o f the rectangle

determined by Sir Isaac N ewto n,and the in cremen t o f the rect

angle determined byme are perfect ly and exact ly equal,suppo sing

a and 5 to be dimin ished ad infi n itum : and,fo r pro o f o f this,you

refer to the first lemma o f the first sectio n o f the first bo o k o f Sir

Isaac’s Principles. I answer that if a and aare real quant ities,then

3 18 A D efen ce of

a 6 is someth ing, and co nsequent ly makes a real difference : butif they are no thing, then the rectangles whereo f they are co effi

cien ts become n o th ing likewise : and co nsequen t ly the momen tumo r incrementam

,whether Sir Isaac’s o r min e

,are in that case

n o thing at all. As fo r the abo ve-men t io ned lemma,which you

refer to,and w hi ch you wish I had co n su lted so o ner

,bo th fo r my

ow n sake and fo r yo urs , I tell yo u I had lo ng sin ce co n sulted andco nsidered it . But I very much doubt whether you have suffi

c ien tly co nsidered that lemma, its demo n strat io n , and its co n

sequen ces. Fo r,however that w ay o f reaso n ing may do in the

metho d o f ex haustions,where quantities less than assignable are

regarded as no thing , yet, fo r a flux io n ist writin g abo ut momen

tums to argue that quan t it ies must be equal because they haveno assignable differen ce seems the mo st injudic ious step thatco uld be taken : it is direct ly demo lish ing the very do ctrin e yo uw o uld defend. Fo r

,it will then ce fo llow that all homogeneous

momen tums are equal,and co nsequen t ly the velo cities

,mutatio ns

,

o r flux io ns,pro po rt io nal thereto

,are all likewise equal. There is

,

therefo re,o n ly o ne pro po rt io n o f equality thr o ugho ut

,wh ich at

o n ce o verthrows the who le system yo u undertake to defend.Yo ur moments (I say) no t bein g themselves assignable quantit ies

,

their differences cann o t be assignable : and,if this be true

,by

that w ay o f reaso n ing it will fo l low,they are all equal , upo n

wh ich suppo sit io n you canno t make o ne step in the metho d offlux io ns. It appears from hen ce

,ho w unjust ly yo u blame me

(p. 3 2) fo r omitting to give anyacco unt o f that first sectio n of

the first bo o k o f the Principia, w herein (you say) the foundat io no f the metho d o f flux io n s is geometrically demo nstrated and

large ly ex plained, and difficulties and o bject io ns against it are

clearly so lved. All wh ich is so far from being true that the veryfirst and fundamen tal lemma o f that sect io n is in compat ible withand subversive o f the do ctrin e o f flux io ns. And

,indeed

,w ho

sees no t that a demo n st ratio n ad aésurdum more veternm,pro ceeding

o n a suppo sit io n that every differen ce must be some givenquant ity, canno t be admi tted in

,o r co nsist w ith

,a method

wherein quantities, less than any given , are suppo sed really toex ist , and be capable o f divisio n ?33 . The n ex t po in t you undertake to defend is that metho d fo r

obtain ing a rule to fi nd the flux io n o f any power o f a flow ing

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320 A D efence of

o r they are no t . If yo u say they are , I desire to kn ow how youget rid o f the rejectaneo us quan t ity ? If yo u say they are no t ,

yo u indeed get rid o f tho se quan t it ies in the compo sitio n whereofthey are co effi cients , but then you are o f the same o pin io n withme

,w h ich o pin io n yo u are pleased to call (p. 5 8) a mo st palpable

,

inex cusable,and unpardo nable blunder,’ altho ugh it be a truth

mo st palpably eviden t .34 . N o thing, I say, can be plain er to any impart ial reader than

that by the evanescen ce o f augments in the abo ve-cited passage,

Sir Isaac means their being actually reduced to no thing. But,to

put it o ut o f all do ubt that th is is the truth , and to co nvince evenyou, w ho shew so litt le dispo sit io n to be co nvin ced

,I desire you

to lo o k into his A nalysis per E quationes Infi nitas (p. w here,in

h is preparat io n fo r demo n strating the first rule fo r the squaring ofsimple curves

, yo u will fi nd that, o n a paral le l o ccasio n,speaking

o f an augmen t wh ich is suppo sed to van ish,he in terprets the

wo rd ewanescere by esse nikil. N o thing can be plainer than this,

wh ich at o nce destro ys yo ur defence. And yet, plain as it is,I

despair o f mak ing yo u ackn owledge it , tho ugh I am sure you feelit,and the reader if he useth his eyes must see it . The wo rds

evanescere siv e esse ni/yil do (to use your ow n expressio n) stare us in

the face . Lo ! This is what you call (p. 5 6) ‘ so great, so unac

co untable,so ho rrid

,so tru ly Boeo t ian a blunde r

,

’

that , acco rdingto yo u, it w as no t po ssible Sir Isaac N ewto n could be guilty o f it.Fo r the future

,I advise yo u to be mo re sparing o f hard w o rds ,

since, as you in caut iously deal them abo ut,they may chance to

l ight o n yo ur friends as w el l as your adversaries. As fo r mypart,I shal l n o t retaliate . It is suffi cien t to say yo u are mistaken .

But I can easi ly pardo n your mistakes. Tho ugh, indeed, youte ll me

,o n th is very o ccasio n

,that I must expect no quarter from

Sir Isaac’s fo llow ers. And I tell yo u that I neither expect no r

desire any. Myaim is truth . My reaso ns I have given . Co n

fute them,if yo u can . But th ink n o t to o verbear me e ither with

autho rities o r harsh wo rds. The latter w i ll reco il upo n yourselves. The fo rmer, in a matter o f scien ce

,are o f n o weight w ith

indifferen t readers , and, as fo r bigo ts, I am no t co ncerned aboutw hat th ey say o r th ink .

35 . In the n ex t place yo u pro ceed to dec laim upo n the fo llowing passage, taken from the seven teen th sect io n o f the A nalyst .

Fnee-tniné ing in M athematics . 32 1

‘Considering the various arts and devices used by the greatautho r o f the fluxionarymethod , in how many lights he placethhis fluxio ns , and in what different ways he attempts to demo nstrate the same po int : o ne w o uld be inclined to think he was

himself suspicious o f the justness o f his own demo nstrat io ns.’This passage you complain o f as very hard usage o f Sir IsaacN ewto n . You declaim co pious ly

,and endeavour to shew that

placing the same po int in various lights is o f great use to explainit , which you i llustrate with much rheto ric. But the fault o f

that passage is no t the hard usage"it con tains : but

,o n the con

trary, that it is too modest, and no t so full and expressive o f mysense as perhaps it should have been . Would you like it betterif I should say The various inconsistent accounts which this greatautho r gives o f his momentums and his fluxions may co nvin ceevery intelligen t reader that he had no clear and steady n o t ions o fthem

,Without which there can be no demonstratio n ? ’ I ow n

frankly that I see no clearness o r consistence in them. Yo u tel lme

,indeed

,in M ilto n ic verse

,that the fault is in myow n eyes

,

So thick a drop serene has quench’d their orbs,Or dim suffusion veil

’d.

’

At the same time you acknowledge yourself obliged fo r :

tho sevarious lights which have enabled you to understand his do ctr ine.

But as fo r me,who do no t understand it, you insult me

,sayin g

For Go d’s sake,what is it you are o ffended at

,w ho do no t st ill

understand him ? ’ Mayno t I answer, that I am ofl’ended fo r thisvery reason—because I canno t understand him o r make sense of

what he says ? You say to me that I am all in the dark. I acknowledge it, and entreat you w ho see so clearly to help me out.36. Yo u

,Sir, with the bright eyes, be pleased to tell me

, whetherSir Isaac’s momentum be a fin ite quantity, o r an infin itesimal, o ra mere lim it ? If you saya fin ite quantity : be pleased to reco ncile this with what he saith in the _ scho lium o f the seco nd lemmaof the first sectio n o f the first bo ok o f his Prin ciples : Cave in tel

ligas quantitates magnitttdine determinaras

,sed cogita semper diminu

endas sine limite. If you say, an infin itesimal : reco ncile this withwhat is said in his Introduct io n to the Q uadratures : Volat

’

ostendere quad in methodo fi nx ionum non opus sit fi guras infi n ite parvas

in geometriam inducere. If you should say, it is a mere limit , bepleased to reco ncile this with what w e fi nd in the first case o f the

VOL. 111. Y

3 2 2 A D efence of

Seco nd lemma in the seco nd bo ok o f his Princ iples : Uti ale late

rians A cc B deeran t momen tornm dimidia, &c.—w here the moments

are suppo sed to be divided. I should be very glad a person of

such a lumino us intellect wo uld be so go o d as to explain whetherbyflux io ns w e are to understand the nascent o r evanescen t quantit ies themselves

,o r the ir mo t io ns

,o r thei r velo cities, o r simply

thei r pro po rt io ns and,having interpreted them in what sense yo u

will,that you wo uld then co ndescend to explain the do ctrine of

seco nd,th ird

,and fourth flux io ns

,and shew it to be co nsistent

with commo n sen se if you can . You seem to be very sanguinewhen you ex press yourse lf in the fo l lowing terms : ‘ I do assureyo u, Sir, from my ow n experien ce

,and that o f many o thers whom

I cou ld name,that the do ctrine may be clearly co nceived and

distin ct ly comprehended .’ (p. And it may be uncivi l no t tobelieve what you so so lemn ly affirm

,from yo ur ow n experience.

But I must needs ow n I sho uld be better satisfied o f this, if,instead o f entertain ing us with yo ur rheto ric

, yo u would vo uchsafeto reco nci le tho se diffi cult ies

,and explain tho se obscure po ints

abo ve men t io ned. If either you, o r anyo ne o f tho se many whomyo u could name w i ll but explain to o thers what yo u so clearlyco n ce ive yo urse lves

,I give you my wo rd that several will be

o bliged to yo u w ho,I may ven ture to say, understand tho se mat

ters no mo re than myself. But,if I am no t much mistaken

, you

and your friends will mo dest ly decline th is task .

37. I have lo ng ago do ne what you so o ften exho rt me to dodi ligent ly read and co nsidered the several accoun ts o f this do ct rine given by the great autho r in differen t parts o f his writings ,and upo n the w ho le I could never make it out to be co nsistentand in telligible. I w as even led to say that

‘o ne would he in

clined to think he w as h imself suspicio us o f the justness o f his

ow n demo nstratio ns , and that he w as n o t eno ugh pleased withany o n e no tio n steadily to adhere to it .

’ Aft er wh ich I added,‘Thus much is plain

,that he owned himse lf satisfied co ncern ing

certain po in ts, wh ich nevertheless he co uld no t undertake to . demo n strate to o thers.’ (See the seven teenth sectio n o f the Analyst.)It is o ne thing when a do ctrine is placed in vario us lights , andano ther when the prin ciples and no t io ns are shifted. When new

devices are in tro duced and subst ituted fo r o thers,a do ct rine ih

stead o f being i llustrated maybe explained away. Whether there

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3 24 A D efence of

whether there are no t divers fountains o f experiment, induction,and analogy, when ce a man mayderive and sat isfy h imself co ncern ing the truth o f many po ints in mathemat ics and mechan icalph i lo so phy

,although the pro o fs thereo f affo rded by the mo dern

analysis should n o t amount to demon strat io n ? I further appealto the co nscience o f all the mo st pro found mathematicians, w hether they can

,with perfect acquiescence o f mind, free from all

scruple,apply any pro po sitio n mere ly upo n the strength o f a

demo nstrat io n invo lving seco nd o r th ird flux io n s, without the aid

o f anysuch experimen t,o r analo gy

,o r co llateral pro o f whatso ever ?

Lastly,I appeal to the reader’s ow n heart

,whether he canno t

clearly co n ceive a medium between being fast as leep and demo nstrating

—But, you will have it that I represent Sir Isaac’s con

clusio n s as coming o ut right, because o ne erro r is compensated byano ther co n trary and equal erro r

,w h ich perhaps he never knew

himself n o r tho ught o f : that by a two fo ld mistake he arrivestho ugh n o t at science yet at truth : that he pro ceeds blindfo ld, &c.All wh ich is untruly said by yo u, w ho have misapplied to Sir Isaacw hat w as intended fo r the Marquis de l’I—Io spital7 and his fol

lowers , fo r n o o ther end (as I can see) but that you may havean o ppo rtun ity to draw that ingen io us po rtraiture o f Sir IsaacN ewto n and dame Fo rtune

,as will be man ifest to who ever reads

the A nalyst .

39. Yo u te l l me (p. 70) if I think fi t to persist in asserting‘ that this afl

'

air o f a double erro r is ent ire ly a new discovery ofmy ow n

,w h ich Sir Isaac and h is fo l low ers never knew o r thought

o f,that yo u have unquest io nable evidence to convince me o f the

co n trary, and that all his fo llowers are already apprised that thisvery o bject io n o f mine w as lo ng sin ce fo reseen

,and clearly and

fully remo ved bySir Isaac N ewto n,in the fi rst sect io n o f the first

bo o k o f his Princz'

pia .

’—All wh ich I do as stro ngly deny as you

aflirm. And I do aver that this is an unquestio nable proo f o f thematch less co ntempt which you, have fo r truth. And Ido here publicly cal l upo n yo u to pro duce that eviden ce wh ich youpretend to have, and to make go o d that fact which you so co nfi

den tlyaflirm. And,at the same t ime

,I do assure the reader that

yo u never will,no r can .

A celebrated French mathematician a th f1661 , died 1 704 .

u o r 0 the Analyse des Infi mment Penis, born

Face t/tint ing in M atnematics. 325

40. If you defend Sir Isaac’s no t io ns,as de livered in his Prin

cipia, it must be o n the rigo ro us fo o t o f rejecting no th ing,n either

admitting no r casting away infin ite ly small quant it ies. If yo u

defend the Marquis, whom yo u also style your M aster,it must be

on the fo o t o f admitt ing that there are infi n itesimals,that they

maybe rejected, that they are neverthe less real quantit ies,and

themselves infin ite ly subdivisible. But yo u seem to have growngiddy with passion , and in the heat o f co ntroversy to have mistaken and fo rgo t your part . I beseech you, Sir, to co nsider thatthe Marquis (whom alo ne

,and no t Sir Isaac

,this double erro r in

finding the subtangent do th co n cern ) rejects indeed infi n itesimals,but no t o n the fo o t that you do , to w it

,their be ing in co nsiderable

in practical geometry o r mixed mathematics. But he rejectsthem in the accuracy o f speculat ive kn ow ledge : in which respectthere may be great lo gical erro rs, although there should be no

sensible mistake in practice , wh ich, it seems,is what yo u canno t

comprehend. He rejects them likewise in virtue o f a po stulatum,

which I venture to call rejecting them without ceremo ny. And,

though he inferreth a con clusio n accurate ly true, yet he do th it,

contrary to the rules o f logic, from inaccurate and false premises.And how this comes about

,I have at large explained in the

Analyst, and shewed in that part icular case o f tangents, that the

rejectaneo us quant ity might have been a fin ite quant ity o f anygiven magn itude

,and yet the con clusio n have come out exact ly

the same w ay, and, co nsequent ly, that the truth o f th is metho ddo th no t depend o n the reaso n assigned by the M arquis

,to w it

,

the po stulatum fo r throwing aw ay infi nitesimals , and,therefo re

,

that he and his fo llowers acted blindfo ld,as n o t knowing the true

reaso n fo r the co nclusions coming out accurately right,which I

shew to have been the effect of a do uble erro r.41 . This is the truth o f the matter

,w h ich yo u shamefully mis

represent and declaim upo n,to n o so rt o f purpo se but to amuse

and mislead your reader. Fo r which co nduct o f yo urs througho utyo ur remarks

, yo u will pardo n me if I canno t o therwise acco unt,

than from a secret ho pe that the reader o f your D efence wouldnever read the A nalyst . If he do th

,he canno t but see what an

admirable metho d you take to defend your cause : how , instead o fjustifying the reaso n ing

,the logic, o r the theo ry o f the case

specified,wh ich is the real po int, you discourse o f sensible and

326 A D efence of

practical erro rs : and how all th is is a man ifest impo sitio n uponthe reader. He must needs see that I have expressly said, I haveno co n tro versy except o n ly abo ut your logic and metho d : that Ico nsider how you demo nstrate , what o bjects yo u are co nversantabo ut , and whether yo u conceive them clearly.

’ That I haveo ften expressed myself to the same effect

,desiring the reader

to remember,‘ that I am on ly co n cerned about the way of coming

at your theo rems, whether it be legit imate o r illegit imate, clearo r obscure

,scien tifi c o r tentative : that I have, o n this very occa

sio n,to preven t all po ssibility o f mistake, repeated and i nsisted

that I co nsider the geometrical analyst as a logician,i. e. so far

fo rth as he reaso ns and argues , and his mathemat ical conclus ions,n o t in themselves but in their premises , no t as true o r false

,

useful o r insign ificant , but as derived from such principles,and

by such inferen ces 9 Yo u affi rm (and indeed what can you not

affirm that the differen ce between the true subtangent and thatfound without any compensat io n is abso lutely no thing at all. Iprofess myself o f a co n t rary o pin ion . My reaso n is

,because

no thing canno t be divided into parts. But this difference iscapable o f being divided into any, o r in to mo re than any givennumber o f parts , fo r the truth o f which co nsult the Marquis del’Ho spital. And

,be the erro r in fact o r in pract ice ever so small

,

‘it will no t then ce fo llow that the erro r in reason ing, which isw hat I am alo ne co n cerned about

,is one Whit the less, it being

eviden t that a man may reaso n mo st absurdly about the minutestthings .

42 . Pray answ er me fairly,o n ce fo r all

,whether it be your

o pin io n that w hatso ever is little and inco nsiderable enough to berejected without in conven ien ce in practice

,the same may in like

manner be safe ly rejected and o verlo o ked in theo ry and demonstratio n . If you say N o

,it w ill then fo l-low that all you

havebeen saying here and e lsewhere

,about yards

,and inches

,and

decimal fract io ns, setting fo rth and insisting o n the extremesmallness o f the rejectaneous quantity, is quite fo reign to theargument, and on ly a piece o f sk i ll to impose upo n your reader.If you say Tes, it fo llows that yo u then give up at once all theo rders o f fluxio ns and infi n itesimal differences , and so most1mprudently turn all your sallies and attacks and veterans to your

9[Analymsect. ao .}-Am on ,

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3 28 A D efence of

incremen ts to be real quan t it ies, some to be no th ings, some tobe limits . As many men

,so many minds : each differing o ne

from an o ther,and all from Sir Isaac N ewto n. Some plead in

accurate expressio n s in the great autho r, whereby they would drawhim to speak their sense , no t co n sidering that if he meant asthey do

,he could n o t want wo rds to express his mean ing. O thers

are magisterial and po sitive,say they are sat isfied

,and that is

all , no t co n sidering that w e,w ho deny Sir Isaac N ewto n’s au

tho rity, shall n o t submit to t hat o f his disc iples. Some insistthat the co n clusio n s are true

,and therefo re the principles , no t

co n sidering what hath been largely said in the Analyst9 o n that

head. Last ly,several (and tho se n o ne o f the meanest) frankly

o wned the object io n s to be unan sw erable. All which I mentionby w ay o f ant ido te to your false co lours : and that the unprejudicedinquirer after truth may see it is no t witho ut foundation that

I call o n the ce lebrated mathemat icians o f the present age to

clear up these o bscure analyt ics,and co ncur in giving to the

public some co nsisten t and intelligible acco unt o f their greatMaster : w h ich if they do n o t

,I believe the wo rld will take it fo r

granted that they can no t.

45 . Having go ne thr o ugh yo ur defen ce o f the British mathematicians

,I fi nd

,in the next place

,that you attack me o n a po int

o f metaphysics,with what success the reader will determine. I

had upo n an o ther o ccasio n many years ago wro te against abstractgen eral In o ppo sitio n to w h ich

, you declare yourself toadhere to the vulgar o pin io n—that ne ither geometry no r anyo thergeneral scien ce can subs ist w ithout gen eral ideas (p. Thisimplies that I ho ld there are n o general ideas. But I ho ld thedirect co ntrary—that there are indeed general ideas

,but not

fo rmed byabstractio n in the manner set fo rth byMr. Lo cke. To

me it is plain there is no co nsisten t idea the l iken ess whereofmayn o t really exist whatso ever therefo re is said to be somewhatwh ich canno t ex ist, the idea thereo f must be inco nsistent. Mr.

Lo cke acknow ledgeth it do th require pains and sk ill to fo rm his

gen eral idea o f a triangle. He farther expressly saith it must

1: I‘SeCt 19. 29 . ?CC-J—AUTHO

-R. ductio n

'

to the Principles ; also Berkeley'sll)

: Intro duct io n to the Treatz se concer n reaso n ings against abstractions, inAlcipbron.mg t e P rmczples of Human Knowledge.] Dial . vn . sect . 5—8, with this and the threeAUTHOR. Cf. Edito r

’

s no tes o n the Intro fo llow ing sectio ns.

Fr ee-tainking in M athema tics. 329

be neither o blique no r rectangular,n either equilateral no r scalenum,

but all and no ne o f these at o n ce. He also saith it is an ideawhere in some parts o f several different and inco nsistent ideas are

put together “ . All this lo o ks very like a con tradiction . But,

to put the matter past dispute, it must be no ted that he affi rmsit to be somewhat imperfect that canno t exist , consequent ly, theidea thereo f is impo ssible o r in co nsisten t.46. I desire to know whether it is no t impo ssible fo r anyth ing

to exist which do th no t in clude a con tradictio n : and,if it is

,

whether w e may no t infer that what canno t po ssibly exist,the

same do th include a co ntradiction : I further desire to know,

whether the reader can frame a distinct idea o f anything thatincludes a contradictio n ? Fo r my part, I canno t, n o r cousequen tlyo f the above-men tio ned t riangle , thoughyou (w ho it seemsknow better than myself w hat I can do ) are pleased to as sureme of the con trary. Again

,I ask whether that wh ich it is abo ve

the power o f man to fo rm a complete idea o f mayno t be cal ledincomprehensible ? And whether the reader can frame a com

plete idea o f this imperfect impo ssible triangle ? And,if no t

,

whether it do th no t fo l low that it is in comprehensible ? It shou ldseem that a distinct aggregate o f a few consistent part s was

no thing so diffi cult to co n ceive o r impo ssible to exist , and that,therefo re

,your commen t must be wide o f the autho r’s mean ing.

You give me to understand (p. 82) that this accoun t o f a generaltriangle was a trap which M r. Lo cke set to catch fo o ls. Whois caught there in let the reader judge.

47. It is M r. Lo cke’s opin io n that ~ every general name standsfor a general abstract idea, wh ich prescinds from the species o r

individuals comprehended under it . Thus, for example, acco rdingto him

,the general name colour stands fo r an idea which is n either

blue,red

, green, no r any o ther particular co lour, but somew hatdistinct and abstracted from them all. To me it seems the w o rdcolour is o n ly a mo re general name applicable to all and each o f

the part icular co lours : while the o ther specific names,as blue,

red,green

,and the l ike

,are each restrained to a mo re limited

sign ification . The same maybe said o f the wo rd triangle. Let

the reader judge whether th is be no t the case , and whether hecan distinctly frame such an idea o f co lour as shal l prescind from

11[Essay on Human Understanding, Bk . IV. ch. vu.

-Aurno v..

330 A D efence of

all the species thereo f, o r o f a t riangle which shal l answer Mr.

Lo cke’s account,prescinding and abstracting from all the par.

ticular so rts o f triangles, in the manner afo resaid.48. I en treat my reader to think . Fo r

,if he do th no t

,he may

be under some influen ce from yo ur co nfiden t and po sitive wayo f talk ing. But anyo ne w ho thinks may, if I mistake not, plainlyperceive that you are deluded

,as it o ften happens

,by mistaking

the terms fo r ideas. N o thing is eas ier than to define in termso r wo rds that which is incomprehen s ible in idea , fo rasmuch asany wo rds can be either separated o r jo ined as you please, butideas always canno t . It is as easy to say a ro und square as

an o blo ng square,though the fo rmer : be in co nceivable. If the

reader will but take a litt le care to distinguish between the de

fi nitio n and the idea,betw een w o rds o r expressio ns and the

co ncept io ns o f the mind,he w i ll judge o f the truth of what I now

advance,and clearly perce ive how far you are mistaken in attempt

ing to i llustrate M r. Lo cke’s do ctrine,and where your mistake

l ies. O r,if the reader is minded to make a sho rt wo rk

,he needs

o nly at o nce to try whether,laying aside the wo rds

,he can frame

in his mind the idea o f an impo ss ible triangle , upon which trialthe issue of this dispute may be fairly put—This doctrine

“

of

abstract general ideas seemed to me a capital erro r,productive

o f numberless diffi culties and disputes,that runs no t on ly through

out Mr. Lo cke’s boo k,but through mo st parts of learning. Con;

sequently,my an imadversions thereupo n w ere no t an efl

'

ect

o f being inclined to carp o r cavil at a single passage,as you

wou ld wro ngfu l ly ins inuate, but pro ceeded from a lo ve of truth,and a desi re to ban ish

,so far as in me lay, false principles and

wro ng ways o f thinking, w itho ut respect o f persons. And, indeed,though you and o ther party-men are vio lent ly attached to yourrespective Masters, yet I, w ho pro fess myself o n ly attached totruth

,see no reaso n w hy I may n o t as freely an imadvert on

M r. Lo cke o r Sir Isaac N ewton,as they would o n Aristo tle or

Descartes. Certain ly the mo re extensive the influence o f anyerro r

,and the greater the autho rity w hich suppo rts it

,the more

it deserves to be considered and detected by sincere inquirersafter knowledge.

49. In the clo se o f your perfo rman ce, yo u let me understand

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332 A D efence of Fme—tk z’

né z’

ng in M atfi ematz’

es.

o bject io ns as we l l as cavils ? And whether to inquire diligentlyin to the mean ing o f terms and the pro o f o f pro po sitio ns, no t

except ing again st anyth ing without assign ing a reaso n , no r afl'

ect

ing to mistake the s ign ificatio n o f wo rds,o r stick at an expression

where the sense w as clear,but co nsidering the subject in all lights

,

s in cerely endeavouring to find out any sense o r mean ing whatso ever

,candidly setting fo rth w hat seems o bscure and what

fallacio us,and calling upo n tho se w ho pro fess the knowledge of

such matters to explain them ; whether, I say, such a pro ceedingcan be just ly called cavilling ? Whether there be an ipse dix it

erected ? And,if so

,when

,where

,by whom

,and upon what

autho rity ? Whether,even where autho rity was to take place

,

o ne might n o t ho pe the mathemat ics,at least

,wo uld be excepted ?

Whether the ch ief end,in making mathemat ics so co nsiderable

a part o f academical educatio n,be no t to fo rm in the minds of

young studen ts habits o f just and exact reas o n ing ? And w hetherthe study o f abstruse and subt le matters can co nduce to this end

,

un less they are we ll understo o d,examined

,and sifted to the

bo ttom ? Whether,therefo re

,the bringing geometrical demon

stratio ns t o the severest test o f reaso n should be reckoned a

disco uragement to the studies o f any learned so ciety ? Whether,to separate the clear parts o f things from the o bscure

,to distinguish

the real principles whereo n t ruths rest and whence they are derived

,and to pro po rtio n the just measures of assent acco rding

to the various degrees o f evidence,be a useless o r unwo rthy

undertak ing ? Whether the mak ing mo re o f an argument thanit will bear

,and placing it in an undue rank o f eviden ce

,be not

the like ly w ay to disparage it ? Whether it mayno t be o f some

use,to pro vo ke and stir up the learned pro fesso rs to explain a part

o f mathemat ical learn ing w h ich is ackn ow ledged to be most

pro fo und, diffi cult, and o bscure,and at the same time set fo rth

by Plailaletber and many o thers as the greatest instance that hasever been given o f the extent o f human abi lities ? Whether, forthe sake o f a great man’s disco veries

,w e must ado pt his erro rs ?

Last ly,whether in an age w herein all o ther prin ciples are can

vassed w ith the utmo st freedom,the prin ciples o f Fluxio ns are

to be alo n e excepted ?

A N A P P E N D I X

CONCERNING

MR. WALTON’

S V INDICATION OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON’

S

PRINCIPLES OF FLUXIONS ‘.

1 . I HAD no so o ner co nsidered the perfo rmance o f Pbilak t/aer,

but M r. Walto n’s Vindication of Flux ions was put into my hands.As this Dublin pro fesso r gleans after the Cantaér z

’

gian, o n ly en

deavouring to translate a few passages from Sir Isaac N ewton’sPrincipia, and en large o n a h in t o r tw o o f Plailaletber

,he deserves

no particular n o tice. It may suflice to advertise the reader thatthe fo rego ing D efence co ntains a fi lll and explicit answer toMr.Walto n

,as he will fi nd

,if he th inks it wo rth his pains to

read what this gent leman hath written,and compare it therewith

particularly with sect. 18, 20, 30, 32

—36, 43. It is no t

,I am

sure,wo rth mine to repeat the same th ings

,o r confute the same

no tions twice o ver,in mere regard to a writer who hath co pied

even the manners o f s '

lalet/aer,and whom in answering the o ther

I have,if I am no t much mistaken

,suffi ciently answered.

2. M r.Walton touches o n the same po ints that the o ther hadtouched upon befo re him. He pursues a h int wh ich the o ther hadgiven 2 about Sir Isaac’s first sectio n co n cern ing the ratione: prime:

et ultima . He discreetly avo ids, like the o ther,to sayo ne syllable

of seco nd,third

,o r fourth flux io ns, and o f divers o ther po ints

mentio ned in the Analyst, about all wh ich I o bserve in him a

most prudent and pro fo und si len ce. And yet he very modest ly

This Vindication of S ir Isaac N ew ton’s Pr inciples of Flux ions, by Mr.Walto n o f

Dublin, w as published in Dublin and Lo ndo n , early in 1 735 .

f [Pbilaletbes, p. —Aur uo a .

334 An Appendix cancer/n ing

gives h is reader to understand that he is able to clear up all

diffi culties and o bjectio ns that have ever been made (p. Mr.

Walto n,in the beginn ing, like Plailalet/aer, from a part icular case

makes a general inferen ce , suppo sing that Infide lity to be imputedto mathematicians in general which I suppo se o n ly in the personto whom the Analyrt w as addressed

,and certain o ther persons

o f the same mind with him. Whether this extrao rdinary wayofreaso n ing be the cause o r effect o f his passio n , I know no t : but

befo re I had go t to the end o f his Vindication,I ceased to be sur

prised at his lo gic and his temper in the beginn ing. The doubleerro r

,wh ich in the Analyst w as plain ly meant to belo ng to o thers,

he with Plailalet/aer (who se very o versight he ado pts) suppo sethto have been ascribed to Sir Isaac N ewto n (p. And thisw riter also

,as we l l as the Can talrigian , must needs take upon

him to explain the mo t ive o f mywrit ing against flux io ns , whichhe gives o ut

,with great assuran ce

,to have been because Sir Isaac

N ewton had presumed to in terpo se in pro phecies and revelations,and t o decide in religious affairs (p.4) 5 wh ich is so far from beingtrue that

,o n the co ntrary, I have a high value fo r tho se learned

remains o f that great man,who se o riginal and free genius is an

eternal reproach to that tribe o f fo llo w ers,w ho are always imitating

but never resemble him. This specimen o f M r.Walto n’s truthwill be a warn ing to the reader to use his own eyes

,and in

obscure po in ts never to trust the gent leman’s candour,who dares

to misrepresen t the plainest .3. I w as th ink ing to have said no mo re co ncern ing this autho r’sperfo rmance

,but

,lest he s hould imagine himself to o much neg

lected,I ent reat the reader to have the patience to peruse it , and

if he finds any o ne po int o f the do ct rine o f flux ions cleared up, orany o ne o bject io n in the Analyrt answered

,o r so much as fairly

stated, let him then make h is complimen ts to the autho r. But,if

he can no mo re make sen se o f what this gent leman has writtenthan I can , he w ill need no answer to it. N o th ing is easier thanfo r a man to tran slate

,o r co py

,o r compo se a plausible discourse of

some pages in techn ical terms, whereby he shall make a show of

saying somewhat, although neither the reader,no r himself under

stand o ne t itt le o f it . Whether th is be the case o fM r.Walton,and whether he understands either Sir Isaac N ewto n

,o r me, or.

himself (whatever I may think), I shall no t take upo n file to say.

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3 36 An Appena’ix , &c.

an uncommo n wayo f t reat ing mathemat ics and mathematicians(p. may (as well as the Can talrigz

'

an) cry out—S pain and the

inquisitio n ! when he finds h imse lf thus clo se ly pursued and besetwith interro gato ries ? That w e mayno t, th erefo re, seem too hardo n an inno cent man

,who probably mean t no thing, but was be

trayed by fo llowing ano ther into diflicult ies and straits that he .

was no t aware o f,I shall pro po se o ne s ingle expedient

,by which’

his disciples (whom it mo st co n cerns)may soo n satisfy themselveswhether this Vindicato r really understands what he takes upon ‘

him to vindicate.—It is

,in sho rt

,that they would ask him to ex

plain the seco nd,third

,o r fo urth flux io ns upo n his principles. Be

th is the touchsto ne o f his Vindication . If he can do it,I shall own

myself much mistaken : if he canno t,it will be evident that he

was much mistaken in himse lf,w hen be presumed to defend

flux ions witho ut so much as kn owing what they are. So,having

put the merits o f the cause o n this issue,I leave him to be tried

by his scho lars.

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340 Reason s f o n no t r eplying

stro ng in favo ur o f a do c trine, yet if his reaso n ings are directly

leve lled again st it, w hatever quest io n there may be about the

matter in dispute,there can be no ne about the in tentio n o f the

Writer. Sho u ld a perso n,so kn owing and discreet as Mr .Walto n

,

thwart an d co nt radict Sir Isaac N ewto n,under preten ce o f defend

ing his flux io ns, and sho uld he at every turn say such uncouthth ings o f these same flux io ns, and place them in such o dd lights asmust set all men in their wits against them,

co uld I ho pe for a

bet ter seco nd in th is cause ? O r could there remain any doubt ofhis being a disguised Free-thinker in mathemat ics

,who defended

flux io ns just as a Certain Free-th inker ‘2 in re l igio n did the rights ofthe Christ ian church3 . M r .Walto n indeed after his free man n er calls myAnalyst a

libe13 . But th is ingen io us gent leman w e l l kn ow s a bad vindicat io n is the bitterest libe l . Had you a mind

,Sir

,to betray and

ridicule any cause under the n o t io n o f vindicat ing it , would youn o t think it the right w ay to be very stro ng and dogmat ical in theaffirmat ive

,and very weak and puz z led in the argumen tative parts

o f yo ur perfo rman ce ? To utter co ntradictio ns and paradoxeswitho ut remo rse

,and to be at no pain s about reconciling o r ex

plain ing them ? And with great go o d-humour,to be at perpetual

variance with yo urself and the autho r yo u pretend to vindicate ?How successfully Mr .Walto n hath pract ised these arts

,and how

much to the ho nour o f the great . client he w o uld seem to take

under his pro tectio n,I shall part icularly examine throughout every

art ic le o f h is ful l answ er.

4 . First, then , saith M r .Walto n,I am to be asked

,whether l

can co n ceive ve lo city w itho ut mo tio n,o r mo t ion without exten

sio n , o r ex ten sio n w itho ut magn itude ? ’ To wh ich he answerethin po sit ive terms

,that he can co nce ive velo city and motio n in a

po int (p. And to make o ut th is he undertakes to demo nstrate,‘ that if a th ing be mo ved by an agent o perat ing co ntinually bythe same fo rce

,the ve lo city w i ll no t be the same in any two

differen t po in ts o f the described space , but that it must varyupo n the least change o f space .

’ —N o w,admitting thus much

to be demo n strated, yet I am still at a lo ss to co nceive how

2 The reference is to Tindal’s Rights of N ew Theory of Vision , sect . 5 , no te.the Cbr tsuan Cburcb. Cf. Vindication of

3[Vindicatiomp . I .]—AUTHOR.

to M r . Walton’

s full answ er . 341

Mr.Walto n’s co nclusion will fo llow,to w it

,‘that I am great ly mis

taken in imagin ing there can be no mo t io n,no velo city

,in a po in t

o f space ’

(p . t o ). Pray, Sir, co n sider h is reaso n ing. The same

velo city canno t be in tw o po ints o f space , therefo re ve lo city canbe in a po int o f space. Wo uld it no t be just as go o d reaso n ing tosay, the same man canno t be in tw o nutshe lls , therefo re a man

can be in a nutshell ? Again,ve lo city must vary upo n the least

change o f space , therefo re there maybe velo city w itho ut space.

Make sense o f this if you can . What have these co nsequences todo with their premises ? Who but M r.Walto n could have inferredthem ? Or how could even he have inferred them had it no t beenin jest5 . Suppose the centre o f a fa lling bo dy to describe a line ,divide the time o f its fal l in to equal parts

,fo r instance

,into

minutes. The spaces described in tho se equal parts o f time willbe unequal. That is

,from whatso ever po ints o f the described

line yo u measure a minute’s descent, you will st i ll fi nd it a

different space. This is true . But ho w o r why from th is plaintruth a man should infer

,that mo t io n can be co nceived in a

po int,is to me as o bscure as any the mo st o bscure mysteries that

o ccur in th is profound autho r. Let the reader make the best o fit. Fo r my part, I can as easi ly co nceive M r.Walto n shouldwalk without st irring

,as I can his idea of mo tio n witho ut space.

After all,the questio n w as n o t w hether mo t ion could be pro ved

to exist in a po int,but o n ly wheth er it could be co nce ived in a

po int . Fo r,as to the pro of o f things impo ssible, some men have

a way o f proving that may equally pro ve anything. But I muchquestio n w hether any reader o f commo n sense will undertaketo co n ceive what this pleasant man at inference undertakes toprove.

6. If M r. Walton really mean t to defend the autho r o f the

fluxionary metho d,would he n o t have done it in a w ay co n

sistent w ith this illustrious autho r’s ow n principles ? Let us n ow

see what may be Sir Isaac’s n o t io n about this matter. He dis

tinguisheth tw o so rts o f mo t io n,abso lute and relative. The

fo rmer he defi neth to be a translation from abso lute place to

abso lute place,the latter from o ne relative place to ano ther 4.

[See Scho l . def. VIII. Philos. N at. P r incip. Math.] -Aurnon .

342 Reasons fo r no t r eplying

Mr .Walto n’s is plain ly n e ither o f these so rts o f mo t io n . But

some th ird kind,which what it is

,I am at a lo ss to comprehend.

But I can clearly comprehend that,if w e admit mo t io n without

space,then Sir Isaac N ewto n’s account o f it must be wrong : for

place bywhich he defin es mo t ion is, acco rding to him,a part of

space. And if so,then th is no table defender hath cut out new

w o rk fo r himself to defend and explain . But about this,if I

mistake no t,he will be very easy. Fo r

,as I said befo re

,he seems

at bo ttom a back friend to that great man , which o pin ion youwill see farther confirmed in the sequel.7 . I shal l no mo re ask Mr .Walto n to explain anything : fo r I

can ho n est ly say, the mo re he explains,the mo re I am puz z led.

But I will ask his readers to explain,by what art a man may

co n ce ive mo t io n without space. And,suppo sing this to be done

,

in the seco nd place to explain,how it consists with Sir Isaac

N ewto n’s accoun t o f mo tio n . Is it no t evident that M r.Waltonhath deserted from his o ld master

,and been at some pains to

expo se him,while he defends o n e part o f his principles byover

turn ing ano ther ? Let any reader tel l me, what Mr .Waltonmeans by mo tion

,o r,if he can guess

,What this third kind is,

which is neither abso lute no r re lat ive,which exists in a po int,

which maybe co nceived without space. This learned professo rsaith

,I have no clear co nceptio n o f the prin ciples of motion’

(p. And in ano ther place (p. 7) he saith, I might have conceived ve lo city in a po int

,if I had understo o d and considered the

nature o f mo t io n .

’ I believe I am no t alo ne in not understandinghis prin ciples. Fo r myself

,I freely confess the case to be despe

rate. I n either understand them,n o r have any hopes o f ever

being able to understand them.

8. Being now satisfied that M r.Walton’s aim is no t to clearup o r defend Sir Isaac’s principles

,but rather to contradict and

expo se them, you will n o t, I suppo se, think it strange, ii—instead

o f putt ing questions to this in trepid answerer,who is never at a

lo ss,how o ften so ever his readers may—I entreat you, o r any

o ther man o f plain sense,to read the fo llowing passage, cited

from the th irty-fi rst sectio n o f the A nalyst, and then try to applyM r.Walto n’s answer to it : w hereby yo u will clearly perceivewhat a ve in o f raillery that gen t leman is master o f. Velo cityn ecessarily implies bo th time and space

,and canno t be conceived

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344 Reasons fo r n o t r eplying

10 . As to the question, whether no th ing be no t the pro duct o fn o thing multiplied by something, M r.Walto n is pleased to answerin th e aflirmative. And nevertheless

,when aé is no thing, that is,

when a and e are no th in g,he den ies that A5 + Ba is no thing.

This is o ne o f tho se man y in co nsisten cies which I leave the

reader to reconcile. But,saith Mr.Walton

,the sides o f the given

rectangle still remain,wh i ch tw o sides acco rding to him must

fo rm the increment o f the flowing rectangle. But in this hedirectly co ntradicts Sir Isaac N ewton

,w ho asserts that Al +Ba

and no t A + B is the increment o f the rectangle A . B . And,

indeed,how is it po ssible a line should be the increment o f a

surface ? Lateram incrementis totis a et 6 generatur rectanguli incre

men tum A6 Ba,are the wo rds of Sir Isaac 6

,which wo rds seem

utterly inconsisten t with M r. Walto n’s do ctrine. But no wo nderthat gent leman should no t agree w ith Sir Isaac

,since he cannot

agree even with himself, but co n tradicts what he saith elsewhere,as the reader may see, even befo re he gets to the end o f that same

sect io n , wherein he hath to ld us,that ‘the gnomon and the sum

o f the tw o rectangles are turned into tho se two sides by a

retro verted mo tio n ’

(pp. 1 1 and Which propo sition,if

you o r any o ther perso n should try to make sense o f, you may

po ssibly be convinced that this pro found autho r is as much at

variance with common sense as he is with himself and Sir IsaacN ewto n .

1 1 . M r .Walto n,in the n inth page o f his Vindication

,in o rder to

expla in the nature o f flux io ns,saith that to o btain the last ratio “

o f syn chro nal incremen ts,the magn itude o f tho se increments

must be infin itely dimin ished .’ N o twithstanding which, in the

twenty-th i rd page o f h is full answ er,he chargeth me as greatly

mistaken , in suppo sing that he explained the do ctrine of fluxions

by the ratio o f magn itudes infi n ite ly dimin ished. It is an easymatter fo r anyautho r to write so as to betray his readers intomistakes abo ut his mean ing. But then it is no t easy to conceivew hat right he hath to upbraid them with such thei r mistakes. If

I have mistaken his sense, let any o ne judge if he did not fairlylead me in to the mistake. When a man puz z leth his reader,saith and unsaith

,useth ambiguous terms and o bscure terms, and

[See Nat. Pbil. P rincip. Math. 1. II. lem. z .]—Aurnon.

to M 7 . Walton’

s fall answ er . 345

putteth them together in so perverse a manner that it is o ddsyou can make out no sen se at all

,o r

,if any, wro ng sense , pray

w ho is in fault but the writer h imself ? Let any o ne co nsiderMr.Walton’s ow n wo rds

,and then saywhether I am n o t justified

in mak ing th is remark.

12 . In the twen t ieth page o f his full answer,lVIr .Walto n tel ls

us that ‘fluxio ns are measured by the first o r last pro po rt io ns o fiso chro nal in crements generated o r destro yed bymo t io n .

’A litt le

after he saith,these ratio s subsist w hen the iso chro nal incremen ts

have no magn itude. N o w,I would fain know whether the iso

chronal incremen ts themse lves subsist when they have no magn itude ? Whether by iso chro nal in cremen ts w e are no t to understand increments generated in equal t imes ? Whether there can

be an incremen t where there is n o increase,o r increase where

there is no magn itude ? Whether if magn itudes are no t generatedin tho se equal t imes

,what e lse is generated there in , o r what else

is it that Mr.Walto n calls iso ch ro nal ? I ask the reader thesequestions. I dare no t ask M r.Walto n . Fo r

,as I hinted befo re,

the subject grows st i ll mo re o bscure in pro po rtion as th is ablew riter attempts to i llustrate it .

13. We are to ld (p. 22) ‘ that the first o r last rat io o f the

iso chro nal spaces bath a real existence, fo rasmuch as it is equa lto the rat io o f the tw o mo t io ns o f tw o po in ts , w hich mo t io n s,subsisting when the iso chro nal spaces are no th ing

,preserve the

existence o f the first o r last rat io o f these spaces, o r keep it frombeing a rat io of no things.’ In o rder to assist your understanding,it must no t be omitted that the said tw o po in ts are suppo sed toexist at the same t ime in o ne po in t, and to be mo ved differentways witho ut stirring from that po int . M r.Walto n hath the co n

scien ce to call this riddle a fu l l and clear an swer : to make sense

of which you must suppo se it o ne o f his iro n ies. In the next andlast article o f his perfo rman ce, yo u st i ll fi nd him pro ceed in the

same vein o f raillery upo n flux io n s.14. It w il l be allowed that w ho ever seriously underto o k to

explain the seco nd, th ird, and fo urth flux io ns o f Sir Isaac N ew to n

would have do ne it in a w ayagreeable to that great man’s ow n

do ctrine. What Sir Isaac’s precise no t io n is I wi ll no t pretendto say. And yet I will ven ture to say, it is someth ing thatcanno t be explained by the three dimensio ns o f a cube. I frankly

346 Reasons for no t r eplying

ow n,I do n o t understand Sir Isaac’s do ctrine so far as to frame a

po sit ive idea o f his fluxio ns. I have,n evertheless, a negative

co n cept io n thereo f, so far as to see that Mr .Walto n is in jest,o r

(if in earn est) that he understands it no mo re than I do .

I 5 . Sir Isaac tells us that he co nsiders indeterminate quantitiesas flow ing, o r in o ther wo rds

,as in creas ing o r decreasing by a

perpetual mo t ion . Wh i ch quant ities he den o tes by the latterletters o f the alphabet

,and their flux io n s o r ce lerit ies o f increas

ing by the same letters po inted o ver head,and the fluxions of

fluxio ns o r seco nd flux io ns,i. e. the mutat io ns mo re o r less sw ift

o f the fi r st celerit ies,by the same letters po inted w ith double

po ints , and the mutat io ns o f tho se mutat io ns o f the first mutat io n s o r flux io n s o r ce lerities o f increas ing

,which he calls fluxions

o f flux io ns o f flux io ns,o r th ird flux io ns

,by three po ints , the

fourth flux io ns by fo ur po in ts , the fifth by fi ve , and so o n 7 . Sir

Isaa c, you see

,speaks o f quant ity in general. And in the Analyst

the do ctrin e is exemplified and the case is put in lines. N ow in

lines,where there is o n ly o ne dimen sion

,how are w e enabled to

co nceive s eco nd,third

,o r fourth flux io ns

,by con ceiving the

generat io n o f three dimen sio ns in a cube ? Let any o ne but

read w hat Sir Isaac N ewt o n o r w hat I have said,and then apply

w hat M r.Walto n hath written abo ut the three dimensio ns of a

cube,and see whether the difliculties are so lved

,o r the doctrine

made o ne w h it the clearer by th is ex plicatio n .

16. That yo u may the better judge o f the merit o f this part ofM r.Walto n ’

s perfo rmance,I shall beg leave to set down a passage

o r tw o from the A nalyst .‘As it is impo ssible to co nceive

velo city without t ime o r space,witho ut either fin ite length or

fin ite durat io n,it must seem abo ve the pow er o f man to com

prehend even the first flux io ns. And if the first are incompre

hensible,w hat shal l w e say o f the seco nd and thi rd fluxio ns, &c ?

He w ho can co n ceive the beginn ing o f a beginn ing, o r the end

o f an end,somewhat befo re the first o r after the last

,mayperhaps

be sharp-sighted eno ugh to co n ceive these things. But most men,

I be lieve,will fi nd it impo ssible to understand them in anysense

w hatso ever. One wo uld think that men could no t speak too

exact ly o n so n ice a subject. And yet w e may o ften observe

7[See his Treatise De Q uadratura Curvaram.]—AUTH0R .

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348 Reasons f or no t r eplying

everybo dy kn ew there w ere three dimensio n s in a cube,and

that a so lid m ight be generated by the mo tio n o f a surface,a

surface by the mo tio n o f a lin e,and a l ine by the mo tion of

a po in t . And this in effect is all w e know from M r.Walton’sexplicat io n . As fo r his dwe lling so minutely o n the genesis of

the so lid parts o f a cube,a thing so fo reign from the purpose

,

the o n ly rat io nal acco unt I can give o f it is that M r. Walton,

by puz z ling the imaginat io n o f his vulgar readers, hoped. the

better to disguise his betraying the do ctrine o f his great client,w h ich to a discern ing eye he man ifest ly gives up , and insteadthereo f humo ro usly subst itutes w hat all the wo rld knew beforeSir Isaac w as bo rn

,to w it

,the three dimensio ns o f a cube and

the genesis thereo f bymo t io n .

1 9 . Upo n the who le,I appeal to you and every intelligent

reader,w hether th is th ing, w h ich M r.Walto n is pleased iro nically

t o call a ‘ full answer,

’ do th n o t carry thro ughout a sly insinu

at io n—that the pro fo und science o f flux io ns canno t be maintained but by the help o f mo st un inte lligible paradoxes and

in co nsisten cies ? So far,indeed

,as affi rmatio ns go , he sheweth

h imself an able suppo rt o f Sir Isaac N ewto n . But then in his

reason ings he dro ps that great man upo n the mo st impo rtantpo in ts

,to w it

,his do ctrine o f mo t io n and his do ctrine o f fluxions ,

n o t regarding how far the demo n stratio n o f his famous Principia

is in terested there in . To co nvince yo u st i ll mo re and mo re of

the truth hereo f, do but reflect a little o n NIr.Walto n’s conduct.Can you th ink it pro bable that so learned and clear-headed aw riter w ou ld have laid down such a direct repugnancy to commonsen se

,as his idea o f mo tio n in a po int

,fo r the groundwo rk of his

explanatio n,had it been his real in ten t io n to explain ? Or, can

you suppo se he wo uld have been abso lutely silent o n so manypo in ts urged home bo th in the A nalyst and D efence, wh ich it con;cerned a Vindicato r o f Sir Isaac n o t to have o verlo o ked ? Can

you imagine that if he meant serio usly to defend the doctrineo f fluxio ns

,he w ould have co nten ted h imse lf with barely assert

ing that Sir Isaac N ewto n in the intro ductio n to hiswadrature

o f Curves, in the seco nd lemma o f the seco nd bo ok,and in the

scho lium to the first sect io n o f the first bo o k o f his Principleso f Ph ilo so phy, hath delivered his do ctrine o f flux ions in so clearand distin ct a manner

,witho ut the least in co nsistency in terms

to M r . Walton’

s fa ll answ er . 349

o r arguments,that o ne would have tho ught it impossible fo r

any person no t to have underst oo d him.

’

(p.20. Is it po ssible

,I say, that M r. Walton could in earnest

hope w e should take his bare w o rd,as so much mo re credible

than Sir Isaac’s, and no t rather have endeavoured to answerthe quest io ns, and reco ncile the difliculties set fo rth in myDefence of Free-thinking ,

fo r in stance,in sect. 36 ? Wherein 1

entreat my antago n ist to explain ‘ w hether Sir Isaac’s momentum be a finite quant ity

,o r an infin itesimal

,o r a mere limit

,

’

adding,

‘If you say a fin ite quant ity,be pleased to reco ncile

this with what he saith in the scho lium o f the seco nd lemmaof the first sectio n o f the first bo o k o f his Prin ciples—Caveintelligas quantitates magnitudin e determinatas

,sed cogita semper

diminuendas sine limite. If you say, an infin itesimal : reconcilethis With What is said in his in t ro duct io n to the (&adratures

Volui ostendere quad in met/sodaflux ionam non opus sit fi gures infi nite

par'vas in geometriam inducere. If yo u sho uld say, it is a mere

limit,be pleased to reco nci le this with what w e fi nd in the

first case of the seco nd lemma in the second bo ok of his

Principles—Uéi de la teriéns A et B deerant momentoram di

midia, &c., w here the momen ts are supposed to ée divided.

’—I shal lscarce think it wo rth my w h i le to bestow a serious thought o n

any writer w ho shall preten d t o maintain Sir Isaac’s do ctrine,and yet leave this passage without a reply. And the reader

,I

believe,will think with me that

,in answer to difficulties dis

tinctly propo sed and insisted o n,to offer no thing but a magis

terial assert io n is a mere grimace o f o ne who made merry withfluxions

,under the no tio n o f defending them. And he w i ll be

farther confirmed in this w ay o f thinking, when he o bservesthat Mr. Walton hath no t said o ne syllable in reply to tho seseveral sectio ns of myDefence, which I had particularly referredto,as contain ing a ful l an sw er to his Vindication. But i t is no

wonder if,with Sir Isaac’s do ctrin e, he should dro p also h is

own arguments in favour thereo f.2 1. I have been at the pains o nce fo r all to write this sho rtcomment o n Mr.Walto n

,as the o n ly w ay I could think o f fo r

making him in telligible,which w i ll also serve as a key to his

future writings o n this subject . And I w as the rather in clinedto take this t rouble

,because it seemeth to me there is no part

3 50 Reaso ns f o r n o t yep/yang ,&c.

o f learn ing that wants to be c leared up mo re than this same

do ctrine o f flux io n s,w h ich hath h itherto walked about mist

to the stupefact io n o f the literat i o f the present age . To con

e lude,I accept th is pro fesso r’s recan tat io n

,no r am at all dis

pleased at the ingen ious metho d he takes to disguise it . Some

z ealo us flux io n ists may perhaps answer him.

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ADVERTISEMENT BY THE AUTHOR 1

THE Q uer ist was fi rst printed in the year o ne thousand seven hun

dred and thirty-fi ve ; since which time the face o f things is somewhat

changed. In this editio n some alteratio ns have been made. The

three Parts are published in o ne ; some few Q ueries are added, and

many omitted particularly o f tho se relating to the sketch o r plan'

1 The d rist is the fi rst in chro nological order o f Berkeley’s tracts o n the So cialand Eco nomical Co ndition o f Ireland, w ritten when he w as Bishop o i Cloyne. These

tracts show his ex tensive acquaintance w ith

trade, agricu lture, fi nance, and the arts o f

life. The o thers fo l low the c r ist in this

edition o f his Works.

The fi rst editio n o f the Q xer z'

st w as issued

at Dublin in three successive Parts. Part I.appeared in 1 735 , about a year afterBerkeley w as sett led in Cloyne. It w as

fo llowed by Part II. in June 1736, and

byPart III. in 1 737.I have sough t in vain fo r a sight o f the

fi rst editio n . In a letter to Mr. Prior, dated‘Cloyne, February Berkeley speak s

o f that editio n as then exhausted , mentioningthat Dean Gervais could no t fi nd a co py in

the shops to present to the Lord Lieutenant .

‘I w ish ,’

he adds, you co uld get o ne hand

somely bound fo r his Excellency ; o r at

least the last published , relating to the

Bank , which co nsisted o f excerpta out o f

the three Parts o f the c rist. I wro teto you befo re to pro cure tw o copies o f this

for his Excel lency and Mr. Liddell .’A new editio n w as published in Londo n

in 1750, w ith the abo ve Advertisement prefi xed, and the Word to the Wise annex ed.

It w as fo llo w ed in 1 75 1 by a Glasgo wedition o f the same tw o w ork s, ‘

printedand so ld by Ro bert and Andrew Fo w lis,printers to the University,’ co ntaining the

fo llow ing PrefaceVOL. III.

The Printers to the Reader.This city and the neighbo uring coun

try have been o f late years distinguished fo rtheir industry and applicatio n to the im

pro vement o f manufactures, trade, and agriculture, a like spirit diffusing itself o vermany parts o f Sco tland. We co uld w ish ,

therefore, to render printing in this placeno t o n ly subservient to religio us literature ,but also to the know ledge o f trade and

manufactures ; and have o f late appliedo urselves particu larly to repub lish some o f

the mo st remarkable bo oks o f that k ind.

We began w ith the ce lebrated Law ’

s Treatise

on M oney and Trade. We reprinted M r.

Gee o n Tbe Trade and N avigatio n of Gr eatBr itain , as a bo ok universally appro ved and

esteemed . With the same view w e havejust no w in the press Sir Jo siah Child o n

Tr ade and the Interest of M oney, and M r .

Law’

s o ther treatise, entitled P r oposals and

Reasons fo r constituting a Coun cil of Tradein S co tland. In pro secutio n o f the same

plan ,w e have just now reprin ted the Q z er z 'st ,

o riginally printed in Dublin , w hich w as put

into o ur hands by a friend w hom w e lo okupo n as a z ealo us lo ver o f the impro vementso f his co untry.

’

The Q uerist was wro te w ith a design to

promo te the impro vement o f Ireland , and

appears to have had no smal l effects thatw ay, from the public spirit w hich has o f lateyears disco vered itself, and seems every yearto increase in that k ingdom.

’

‘We see nowhere such noble Asso cia

354 Adver tisemen t oy tfi e A ulnar .

o f a natio nal bank ; which it may be time eno ugh to take again inhand when the public shall seem dispo sed to make use o f such an

expedien t. 1 had determined w ith myself never to prefi x my name

to the Q uer ist, but in the last editio n 2 was overruled by a friends, who

was remarkable fo r pursuing the public interest w ith as much diligenceas o thers do their own . I apprehend the same cen sure o n this thatI incurred upo n ano ther o ccasio n", fo r meddling out o f my pro fession.

Though to feed the hungry and clo the the naked, by promo ting an

ho nest industry, w ill, perhaps, be deemed no improper employmentfo r a clergyman who still thinks himself a member o f the common

wealth . As the sum o f human happiness is suppo sed to co nsist inthe go o ds o f mind, bo dy, and fo rtune , I w ould fain make my studieso f some use to mankind

, w ith regard to each o f these three partienlars , and h0pe it w ill no t be tho ught faulty o r indecent in any man ,

o f what pro fessio n so ever, to o ffer his mite to wards improving the

manners, health , and pro sperity o f his fellow -creatures.

tio ns, such genero us z eal , such ex tensiveattentio n amo ng th e gent lemen to promo te,

by w ell-judged premiums, every valuablebranch o f manufacture , and every impro vement benefi cial to their co untry.

’

‘ If reprinting this small w ork here shallco ntribute to make it more general ly knownand attended to amo ng us, the Printers fi atter themselves they w ill have do ne a thingacceptable to every o ne wh o is a lo ver o fthe impro vement o f his co untry. We haven ow here found , in so small a compass, so

just and ex tensive a view o f the true so urces

o f w ealth and happiness to a co un try, so

many valuable hints fo r impro ving the ne

cessary, the usefu l , and the o rnamental arts.

Many o f these are at least as far behind stillin this co untry as in Ireland.

’

Mutato nomine, de te fabula narratur.’

Glasgow , yanuary 10 ,

The c r ist w as republished in the Miscellany in 175 2 . A successio n o f reprintsfo llow ed .

In 1829 , an editio n o f the c r ist w as

published in Lo ndo n ,

‘w ith no tes show ing

how many o f the same Q uestions stillremain to be ask ed respecting Ireland.

’

The no tes are fo r the mo st part slight and

superfi cial .In his Preface , the Editor o f the 1829

editio n describes the principal value o f the

w ork as co nsisting in the simple, clear, andvigorous statement o f great , liberal, and,

tho ugh no t new , unacknow ledged truths,o n questio ns relating to Trade and Money.

Other questio ns o f Po litical Economy—suchas regard populatio n, po or, &c .

—the bo ldmind o f Berkeley seems no t to have grappledw ith , o r at least to have co nfi ned itself totheir co nsideratio n under lo cal circurnstances.’Berkeley returns, in the Q uerist, to the

themes o f the Essay which he publishedfo urteen years before, after the so cial disasters o f the So uth Sea project.

2 i. e . the editio n o f 1750 .

3 ProbablyM r . Prior.The Tar-w ater contro versy, in which

this complaint w as made in more than one

o f the po lemical pamphlets, c . g. Anti-Saris.

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3 56 Tae Quer ist.

that each member,acco rding to his just pretens io ns and industry,

sho uld have pow e r ?9. Whether pow er he no t referred to act io n , and whether actiondo th no t fo llo w appet ite o r will ?

10 . Whether fash io n do th n o t create appet ites , and whetherthe prevai ling will o f a nat ion is n o t the fash io n ?

I I . Whether the current o f industry and commerce be no t

determ ined by th is prevailing will ?1 2 . Whether it be n o t owing to custom that the fashio ns are

agreeable13 . Whether it may no t co n cern the wisdom o f the legislature

to interpo se in the making o f fash io ns ; and n o t leave an affair ofso great influen ce to the management o f women and fops

,tailors

and V in tnersI 4 . Whether reaso nable fash io ns are a greater restraint o n free

dom than tho se wh ich are un reaso nable ?15 . Whether a gen eral go o d taste in a peo ple would no t greatlyco nduce to their thriving ? And w hether an uneducated gentry beno t the greatest o f nat io nal evils ?

16. Whether customs and fash io ns do no t supply the place of

reaso n in the vulgar o f all ranks Whether,therefo re

,it do th not

very much impo rt that they sho uld be wisely framed ?1 7 . Whether the imitat ing tho se neighbo urs in our fashions

,to

w hom w e bear no liken ess in o ur circumstan ces,be no t o ne cause

o f distress to th is natio n ?18. Whether frugal fash io ns in the upper rank

,and comfo rtable

living in the lower, be n o t the mean s to multiply inhabitants ?19. Whether the bulk o f o ur Irish nat ives are no t kept

from thriving, by that cyn ical co nten t in dirt and beggaryw hich they po ssess to a degree beyo nd any o ther people inChristendom20 . Whether the creating o f wants be no t the likeliest waytopro duce industry in a peo ple ? And w hether

,if our peasants were

accustomed to eat beef and wear sho es,they would no t be more

industrio us2 1 . Whether o ther things being given , as climate, so il, &c.

,the

w ealth be no t pro po rtio ned to the industry,and th is to the ciren

lat io n o f credit,be the credit circulated o r transferred by what

marks o r to kens so ever

Tko Quer ist. 3 5 7

22. Whether,therefo re

,less money

,swiftly circulat ing

,be no t

,

in effect,

equivalen t to mo re mo ney slowly circulat ing ? O r,

whether,if the circulat io n be recipro cal ly as the quant ity o f co in

,

the natio n can be a lo ser ?23 . Whether mo ney is to be co n sidered as having an int rinsicvalue

,o r as being a commo di ty

,a standard

,a measure

,o r a

pledge, as is variously suggested by writers ? And whether thetrue idea o f mo ney

,as such

,be no t alto gether that o f a t icket o r

counter ?24. Whether the value o r price o f things be n o t a com

pounded pro po rtio n,direct ly as the demand

,and recipro cal ly as

the plenty ?25 . Whether the terms crown, livre, pound sterling, & c

,are

no t to be co nsidered as expo n en ts o r denominat io ns o f such pro

po rt io n ? And w hether go ld,silve r

,and paper are n o t t ickets o r

counters fo r recko n ing,reco rding, and transferring thereo f ?

26. Whether the denominat io ns being retained,although the

bullion w ere go ne,things might n o t nevertheless be rated, bought,

and so ld,industry promo ted

,and a circulation o f commerce main

tained ?

27. Whether an equal raising o f all so rts o f go ld,silver

,and

copper co in can have anyeffect in bringing money into the k ingdom ? And whether altering the pro po rt io ns between the severalso rts can have anyo ther effect but mu ltiplying o ne k ind and les

sen ing ano ther, without any in crease o f the sum to tal ?28. W hether arbitrary changing the denominatio n o f co in be

not a public cheat ?29. What makes a wealthy peo ple ? Whether mines o f go ld

and silver are capable o f do ing th is ? And whether the negro es,amidst the go ld sands o f Afric, are no t po o r and dest itute ?30. Whether there be anyvirtue in go ld o r si lver, o ther than as

they set peo ple at wo rk,o r create industry ?

31 . Whether it be no t the o pin io n o r will o f the peo ple, ex

citing them to industry,that t ruly enricheth a nat io n ? And

whether this do th no t principally depend o n the means fo r co un ting, transferring, and preserving power, that is, pro perty o f all

kinds32. Whether if there was no si lver o r go ld in the k ingdom,

our trade might no t,nevertheless, supply bills of exchange,

3 58 Tke Quer ist.

suffi cient to an swer the demands o f absen tees in England o r

elsewhere33. Whether curren t bank-n o tes may no t be

‘ deemed mo ney ?And whether they are n o t actually the greater part o f the moneyo f this kingdom ?34. Pro vided the whee ls mo ve

,whether it is no t the same thing

,

as to the effect o f the machine,be th is don e by the fo rce of wind

,

o r water,o r an imals

35 . Whether power to command the industry o f o thers be no t

real wealth ? And w hether mo ney be n o t in truth tickets o r

to kens fo r co nveying and reco rding such power,and whether it

be o f great co nsequence whatmaterials the t ickets are made o f ?36. Whether trade

,either fo reign o r domestic

,be in truth any

mo re than th is commerce o f industry ?37 . Whether to promo te

,t ransfer

,and secure this commerce

,

and this property in human labour,o r,in o ther wo rds, this power,

be n o t the so le mean s o f en riching a peo ple,and how far this may

be do ne independen tly o f go ld and si lver ?38. Whether it w ere no t wro ng to suppo se land itself to bewealth ? And whether the industry o f the peo ple is no t first tobe co nsidered

,as that which con stitutes wealth

,which makes even

land and si lver to be wealth,neither o f which would have any

value but as means and mo tives to industry ?39. Whether in the wastes of America a man might no t possess

twen ty miles square o f land,and yet want his dinner, o r a coat

to his back40. Whether a fert i le land

,and the industry o f its inhabitants,

would n o t pro ve inexhaust ible funds o f real wealth,be the counters

fo r co nveying and reco rding thereo f what yo u will, paper, go ld,o r si lver ?4 1. Whether a single h int be sufficient to o vercome a pre

judice ? And whether even o bvious truths will no t sometimesbear repeating ?42 . Whether

,if human labour be the true so urce o f wealth, it

do th no t fo llow that idleness sho uld o f all things be discouragedin a wise state43. Whether even go ld, o r silver

,if they should lessen the

industry o f its inhabitants,would n o t ,

be ruinous to a country ?And whether Spain be no t an instan ce o f this

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360 The Quer ist.

emplo yment fo r them ? And whether servitude,chains, and hard

labo ur,fo r a term o f years

,w o uld no t be a mo re discouraging

,

as well as a mo re adequate pun ishmen t fo r felo ns than evendeath itself ?55. Whether there are n o t such things in Ho l land as betteringhouses fo r bringing young gent lemen to o rder ? And whethersuch an inst itution wo uld be use less amo ng us ?56. Whether it be true that the po o r in Ho lland have no

resource but their ow n labour, and yet there are no beggars intheir streets ?5 7 . Whether he who se luxury co n sumeth fo reign pro ducts, and

w ho se industry produceth no th ing domestic to exchange fo r them,

is no t so far fo rth injurious to his co unt ry ?5 8. Whether necessity is no t to be hearkened to befo re con

venience,and co nvenience befo re luxury ?

59. Whether to provide plent ifully fo r the poo r be no t feedingthe ro o t

,the substan ce whereo f w i ll shoo t upwards into the

branches,and cause the top to flo urish ?

60 . Whether there be any in stance o f a state wherein the

peo ple,living neatly and plentiful ly

,did n o t aspire to wealth ?

61 . Whether nastiness and beggary do n o t,o n the contrary

,

extinguish all such ambitio n,making men list less

,hopeless

,and

slo thful ?62. Whether a country inhabited by a people well fed,clo thed

,and lo dged would n o t become every daymo re populous ?

And whether a numerous sto ck o f peo ple in such circumstanceswou ld no t co nst itute a flo urishing nat io n ? and how far the

pro duct o f o ur ow n count ry may suffi ce fo r the compassing thisend ?

63. Whether a peo ple w ho had pro vided themselves with then ecessaries o f life in go o d plenty wo u ld n o t so on extend theirindustry to new arts and new branches o f commerce ?64. Whether tho se same manufactures which England imports

from o ther coun tries mayno t be admitted from Ireland ? And,if so

,whether lace

,carpets

,and tapestry

,three considerable articles

o f English impo rtation,might no t fi nd en co uragemen t in Ireland ?

And whether an academy fo r design might no t greatly co nduceto the perfecting tho se manufactures amo ng us65 . Whether France and Flanders co uld have drawn so much

Tfi e Quer ist. 36 1

mo ney from England fo r figured silks,lace

,and tapestry

,if they

had no t had academies fo r design ing ?66. Whether

,w hen a ro om w as o nce prepared

,and mo dels in

plaster o f Paris, the annual ex pense o f such an academy n eed standthe public in abo ve tw o hundred pounds a year ?67. Whether our lin en-manufacture wou ld no t fi nd the benefit

of this inst itutio n ? And w hether there be anyth ing that makes

us fall sho rt o f the Dutch in damasks,diapers

,and prin ted linen

,

but our igno rance in design ?68. Whether tho se who may s light th is affair as no t io nal have

sufficient ly co nsidered the extensive use o f the art o f design,and

its influence in mo st trades and manufactures,w here in the fo rms

of things are o ften mo re regarded than the materials Q ?69. Whether there be any art so o ner learned than that o f

making carpets ? And whether o ur women,w ith litt le time and

pains,mayno t make mo re beaut iful carpets than tho se impo rted

from Turkey ? And whether th is bran ch o f the wo o llen manufacture be no t o pen to us ?

70. Whether human industry can pro duce,from such cheap

materials,a manufacture o f so great value, byany o ther art

,as

bytho se o f sculpture and pain ting ?7 1. Whether pictures and statues are n o t in fact so much trea

sure ? And whether Rome and Flo rence wo uld no t be po o r town swithout them ?72 . Whether they do no t bring ready mo ney as we ll as jewelsWhether in Italy debts are no t paid

,and children po rt io ned with

them,as with go ld and si lver

73. Whether it wo uld no t be mo re prudent,to strike o ut and

exert ourselves in permitted branches o f t rade,than to fo ld our

hands, and repin e that w e are no t allowed the w o o llen ?74. Whether it be true that tw o mi l lio n s are yearly expended

byEngland in fo reign lace and linen ?75. Whether immense sums are no t drawn yearly into the

N o rthern countries,fo r supplying the British navy with hempen

manufactures76. Whether there be anything mo re profitable than hemp ?

And whether there should n o t be greater premiums fo r en couraging2

[Since the fi rst publicatio n o f this Op ory, the Art o f Design seems to be more co n

5|dered and co untenanced amo ng us.] —AUTHOR .

362 Tne Quer ist.

o ur hempen trade What advantages may no t Great Britainmake o f a coun try where land and labour are so cheap ?77 . Whether Ireland alo ne might no t raise hemp sufficient fo r

the British navy ? And w hether it w o uld no t be vain to expectth is from the British Co lo n ies in America

,where hands are so

scarce,and labour so excessively dear

78. Whether, if our ow n peo ple want will o r capacity fo r suchan attempt

,it might no t be wo rth while fo r some undertaking

spirits in England to make sett lements,and raise hemp in the

count ies o f Clare and Limerick,than w hich

,perhaps

,there is no t

fitter land in the wo rld fo r that purpo se ? And w hether bo thnatio ns would n o t fi nd their advantage therein7 9.Whether if all the idle hands in th is k ingdom w ere employed

o n hemp and flax,w e might n o t fi nd sufficien t vent fo r these manu

factures80 . How far it may be in o ur ow n power to better o ur affairs

,

without interfering with o ur n eighbo urs ?81 . Whether the pro h ibitio n o f our wo o llen trade ought no t

natural ly to put us o n o ther metho ds wh ich give no jealouSy?

82 . Whether paper be n o t a valuable art ic le o f commerce ? Andwhether it be n o t true that o n e single bo o ksel ler in Lo ndo nyearly expended abo ve fo ur tho usand pounds in that fo reigncommo dity83 . How it comes to pass that the Venetians and Geno ese

,

w ho wear so much less linen,and so much wo rse than we do

,

should yet make very go o d paper, and in great quantity, while wemake very litt le ?84 . How lo ng it will be befo re my countrymen fi nd out that it

is w o rth w h ile to spend a penny in o rder to get a groat ?85 . If all the land were t illed that is fi t fo r t i llage, and all that

sowed with hemp and flax that is fi t fo r raising them,whether we

shou ld have much sheep-walk beyo nd what w as suffi cien t to supplythe necessit ies o f the k ingdom ?86. Whether o ther countries have n o t flourished without the

w o o llen-t rade87. Whether it be no t a sure sign , o r effect o f a country’s

thriving, to see it well cult ivated and ful l o f inhabitants ? And,if so

,w hether a great quant ity o f sheep-walk be n o t ruinous to a

country, rendering it waste and thin ly inhabited ?

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364 Tee Quer ist.

100. Whether it wo uld n o t be mo re reaso nable to mend our

state than complain o f it , and how far th is maybe in our own

power ?10 1 . What the nat io n gains by tho se w ho live in Ireland upon

the pro duce o f fo reign countries ?102 . Ho w far the van ity o f o ur ladies in dressing

,and of our

gen t lemen in drinking,co n tribute to the general misery of the

peo ple ?103. Whether natio ns

,as wise and o pulen t as ours

,have not

made sumptuary laws , and w hat h inders us from do ing the

same

104 . Whether tho se w ho dr ink fo reign l iquo rs,and deck them

se lves and their fami lies w ith fo reign o rnamen ts,are no t so far

fo rth to be recko ned absen tees ?105 . Whether

,as our trade is limited

,w e o ught no t to limit

o ur expen ses , and whether this be n o t the natural and obviousremedy ?

106 . Whether the dirt,and famine

,and nakedness o f the bulk

o f our peo ple might n o t be remedied,even altho ugh w e had no

fo reign trade ? And whether this should n o t be o ur first care , andw hether

,if this w ere o nce pro vided fo r

,the co nven iences o f the

rich would n o t so o n fo llo w ?

10 7. Whether comfo rtable living do th no t pro duce wants,and

w ants industry, and industry wealth ?108. Whether there is n o t a great differen ce between Ho lland

and Ire land ? And w hether fo reign commerce,w ithout which the

o n e co uld n o t subsist,be so n ecessary fo r the o ther ?

109. M ight w e no t put a hand to the plo ugh, o r the spade,although w e had n o fo reign commerce ?

1 10 . Whether the ex igencies o f nature are no t to be answeredby industry on our ow n so il ? And how far the co nven iences andcomfo rts o f l ife maybe pro cured, by a domest ic commerce betweenthe several parts o f this k ingdom ?

1 1 1 . Whether the w omen mayno t sew ,spin

,weave

,embro ider,

suffi cien t ly fo r the embellishment o f their perso ns,and even enough

to raise envy in each o ther,witho ut be ing beho lden to fo reign

coun tries ?1 12 . Suppo se the bulk o f o ur inhabitants had sho es to their feet,clo thes to their backs

,and beef in thei r bellies

,might no t such a

T/ce Quer ist. 365

state be eligible fo r the public, even though the squires w ere co n

demmed to drink ale and cider ?1 13. Whether

,if drunkenness be a n ecessary evil

,men mayno t

as well drink the grow th o f their ow n co untry ?1 14.Whether a nat io n with in itself might n o t have real wealth ,

sufficient to give its inhabitants power and distinct io n,w itho ut the

help o f go ld and silver1 15 . Whether

,if the arts o f sculpture and pain t ing w ere

encouraged amo ng us,w e might n o t furn ish o ur ho uses in a much

nobler manner with our ow n manufactures ?1 16. Whether w e have no t

,o r mayno t have

,all the necessary

materials fo r building at home

1 17 . Whether t i les and plaster mayno t supply the place o f

N o rway fir fo r flo o ring and w ainsco t ?1 18. Whether plaster be n o t w armer

,as we ll as mo re secure

,

than deal ? And w hether a mo dern fash io nable house,lined with

fir,daubed over w ith o il and paint

,be n o t like a fi re-ship

,ready to

be lighted up byall accidents1 19.Whether larger houses, better built and furn ished, a greater

train of servan ts,the difference with regard to equipage and table

between finer and co arser,mo re and less e legan t , mayn o t be suffi

cient to feed a reaso nable share o f van ity,o r suppo rt all pro per

distinctio ns ? And whether all these may n o t be pro cured by

domestic industry out o f the fo ur e lements,w ithout ran sacking

the four quarters o f the globe1 20. Whether anyth ing is a nobler o rnament

,in the eye o f the

w orld,than an Italian palace

,that is

,sto n e and mo rtar skilfully

put together,and ado rned with sculpture and paint ing , and

whether this may n o t be compassed w ithout fo re ign trade ?12 1. Whether an expense in garden s and plan tat io ns wo uld

not be an elegant dist inctio n fo r the rich,a domest ic magn ifi

cence,emplo ying many hands within , and drawing n o thing from

abro ad1 22. Whether the apo lo gy w h ich is made fo r fo reign luxury in

England, to w it,that they cou ld no t carry o n their trade witho ut

impo rts as w e l l as expo rts,will ho ld in Ireland ?

1 23. Whether o ne may n o t be allowed to co n ceive and suppo sea society

,o r nat io n o f human creatures

,c lad in w o o llen clo ths

and stuffs,eat ing go o d bread, beef, and mutto n , poultry, and fi sh ,

366 Tne Quer ist.

in great plen ty, drinking ale,mead

,and c ider, inhabiting decent

houses built o f brick and marble,taking their pleasure in fair parks

and gardens, depending o n no fo reign impo rts either fo r fo od o r

raiment ? And whether such peo ple o ught much to be pitied ?1 24. Whether Ire land be no t as well qualified fo r such a state

as anynatio n under the sun ?

1 25 . Whether in such a state the inhabitants mayn o t contriveto pass the twen ty-fours w ith to lerable ease and cheerfulness ? Andwhether any peo ple upo n earth can do mo re ?

126. Whether they may n o t eat,drink

,play

,dress

,visit

,sleep

in go od beds, sit by go o d fires, bui ld, plant, raise a name,make

estates,and spend them

1 27 . Whether,upo n the who le

,a domestic trade mayno t suffi ce

in such a co unt ry as Ireland,to nourish and clo the its inhabitants

,

and pro vide them with the reaso nable co nven ien ces and even com

fo rts o f life ?1 28. Whether a general habit o f living well wo uld no t produce

numbers and industry , and whether, co nsidering the tendency ofhuman k ind

,the co nsequen ce thereo f wo uld no t be fo reign trade

and riches,how un necessary so ever

1 29. Whether,neverthe less

,it be a crime to inquire how far

w e maydo without fo reign trade,and what would fo llow on such

a supposit io n ?130. Whether the number and welfare o f the subjects be not

the true strength o f the crown ?13 1 . Whether in all public inst itut io ns there should no t be an

end pro po sed,wh ich is to be the rule and limit o f the means ?

Whether this end should n o t be the well-be ing o f the who le ?And whether

,in o rder to this

,the first step should no t be to

clo the and feed o ur people ?132. Whether there be upo n earth any Christ ian o r civiliz edpeo ple

,so beggarly

,wretched

,and dest itute as the common

Irish ?133 . Whether

,n evertheless

,there is any o ther people whose

wan ts maybe mo re easily supplied from home ?

134. Whether,if there w as a wall o f brass a tho usand cubits

h igh round th is k ingdom,our natives might no t nevertheless

live c lean ly and comfo rtably,t i ll the land

,and reap the fruits

o f it ?

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368 Tne Quer ist.

in Hungary, fo r instance, a pro ud n obi lity are n o t subsisted w ithsmall impo rts from abro ad ?

148. Whether there be a prouder peo ple upo n earth than the

n o ble Ven etians, although they all wear plain black clo thes ?149. Whether a peo ple are to be pit ied that will no t sacrifice

their litt le part icular van it ies to the public go od ? And yet,w hether each part wo uld no t except their ow n fo ible from thispublic sacrifice

,the squire his bo t t le

,the lady her lace ?

150 . Whether c laret be no t o ften drunk rather fo r van ity thanfo r health, o r pleasure ?

15 1. Whether it be true that men o f n ice palates have beenimpo sed o n

,by elder w ine fo r French claret

,and by mead for

palm sack ?15 2 . D o n o t Englishmen abroad purchase beer and cider at

ten t imes the price o f w in e ?153. How many gent lemen are there in England o f a thousandpound per annum w ho never drink wine in their ow n houses ?Whether the same maybe said o f any in Ireland who have eveno n e hundred pounds per annum ?

154 . What reason have our neighbo urs in England fo r discouraging Fren ch w in es which may n o t ho ld with respect to

us also ?

155 . How much o f the n ecessary sustenance o f our people isyearly expo rted fo r brandy ?

156. Whether,if people must po iso n themse lves

,they had not

better do it w ith thei r ow n gro w th ?157. If w e impo rted neither claret from France, n o r fir from

N o rw ay,what the nat io n w o uld save by it ?

15 8. When the ro o t yieldeth in suflicient nourishment,whether

men do n o t to p the tree to make the low er branches thrive ?15 9. Whether

,if o ur ladies drank sage o r balm tea out of Irish

ware,it would be an in suppo rtable natio nal calamity ?

160. Whether it be really true that such wine is best as mostencourages drink ing, i. e. that must be given in the largest do seto pro duce its effect ? And whether th is ho lds with regard toany o ther medicine ?

16 1. Whether that trade sho u ld no t be acco unted mo st pern icio us w herein the balance is mo st against us ? And whetherth is be n o t the trade with France ?

The Quer ist. 369

162. Whether it be no t even madness to en courage trade witha natio n that takes n o thing o f o ur manufacture ?

163. Whether Ire land can ho pe to thrive if the majo r part o f

her patrio ts shal l be fo und in the Fren ch in terest ?164. Whether great plen ty and variety o f excel lent win es are

no t to be had o n the co asts o f Italy and Sicily ? And w hetherthose countries wo uld no t take our commo dit ies o f linen

,leather

,

butter,&c. in exchange fo r them ?

165. Part icularly,whether the Vz

'

mmz M amem'

num,wh ich gro w s

on the mountains about M essina,a red genero us w ine

,h igh ly

esteemed (if w e may credit Pliny) by the an cient Roman s,w o uld

not come cheap,and please the palates o f o ur Islanders ?

166. Why, if a bribe by the palate o r the purse be in effe ct thesame thing, they should n o t be alike infamous ?

167. Whether the van i ty and luxury o f a few o ught to standin competitio n w ith the interest o f a nat io n ?

168. Whether nat io nal w ants ought n o t to be the rule o f trade ?And whether the mo st pressing wants o f the majo rity ought n o t

to be fi rst considered ?169. Whether it is po ssible the co untry should be wellimproved

,whi le o ur beef is expo rted

,and o ur labo urers live

upon po tato es ?170 . If it be reso lved that w e canno t do without fo reign trade

,

Whether,at least

,it may n o t be wo rth wh ile to co n sider w hat

branches thereo f deserve to be entertained,and how far w e may

be able to carry it o n under o ur present limitatio ns ?17 1. What fo reign impo rts may be necessary fo r clo th ing

and feeding the families o f perso ns no t wo rth abo ve o ne

hundred pounds a year ? And how many w ealth ier there are

in the kingdom,and what pro po rt io n they bear to the o ther

inhabitants1 72. Whether trade be no t then o n a right fo o t , when fo reigncommo dit ies are impo rted in exchange o n ly fo r domestic superfluities ?

173. Whether the quant ities o f beef,butter, wo o l, and

leather,expo rted from th is island, can be recko n ed the super

fluities of a co untry,w here there are so many natives naked and

famished ?174. Whether it w ould no t be wise so to o rder our trade as to

VOL. 111. B b

370 Tlz e Quer ist.

expo rt manufactures rather than pro vis io ns, and o f tho se such asemplo y mo st hands ?

1 75 . Whether she w o uld no t be a very vile matro n,and justly

thought either mad o r fo o l ish,that should give away the

n ecessar ies o f life from her naked and famished chi ldren,in

exchange fo r pearls to st ick in her hai r,and sweetmeats to please

her own palate ?1 76. Whether a nat ion might no t be co nsidered as a family ?1 77 . Whether the remark made by a Venet ian ambassado r to

Cardinal Richelieu That Fran ce needed no thing to be richand easy

,but to know how to spen d what she dissipates—may

no t be o f use also to o ther peo ple ?1 78. Whether hungry catt le w ill no t leap o ver bounds ? And

Whether most men are no t hungry in a country where expensivefashio ns o btain ?

1 79. Whether there should n o t be published yearly scheduleso f our trade

,co ntain ing an accoun t o f the impo rts and exports

o f the fo rego ing year ?180. Whether o ther metho ds may no t be found fo r supplying

the funds,besides the custom o n th ings impo rted ?

181. Whether any art o r manufacture be so difficult as themaking o f go o d laws ?

182. Whether o ur peers and gen t lemen are bo rn legislators ?Or

,whether that faculty be acquired by study and reflection ?

183. Whether to comprehend the real interest of a people,and the means to pro cure it

,do no t imply some fund of know

ledge, h isto rical, mo ral, and po litical,with a faculty of reason

impro ved by learn ing ?184. Whether every enemy to learn ing be no t a Go th ? Andwhether every such Go th amo n g us be no t an enemy to the

country185 . Whether

,therefo re

,it would no t be an omen of ill presage,

a dreadful phenomenon in the land,if o ur great men should take

it in their heads to deride learn ing and educat io n ?186. Whether

,on the co ntrary

,it should n o t seem wo rth while

to erect a mart o f literature in this k ingdom,under wise regula

t io ns and better discipline than in anyo ther part of Europe ? Andwhether this would no t be an infallible mean s of drawing men and

mo ney into the k ingdom ?

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7 2 Tba Quer ist.J

ancient ly famous fo r learn ing? And whether at th is day it hathanybetter chan ce o f being c o n siderable ?

200 . Whether w e mayno t with better grace sit down and com

plain,when we have done all that lies in our power to help

o urse lves20 1 . Whether the gent leman o f estate hath a right to be idle ;

and whether he ought no t to be the great promo ter and director ofindustry among his tenants and ne ighbours ?

202. Whether in the canto ns o f Swit z erland all under thirtyyears o f age are no t excluded from their great councils ?203 . Whether Homer’s compendium o f education,

Mdamv [JEV finr fip'E'

p evat , flprjn‘

rfipd r e (fl ank—Iliad ix .

w o uld n o t be a go o d rule fo r mo dern educato rs o f youth ? Andw hether half the learn ing and study o f these kingdoms is no t use.

less,fo r w ant o f a pro per de livery and pun ctuation being taught in

our scho o ls and co l leges ?204. Whether in anyo rder a go od bui lding can be made o f bad

materials ? Or whether any fo rm o f government can make a

happy state out of bad individuals ?205 . What was it that So lomo n compared to a jewel o f go ld in

a sw in e’s snout ?206. Whether the public is mo re co ncerned in anything than in

the pro creat io n o f able citi z ens ?207 . Whether to the mult iplying o f human kind, it would not

much co n duce,if marriages Were made with goo d-liking ?

208. Whether,if women had n o po rtions

,w e should then see so

many unhappy and unfruitful marriages ?209. Whether the laws be n o t

,acco rding to Aristo t le

,a mind

witho ut appet ite o r passio n ? And consequently witho ut respecto f perso n s ?2 10 . Suppo se a rich man’s so n marries a po o r man’s daughter,

suppo se also that a poo r man ’s daughter is deluded and debauched

by the so n o f a rich man ; which is mo st to be pitied ?2 1 1 . Whether the pun ishment should be placed on the seduced

o r the seducer ?2 1 2. Whether a promise made befo re God and man in the most

so lemn manner o ught to be v io lated ?2 13 . Whether it was Plato ’s o pin io n that

,‘ fo r the go od of the

commun ity, rich should marry with rich —De Leg. lib. iv.

The Quer ist. 37 3

2 14. Whether, as seed equally scattered pro duceth a go o dlyharvest, even so an equal distribut io n o f wealth do th no t cause a

nation to flo urish215 . When ce is it that Barbs and Arabs are so go o d ho rses ?

And whether in tho se co untries they are no t exact ly n ice in ad

mitting none but males o f a go o d k ind to their mares ?216. What eEects wo uld the same care pro duce in famil ies ?217. Whether the real foundat io n fo r wealth must n o t be

laid in the numbers,the frugality, and the industry o f the

people ? And whether all attempts to enr ich a nat io n by o thermeans

,as raising the co in , sto ck—jobbing, and such arts are no t

vain ?218. Whether a do o r ought no t to be shut against all o ther

methods o f growing rich, save o n ly by indust ry and merit ?And whether w ealth go t o therw ise wo uld no t be ruino us to the

public ?2 19. Whether the abuse o f banks and paper-mo ney is a just o h

jectio n against the use thereo f ? And whether such abuse mightno t easily be prevent ed ?220. Whether nat io nal banks are no t found useful in Ven ice

,

Ho lland,and Hamburgh ? And w hether it is n o t po ssible to co n

trive o ne that maybe useful also in Ire land221 . Whether the banks o f Ven ice and Amsterdam are no t in

the hands o f the public ?222 . Whether it may no t bewo rth wh ile to info rm o urse lves in

the nature o f tho se banks ? And what reaso n can be assignedwhy Ireland sho uld no t reap the benefit o f such public banks as

well as o ther co untries ?223. Whether a bank o f nat io nal credit

,suppo rted by public

funds and secured by Parliament,be a chimera o r impo ssible

thing ? And if no t,w hat wo uld fo llow from the suppo sal o f such

a bank ?224. Whether the currency o f a credit so w e ll secured w ou ld

no t be o f great advantage to our trade and manufactures225 . Whether the no tes o f such public bank w o uld no t have a

mo re general circulat io n than tho se o f private banks, as be ing lesssubject to frauds and haz ards ?226. Whether it be n o t agreed that paper hath in many re

spects the advantage abo ve co in,as being o f mo re dispatch in

374 Tbe Q uem'

st.

payments, mo re easily transferred, preserved, and reco vered whenlo st2 27 . Whether

,besides these advantages, there be no t an evident

n ecessity fo r circulating credit by paper, from the defect o f co in inthis kingdom ?228. Whether it be right ly remarked by some that, as banking

brings no treasure into the kingdom like trade, private w ealthmust sink as the bank riseth ? And whether whatever causethindustry to flourish and circulate mayno t be said to increase our

treasure2 29. Whether the ruino us effects o f the M ississippi

,South Sea

,

and such schemes were no t owing to an abuse of paper-mo ney orcredit

,in making it a means fo r idleness and gaming, instead of

a mo t ive and help to indust ry ?230 . Whether the rise o f the bank o fAmsterdam was no t purelycasual

,fo r the sake of security and dispatch o f payments ? And

w hether the go od effects thereo f,in supplying the place o f co in,

and promo ting a ready circulatio n o f industry and commerce,may

no t be a lesso n to us,to do that bydesign which o thers fel l upon

by chan ce23 1 . Whether plen ty o f small cash be no t abso lutely necessary

fo r keeping up a circulatio n amo ng the people ; that is, whethercopper be n o t mo re necessary than go ld ?232 . Whether that which in creaseth the sto ck of a nat ion be

no t a means o f in creasing its trade ? And whether that w hich ihcreaseth the curren t credit o f a natio n mayno t be said to increaseits sto ck ?

233. Whether the credit o f the public funds be no t a mine of

go ld to England ? And whether any step that should lessen thiscredit ought no t to be dreaded ?234. Whether such credit be n o t the principal advantage that

England hath o ver Fran ce ? I mayadd, o ver every other co untryin Euro pe ?235 . Whether by this the public is no t become possessed o f thewealth o f fo reigners as well as natives ? And whether England -beno t in some so rt the treasury o f Christendom ?

236 . Whether,as our current domestic credit grew

,industry

w o uld no t gro w likewise ; and if industry, o ur manufactures ; andif these

,o ur fo reign credit

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376 Tfi e Quer ist.

thus sacrificing the public to thei r own private benefit ? And

whether a little sense and ho nesty might no t easily prevent allsuch inco nven iences248. Whether the subject o f free-thinking in religio n be no t

exhausted ? And whether it be n o t h igh time fo r our Free-thinkersto turn the ir thoughts to the impro vement of the ir country ?

249. Whether it must no t be ruin o us fo r a nation to sit downto game

,be it with silver o r w ith paper ?

250. Whether,therefo re

,the c irculat ing paper, in the late ruin

ous schemes o f France and England, was the true evil,and not

rather the circulating thereo f without industry ? And whetherthe bank o f Amsterdam

,where industry had been fo r so many

years subsisted and circulated by transfers o n paper,do th not

clearly decide this po in t ?25 1. Whether there are no t to be seen in America fair towns,

w herein the people are we ll lo dged, fed, and clo thed,w ithout a

beggar in their streets,although there be no t o ne grain o f go ld

o r s ilver current amo ng them ?25 2 . Whether these peo ple do no t exercise all arts and trades,build ships and navigate them to all parts o f the wo rld, purchaselands, till and reap the fruits o f them

,buyand sell

,educate and

pro vide fo r their chi ldren ? Whether they do no t even indulgethemselves in fo reign van ities?

253 . Whether,whatever inco nven iences tho se peo ple mayhave

incurred from no t observing either ru les o r bounds in their papermo ney

, yet it be no t certain that they are in a mo re flourishingco ndit io n

,have larger and better bu ilt towns

,mo re plenty, mo re

industry,mo re arts and civility

,and a mo re extensive commerce,

than w hen they had go ld and silver current among them ?254. Whether a view o f the ruino us effects o f absurd schemes

and credit mismanaged,so as to pro duce gaming and madness

instead o f indust ry,can be any just o bject io n against a national

bank calculated purely to promo te industry ?255 . Whether a scheme fo r the w elfare o f this natio n should

no t take in the who le inhabitants ? And whether it be no t a

vain attempt,to pro ject the flourish ing o f o ur Pro testant gentry,

exclusive o f the bulk o f the nat ives256 . Whether an o ath

,testifying allegiance to the king, and

disclaiming the pope’s autho rity in tempo rals,may no t be justly

Tfi e Quer ist. 37 7

required of the Roman Catho lics ? And whether,in commo n

prudence o r po licy, any priest sho u ld be to lerated w ho refusethto take it ?

25 7. Whether there is any such thing as a bo dy o f inhabitants,in anyRoman Catho l ic co untry under the sun

,that pro fess an

abso lute submissio n to the po pe’s o rders in matters o f an indif

ferent nature,o r that in such po ints do n o t think it their duty

to obey the civil government258. Whether since the peace o f Utrecht

,mass was n o t cele

brated,and the sacraments admin istered in divers dio ceses o f

Sicily, no tw ithstanding the po pe’s interdict ?259. Whether a sum which w o uld go but a little w ay towards

erecting ho spitals fo r maintain ing and educating the ch i ldren o f

the nat ive Irish might no t go far in binding them out appren t icesto Pro testant masters

,fo r husbandry

,useful trades

,and the service

of families260. Whether there be any in stance o f a peo ple’s being co n

verted in a Christ ian sen se,o therw ise than by preaching to them

and instructing them in the ir ow n language ?261 . Whether catech ists in the Irish to ngue may no t easily beprocured and subsisted ? And whether this wo uld no t be the

mo st pract icable means fo r co n vert ing the nat ives ?262. Whether it be no t o f great advantage to the Church o f

Rome,that she hath clergy suited to all ranks o f men

,in gradual

subo rdinatio n from cardinals down to mendicants263. Whether her numero us po o r c lergy are no t very useful in

missions, and o f much in fluence w ith the peo ple264.Whether

,in defect of able missio naries

,perso ns co nversan t

in low life,and speaking the Irish to ngue, if wel l instructed in

the first prin ciples of religio n , and in the po pish co n tro versy,

though fo r the rest o n a level with the parish clerks,o r the

scho o lmas ters o f charity-scho o ls,may no t be fi t to mix w ith

and bring over o ur po o r illiterate nat ives to the EstablishedChurch ? Whether it is no t to be w ished that some parts o f

our liturgy and homilies were public ly read in the Irish lan

guage ? And whether,in these views

,it may no t be right to

breed up some o f the better so rt o f ch i ldren in the charityschoo ls, and qualify them fo r missio naries

,catechists

,and

readers

37 8 Tbe Quer ist.

265 . Whether a squire po ssessed o f land to the value of a

tho usand pounds per annum,o r a merchant wo rth tw enty thousand

pounds in cash,would have mo st pow er to do go o d o r evil upon

anyemergen cy ? And whether the suffering Roman Catho lics topurchase fo rfeited lands w o uld n o t be go od po licy

,as tending

to un ite their interest with that o f the go vernmen t ?

266. Whether the sea-po rts o f Galway,Limerick

,Co rk

,and

Waterfo rd are n o t to be lo o ked o n as keys o f this kingdom ?And whether the merchants are n o t po ssessed o f these keys ;and w ho are the mo st numerous merchan ts in those cities ?

267. Whether a merchan t canno t mo re speedily raise a sum,

mo re easily co nceal o r transfer his effects,and engage in any

desperate design w ith mo re safety,than a landed man

,w hose

estate is a pledge fo r his behaviour ?268. Whether a wealthy merchant bears n o t great sway among

the po pulace o f a trading c ity ? And whether power be not

ult imate ly lo dged in the peo ple ?269. Whether

,as o thers have suppo sed an At lantis o r Utopia

,

w e also may n o t suppo se an Hyperbo rean island inhabited byreaso nable creatures ?

2 70. Whether an indifferent person,w ho lo o ks into all hands

,

may no t be a better judge o f the game than a party who sees

o n ly his own ?

2 7 1 . Whether there be any coun try in Christendom mo recapable o f impro vemen t than Ireland ?2 7 2 . Whether w e are no t as far befo re o ther nations w ithrespect to natural advantages, as w e are behind them withrespect to arts and industry ?2 73. Whether w e do n o t live in a mo st ferti le so il and temperate c limate

,and yet w hether o ur peo ple in general do not

feel great w ant and misery ?2 74 . Whether my co un trymen are no t readier at finding ex

cuses than remedies ?2 75 . Whether the wealth and pro sperity o f our country do

n o t hang by a hair,the pro bity o f o ne banker

,the caution of

ano the r,and the lives o f all ?

2 76. Whether w e have no t been sufficient ly admon ished of

this by some late events ?27 7 . Whether a nat io nal bank wo uld no t at o nce secure our

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380 Tlz e Quer ist.

hundred and th irty years ago , and whethe r at this day its sto ckbe n o t co nceived to amo unt to three thousand to ns o f go ld

, o r

th irty millio ns sterling294. Whether all payments o f co n tracts fo r go ods in gross,

and letters o f exchange must no t be made by transfers in the

bank-bo o ks,pro vided the sum exceed three hundred flo rins ?

295 . Whether it be n o t owing to th is bank that the city ofAmsterdam

,witho ut the least co nfusion , haz ard, o r trouble, main

tain s and every daypromo tes so gen eral and quick a circulationo f indust ry

296. Whether it be n o t the greatest help and spur to commercethat pro perty can be so readily co nveyed and so well securedby a compte en farm

,that is

,by o n ly w rit ing o ne man

’s name fo r

ano ther’s in the bank-bo o k ?

297. Whether, at the beginn ing o f the last cen tury, tho se who

had lent mo ney to the public during the w ar w ith Spain wereno t sat isfied by the so le expedien t o f placing their names in a

compte en 54m,with liberty to transfer their claims ?

298. Whether the ex ample o f tho se easy transfers in the compte

en 54m,thus casual ly erected

,did no t tempt o ther men to be

come credito rs to the public,in o rder to pro fit by the same

secure and expeditio us metho d o f keeping and transferring theirwealth

299. Whether this compte £72 54 725 hath no t proved better thana mine o f go ld to Amsterdam ?300 . Whether that city may n o t be said to ow e her greatness

to the unpromis ing accident o f her having been in debt mo re thanshe w as able to pay?30 1 . Whether it be kn ow n that any state from such small

beginn ings, in so sho rt a time,ever grew to so great w ealth and

power as the pro vince o f Ho lland hath do ne , and w hether thebank o f Amsterdam hath n o t been the real cause o f such extrao rdinary grow th ?302. Whether the success o f tho se public banks in Venice,

Amsterdam and Hamburgh wo uld no t naturally pro duce in “

o therstates an inclinatio n to the same metho ds ?303. Whether it be po ssible fo r a national bank to subsist and

maintain its credit under a French Go vernment304. Whether o ur natural appet ites

,as well as powers

,are not

Tlz e Quer ist. 38 1

limited to their respective ends and uses ? But whether artificialappet ites mayno t be infin ite3013. Whether the simple gett ing o f money

,o r passing it from

hand to hand without industry, be an o bject wo rthy o f a wisegovernment ?306. Whether, if money be co ns idered as an end

,the appet ite

thereo f be no t infinite ? But w hether the ends o f mo ney itselfbe no t bounded ?307. Whether the to tal sum o f all o ther powers

,be it o f enjo y

ment o r act ion,which belong to a man

,o r to allmankind together,

is no t in truth a very narrow and limited quantity ? But whetherfancy is no t boundless ?308. Whether this capricio us tyrant , which usurps the place o f

reaso n,do th no t most cruelly to rmen t and delude tho se po o r men

,

the usurers,sto ckjo bbers

,and pro jecto rs

,o f co nten t to themselves

from heaping up riches, that is, from gathering counters, frommultiplying figures, from en larging denominat io ns, without kn owing what they would be at

,and without having a pro per regard

for the use,o r end

,o r nature o f th ings ?

309. Whether the igm'

: fatuur o f fancy do th no t k indle im

moderate desires,and lead men into endless pursuits and wild

labyrinths ?3 10. Whether counters be no t referred to o ther things

,w hich

,

so long as they keep pace and pro po rt io n with the coun ters, itmust be own ed the coun ters are useful , but whether beyo nd thatto value o r co vet counters be no t direct fo lly ?3 1 1. Whether the public aim o ught no t to be

,that men

’s

industry sho uld supply their presen t wants, and the o verplus beconverted in to a sto ck of power ?3 12. Whether the better this power is secured, and the mo re

easily it is transferred,industry be no t so much the mo re en

couraged

313. Whether money, mo re than is expedien t fo r tho se pur

poses,be no t upon the who le hurtful rather than beneficial to

a state ?

314. Whether the promo ting o f industry should no t be alw aysin view

, as the true and so le end,the rule and measure, o f a

national bank ? And whether all deviatio ns from that o bjectshould no t be carefully avo ided ?

382 Tfi e Quer ist.

3 15 . Whether it may n o t be useful,fo r supplying manufactures

and trade w ith sto ck,fo r regulat ing exchange, fo r quicken

’in’

gcommerce

,and fo r putt ing spirit into the peo ple

3 16. Whether w e are sufl-icien tlysensible o f the peculiar securitythere is in having a bank that co nsists o f land and paper

, one

o f which canno t be expo rted,and the o ther is in no danger of

being expo rted ?31 7 . Whether it be no t de lightfu l to complain ? And whether

there be no t many who had rather'

utter their complaints thanredress their evils ?31 8. Whether

,if ‘ the crown o f the w ise be their riches 4

,

’we

are n o t the fo o lishest peo ple in Christendom ?3 19. Whether w e have no t all the w h i le great civi l as well as

natural advantages ?320 . Whether there be any people who have mo re leisure tocult ivate the arts o f peace

,and study the public weal ?

32 1 . Whether o ther natio ns w ho enjo y any share o f freedom,

and have great objects in view, be no t unavo idably embarrassedand distracted by fact io ns ? But w hether w e do n o t divide upontrifles

,and whether our part ies are no t a burlesque upon po litics ?

322. Whether it be no t an advantage that w e are no t embro iledin fo re ign affairs

,that w e ho ld n o t the balan ce o f Europe

,that

w e are pro tected by o ther fleets and armies,that it is the true

in terest o f a powerful people,from whom w e are descended

,to

guard us o n all sides ?3 23 . Whether England do th n o t really lo ve us and wish well

to us,as bo ne o f her bo ne

,and flesh o f her flesh ? And whether

it be n o t o ur part to cultivate this lo ve and affectio n all mannero f w ays324 . What sea-po rts o r fo re ign trade have the Sw isses , and

yet how w arm are tho se peo ple,and how we ll provided ?

325 . Whether there may n o t be fo und a peo ple who so co ntriveas to be impoverished by their trade ? And whether w e are not

that peo ple ?326. Whether it would no t be better fo r this island

,if all Our

fi ne fo lk o f bo th sexes were sh ipped o ff,to remain in foreign

countries, rather than that they should spend their estates at

4[Pro v. x iv.

—Aurnon .

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384 Tlz e Quer ist.

34 1. Whether the Church’s patrimo ny belo ngs to one tribealo ne , and whether every man’s so n

,bro ther

,o r himse lf

,may

no t,if he please

,be qualified to share therein ?

342 . What is there in the c le rgy to create a jealousy in e t‘he

public ? Or what wo uld the public lo se by it, if every squirein the land wo re a black co at

,said his prayers

,and was obliged

to reside ?343. Whether there be anyth ing perfect under the sun ? And

whether it be no t with the wo r ld as with a particular state,and

w ith a state o r body po lit ic as with the human body, wh ich livesand mo ves under various indispo sitio ns, perfect health beingse ldom o r never to be foun d ?344 . Whether

,neverthe less

,men should no t in all things aim

at perfection ? And,therefo re

,w hether anywise and go od man

wo uld be against applying remedies ? But whether it is no t naturalto w ish fo r a benevo lent physician ?345 . Whether the public happiness be no t propo sed by thelegislature

,and whether such happiness do th no t contain that of

the individuals ?346. Wh ether

,therefo re

,a legislato r should be content w ith a

vulgar share of knowledge ? Whether he should no t be a persono f reflect io n and thought

,who bath made it his study to under

stand the t rue nature and interest o f mank ind, how to guide men’shumours and passions

,how to incite their active powers

,how to

make the ir several talen ts co—operate to the mutual benefit o f eacho ther

,and the general go o d o f the who le ?

347 . Whether it do th no t fo llow that above all things a gen

tleman’s care should be to keep his ow n faculties sound and

en tire ?348. Whether the natural ph legm o f this island needs any

addit io nal stupifi er ?3 49. Whether all spirituo us liquo rs are no t in truth

o piates350. Whether our men o f business are no t general ly very grave

by fi fty ?35 1 . Whether allmen have no t facult ies o fmind o r body which

maybe emplo yed fo r the public benefit ?35 2. Whether the main po int be no t to multiply and employ

o ur peo ple ?

Tbe Quer ist . 385

353. Whether hearty fo o d and w arm clo thing wou ld no t enableand encourage the lower so rt to labour ?354. Whether, in such a so i l as o urs

,if there w as industry

,there

could be want ?355 . Whether the w ay to make men industrio us be no t to let

them taste the fruits o f their indust ry ? And whether the labo uring ox should be muz z led356. Whether our landlo rds are to be to ld that industry

and numbers wo uld raise the value o f their lands,o r that

o ne acre about the Tho lsel is wo rth ten thousand acres in

Connaught

357. Whether our o ld nat ive Irish are n o t the mo st indo lentand supine peo ple in Christendom ?358. Whether they are yet civiliz ed, and whether their habita

tions and furn iture are no t mo re so rdid than tho se o f the savageAmericans359. Whether it be no t a sad circumstance to l ive amo ng laz y

beggars ? And whether,o n the o ther hand

,it w ou ld n o t be de

lightful to live in a co un try swarming, like Ch ina, with busypeople ?360.Whether w e should no t cast about

,byallmanner o f mean s

,

to excite industry,and t o remo ve whatever h inders it ? And

whether every o ne sho uld no t lend a he lping hand ?361. Whether van ity itself sho uld no t be engaged in th is

go od wo rk ? And whether it is n o t to be wished that the findingOf emplo yment fo r themselves and o thers were a fashio nable distinction amo ng the ladies362 . Whether idleness be the mo ther o r daughter o f spleen ?363. Whether it may n o t be wo rth wh i le to publish the co n

versation of Ischomachus and his wife in Xeno pho n, fo r the use o f

our ladies364. Whether it is true that there have been , upo n a t ime

,o ne

hundred millio ns o f peo ple emplo yed in Ch ina, witho ut the wo o llentrade

,o r anyfo reign commerce ?

365 . Whether the natural inducements to slo th are no t greaterin the Mogul’s count ry than in Ire land, and yet whether, in thatsuffo cating and dispirit ing climate, the Banyans are no t all

,men

,

women,and ch i ldren

,co nstan tly emplo yed ?

366. Whether it be no t true that the Great M o gul’s subjectsVOL. 111. c c

386 Tbe Q uem'

st.

might underse ll us even in our ow n markets,and clo the our

peo ple w ith their stuffs and calico es,if they were impo rted

duty free ?367 . Whether there can be a greater repro ach o n the leading

men and the pat rio ts Of a country,than that the peo ple should

want emplo yment ? And whether metho ds mayn o t be found toemplo y even the lame and the blind

,the dumb

,the deaf

,and the

maimed,in some o r o ther branch o f Our manufactures ?

368. Whether much mayno t be expected from a bienn ial consultatio n o f so many wise men abo ut the public go od ?369 . Whether a tax upo n dirt wo uld no t be o ne w ayo f encou

raging industry ?370 . Whether it wo uld be a great hardship if every parish were

o bliged to fi nd wo rk fo r their po o r ?3 7 1 . Whether ch i ldren especially should no t be inured to labour

betimes372. Whether there sho uld be n o t erected

,in each province

,

an ho spital fo r o rphans and fo undlings,at the expense o f Old

bache lo rs ?373 . Whether it be t rue that in the Dutch w o rkhouses things

are so managed that a ch i ld four years Old may earn its own

liveliho o d ?374. What a fo lly is it to bui ld fi ne ho uses

,o r establish lucra

t ive po sts and large in comes, under the no t io n Of providing fo rthe po o r ?375 . Whether the po o r

,grown up and in health

,need anyo ther

pro visio n but thei r ow n industry,under public inspectio n ?

376. Whether the po o r-tax in England hath lessened o r in

creased the number o f po o r ?377 . Whether wo rkhouses sho uld no t be made at the least

expense,with clay flo o rs

,and walls o f rough stone

,without plas

tering, ceiling, o r glaz ing ?378. Whether it be an impossible attempt to set our people at

wo rk, o r whether industry be a habit,wh ich

,like o ther habits, may

by time and skill be introduced amo ng any peo ple ?379. Whether all manner o f means sho uld no t be employed topo ssess the "

natio n in general with an aversio n and co ntempt foridlen ess and all idle fo lk ?380. Whether it would be a hardsh ip o n peo ple destitute Of all

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388 Tbe Quer ist.

395 . Whether the industry o f the lower part Of o ur peopledo th n o t much depend o n the expense o f the upper ?396. What would be the co nsequence if our gentry affected '

to distinguish themselves by fi n e houses rather than fi ne clo thes ?397 . Whether any peo ple in Euro pe are so mean ly providedwith houses and furn iture

,in pro po rtion to thei r in comes

, as

the men o f estates in Ireland ?398. Whether bui lding would no t peculiarly en co urage all

o ther arts' in this kingdom ?399. Whether smiths

,maso ns

,bricklayers

,plasterers

,carpenters

,

jo iners,t i lers

,plumbers

,and glaz iers would no t all fi nd employ

men t if the humour Of bui lding prevai led ?400 . Whether the o rnaments and furn iture o f a go od ho use

do no t emplo y a number o f all so rts o f artifi cers,in i ron

,wo od

,

marble,brass

,pewter

,co pper

,wo o l

,flax

,and divers o ther

materials ?40 1 . Whether in buildings and gardens a great number o f dayIabourers do no t fi nd emplo yment ?

402 . Whether by these means much o f that sustenance and

wealth o f this nation which now go es to fo reigners would not

be kept at home, and n ourish and circulate amo ng o ur own

peo ple ?403. Whether, as industry pro duced goo d living, the number

o f hands and'

mouths would n o t be in creased ; and in propo rtionthereun to , whether there w ou ld no t be every daymo re o ccas ionfo r agriculture ? And whe ther this article alone would no t employa wo rld o f peo ple ?404. Whether such management would no t equally provide for

the magn ificence o f the rich, and the necessit ies Of the po o r ?405 . Whether an expen se in bui lding and improvements doth

no t remain at home, pass to the heir, and ado rn the public ? Andwhether any o f these things can be said Of claret ?406. Whether fo o ls do no t make fashions

,and wise men fo llow

them ?

407. Whether, fo r one who hurts his fo rtune by improvements,twenty do no t ruin themselves by fo reign luxury ?408. Whether in propo rtion as Ireland was improved and

beautifi ed by fi ne seats,the number o f absentees would not

decrease

Tbe Quer ist. 389

409. Whether he who emplo ys men in buildings and manufac

tures do th no t put life in the co untry, and w hether the ne ighbourhood round him be no t o bserved to thrive ?410. Whether mo ney circulated o n the landlo rd’s ow n lands

,

and amo ng his ow n tenants,do th no t return into his ow n

pocket ?41 1 . Whether every squire that made his domain swarm withbusy hands

,like a bee-hive o r ant-h ill

,would no t serve his ow n

interest,as we ll as that o f his coun try ?

4 12. Whether a gentleman who hath seen a little o f the w o rld,

and Observed how men live e lsewhere,can co ntentedly sit down

in a co ld,damp

,so rdid habitat io n

,in the midst o f a bleak

country,inhabited by thieves and beggars ?

4 13. Whether,o n the o ther hand

,a handsome seat amidst

well-impro ved lands,fair villages

,and a thriving neighbourho od

,

mayno t invite a man to dwe ll o n his ow n estate,and quit the

life of an insign ifican t saunterer about town,fo r that o f a useful

country-gen tleman414 . Whether it wo uld no t be o f use and o rnament if the

towns throughout th is kingdom were pro vided with decentchurches

,townho uses

,wo rkh ouses

,market-places

,and paved

streets,with some o rder taken fo r clean liness ?

4 15 . Whether,if each o f these towns were addicted to some

peculiar manufacture,w e should no t fi nd that the emplo ying

many hands together on the same wo rk w as the w ay to perfectour wo rkmen ? And w hether all these th ings might no t so o n

be provided by a domest ic industry,if mo ney were n o t wanting ?

4 16. Whether mo ney cou ld ever be w an ting to the demandsOf industry

,if w e had a natio nal bank ?

4 17. Whether the fable o f Hercules and the carter ever suitedanynatio n like th is nat io n o f Ireland ?418. Whether it be no t a new spectacle under the sun

,to

beho ld,in such a climate and such a so il

,and under such a gen t le

government,so many roads un tro dden

,fields unt illed

,houses

deso late,and hands un emplo yed ?

4 19. Whether there is any co un try in Christendom,either

kingdom o r republic,depending o r indepen den t

,free o r enslaved

,

which mayno t affo rd us a useful lesso n ?420. Whether the frugal Swisses have any o ther commo dit ies

390 Tfi e Quer ist .

but their butter and cheese and a few catt le,fo r expo rtation ,

whether,nevertheless

,the single canto n o f Berne hath no t in her

public treasury tw o millio ns sterling ?42 1 . Whether that small town o f Berne

,w ith its scanty

barren territo ry,in a mo untainous co rn er

,without sea-po rts

,

w ithout manufactures,witho ut mines

,be no t rich bymere dint

Of frugality ?422 . Whether the Swisses in gen eral have n o t sumptuary laws

,

pro h ibit ing the use o f go ld,jewels

,silver

,silk

,and lace in their

apparel,and indulging the women o n ly to w ear silk o n fest ivals

,

w eddings,and public so lemn it ies ?

423. Whether there be no t tw o w ays o f growing rich,sparing

and gett ing ? But whether the laz y spendthrift must no t be

do ubly po o r ?424 . Whether mo ney circulating be no t the life o f industry ,

and whether the want thereo f do th no t render a state goutyand inactive ?425 . But whether

,if w e had a nat io nal bank

,and o ur present

cash (small as it is) were put into the mo st conven ient shape,

men sho uld hear any public complain ts fo r wan t o f mo ney ?426. Whether all circulatio n be n o t alike a circulat io n of credit

,

w hatso ever med ium (metal o r paper) is emplo yed,and whether

go ld be anymo re than credit fo r so much pow er ?427 . Whether the wealth o f the richest natio ns in Christendomdo th n o t co nsist in paper vast ly mo re than in go ld and silver ?428. Whether Lo rd Clarendo n do th n o t aver o f his own

know ledge, that the Prince o f O range,with the best credit, and

the assistance o f the richest men in Amsterdam,was above ten

days endeavo ur ing to raise in specie,without being

able to raise half the sum in all that time ? (See Clarendon’s

History, b. x ii.)429. Suppo sing there had been hitherto n o such thing as a

bank,and the quest io n w ere now first pro po sed

,whether it Would

be safer to circulate un limited bills in a private credit,o r bills

to a l imited va lue o n the public credit o f the commun ity,what

w o uld men think ?430. Whether the max im

,

‘What is everybo dy’s business isn obo dy’s,’ prevai ls in any coun try under the sun mo re than in

Ireland ?

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392 Tfi e Quer ist.

442. Though the bank o f Amsterdam do th very rarely,if at

all, pay out mo ney

, yet w hether every man po ssessed Of speciebe n o t ready to co nvert it into paper, and act as cashier to thebank ? And whether, from the same mo t ive

,every mo n ied man

thro ughout this kingdom wo uld no t be cash ier to o ur nationalbank ?

443. Whether w e may no t Obtain that as friends which it isin vain to ho pe fo r as rivals ?444. Whether in every instan ce by wh ich w e prejudice

England, we do no t in a greater degree prejudice our

selves ?445 . Whether in the rude o riginal o f so ciety the first step

w as n o t the exchanging o f commo dities ; the n ext a substituting'

Of metals by weight as the commo n medium o f circulation ;after this the making use o f co in ; lastly, a further refinementby the use o f paper with pro per marks and signatures ? Andwhether this

,as it is the last

,so it be n o t the greatest im

pro vemen t ?446. Whether w e are no t in fact the o n ly people who maybe

said to starve in the midst o f plenty ?447 . Whether there can be a wo rse sign than that people

sho uld quit their co untry fo r a live liho od ? Though men o ftenleave their count ry fo r health

,o r pleasure

,o r riches

, yet to leaveit merely fo r a live liho o d

,whether th is be no t exceeding bad

,

and sheweth some peculiar mismanagement ?

448. Whether,in o rder to redress our evils

,artificial helps are

n o t mo st wan ted in a land where industry is mo st against thenatural grain o f the peo ple ?44 9. Whether

,although the prepo ssessio n s about go ld and

si lver have taken deep roo t, yet the example o f o ur Co lonies

in America do th n o t make it as plain as day-light that they are

no t so necessary to the wealth o f a nat io n as the vulgar of allranks imagine ?450. Whether it be no t evident that w e may maintain a

much greater inw ard and outward commerce,and be fi ve times

r icher than w e are,nay, and our bi lls abro ad be o f far greater

credit,tho ugh w e had no t o ne ounce o f go ld o r silver in the

w ho le island ?45 1. Whether wro ngheaded maxims, customs, and fashions are

Tfi e Quer ist. 393

not suffi cient to destro y any peo ple which hath so few reso urcesas the inhabitants o f Ireland ?452. Whether it w ould no t be a ho rrible thing to see o ur

matrons make dress and play the ir chief co n cern ?453. Whether our ladies might no t as wel l endow mo nasteries

as wear Flanders lace ? And whether it be n o t true that Po pishnuns are main tained by Pro testant co n tribut io n s ?454. Whether England, wh ich hath a free trade

,whatever she

remits fo r fo reign luxury with o ne hand,do th n o t with the

other receive much mo re from abroad ? Whether,nevertheless

,

this natio n would no t be a gainer,if our women would co n tent

themselves with the same mo deratio n in po in t o f expen se as the

English ladies ?455 . But whether it be no t a n o to rious truth that o ur Irishladies are o n a fo o t

,as to dress

,with tho se o f fi ve t imes their

fo rtune in England ?456. Whether it be n o t even certain that the matro ns o f th is

fo rlo rn country send out a greater propo rtio n o f its wealth,fo r

fine apparel,than any o ther females o n the w ho le surface o f th is

terraqueous glo be ?457. Whether the expense

,great as it is

,be the greatest

evil , but whether th is fo lly mayno t pro duce many o ther fo l lies,

an entire derangemen t o f domest ic life,absurd manners

,neglect

Of duties,bad mo thers

,a gen eral co rrupt io n in bo th sexes ?

458. Whether the fi rst beginn ing Of expedients do no t alwaysmeet with prejudices ? And whether even the prejudices o f a

people ought no t to be respected ?459. Whether a nat io nal bank be no t the true phi lo so pher’s

stone in a state ?

460. Whether all regulat io ns o f co in should no t be made witha view to en co urage industry, and a circulat ion o f commerce

,

throughout the kingdom ?46 1. Whether to Oil the wheels o f commerce be no t a commonbenefit ? And whether this be no t do ne by avo iding fract io nsand mult iplying small silver ?462. Whether

,all things co nsidered, a general raising the value

Of go ld and si lver be no t so far from bringing greater quantitiesthereof into the kingdom that it w o uld pro duce a direct co ntraryeffect

, inasmuch as less,

-in that case, would serve, and therefo re

394 The Quer ist.

less be wanted ? And w hether men do no t impo rt a commodityin pro po rt io n to the demand o r want o f it ?463. Whether the lowering o f o ur go ld would n o t create a fever

in the state ? And whether a fever be no t somet imes a cure,but

whether it be no t the last cure a man wo uld cho o se ?464. Whether raising the value o f a particular species will

no t tend to mult iply such species,and to lessen o thers in pro

po rt io n thereunto ? And whether a much less quantity Of cashin silver wou ld no t

,in reality

,en rich the nat io n mo re than a

much greater in go ld ?465 . Whether

,ae teris parihar, it be n o t t rue that the prices Of

th ings in crease as the quantity o f mo ney in creaseth,and are

dimin ished as that is dimin ished ? And whether,bythe quantity

o f mo ney,is n o t to be understo o d the amount of the denomi

nat io ns,all co ntracts being nominal fo r pounds, shillings, and

pen ce,and no t fo r weights o f go ld o r silver ?

466. Whether our expo rts do n o t consist o f such necessaries aso ther co untries cann o t we ll be w itho ut ?467 . Whether upon the circulat io n o f a national bank mo reland would n o t be t illed

,mo re hands emplo yed

,and consequently

mo re commodities expo rted ?468. Whether silver and small mo ney be no t that which cir

culates the quickest, and passeth thro ugh all hands,o n the road,

in the market, at the sho p ?469. Whether

,all th ings co nsidered, it wo uld no t be better for

a kingdom that its cash co nsisted o f half a millio n in small silver,than o f five t imes that sum in go ld ?470. Whether there be n o t every day fi ve hundred lesser pay

men ts made fo r o ne that requires go ld ?47 1. Whether Spain , w here go ld bears the highest value, be

no t the laz iest, and China, where it bears the lowest, be not the

mo st industrio us co untry in the known w o rld ?472 . Whether it be no t eviden tly the interest o f every state,

that its mo n ey should rather circulate than stagnate ?

473. Whether the principal use o f cash be n o t its ready passingfrom hand to hand

,to answ er commo n o ccas io ns o f the common

peo ple,and w hether common o ccasio ns o f all so rts o f people are

no t small o n es ?474. Whether business at fairs and markets is no t often

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396 The Quer ist.

circulatio n through the minutest and mo st inco nsiderable partsthereo f ?485 . If w e had a mint fo r co in ing o n ly sh illings

,sixpences

,

and co pper—mo ney,whether the nat io n would no t so o n feel the

go o d effects thereof ?486. Whether the greater waste by wearing o f small co inswould no t be abundan t ly o verbalan ced by their usefulness ?487 . Whether it be no t the industry o f commo n people that

feeds the state,and whether it be po ssible to keep this industry

alive w ithout small mo ney ?488. Whether the w an t o f this be no t a great bar to o ur

emplo ying the peo ple"

in these manufactures which are Open to

us,and do no t interfere w ith Great Britain ?489. Whether therefo re such w ant do th no t drive men into thelaz y w ay o f emplo ying land under sheep-walk ?490 . Whether the runn ing o f wo o l from Ire land can so

effectually be prevented as by en co uraging o ther business and

manufactures amo ng o ur peo ple ?49 1. Whatever commo dit ies Great Britain impo rteth which we

might supply,whether it be no t her real in terest to impo rt them

from us rather than from anyo ther peo ple ?492. Whether the apprehen sio n o f many amo ng us (who fo r

that very reaso n stick to their w o o l), that England mayhereafterpro h ibit

,l imit

,.o r disco urage our linen trade

,when it hath been

o n ce,w ith great pain s and expense

,tho rough ly intro duced and

sett led in this land,be n o t altogether gro un dless and unjust ?

493. Whether it is po ssible fo r th is co untry,w h ich hath neither

mines o f go ld no r a free trade, to suppo rt fo r anytime the sendingo ut o f specie494. Whether in fact o ur payments are no t made by bills ?

And whether o ur fo reign credit do th n o t depend o n o ur domesticindustry

,and our bills o n that credit ?

495 . Whether,in o rder to mend it

,w e ought no t first to know

the peculiar wretchedness o f o ur state ? And w hether there beany kno w ing o f this but by compariso n ?496. Whether there are no t single market towns in England

that turn mo re”

money in buying and selling than who le countries( perhaps pro vinces) with us

497 . Whether the small town o f Birmingham alo ne do th not,

The Q uem'

st. 397

upon an average,circulate every week

,o ne way o r o ther

,to the

value of fifty thousand pounds ? But whether the same crown maynot be Often paid ?498. Whether any k ingdom in Euro pe be so go o d a customer

at Bourdeaux as Ireland499. Whether the po l ice and economy o f Fran ce be n o t go verned

bywise councils ? And whether any o ne from th is country,w ho

sees their towns,and manufactures

,and commerce

,will n o t

wonder what o ur senato rs have been do ing ?500. What variety and number o f excellent manufactures are

to be met with thro ughout the who le kingdom o f Fran ce ?501. Whether there are no t everywhere some o r o ther mi lls

for many uses,fo rges and furnaces fo r iro n-wo rk

,lo oms fo r

tapestry,glass-houses

,and s o fo rth ?

502. What quantities o f paper,sto ck ings

,hats , what manu

factures of wo o l,s ilk

,linen

,hemp

,leather

,w ax

,earthenware

,

brass,lead

,tin

,& c.

503. Whether the manufactures and commerce o f the singletown of Lyo ns do no t amo unt to a greater value than all the

manufactures and all the trade o f this kingdom taken to gether ?504. Whether

,in the ann iversary fair at the smal l town o f

Beaucair upon the Rho n e,there be no t as much mo ney laid out

as the current cash o f th is k ingdom amo unts to ?

505 .Whether the very shreds sho rn from wo o llen clo th,wh ich

are thrown away in Ireland,do no t make a beaut iful tapestry in

France ?506. Whether there be no t Fren ch towns subsisted merely by

making pins507. Whether the coarse fingers o f tho se very women

,tho se

same peasants w ho o ne part o f the year t i ll the ground and dressthe vineyards

,are no t ano ther emplo yed in making the finest

French po int ?508. Whether there is no t a great number o f idle fingers amo ng

the wives and daughters o f o ur peasan ts ?509. Whether the Fren ch do no t raise a trade from saffro n

,

dying drugs, and the like pro ducts, which maydo with us as wellas with them ?5 10. Whether w e may n o t have materials o f our own growth

to supply all manufactures,as we ll as France, except si lk

,and

398 The Quer ist.

w hether the bulk o f what si lk even France manufactures be no t

impo rted5 1 1 . Whether it be po ssible fo r th is coun try to grow rich, solo ng as what is made by domestic industry is spent in fo reignluxury5 1 2. Whether o ur natural Irish are no t partly Span iards and

part ly Tartars , and whether they do no t bear signatures Of theirdescen t from bo th these natio ns

,w h ich is also co nfirmed by all

their histo ries5 13 . Whether the Tartar pro gen y is n o t numero us in thisland ? And whether there is an idler o ccupatio n under the sun

than to attend flo cks and herds o f catt le5 14 . Whether the wisdom o f the state should no t wrest le with

this hereditary dispo sitio n o f o ur Tartars, and with a high handintro duce agriculture5 15 . Whether o nce upon a t ime France did no t

,byher linen

alo n e,draw yearly from Spain about eight millio ns o f livres ?

5 16. Whether the Fren ch have no t suffered in their linen tradew ith Spain

,byn o t making their clo th o f due breadth 5 and w hether

anyo ther peo ple have suffered,and are sti ll likely to suffer

,through

the same prevaricatio nfi ?

5 17 . Whether the Span iards are no t rich and laz y, and whetherthey have no t a particular in clinatio n and favour fo r the inhabitan ts o f th is island ? But w hether a punctual peo ple do no t lovepunctual dealers ?5 18. Whether about fourteen years ago w e had n o t come into

a co nsiderable share o f the linen trade with Spain , and what puta sto p to th is5 19. Whether, if the linen manufacture were carried o n in the

o ther pro vin ces as well as in the no rth,the merchants Of Co rk,

Limerick,and Galway would no t so o n fi nd the w ay to Spain ?

5 20. Whether the wo o llen manufacture o f England is no t

divided into several parts o r branches,appro priated to particular

places,w here they are o n ly o r principally manufactured ; fi ne

clo ths in Somersetsh ire,co arse in Yo rkshire

,lo ng ells at Exeter,

saies at Sudbury,crapes at N o rwich

,linseys at Kendal

,blankets

at Witney,and so fo rth

5

[Things, w e hear , are in a w ay o f beingmended w ith us in this respect .]—AUTHOR.

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400 The Quer ist.

apt to infect o r misg uide our judgments and reaso n ings about thepublic weal532 . Whether it be no t a go o d rule whereby to judge Of the

trade o f any city, and its usefulness,to o bserve whether there

is a circulat io n through the extremit ies,and whether the people

ro und about are busy and warm ?533 . Whether w e had n o t

,some years sin ce

,a manufacture Of

hats at Athlo ne,and o f earthenware at Ark low

, and w hat becameOf tho se manufactures534 . Why w e do n o t make t i les o f our ow n

,fo r flo o ring and

ro o fing, rather than bring them from Ho lland535 . What manufactures are there in Fran ce and Ven ice of

gi lt-leather, how cheap and how splendid a furn iture ?536. Whether w e mayno t, fo r the same use

,manufacture divers

th ings at home o f mo re beauty and variety than w ainsco t,which

is impo rted at such expense from N o rway ?537 . Whether the use and the fashio n will no t soon make a

manufacture5 38. Whether

,if o ur gen try used to drink mead and cider

,we

should n o t so on have tho se liquo rs in the utmo st perfection and

plen ty539. Whether it be n o t wo nderful that w ith such pastures, and

so many black catt le,w e do no t fi nd o urselves in cheese ?

Whether great pro fits may no t be made byfisheries , butw hether tho se o f our Irish w ho live by that business do no t con

trive to be drunk and unemplo yed one half Of the year ?54 1 . Whether it be no t fo lly to think an inw ard commercecann o t en rich a state

,because it do th no t in crease its quantity

o f go ld and si lver ? And w hether it is po ssible a country shouldn o t thr ive

,wh ile wan ts are supplied

,and business go es o n ?

542. Whether plenty o f all the necessaries and comfo rts o f lifebe no t real wealth543. Whether Lyo ns

,by the advantage Of her midland situation

and the rivers Rho n e and Sao n e,be n o t a great magaz ine o r mart

fo r inw ard commerce ? And w hether she do th no t maintain a

co nstant trade with mo st parts o f France , with Provence fo r Oilsand dried fruits

,fo r wines and c lo th with Languedo c, fo r stuffs

w ith Champaign , fo r linen with Picardy, N o rmandy,and Bretagne‘

,

fo r co rn w ith Burgundy ?

The Quer ist. 40 1

544.

’Whether she do th no t receive and utter all tho se com

modities,and raise a profit from the distributio n thereo f

,as

wel l as o f her ow n manufactures,throughout the kingdom o f

France545 . Whether the charge o f mak ing go o d ro ads and navigablerivers acro ss the co untry would no t be really repaid by an inwardcommerce ?546. Whether

,as our trade and manufactures in creased

,maga

z ines should no t be established in pro per places,fitted by the i r

situation,11 1 great ro ads and navigable rivers

,lakes

,o r canals

,

for the ready recept io n and distribut io n Of all so rts o f commo ditiesfrom and to the several parts o f the kingdom , and whether thetown OfAthlo ne, for instan ce, mayno t be fi tly situated fo r such amagaz ine, o r centre Of domestic commerce ?547. Whether an inward trade would no t cause industry to

flourish,and multiply the circulatio n o f our co in

,and whether this

mayno t do as wel l as mult iplying the co in itself ?548. Whether the benefits o f a domestic commerce are suffi

cientlyundersto od and attended to , and whether the cause thereo fbe not the prejudiced and narrow wayo f thin king about go ld andsilver ?549. Whether there be any o ther mo re easy and unenviedmethod Of increasing the wealth o f a peo ple ?550. Whether w e o f this island are n o t from our peculiar cir

cumstances determined to this very commerce abo ve any o ther,from the number o f necessaries and go o d th ings that w e po ssesswithin ourselves

,from the extent and variety o f our so i l, from the

navigable rivers and go od roads wh ich w e have o r mayhave , at aless expense than any peo ple in Euro pe, from our great plen ty Ofmaterials fo r manufactures

,and part icularly from the restraints w e

lie under with regard to our fo reign t rade ?551 . Whether annual inven to ries should n o t be published o f the

fairs throughout the k ingdom,in o rder to judge o f the growth Of

its commerce ?552. Whether there be no t eve ry year mo re cash circulated at

the card-tables o f Dublin than at all the fairs o f Ireland ?553. Whether the wealth o f a co untry will no t bear pro po rtion

to the skill and industry o f its inhabitants ?554. Whether fo re ign impo rts that tend to promo te industryVOL. 111. D d

40 2 The Quer ist.

sho uld no t be en couraged, and such as have a tendency to promo teluxury should no t be disco uraged ?5 55 . Whether the an nual balance o f trade between Italy and

Lyo ns be n o t abo ut four mi llio ns in favo ur o f the fo rmer,and yet,

whether Lyo ns be no t a gainer by th is trade ?556. Whether the gen eral rule, o f determin ing the profit of acommerce by its balan ce, do th no t

,like o ther general rules, admit

Of except io ns ?55 7. Whether it would no t be a mo nst rous fo lly to impo rt

n o th ing but go ld and si lver,suppo sing w e might do it, from every

fo reign part to w h ich w e trade ? And yet, whether some men mayno t think this fo o lish circumstance a very happy o ne558. But whether w e do no t all see the ridicule o f the Mogul’s

subjects,w ho take from us no th ing but o ur silver

,and bury it

under ground,in o rder to make sure thereo f against the resur

rect io n559. Whether he must no t be a wro ngheaded patrio t o r po liti

cian,

,w ho se ultimate view w as drawing mo ney into a country, and

keeping it there560. Whether it be n o t evident that no t go ld but industrycauseth a coun try to flo urish ?56 1 . Whether it would no t be a si l ly pro ject in any nation toho pe to grow rich by pro hibiting the expo rtat io n o f go ld and

s ilver562 . Whether there can be a greater mistake in po litics than

to measure the wealth o f the natio n by its go ld and si lver ?563. Whether go ld and silver be no t a drug

,w here they do no t

promo te industry ? Whether they be no t even the bane and un

do ing Of an idle peo ple564 . Whether go ld will no t cause e ither industry o r vice to

flourish ? And whether a country,where it flowed in without

labo ur, must no t be wretched and disso lute like an island inhabited by Buccaneers ?5 65 . Whether arts and virtue are no t like ly to thrive

,where

mo ney is made a mean s to industry ? But whether money withoutthis would be a blessing to any peo ple566. Whether keeping cash at home

,o r sending it abroad, just

as it mo st serves to promo te industry,be no t the real interest of

every natio n ?

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404 The Quer ist.

was co ntrived to go a litt le farther,if there was a litt le mo re life

in o ur markets,a litt le mo re buying and selling in o ur shops

,a

litt le better provisio n fo r the backs and be ll ies o f so many fo rlo rnwretches throughout the tow ns and villages o f th is island ?578. Whether Great Britain o ugh t n o t to promo te the prospe

rity o f her Co lo n ies,by all metho ds co nsisten t with her own ?

And whether the Co lo n ies themse lves ought to wish o r aim at it

by o thers ?5 79. Whether the remo test parts from the metropo lis

,and the

lowest o f the people,are n o t to be regarded as the extremities and

capillaries o f the po litical bo dy ?5 80. Whether

,altho ugh the capillary vessels are small

, yet oh

st ruct io n s in them do n o t pro duce great chro n ical diseases ?58 1. Whether facult ies are no t en larged and improved by

exercise582 . Whether the sum o f the facult ies put into act

,o r,in o ther

wo rds,the un ited actio n o f a w ho le peo ple

,do th n o t co nstitute the

momen tum o f a state

583. Whether such momen tum be n o t the real sto ck o r wealth ofa state , and whether its credit be n o t pro po rt io nal thereunto ?5 84 . Whether in every w ise state the faculties o f the mind are

n o t mo st co nsidered585 . Whether the momen tum o f a state do th no t imply the who le

ex ertio n o f its faculties,int ellectual and co rpo real , and whether

the latter w ithout the fo rmer co uld act in co n cert586. Whether the div ided fo rce o f men

,act ing singly, would

n o t be a ro pe o f sand ?5 87 . Whether the part icular mo tio n s o f the members o f a state,

in Oppo s ite direct io n s,w i ll no t destro y each o ther

,and lessen the

momen tum o f the w ho le , but w hether they must n o t co nspire topro duce a great effect ?588. Whether the ready means to put spirit into this state

,to

fo rtify and in crease its momen tum,w ould n o t be a natio nal bank,

and plenty o f smal l cash ?589. Whether that w hich emplo ys and exerts the fo rce of a

commun ity deserves no t to be well considered and wel l understo o d590 . Whether the immediate mo ver

,the blo o d and spirits, be

no t mo ney, paper, o r metal , and whether the soul o r will Of the

The Quer ist. 40 5

commun ity, which is the prime mo ver that governs and directs thewho le

,be no t the legislature

591 . Suppo sing the inhabitants o f a count ry quite sunk in slo th,

o r even fast asleep,whether

,upo n the gradual aw aken ing and

exertion,first o f the sensit ive and lo como t ive faculties

,n ext Of

reaso n and reflect io n,then o f just ice and piety

,the momen tum o f

such country o r state w o uld no t,in propo rtio n thereunto

,become

still mo re and mo re co n siderable592. Whether that wh ich in the growth is last attained

,and is

the finishing perfectio n o f a peo ple,be n o t the first th ing lo st in

their declensio n ?593. Whether fo rce be no t o f great co nsequence

,as it is

exerted , and whether great fo rce witho ut wisdom may n o t be

a nuisance ?594. Whether the fo rce o f a child

,applied with art

,may no t

produce greater effects than that o f a giant And whether a smallstock in the hands o f a w ise state may no t go farther, and pro ducemo re considerable effects

,than immense sums in the hands o f a

foo lish o ne595 . Who se fault is it if po o r Ireland st ill co ntinues po o r ?

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A D I S C O U R S E

ADDRESSED TO MAGISTRATES AND MEN IN AUTHORITY’.

THE pretensio ns and discourse o f men th roughout these k ingdoms would, at first V iew, lead o ne to think the inhabitants wereall po liticians , and yet , perhaps, po lit ical wisdom hath in no

age o r country been mo re talked o f, and less understo o d. Licenseis taken fo r the end o f go vernment

,and po pular humour fo r its

origin. NO reveren ce fo r the law,no attachment to the co n

stitution,litt le attentio n to matters Of co nsequence

,and great

altercation upo n trifles,such idle pro jects abo ut religion and

government,as if the public had bo th to cho o se

,a general con

tempt for all autho rity, divin e and human,an indifference about

1 This Discourse was fi rst printed at

Dublin (by Faulkner) in 1 736. It w as

republished there in 1738, and in 1 752 it

appeared in the Miscellany. It is said to

have been occasio ned more immediately byan impious Dublin so ciety o f so -calledBlasters, which it put a stop to . (Sto ck

’

s

Life of Berkeley.)TheDiscourse is a defence o f a Natio nal

Religion. It proceeds upo n the theo ry o f

civil autho rity co ntained in the Disco ur se

of Passive Obedience, w ith w hich , as w ell aswith the Third and Fourth Dialogues inAlcipbron, it maybe compared, in a studyof the ethical and po litical principles o fBerkeley. One chief duty o f the Magistrate is, he argues, the regu latio n o f theopinions of so ciety ; seeing that the actio nsof men are determined by their opinio ns,and especial ly bywhat they think and be

lieve about God and the future. It is truethat such beliefs must in the case o f th emajority be unreasoned—ih a w o rd, theymust be prej udices, and as such receivedupon trust ; but they are no t o n that ac

count less useful, o r less true. Indeed , inmoral questions, utility and truth , acco rdingto Berkeley, are no t to be divided, the

general go od o fmankind being the rule andmeasure of moral truth . It is therefo re a

fundamental principle o f so ciety that the

religious prejudices o f men sho uld be reve

renced. Thought no doubt is and must befree , but blasphemy against God is a greatcrime against the state

’

(p. and ‘an

inw ard sense of the supreme majesty o f the

King o f k ings is the o n ly thing that can

beget and preserve a true respect fo r subordinare majesty in all the degrees o f powerthe fi rst link o f authority being fi xed at the

thro ne o f God'

(p. Berk eley, insho rt , had no t abando ned the belief that asystem o f religious prejudices, ’ who se truthhas been tested by their usefulness, ought

to be steadily sustained by the supremepower in so ciety.

The Harleian Miscellany (vol. iii. pp.

177—185) co ntains A Letter to tbs Rigbt

Rev. the Lord Bisbop of Cloyne, by a

Gen tleman in the Army, occasioned by a

Disser tatio n by tbc Bisbop on tbe text Gallio

car ed for n one of tbese tbings.’This Letter ,

pro fessedly seco nding the Bishop’

s appeal,appears to have been written about 1 739.

‘ It con tains,’says the Editor, ‘

so manytouches o f elegance and judgment that w eco uld no t refuse it a place in this Co llection,in w hich , though it was o ur original designto reco ver such pieces as begin to disappearby their antiquity, we shall no t neglectsometimes to preserve tho se writings fromdestructio n which , byaccident, o r envy.havebeen hitherto kept secret.’

4 10 A D iscour se addr essed to

the prevai ling o pin io ns,w hether they tend to pro duce o rder o r

diso rder,to promo te the empire o f Go d o r the devil—these are

the symptoms that strongly mark the presen t age , and this co uldn ever have been the case

,if a neglect o f re ligio n had no t made

w ay fo r it .

When the Jews accused Paul upon religio us matters and po intso f their law befo re Gallio

,the Roman magistrate

,it is said that

Gallio ‘ cared fo r n o ne o f these th ings.’ And,it is to be feared

,

there are no t a few magistrates in this Ch ristian country whoth ink with the same indifferen ce o n the subject o f re ligion.

Herein,n evertheless

,they judge amiss

,and are much want ing

to the ir duty. Fo r,altho ugh it be admitted that the magistrate’s

peculiar object is the tempo ral we lfare o f the state ; yet, thiswill by n o means ex clude a pro per care about the prevailingn o tio ns and o pin io n s o f rel igio n , which influen ce the lives and

actio ns o f men,and have therefo re a mighty effect o n the public.

Men’s behavio ur is the co nsequence o f their principles. Hence

it fo llows that,in o rder to make a state thrive and flourish

,care

must be taken that go o d prin ciples be pro pagated in the mindso f tho se who compo se it .It would be vain to depend o n the outward fo rm

,the co nsti

tut io n,and structure

,o f a state , while the majo rity are ever

go verned by their inward ways o f think ing, wh ich at times willbreak out and shew themse lves paramount to all laws and in

stitut io ns whatso ever. It must be great fo lly therefo re to overlo ok n o tio ns

,as matters o f small momen t to the state ; while

experien ce shews there is n o thing mo re impo rtant 5 and that a

prevai ling diso rder in the principles and o pin io ns o f its membersis ever dangero us to so ciety

,and capable o f pro ducing the greatest

public evils .

Man is an an imal fo rmidable bo th from his passio ns and his

reaso n , his passio ns o ften urging him to great evils, and his

reaso n furn ishing means to achieve them. To tame this an imal,and make him amenable to o rde r

,to inure him to a sense of

just ice and virtue,to withho ld h im from ill courses by fear, and

encourage him in his duty by ho pes , in sho rt,to fashio n and

mo de l him fo r so ciety,hath been the aim o f civil and religious

inst itut io ns , and in all t imes,the en deavour o f go od and wise

men . The aptest metho d fo r attain ing this end hath been alwaysjudged a pro per educat io n .

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4 1 2 A D isco ur se addr essed to

general reaso n o f the public , that is, by the law of the land.True it is that where men either canno t o r will no t use theiro w n reaso n

,think

,and examine fo r themse lves , in such case the

n o t io n s taught o r instil led in to the i r minds are embraced ratherby the memo ry than the judgment . N o r will it be anyobjectionto say that these are prejudices , inasmuch as they are therefo reneither less useful no r less true

,altho ugh their pro ofs may no t

be understo o d by allmen .

Licent ious habits o f youth give a cast o r turn to age : the

yo ung rake makes an o ld infide l , libertine practices beget libertineo pin io ns , and a vicious life general ly ends in an o ld age of

prejudice n o t to be co nquered by reaso n ing. Of this w e see

in stances even in perso ns celebrated fo r parts,and w ho reaso n

admirably o n o ther po ints Where they are no t biassed , but o n the

subject o f re ligio n obtrude their guesses, surmises,and broken

h ints fo r arguments . Against such the re is n o reaso n ing.

Prejudices are no tio ns o r o pin io ns w h ich the mind entertainswithout knowing the grounds and reaso ns o f them

,and which

are assen ted to w ithout examinat io n . The first no tion s whichtake po ssessio n o f the minds o f men

,w ith regard to dut ies social,

mo ral,and civil

,may therefo re be just ly styled prejudices. The

mind o f a young creature cann o t remain empty , if yo u do not

put into it that which is go o d, it w i ll be sure to receive thatw hich is bad.

Do w hat yo u can,there w i l l still be a bias from education ,

and,if so

,is it n o t better th is bias should lie towards things

laudable and useful to so ciety ? Th is bias sti ll o perates,although

it may no t alw ays prevail . The no t io ns first insti lled have theearliest influen ce

,take the deepest ro o t

,and generally are found

to give a co lour and complex io n to the subsequent lives o f men,

inasmuch as they are in truth the great so urce o f human actio ns.It is n o t go ld, o r ho nour

,o r power that move men to act

,

but the o pin io n s they en tertain o f tho se things. Hence it

fo llow s that if a magistrate sho uld say, N o matter what no tio nsmen embrace

,I w il l take heed to their actio ns ,’ —therein he shew s

his w eakness , fo r, such as are men’

s n o t io n s,such w ill be their

deeds.

Fo r a man to do as he would be do ne by, to love his neighbouras h imself , to ho nour his superio rs , to believe that God scansall his actio ns

,and w ill reward o r pun ish them , and to think

M agistr ates and M en in Au tfi o r z'

ty. 4 1 3

that he w ho is gui lty o f falseho o d o r injustice hurts himself mo rethan anyo ne e lse : are n o t these such no tio ns and principles as

a very w ise govern o r o r legislato r w ould co vet abo ve all th ings to

have firmly ro o ted in the mind o f every individual under hiscare ? This is allow ed

,even by the enemies o f rel igio n , w ho

would fain have it thought the o ffspring o f state po licy,ho n ouring

its usefulness at the same t ime that they disparage its truth .

What,therefo re

,canno t be acquired by every man’s reaso n ing

must be introduced by precept, and rivetted by custom , that isto say, the bulk o f mankind must

,in all civil iz ed so ciet ies

,have

their minds,by t ime ly in struct io n

,w e ll seaso n ed and furn ished

w ith pro per n o t io n s,which

,although the gro unds o r pro o fs

thereo f be unkn ow n to them,will neverthe less influen ce the ir

conduct,and so far render them useful members o f the state.

But,if you strip men o f these their n o t io ns

,o r

,if yo u will,

prejudices,with regard to mo desty, decen cy, just ice, charity, and

the like, you will so o n fi nd them so many mo nsters

,utterly unfit

for human so ciety.I desire it may be co nsidered that mo st men w an t leisure

,

oppo rtunity,o r facult ies to derive co n clusio ns from their prin

ciples, and establish mo rality o n a fo undatio n o f human scien ce .

True it is (as St . Paul o bserves) that ‘ the invisible things o f Go d,

from the creat io n o f the w o rld are clearly seen’

(Romans i . d o ).And from thence the dut ies o f natural re ligio n may be disco vered .But these things are seen and disco vered by tho se alo n e w ho

open their eyes and lo ok narrowly fo r them. N ow,if you lo o k

throughout the wo rld, yo u shall find but few o f these n arrow

inspecto rs and inquirers,very few w ho make it thei r business to

analyz e opin io ns and pursue them to their ratio nal source,to examin e

whence truths spring, and how they are infe rred . In sho rt, you

shall fi nd allmen full o f o pin io n s,but kn owledge o n ly in a few .

It is impo ssible,from the nature and circumstances o f human

kind, that the mult itude sho uld be ph i lo so phers,o r that they

should know th ings in the ir causes. We see every day that therules o r co nclusions alo n e are suflicient fo r the sho pkeeper tostate his acco unt

,the sailo r to navigate his ship

,o r the carpen ter

to measure his t imber , no n e o f w h ich understand the theo ry ,that is to say, the gro unds and reasons either of arithmetic o rgeometry. Even so in mo ral

,po l itical

,and religious matters,

it is man ifest that the rules and o pin io ns early imbibed at the

4 I 4 A D iscour se addr essed to

first dawn o f understanding, and without the least glimpse o f

science,may yet pro duce ex cellen t effects

,and be very useful

to the wo rld , and that in fact they are so will be very visibleto every o ne w ho shal l observe w hat passeth round about him.

It may no t be amiss to in culcate that the difference betweenprejudices and o ther opin io ns do th n o t consist in this—thatthe fo rmer are false

,and the latter t rue , but in this—that

the fo rmer are taken upon trust,and the latter acquired by

reaso n ing. He who hath been taught to believe the immortalityo f the soul may be as right in his no tio n as he w ho hathreaso ned himse lf into that o pin io n . It will then by no means

fo llow that because this o r that n o t io n is a prejudice,it must be

therefo re false. The no t dist inguish ing between prejudices and

erro rs is a prevai ling o versight amo ng o ur mo dern Free-thinkers.There may be, indeed, certain mere prejudices o r o pin ions

,

which,having no reaso ns either assigned o r assignable to sup

po rt them,are nevertheless entertain ed by the mind

,because

they intruded betimes into it . Such may be supposed false,

n o t because they were early learn ed,o r learned without their

reaso ns , but because there are in truth no reasons to be givenfo r them.

Certain ly,if a no tio n may be co n cluded false because it was

early imbibed,o r because it is with mo st men an object of belief

rather than o f knowledge, o ne mayby the same reasoning concludeseveral pro po sitio ns o f Euc lid to be false. A simple apprehensiono f co nclusions as taken in themselves

,without the deductions of

scien ce,is what falls to the share o f mankind in general. Reli

gions aw e,the precepts o f paren ts and masters

,the wisdom of

legislato rs,and the accumulated experien ce o f ages supply the

place o f pro o fs and reaso n ings with the vulgar o f all ranks Iwould saythat discipline, nat io nal co nstitutio n

,and laws human

and divine are so many plain land-marks,which guide them into

the paths wherein it is presumed they o ught to tread.From what hath been premised

,it plain ly appears

,that in the

bulk o fmankind there are and must be prejudices,that is

,opinions

taken upo n t rust , o r,in o ther w o rds

,that there are po ints Of

faith among allmen whatso ever,as we ll as among Christians.

And,as it is evident that the unthinking part o f every age, sex,

and co ndition amo ng us,must necessarily receive no tions with

the submissio n o f faith , so it is very reaso nable that they should

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4 I 6 A D iscour se addr essed to

o r the practice o f men in all times,w e shall be satisfied that

no thing tru ly great and go o d can enter into the heart o f o ne at

tached to n o prin c iples o f religio n , w ho believes n o Providence,

w ho n e ither fears hell,no r ho pes fo r heaven .

Punishments and rewards have alw ays had,and always w ill

have,the greatest w eight with men and the mo st co nsiderable of

bo th k inds are propo sed by re ligio n , the duties w hereo f fall inwith the views o f the civil magistrate it unden iably fo llows

,that

no thing can add mo re strength to a go o d and righteous government than religio n . Therefo re it main ly co ncerns governo rs tokeep an attent ive eye o n the religion o f their subjects. And in

deed it is o n e lesso n to magistrate and peo ple,prince and subject

,

Keep my commandmen ts and l ive , and my law as the apple of

th in e eye’

(Pro v. vii.Although it is no co nsequen ce

,from what hath been said

,that

men should be debarred the free use o f reaso n and inquiry, yet

surely it will fo llow that,w ithout go o d reaso n

,a man should

‘

not

reject tho se no tio ns which have been instilled by the law s and

educat io n o f his co untry. And even they w ho think they havesuch reaso n have n everthe less n o right o f dictating to o thers z . It

is true,Divine autho rity is superio r to all human prejudices, insti

tutio ns,and regards w hatso ever. And it is wise

,although at the

risk o f liberty o r life,to obey God rather than man . But our

mo dern reformers o f prejudices have no th ing to plead o f that

k ind 3 .There is n o magistrate so ign o ran t as no t to know that power—physical power—resides in the peo ple : but autho rity is fromo pin io n , wh ich autho rity is n ecessary to restrain and direct thepeo ple’s po w er

,and therefo re rel igio n is the great stay and support

o f a state. Every re l igio n that in culcates virtue and discourageth

vice is so far o f public ben efit . The Christian rel igio n do th not

o n ly th is, but further makes every legal co nstitut io n sacred bycomman ding o ur submissio n thereto . Let every soul be subjectto the h igher powers (saith St . Paul), fo r the powers that be are

o rdain ed o f God (Rom. xii i . I ). And,in effect

,fo r several years

past, w hi le the reverence fo r o ur church and religio n hath been

2

[Tho ugh a man’s private judgment be a 3

[No man can say he is o bliged in con

rule to himself, it w ill no t thence fo llow that science , ho no ur, o r prudence, to insult thehe hath any right to set it up fo r a rule to public w isdom, o r to ridicule the laws undero thers.]—Auruo n . who se pro tectio n he lives.]—AUTHOR.

M agistr ates and M en in A a tao r z'

ty. 4 1 7

decaying and wearing o ff from the minds o f men,it may be

observed that lo yalty hath in pro po rt io n lo st gro und ; and no w

the very wo rd seems quite fo rgo tten . Submission fo r co nscience,

as well as fo r wrath, was o nce reckoned a useful lesson , but now ,

with o ther go od lesso ns, is laid aside as an obso lete prejudice.

The prince o r magistrate,however great o r powerful

,w ho thinks

his own autho rity sufficient to make him respected and o beyed,

lies under a wo ful mistake,and n ever fai ls to feel it so o ner o r

later. Obedience to all civil power is ro o ted in the re ligious fearof God : it is pro pagated, preserved, and no urished by re ligio n .

This makes men o bey,no t with eye

-service,but in sincerity o f

heart. Human regards may restrain men from open and penaloffences , but the fear o f God is a restrain t from all degrees o f allcrimes

,however circumstanced. Take away this stay and pro p

of duty,this roo t o f civil autho rity ; and all that w as sustain ed by

it,o r grew from it

,shall so o n languish . The autho rity

,the very

being o f the magistrate, will pro ve a po o r and precarious th ing.

An inward sense o f the supreme majesty o f the King o f kings isthe o nly thing that can beget and preserve a true respect fo r sub

o rdinate majesty in all the degrees o f power—the first link o f

autho rity being fixed at the thro ne o f Go d. But,in these o ur days,

that maj estas imperii, that sacredness o f character,which ro o ted in

a religio us principle w as the great guard and security o f the state,

is through want thereo f become the public sco rn . And indeedwhat ho ld can the prin ce o r magistrat e have o n the co nsc ienceof those who have n o co nscience ? How can he bui ld o n the

principles o f such as have no principles ? O r how can he ho pefo r respect where Go d h imself is n eglected ?It is man ifest that no prin ce upo n earth can ho pe to go vern

well, o r even to live easy and secure,much less respected byhis

people,if he do no t co nt ribute by his example and autho rity to

keep up in their minds an awful sense o f religio n . As fo r a mo ralsense

,and mo ral fitness

,o r eternal relat io n s

,how in suffi cient tho se

things are fo r establish ing general and just no t io n s o f mo rality, o rfo r keeping men with in due bo unds, is so evident from fact and

experience that I need no t now enter into a particular disquisit io nabout them".It must be owned that the claws o f rapine and vio lence may in

[See Alcipbron, Dial . III. and IV.] —Aur uo n .

VOL. 111. E e

4 I 8 A D iscour se addr essed to

some degree be pared and blun ted by the o utward po lity of a state.

But sho uld w e n o t rather try, if po ssible, to pull them quite out ?

The evil effects o f w ickedness maybe o ften redressed bypublicjust ice. But w ould it n o t be better to heal the so urce

,and

,byan

inward principle,ex t irpate wickedness from the heart

,rather than

depend altogether o n human law s fo r -preven t ing o r redressing thebad effects thereo f ? I might (said the Chinese Do cto r Co nfucius)hear and decide co ntro versies as w el l as an o ther : but what Iwould have is

,that men should be bro ught to abstain from co ntro

versies o ut o f an inw ard love and regard fo r each o ther 5 .’To o many in th is age o f free remarks and projects are delightedwith republican schemes ; and imagine they might remedy whatever w as amiss

,and render a people great a nd happy, merely bya

n ew plan o r fo rm o f go vernment . Th is dangero us way o f thinking and talking is grown fami liar, through the fo o lish freedom of

the times fi . But,alas ! tho se men do n o t seem to have touched

either the true cause o r cure of public evils. Be the plan ever soex ce llen t

,o r the architects ever so able

, yet no man in his witswo uld undertake to bui ld a palace with mere mud o r dirt. Theremust be fit materials , and witho ut a religious principle men can

n ever be fi t materials fo r any so ciety,much less fo r a republic.

Re ligio n is the cen tre wh ich un ites,and the cement which co n

n eets the several parts o r members o f the po litical body; Such it

hath been held byallwise men,from the remo test times down to

o ur ingen io us co ntempo raries , w ho,if they are in the right, it

must be admitted that all the rest o f the wo rld have been in the

w ro ng.

From the knowledge o f its being abso lutely necessary to the

go vernmen t o f a state that the hearts and minds o f the people beinwardly imbued with go o d prin ciples, Plato ? tel ls that ‘Jupiter,to preserve the race o f men from perishing, sent Mercury, witho rders to intro duce mo desty and justice amo ng them,

as the fi rmest

t ies o f human so ciety , and w ithout wh ich it co uld n o t subsist.’And e lsewhere the same autho r 8 gives it plain ly as his sense that

co ncern ing tho se great dut ies w h ich men’s appetites and passions5[S cientia S in . lib. I. fo l. —AUTHOR. mean

, o r that there is any o ther ex tremeThe referen ce is to the Confucius S z

'

narum beside tyranny.]—AUTHOR.

philo sophas , sive Scientia Sinensis, published 7

[In P r otagoraJ—AUTHOR.

at Paris in 1687.8

[De Legibus, lib. VIII.] —AUTHOR.

6[M en fo rget that liberty co nsists in a

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4 20 A D iscour se addr essed to

Some prejudices are gro unded in truth, reaso n , and nature . Suchare the respects w h ich are paid to kn ow ledge, learn ing, age,

ho nesty,and courage, in all c ivili z ed countries . O thers are purely

the effect o f part icular co nst itut io n s , such are the respects,rights,

and preemin en ces ascribed to some men by the ir fellow-subjects,o n accoun t o f thei r birth and qua lity , w h ich, in the great empireso f Turkey and China

,pass fo r no th ing , and will pass fo r no thing

e lsew here,as so on as men have go t rid o f their prejudices

,and

learned to despise the co n stitutio ns o f thei r country. It maybeho ve tho se w ho are co n cerned to reflect o n this bet imes.

God,comprehending w ith in h imse lf the begin n ing, end

,and

middle o f all th ings and t imes,exerts his en ergy throughout the

w ho le creat io n . He n ever ceaseth to influence by instinct , bythelight o f nature, by his declared will . And it is the duty of magistrates and lawgivers to cult ivate and enco urage tho se Divine impressio ns in the m inds o f all men under their care. We are no t

to think it is the w o rk o f Go d,and therefo re no t to be seconded

by human care. Far o therwise,fo r that very reaso n it claims our

utmo st care and diligence , it being the indispen sable duty of allgo o d men , throughout the w ho le co urse o f their lives

,to co-operate

w ith the design s o f Pro vidence . In religio n , as in nature,God

do th somew hat,and somew hat is to be do ne o n the part o f man.

He causeth the earth to bring fo rth materials fo r fo o d and rai

men t , but human industry must impro ve, prepare, and properlyapply bo th the o ne and the o ther

,o r mankind may perish with

co ld and hunger. And, acco rding to this same analo gy 10,the prin

ciples o f piety and re ligio n , the th ings that belo ng to our salvation,altho ugh o riginally and primarily the w o rk o f God

, yet require thepro tect io n o f human go vernmen t

,as we ll as the furtherance and

aid o f all wise and go o d men .

And if religio n in all go vernmen ts be necessary, yet it seems to

be so mo re especially in mo narch ies : fo rasmuch as the frugalmanners and mo re equal fo rtunes in republics do no t so muchinflame men

’s appet ites

,o r affo rd such power o r temptation to

misch ief,as the h igh estate and great w ealth o f nobles under a

1°[It w ill be suflicient if such analogy —Alcipbr on , Dial. VI. sect. —AUTHOR.

appears betw een the dispensatio ns o f grace Butler's Analogy, in which a similar docand n ature, as may make it pro bable to trine is un fo lded, was fi rst published in 1736suppo se them derived from the sameAuthor. —the same year as Berkeley’s Discourse.

M agistr ates and M en in Aut/z o r ity. 4 2 1

king. Therefo re, although the magistrate (as was already ob

served) hath fo r his peculiar o bject the tempo ral wel l being o f thestate, yet this will by no means ex empt him from a due co n cernfo r the religio n o f his country.What w as the sense o f o ur an cesto rs o n this po int appearsthrougho ut the who le co nstitut io n o f these k ingdoms , and

,in

o rder to justify this co nstitut io n,and the wisdom o f tho se w ho

framed it,I shal l crave leave to make use o f some un suspected

testimo n ies,ancient and mo dern

,w h ich will shew that the public

care ofa N atio nal Religion hath been always a mo st prin cipal po in tin the esteem o f wise men

,however run down by the prevailing

licence o f o ur times.

The first testimony I shall pro duce is that of Z eleucus,the

famous lawgiver o f the Lo crian s, who,in his preamble to his

laws“,begins with re ligio n , laying it down as the co rner-sto ne o r

foundatio n o f his who le superstructure,

‘ that every inhabitant,

subject o f the state,should be persuaded that there is a Go d and

Divine Providence : that the o n ly w ay o f becoming dear to Go d isby endeavouring above all things to be go o d, bo th in deed and in

will : that a wo rthy citiz en is o ne that prefers integrity to w ealth .

’

He farther admoni shes tho se w ho are difficult to persuade, to

bethink themselves of Go d’s pro vidence, and the pun ishments that

await evil-do ers , and in all the ir act io ns to be ever mindful o fthe last day as if it were present, o r in case the devil 12 sho uldtempt a man to sin

,he exho rts such a o ne to frequent the temples

and altars,wo rshipping and implo ring the D ivine assistance .

’

Aristo tle”,discoursing o f the means to preserve a mo narchy,

admonishes the supreme magistrate, abo ve all things, to shewhimself z ealous in religious matters , and this particular ly fo r tw oreasons. 1. Because the subjects will have less to fear from o n e

who fears God. 2. Because they will be less apt to rebel againsthim whom they take to be the favo urite o fHeaven .

’ And e lsewhere this same philo so pher recommends the wo rship o f the go ds,as the fi rst care of the state ‘4

Plato likewise begins his Laws with the care o f rel igio us rites.11[StobaausDeLeg. et Consuet. Ser .

1” [Aaiywv Kd 'f ésJ—AUTHOR—Aurnon. The reference is to the Sermones 19 [De Republ. lib. V .]—Aur n o n .

o f Sto bz us, the learned Greek 1*[lbid. lib. VII. cap.

—AUTH0R .

compiler.

42 2 A D iscour se addr essed to

He even maintains religio n o r D ivine wo rship,to be the chief

aim and sco pe o f human life ” .

Hippo damus theM i lesian 16,in his scheme o f a republic

,allo tted

a th ird part o f the land fo r maintain ing D ivine wo rship 17 .The Roman histo rians and po ets do so abound with passages

ascribing the successes o f their go vernmen t to re ligion,and its

declensio n to the want o r neglect thereo f,that it mayseem im

pertin en t to enter into a detail o f what every schoo l-boyknows.To come from an cient to mo dern autho rity

, Machiavel h imselfrepresen ts religion as abso lutely necessary to maintain civil o rderand go vernmen t. He o bserves

,that fo r many years there was a

mo st awful sense o f religio n in th e o ld Romans , and that this didmuch faci litate their great undertakings. He likewise observes

,

and shews bydivers instances, that the Romans were mo re afraidto break an o ath than to transgress the laws , and that thosethings which even the lo ve o f their countryand co nstitutio n couldn o t bring them to

,they were bro ught to through a sense o f reli

gio n . Upon the who le he co ncludes,that old Rome w as mo re

o bliged to N uma, who established a national religio n,than to

Romu lus himself,the founder o f that state ” .

And here by the by I shall take no tice,that some may imagine

the various fo rms and institut io n s o f religio n ought to unsettlemen

’s minds with regard to the t ruth and certainty o f any. But

this matter right ly co nsidered,will

,I think

,pro duce a co ntrary

effect . It sheweth,indeed

,that men gro ping out their way by

the dim twilight o f nature did o n ly appro ach,some n earer

,some

farther off,wh ile all were sho rt o f the truth. But then it sheweth

likew ise,upon the who le and in gen eral

,that religion is so natural

to our minds, so useful to so ciety

,and o f so necessary impo rtance

to the wo rld,as might wel l pro ve its truth

,and render it w o rthy

of the D ivine care to pro pagate by pro phecies, miracles, and themissio n o f the So n o fGod.

Ph il ip de Comines 19,a wise statesman and honest writer, who

had great experience in affairs,declar es it to be his Opin io n, ‘ that

wan t o f religious faith is the o n ly foun tain o f allmischiefs.

’

‘5[De Leg. lib. IV. et lib. VI.]—AUTHOR. what hath been in the great Pagan states of

1°[Arist . De Kapubl. lib. II. cap. antiquity; whose religio ns, upo n a fair esti

Aur n o n . mate, w ill be found to have been more ex

1”[The abo lishing o f the Christian reli pensive.]—AUTHOR.

gio n upo n a frugal principle must be bad 1“

[Discorsi’

, lib. 1. cap. I Z .]—AUTHOR.

po licy, if w e may judge what w ill be by ‘9[Hist B. V.]—Av'

rnon.

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4 24 A D iscour se addr essed to

We o f th is land have a fatal tenden cy to overlo ok the goodqualit ies

,and imitate whatever is amiss in tho se whom we

respect . This leads me to make some remarks o n the mo dern spirito f refo rmatio n

,that wo rks so strongly in bo th these kingdoms.

Freedom o f thought is the general plea and cry o f the age , andw e all grant that th inking is the w ay to kn ow , and the mo re realknow ledge there is in the land

,the mo re likely it will be to

thrive. We are no t therefo re against freedom o f thought,but

w e are against tho se un thinking o verbearing peo ple 23,w ho

,in

these odd t imes,under that pretence

,set up fo r refo rmers, and

n ew moulders o f the co nst itut io n . We declare against tho se, whow o uld seduce inno cen t and un experien ced perso ns from the reveren ce they ow e to the law s and religio n o f their country , and

,

under the n o t io n o f extirpat ing prejudices,wo uld erase from their

minds all impressio ns o f piety and virtue,in o rder to introduce

prejudices o f ano ther kind,destruct ive o f so ciety.

W e esteem it a ho rrible th ing to laugh at the apprehensio ns ofa future state

,with the autho r o f the Characteristics 24 , o r, with him

w ho w ro te the Fat te of flee Bees, to maintain that ‘mo ral virtuesare the po litical offspring w h ich flattery bego t upo n pride’25 , thatin mo rals there is no greater certain ty than in fashio ns o fdress’ 26 ,that

,indeed

,the do ctrin e o f go od manners teacheth men to speak

We ll o f all virtues , but requi res no mo re o f them in anyage o r

co un try,than the o utw ard appearance o f tho se in fashio n ’27

. Two

autho rs o f infidel systems these,w ho

,sett ing out upon opposite

principles,are calculated to draw all mankind

,by flattering either

their van ity o r the ir passio n s,in to one o r o ther system. And yet

the peo ple amo ng w hom such bo o ks are published wonder how itcomes to pass that the civil magistrate daily lo seth his autho rity, thatthe law s are trampled upo n

,and the subject in co n stant fear of being

ro bbed and murdered,o r having h is house burn t o ver his head ?

It may be presumed that the science o f finding fault, whichabo ve all o thers is easiest to learn

,suits best with a modern

23[It is no t reaso n candidly pro po sed that 2‘

[V o l. Ill.M z'

scel. Ill. cap.—AUTKOR.

o ff ends, but the reviling, insulting, ridiculing, 25[Inquiry into the Origin of Moral

o f the natio nal law s and religio n ; all this Vir tue. Ed. VI. p .-AUTHOR.

pro fi teth fo r free-think ing, and must needs 2“[The author‘s Remarks o n hisFable of

be o ffensive to all reaso nable men .] the Bees, p.—AUTHOR.

AUTHOR ”7

[Remarks part II. p. l55 .] —AUTHOR

M agistr ates and M en in Aut/cor ity. 4 2 5

education. To o many there are o f better fo rtunes than understandings, who have made the inquiry after t ruth a very smallpart of their care , these see somew hat

,but n o t en ough . It were

to be wished they kn ew either less o r mo re. O ne th ing it isevident they do no t know , to w it

,that wh i le they rai l at pre

judice,they are undo ing themse lves : they do no t comprehend

(what hath been befo re h inted), that thei r who le figure,their

po litical existen ce, is o w ing to certain vulgar prejudices, in favouro f birth

,t itle

,o r fo rtune

,which add no th ing o f real wo rth either

to mind o r bo dy , and yet cause the mo st wo rth less perso n to be

respected.Freedom o f thought is the prero gat ive o f human k ind , it is aqualityinherent in the very nature o f a th inking being. N o th ingis mo re evident than that every o ne can th ink his ow n w ay, in

Spite of anyo utward fo rce o r power w hatso ever. It is therefo reridiculous fo r anyman to declaim in defen ce o f a privi lege whichcanno t be den ied o r taken from h im. But this w i ll no t infer aboundless freedom o f speech ‘2 8

,an o pen co n tempt o f laws

,and a

prescribing from private judgment 29 against public autho rity,

things never bo rne in any w el l-o rdered state , and whi ch makethe crying distemper o f our times.[30The co nst itutio n o f these k ingdoms hath been o ne wh i le

overheated by the indiscreet z eal o f o ne set o f men : Again ithath been co ld and l ifeless through the indifferen ce o f ano ther.31We have alternately fe lt the furio us eEects o f superst ition and

fanaticism , and our present impending danger is from the sett ingup of private judgment

,o r an inward light in o ppo s it io n to human

and divine laws. Such an inward co nceited prin ciple always at

work,and pro ceeding gradually and steadily

,may be sufficient

to disso lve anyhuman fabric o f po lity o r civil go vernment . To

pretend to be wiser than the laws hath n ever been suffered inanywise State, saith Ar isto t le 32 And indeed what wise State

28[Is there no difference betw een indulg co ntained in the Discourse in the Lo ndon

mg scrupulo us consciences, and to lerating edit io n o f th e M iscellany, are omitted in the

public deriders o f all co nscience and reli Dublin editio n , published in the same year,gi°n —AUTHOR. and also in the fo rmer Co llected Editions o f2°[A man w ho is himself permitted to Berkeley's Wo rks.

fo llow his own private judgment , cann o t31[There is a medium in th ings, which

well C°mplaimaltho ugh he may no t set it w ise men fi nd o ut, w hile the unw ise are

“P 3 5 a public rule.] -Aur uon . alw ays blundering in ex tremes .]—AUTHOR.

3° The two paragraphs w ithin brackets, 3”[Rbet. lib. 1. cap.

—AUTHOR.

4 26 A D iscour se addr essed to

would enco urage o r endure a spirit of opposition 33 publicly too perate against its own decrees ? w ho can say to such a spirit

,

Thus far shalt thou come,and no farther ?

The Magistrate, perhaps, may n o t be suffi cient ly aware thattho se pretended advo cates fo r private light and free thought arein reality seditious men

,w ho set up themse lves against national

laws and con stitutions. And yet, o ne would think, all mankindmight see

,that the spirit wh ich prevails against the Church and

Re ligio n pro ceeds from an o ppo sit io n rat her to the laws of the

land than to the Go spel. Men quarrel no t so vehement ly againstart icles o f Faith themselves

,as against the establish ing o f such

matters , which is the so le effect o f law and the supreme power.It clearly fo llows

,the freedom pleaded fo r is no t so much freedom

o f tho ught against the do ctrines of the Go spel, as freedom of

speech and actio n against the laws o f the land. It is strange,that tho se who are no t blind in o ther matters, shou ld yet not

see this , o r,that seeing it

,they should no t discern the co use

quences thereof ]I am sensible

,that whatever lo o ks like a restraint on freedom

o f inquiry,must be very disagreeable to all reason ing and inquisi

t ive men . But againstyth is I have said no thing 34. On the

co ntrary,I w i ll freely ow n

,a judicious and impart ial search

after truth is the mo st valuable emplo yment o f the mind. Thosew ho have the talents

,and will be at the pains

,canno t do better

than engage in that no ble pursuit . But tho se who are n o t qualifi ed byage o r educatio n , tho se w ho have neither dispo sitio n nor

leisure,n o r facu lties to dig in the mine o f truth themselves, must

take it as retai led out by o thers. I see no remedy. God,who

know s the oppo rtun ities o f every man,requires impo ssibilities from

n o man . And where there is a sincere love o f truth and virtue,the grace o fGod can easily supply the defect o f human means.It hath been befo re o bserved

,and shewed at large, that the

bulk o f mankind must have the ir minds betimes imbued w ithgo o d and who lesome no tio ns o r principles

,by their parents,

pasto rs,and tuto rs

,o r e lse bad n o tions

,hurtful to themselves

and o thers,will undoubtedly take po ssession thereof. Such bad

3°[Reaso n mo destly pleading from a to be very riieek and modest.]—Au'ruon.

conscientio us principle hath no thing crue l 9‘[The pro fane and law less scomer is one

to apprehend from o ur laws, and I hope it thing, and the modest inquirer after truthneyer w ill . At the same time, it must be ano ther.]—AUTBOR.

allowed, that every plea against law o ught

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428 A Discour se addr essed to

He w ho makes it his business to lessen o r ro o t out from the

minds o f men this princ iple do th in effect endeavo ur to fillhis co untry with h ighwaymen

,housebreakers

,murderers

,fraud

ulent dealers,perjured w itnesses

,and every o ther pest Of so ciety.

Therefo re,it w ould be the greatest cruelty to o ur children

,neigh

bours,and coun try to co n n ive at such a crime , a crime which

hath no natural passion o r temptat io n to plead fo r it,but is the

pure eEect o f an abando ned impuden ce in w ickedness , and,

perhaps,Of a mistaken ho pe that the laws and magistrates are

asleep.The questio n is n o t n o w

,w hether re ligio n shall be established

by law : the thing is already do ne (and do ne with go od reason,as appeareth from the premises), but w hether a reverence 33 fo r thelaws shall be preserved. Religio n , co nsidered as a system of

saving t ruths,hath its sanct io n from heaven , its rewards and

penalt ies are divine. But religion , as useful and n ecessary toso c iety

,hath been w isely established bylaw , and so established

,

and wro ught into the very frame and principles of our government ,is become a main part Of the civil co nstitutio n . Our laws are

the laws Of a Christ ian country : o ur governmen t hath been co n

st ituted and mo de lled by Christ ians , and is sti ll admin isteredand main tained bymen pro fessing belief in Christ . Can it then

be suppo sed that impious men shall with impun ity invent and89publicly utter the mo st ho rrid blasphemies , and, at the same timethe w ho le co nst itut io n no t be endangered ? O r can it be supposedthat magistrates, o r men invested with pow er

,sho uld lo ok on

,

and see the mo st sacred part o f our co nstitut io n trampled underfo o t

,and yet imagine their ow n dign ity and autho rity to be

secure,which rest ent irely thereupo n ? I will venture to saythat

who ever is a w ise man,and a lo ver Of his country

,will rio t only

be so licitous to preserve the ho no ur of God sacred and entire ,he will even discourage that prevailing prejudice against the dispausers o f God’s wo rd

,the teachers o f tho se salutary do ctrines,

witho ut wh ich the public canno t thrive o r subsist. He will be

38[They w ho plead a right to co ntradict

the law s, can pretend no ne fo r do ing it w ith

inso lence o r disrespect .] —AUTHOR .

3°[To make the cause o f such men the

cause Of liberty o r to leratio n w ould be

mo nstro us. Aman is no t suff ered publicly

to blaspheme, therefore he may no t think

freely : a pro fane miscreant is no t indulgedin the public w orship o f the devil , thereforea co nscientio us perso n may no t serve Godhis ow n way

—is no t this absurdAUTHOR .

M agistr ates and M en in Au t/z o r ity. 4 29

no contemner, n o t even Of tho se rites and o rdinances enjo ined bylaw

,as necessary to imprint and retain a sense o f religio n in the

minds o f men . He will extend his care to the o utwo rks,as

knowing that when these are go ne, it maybe diflicult to preservethe rest.N o twithstanding the vain assert io n o f tho se men w ho wouldjustify the present by saying ‘

all t imes are alike,

’it is mo s t

evident that the magistrates, the law s, the very co n st itut io n o f

these realms have lo st no small share o f their autho rity and

reverence, since th is great growth and spreading o f impio us principles. Whatever be the cause, the effect is apparent . Whetherwe ascribe it to the natural co urse o f th ings

,o r to a just judgment

upon tho se who,having been careless to preserve a due sense o f

the Divine autho rity,have seen and shall see their ow n despised.

Darius,a heathen prince

,made a decree

,that in every domin io n

ofhis kingdommen should tremble and fear befo reGo d (Dan .vi.Nebuchadnez z ar

,likewise

,an o ther heathen

,made a decree

,that

every peo ple,natio n

,and language which spoke anyth ing amiss

against Go d should be cut in pieces,and their houses made a

dunghill (Dan . i ii . And if these th ings were do ne in Persia and

Babylon,surely it maybe expected that impious blasphemers against

God and his wo rship sho uld at least be discouraged and put out o f

countenance in these Christian coun tries. N o w,a con stan t course

of disfavour from men in autho rity wou ld pro ve a mo st effectualcheck to all such miscreants. When

,therefo re

,they are public

and bo ld in their blasphemies,th is is n o small reflect io n o n tho se

who might check them if they would.It is no t so much the execut io n o f the laws as the countenance

of tho se in autho rity that is wanting to the maintenance o f

religio n . If men Of rank and power,w ho have a share in dis

tributing justice,and a vo ice in the public co uncils, shall be

Observed to neglect divine wo rsh ip themselves,it must needs

be a great temptatio n fo r o thers to do the same. But if they andtheir families should set a go od example

,it may be presumed

that men of less figure would be dispo sed to fo llow it . Fash ion sare always observed to descend

,and peo ple are general ly fo nd

of being in the fashio n , w hen ce o ne wo uld be apt to suspect theprevailing co n tempt o f Go d’s wo rd, and estrangement from his

house,to a degree that was never known in anyChristian co un try,

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434 A Letter to t/ce Roman Cat/to ties , 69 7 .

w h ich,in all likeliho o d

,w o uld be given to favo urites (perhaps to

fo reign ers), w ho are near the perso n,o r w ho fo ught the battles

o f thei r M aster.Under pro testan t governments

,tho se Of your commun io n have

fo rmerly enjo yed a greater share o f the lands o f this kingdom,

and mo re ample privi leges. Yo u bo re your part in the magistracyand the legislature, and could complain o f n o hardsh ips o n the

sco re o f your religio n . If these advantages have been since impaired Or lo st

,w as it n o t by the wro ng measures yo urselves to ok

to en large them,in several successive attempts

,each o f which

left you weaker and in a w o rse co ndit io n than you w ere befo re ?And th is n o tw ithstanding the vaunted succo urs Of France and

Spain,who se vain efforts in co njunct io n with yours co nstantly

reco i led o n yo ur ow n heads,even when your numbers and cir

cumstances w ere far mo re co nsiderable than they n ow are ?

You all know these things to be true. I appeal to your ownbreasts. Dear-bo ught experience hath taught yo u, and past timesin struct the present . But perhaps you fo llow co nscien ce ratherthan in terest . Will any men amo ngst you pretend to pleadco n scien ce against being quiet

,o r against paying allegiance and

peaceable submission to a pro testant prince,which the first Chris

t ians paid even to heathen,and wh ich tho se o f your communion

,

at th is day, pay to Mahometan and to ido latrous prin ces in Turkeyand Ch ina

,and which yo u yourse lves have so o ften professed to

pay to o ur present gracious Sovereign ? Co nscience is quiteo ut o f the case. And what man in his sen ses w o uld engage in

a dangero us co urse, to wh ich neither interest do th invite,nor

co nscience o blige h imI hearti ly w ish that this advice may be as we l l taken as it is

meant,and that yo u maymaturely co n sider yo ur true interest,

rather than rash ly repeat the same erro rs w h ich yo u have so Often

repen ted o f. SO,recommending yo u to the merciful guidance Of

Almighty Go d, I subscribe myself,Your real w ell-wisher

,

GEORGE CLOYNE.

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438 A Wo r d to the Wise :

useful virtue. Much hath been done , but whether it be from theheaviness o f the climate

,o r from the Spanish o r Scythian blood

that runs in their veins,o r w hatever else maybe the cause, there

still remains in the nat ives o f th is is land a remarkable antipathyto labour. You

,gen tlemen

,can alone co nquer their innate here

ditaryslo th. Do you then , as you lo ve your country, exert yourselves.You are known to have great influence on the minds of yourpeo ple , be so go od as to use this influen ce fo r their benefit. Sinceo ther methods fail

,tryw hat you can do . Be instan t in season

,

out o f seaso n , repro ve, rebuke, exho rt ’ (2Tim. iv. Make themtho roughly sensible o f the sin and fo lly o f slo th. Shew your charityin clo thing the naked and feeding the hungry, which you maydoby the mere breath o f your mouths. Give me leave to tell youthat n o set o f men upo n earth have it in thei r power to do goodo n easier terms

,with mo re advantage to o thers

,and less pains o r

lo ss to themselves. Yo ur flo cks are o f all o thers mo st dispo sed tofo l low direct io ns

,and Of all o thers wan t them most , and indeed

what do they no t want ?

The house o f an Irish peasant is the cave of poverty , within,yo u see a po t and a little straw , without, a heap o f childrentumbling o n the dunghill. Their fie lds and gardens are a livelyco un terpart Of So lomon’s descript io n in the Pro verbs : I went(saith that wise king) by the field o f the slo thful

,and by the vine

yard o f the man vo id Of understanding, and, 10, it was all growno ver with tho rns

,and nett les had co vered the face thereof

,and the

sto ne w al l thereo f w as bro ken do w n’

(Pro v. xxiv. 30, In

every road the ragged ensigns o f po verty are displayed , on oftenmeet caravans of poor

,who le fami lies in a dro ve

,without clo thes

to co ver,o r bread to feed th em

,bo th w hich might be easily pro

cured by mo derate labour. They are en co uraged in this vagabondlife by the miserable ho spitality they meet with in every co ttage,who se inhabitants expect the same k in d receptio n in their turnwhen they become beggars themselves , beggary being the lastrefuge o f these improvident creatures.If I seem to go out o f mypro vin ce, o r to prescribe to those who

must be suppo sed to know their ow n business,o r to paint the

lower inhabitan ts o f this land in no very pleasing co lours, you

An Ex ho r tation to the Roman Catho lic Ctergy. 439

will candidly fo rgive a w ell-mean t z eal,w h ich o bligeth me to say

things rather useful than agreeable, and to lay o pen the so re ino rder to heal it .But whatever is said must be so taken as n o t to reflect o n per

sons o f rank and educat io n,w ho are no w ay inferio r to thei r

neighbours , no r yet to in clude all even o f the lowest so rt,though

it may we ll extend to the gen erality o f tho se especially in the

w estern and southern parts o f the k ingdom,where the Brit ish

manners have less prevai led. W e take our n o t io n s from what w esee

,mine are a faithful transcript from o riginals about me .

The Scythians were n o ted fo r w andering, and the Spaniards fo rsloth and pride , our Irish are behind n either o f these natio nsfrom which they descend

,in their respective characterist ics .

‘Better is he that labo ure th and abo undeth in all th ings, than hethat bo asteth h imself and w anteth bread

,

’saith the so n o f Sirach

(x. but so saith no t the Irishman . In my o w n fami ly a

kitchen-wench refused to carry o ut Cinders,because she w as de

scended from an o ld Irish sto ck. N ever w as there a mo re mo nstrous co njunctio n than that o f pride with beggary , and yet th isprodigy is seen every day in almo st

’

every part o f th is kingdom .

At the same t ime these pro ud peo ple are mo re dest itute than

savages, and mo re abject than n egro es. The n egro es in o ur

Plantation s have a saying-4 If negro w as no t negro , Irishmanwould be negro .

’And it may be affirmed w ith truth that the

very savages Of America are better clad and better lo dged thanthe Irish co ttagers throughout the fi ne fert i le co unt ies o f Limerickand Tipperary.

Having lo ng Observed and bewai led th is wretched state o f mycountrymen

,and the in sufficien cy o f several metho ds set o n fo o t

to reclaim them,I have recourse to yo ur Reveren ces as the dern z

'

er

ressort . Make them to understand that yo u have their in terest at

heart,that you persuade them to w o rk fo r the i r o w n sakes

,and

that God hath o rdered matters so as that they w ho w i ll no t w o rkfo r themselves must wo rk fo r o thers . The terro rs Of debt , slavery,and famine should

,o ne w o uld th ink, drive the mo st slo thful to

labour. Make them sensible o f these th ings, and that the ends o fProvidence and o rder o f the w o rld requi re industry in human

creatures.‘Man go eth fo rth to his wo rk and to his labour un ti l

440 A Wor d to the Wise

the even ing,’ saith the Psalmist (Ps. civ. when he is describing the beauty, o rder, and perfect io n o f the wo rks o f God. But

what saith the slo thful perso n ? Yet a litt le sleep,a little slum

ber,a litt le fo lding o f the hands to sleep’ (Prov. vi . But

what saith the wise man ? So shall thypo verty come as one thatt rave lleth

,and thywant as an armed man ’

(Prov. vi. 1All nature will furn ish you with argumen ts and examples against

slo th : GO to the ant,thou sluggard,’ cries So lomo n . The ant

,

the bee,the beet le

,and every in sect but the dro ne

,read a lesson

Of industry to man . But the sho rtest and mo st efi '

ectual lesson isthat o f St . Paul : ‘ If any man will no t wo rk, neither should heeat

’

(2 Thess. i ii . This command w as enjo ined the Thessalo n ians

,and equally respects all Christ ians

,and indeed all man

k ind , it being evident by the light o f nature that the who lecreatio n wo rks together fo r go o d, and that n o part w as designed tobe useless. As therefo re the idle man is o f no use

,it fo llow s that

he hath no right to a subsisten ce. Let them wo rk (saith theapo stle), and eat their ow n bread ’ (2 Thess. i i i. no t bread gotby begging, no r bread earned, by the sweat of o ther men , but theiro w n bread

,that which is go t by their ow n labour. ‘Then shalt

tho u eat the labour o f th ine hands,

’saith th e Psalmist , to which

he adds,‘Happy shalt thou be

,and it shall be wel l with thee’

(Ps. cx xviii . intimating that to w o rk and enjo y the fruitsthereo f is a great blessing.

A slo thful man’s imaginat io n is apt to dress up labour in a

ho rrible mask , but , ho rrible as it is,idleness is mo re to be

dreaded,and a life o f po verty (its n ecessary co nsequence) is far

mo re painful. It w as the advice o f Pythago ras, to cho ose the bestkind Of life , fo r that use w o uld render it agreeable, reconcilingmen even to the ro ughest exercise. By practice

,pains become at

first easy,and in the progress pleasan t , and this is so true, that

w ho ever examines things w i ll fi nd there can be no such thing as

happy life w itho ut labo ur,and that who ever do th no t labour with

his hands,must

,in his o wn defen ce

,labo ur with his brains.

Certain ly,plant ing and tilling the earth is an exercise no t less

pleasing than useful , it takes the peasant from his smoky cabinin to the fresh air and the o pen field

,rendering his lo t far more

desirable than that Of the s luggard, w ho lies in the straw, o r sitsw ho le days by the fi re.

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442 A Wom’to Me VVz

'

se :

manner o f life to take pains,especially w hen they o bserve it to be

attain ed by the industry o f their neighbo urs, in no so rt betterqualified than themselves.

If the same gent le spirit o f slo th did n o t so o the our squires as

we l l as peasan ts,o ne w ould imagine there sho uld be no idle hands

amo ng us. Alas ! how many in cen tives to industry o ffer themselves in th is island

,crying alo ud to the inhabitants fo r w o rk ?

Ro ads to be repaired,rivers made navigable, fisheries o n the

co asts,mines to be w rought

,plan tatio ns to be raised

,manufac

tures impro ved,and

,abo ve all

,lands to be t i lled

,and sowed with

all so rts o f grain .

When so many c ircumstances pro vo ke and an imate your peopleto labour , w hen the ir private w ants

,and the n ecessit ies o f the

public , w hen the laws, the magistrates, and the very country callsupo n them , yo u canno t th ink it becomes you alo ne to be silent

,

o r h indmo st in every pro ject fo r promo t ing the public go od. Whysho uld you, w ho se influen ce is greatest

,be least active ? Why

should yo u, w ho se w o rds are mo st likely to prevai l,say least in

the commo n cause ?

Perhaps it w ill be said,the discouragements attending those o f

your Commun io n 3 are a bar again st all endeavo urs fo r excitingthem to a laudable industry. M en are st irred up to labour bythepro spect o f bettering their fo rtunes

,by getting estates

,o r em

ploymen ts , but tho se w ho are limited in the purchase o f estates,

and excluded from all civ il emplo yments,are deprived of those

spurs to industry.To th is it may be an swered

,that

,admitting these co nsider

atio ns do,in some measure

,damp industry and ambition in

perso ns o f a certain rank, yet they can be no let to the industry

o f po o r peo ple,o r supply an argument against endeavo uring to

pro cure meat,drink

,and clo thes. It is n o t pro po sed that you

should persuade the better so rt to acquire estates,o r qualify

themselves fo r becoming magistrates , but o n ly that you shouldset the lo w est o f the peo ple at w o rk

,to provide themselves

w ith n ecessaries,and supply the wants o f nature.

It w i ll be alleged in ex cuse o f their idleness,that the country

3 N o te the reference here, and in w hat Roman Catho lics, and to the Irish landfo l low s, to the civil disabilities o f the Irish questio n . Cf. Q uerist, O_u. 255 .

An Ex ko r talz’

on to Ike Roman Calkali; Clergy. 443

people want encouragement to labour,as no t having a pro perty

in the lands. There is small encouragemen t,say you, fo r them

to build o r plant upo n ano ther’s land,wherein they have o n ly

a tempo rary interest . To which I answer,that life itself is

but tempo rary , that all tenures are no t of the same kind , thatthe case o f our English and the o riginal Irish is equal in thisrespect , and that the true Abo rigin es, o r natural Irish

,are

noted fo r want o f industry in impro ving even o n the ir o wn

lands,whereo f they have bo th po ssessio n and pro perty.

How many industrious perso ns are there in all civili z ed co untries

,w ithout any pro perty in lands, o r any pro spect o f estates

,

or emplo yments ! Industry n ever fails to rew ard her vo taries.

There is no o ne but can earn a little,and litt le added to litt le

makes a heap. In this fert ile and plen tiful island,n o n e can

perish fo r want but the idle and impro viden t. N o ne w ho haveindustry

,frugality, and fo resight but may get in to to lerable

,if

not w ealthy,circumstan ces.—Are no t all trades and manufactures

open to tho se o f your Commun io n ? Have you n o t the same freeuse

,and may you no t make the same advantage, o f fairs and

markets as o ther men ? Do you pay h igher dut ies, o r are yo u

liable to greater impo sit io ns,than yo ur fe l low-subjects ? And are

not the public premiums and en co uragements given indifl'

erentlyto artists o f allCommun io ns ? Have no t

,in fact

,tho se o f your

Commun ion a very great share o f the commerce o f th is k ingdomin their hands ? And is no t mo re to be go t by this than by

purchasing estates,o r po ssessing civil emplo ymen ts

,w ho se in

comes are often attended with large expenses ?A tight house, warm apparel

,and w ho lesome fo o d

,are sufh

cient mo tives to labo ur. If all had them,w e sho uld be a

flourishing nat io n . And if tho se w ho take pain s mayhave them,

those who will no t take pains are no t to be pit ied , they are

to be looked o n and treated as dro nes,the pest and disgrace o f

society.It will be said

,the hardness o f the landlo rd cramps the industry

of the tenant . But if rent be high,and the landlo rd rigo ro us,

there is mo re need o f indust ry in the tenant . It is w el l kno w nthat in Ho lland taxes are much h igher, and rent bo th o f land and

houses far dearer,than in Ireland. But this is no o bjectio n o r

impediment to the industry o f the peo ple, w ho are rather an imated

444 A Wo r d to l/z e Wise :

and spurred o n to earn a live liho o d by labour, that is no t to be go

without it .You w il l say, it is an easy matter to make a plausible dlSCOUI'Sl

o n industry, and its advantages , but w hat can be expected forpo o r creatures

,w ho are dest itute o f all co nven iences fo r exert ing

their industry,who have n o thing to improve upon

,no thing t<

begin the wo rld with ? I an swer,they have the ir four quarters.

and fi ve sen ses4. Is it no thing to po ssess the bodily o rgans sounc

and en tire ? That wo nderful mach ine,the hand

,w as it fo rmed

to be idle ?Was there but will to wo rk

,there are no t wanting in this

island e ither o ppo rtun it ies o r en co uragements. Spinn ing alonemight emplo y all idle hands (ch ildren as we l l as parents), beingso o n learned

,easily perfo rmed

,and never failing o f a market

,

requiring n either w it no r strength, but suited to all ages and

capac it ies. The public pro vides uten sils,and perso ns fo r teach

ing the use o f them , but the public canno t pro vide a heartand will to be industrious. These

,I w i ll no t deny, may be

fo und in several perso ns in some o ther parts o f the kingdom,

and wherever they are found, the comfo rtable effects shew themselves. But seldom

,very seldom

,are they found in these southern

peo ple,w ho se indo len ce fi gureth a lio n in the w ay, and is pro of

against all en co uragement .

But yo u will in sist , how can a po o r man,w ho se daily labour

go es fo r the payment o f his ren t,be able to pro vide present

n ecessaries fo r his fami ly,much less to lay up a sto re fo r the

future ? It must be owned,a co nsiderable share o f the poo r

man’s t ime and labo ur go es tow ards paying his rent . But how

are his wife and children emplo yed,o r how do th he employ

h imself the rest o f his t ime The same w o rk tires,but different

wo rks relieve . Where there is a true spirit o f industry,there

w ill n ever be want ing something to do,without do o rs o r within,

by candle-light if n o t byday-light . Lalor ipse voluptar, saith t he

po et,and this is verified in fact .

In England, when the labour o f the field is o ver,it is usual for

men to betake themselves to some o ther labour o f a differentk ind . In the no rthern parts o f that industrio us land, the

Cf Q z er ist, (Lu. 4 .

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446 A Wo rd to Me Wise :

neglect o f all th ings, e ither pro fitable o r decen t,must , needs

co n tract a sleepiness and indo lence,which do th necessarily lead

to po vert y,and every o ther distress that attends it . ‘Love not

sleep (cries So lomo n), lest thou come to po verty , open thineeyes and thou shalt be satisfied with bread ’ (Prov. xx. It

is therefo re greatly to be wished, that you would persuade parentsto inure their chi ldren bet imes to a habit o f industry, as the

surest way to shun the miseries that must o therwise befal them.

An early habit,w hether o f slo th o r diligence

,will no t fail to

shew itself throughout the who le course o f a man’s life .

‘Trainup a ch i ld (saith the wise man) in the w ay he should go , and

w hen he is o ld he will n o t depart from it’

(Pro v. x x ii . The

first tin cture o ften leaves , so deep a stain as no afterthought o r

endeavour can wash o ut. Hen ce slo th in some minds is proofagainst all argumen ts and examples whatso ever

,all mo tives of

interest and duty,all impressio n s even o f co ld and hunger. This

habit,ro o ted in the child

,grows up and adheres to the man

,

pro ducing a general l ist lessness, and aversion from labour. ThisI take to be our great calamity.Fo r

,admitt ing that some o f our squires and landlo rds are

vultures w ith iro n bowels,and that their hardness and severity

are a great discouragement to the tenant, w ho will naturally preferw ant and ease befo re w an t and to il , it must at the same timebe admitted that neither is the landlo rd

,generally speaking, so

hard,no r the climate so severe

,n o r the so i l so ungrateful, as

no t to an swer the husbandman’s labour,Where there is a spirit

o f industry , the w ant o f w hich is the true cause of our nationaldistress. O f th is there are many evident pro o fs.I have myself known a man

,from the low est condition of life,

w itho ut friends o r educat io n,n o t kn owing so much as to write

o r read,bred to no trade o r call ing, bypure dint o f day

-labour,frugality

,and fo resight, to have grown wealthy, even in this

island,and under all the abo ve-men t io ned disadvantages. And

w hat is do ne by o ne, is po ssible to ano ther.In Ho lland 7 a ch ild fi ve years o ld is maintained by its own

labour , in Ireland many children o f tw ice that age do no thingbut steal

,o r encumber the hearth and dunghi ll . This shameful

7 Cf. Q z er z'

st, (hi . 373 .

Arr EeMo r lalz'

o rz to Me Roman Cat/z elz’

e Clergy. 447

neglect o f educat io n shews itself thro ugh the who le co urse o f

their lives, in a matchless slo th bred in the very bo ne,and

no t to be accounted fo r by any o utward hardsh ip o r disco uragement whatever. It is the nat ive co lour

,if w e may so speak ,

and complexio n o f the peo ple . Dutch,English

,French

,o r

Flemish canno t match them.

Mark an Irishman at wo rk in the field , if a coach o r ho rseman go by, he is sure to suspend his labo ur

,and stand staring

until they are o ut o f sight . A n eighbo ur o f mine made it hisremark in a journey from Lo ndo n to Bristo l

,that all the

labourers o f whom he inquired the ro ad co n stan t ly answ eredw ithout lo o king up, o r in terrupt ing their wo rk

,except o ne w ho

stood staring and lean ing on his spade,and him he fo und to be

an Irishman .

It is a shameful th ing, and peculiar to this natio n,to see lusty

vagabonds stro lling abo ut the coun try,and begging witho ut any

pretence to beg. Ask them w hy they do no t labour to earn thei rown liveliho od

,they will tel l yo u, They w an t emplo yment , o ffer

to employ them,and they shall refuse yo ur o ffer , o r, if yo u get

them to w o rk one day, yo u maybe sure no t to see them the next .I have know n them decline even the lightest labo ur

,that o f hay

making, having at the same t ime neither clo thes fo r thei r backs,nor food fo r the ir bell ies.Aso re leg is an estate to such a fe llow , and th is maybe easily

got, and co nt inued with small tro uble. Such is their laz iness, thatrather than wo rk they w ill cherish a distemper. Th is I kn ow tobe true

,having seen mo re than o ne instance wherein the seco nd

nature so far prevailed o ver the first,that lslo th w as prefe rred

to health. To these beggars, w ho make much o f their so res,and

pro lo ng their diseases, yo u cann o t do a mo re thank less OH'ICC than

cure them,except it be to shave the ir beards

,wh ich co n ci liate

a sort o f reverence to that o rder o f men .

It is indeed a difficult task to rec laim such fe l lows from theirslothful and brutal manner o f life

,to which they seem w edded

with an attachment that n o tempo ral mo t ives can co nquer , n o ris there

,human ly speaking, any ho pes they wi ll amend, except

their respect fo r your lessons and fear o f someth ing beyo nd thegrave be able to w o rk a change in them .

448 A Wo r d to Me Wise

Certain ly,if I may advise

, you sho uld,in return fo r the lenity

and indulgen ce o f the go vernment, endeavo ur to make yo urselvesuseful to the public , and this will best be perfo rmed

,by rousing

yo ur po o r co untrymen from their belo ved slo th. I shall no t nowdispute the truth o r impo rtance o f o ther po ints

,but will venture

to say, that yo u mayst ill fi nd time to inculcate this do ctrine of

an lamest industry ,and that this would by no means be time

throw n away,if promo t ing yo ur co unt ryf s interest, and rescuing

so many unhappy wretches o f your Commun io n from beggary orthe gallows, be tho ught w o rthy o f your pains.It sho uld seem you canno t in yo ur sermo ns do better thaninveigh against idleness

,that exten sive parent o f many miseries

and many sins , idlen ess, the mo ther o f hunger and sister o f theft‘ idleness

,

’ wh ich,the Son o f Sirach assures us

,

‘ teacheth manyvices.

’

The same do ctrine is o ften preached from the gallows. And

indeed the po verty,nakedness

,and famine wh ich idleness en

taileth o n her vo taries,do make men so wretched

,that they may

well think it better to die than . to live such lives. Hence a

co urage fo r all villano us undertakings, which, bringing men to

a shameful death,do then o pen their eyes when they are go ing

to be c lo sed fo r ever.If you have any regard (as it is n o t to be doubted) either fo r

the so uls o r bo dies o f yo ur peo ple,o r even fo r your own interest

and credit, you canno t fai l to inveigh against this crying sin of

your country. Seeing you are obn o xious to the law s,should

yo u no t in prudence try to reco ncile yourse lves to the favouro f the public , and can you do this mo re effectually

,than by co

o perat ing with the public spirit o f the legislature, and men in

power ?Were th is but do ne heart ily

,w ould you but ‘ be instant in

seaso n,and out o f seaso n

,repro ve

,rebuke

,exho rt ’ (2 Tim. iv.

such is the ascendant you have gained over the people that wemight so o n expect to see the go od effects thereo f. We mightho pe ‘ that o ur garn ers w ould be so on full

,affo rding all manner

o f sto re,that our sheep wo uld bring fo rth thousands

,that our oxen

w o uld be stro ng to labour,that there wo uld be no breaking in,

no r go ing o ut (no ro bbery, n o r migrat io n fo r bread), and that

there w ould be no complain ing in our streets’ (Ps. cxliv.

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450 A Wo r d to Me Wise :

who have no faith at all. There is something it seems wo rse thaneven infide lity , and to inc ite and st imulate yo u to put aw ay thatcursed th ing from amo ngyou is the design and aim o f th is Address.The do ctrine w e recommend is an eviden t branch o f the Law

o f N ature , it w as taught by pro phets, inculcated by apo stles,

enco uraged and enfo rced by philo so phers,legislato rs

,and all w ise

states,in all ages and in all parts o f the w o rld. Let me therefo re

entreat you to ex ert yo urselves,

‘ to be in stant in seaso n,and out

o f seaso n,rebuke

,repro ve

,exho rt .’ Take all o ppo rtun ities to

drive the l io n o ut o f the w ay, raise yo ur vo ices, omit no o ccas ion,

public o r private,o f aw aken ing your wretched co untrymen from

the ir sw eet dream o f s lo th .

Many suspect your re ligio n to be the cause o f that no to riousidleness wh ich prevails so generally amo ng the nat ives of thisisland, as if the Roman Catho lic faith were in co nsistent w ithan ho nest diligen ce in a man

’s calling. But w ho ever considers

the great spirit o f industry that reigns in Flanders and France,

and even beyo nd the Alps,must ackno w ledge this to be a ground

less suspicio n . In Piedmo nt and Gen o a,in the M ilanese and the

Venetian state,and indeed throughout allLombardy

,how well is

the so il cult ivated,and what manufactures o f silk

,velvet

,paper

,

and o ther commo dit ies,flourish The king o f Sardin ia will suffer

no idle hands in his territo ries,no beggar to live by the sweat

o f ano ther’s brow , it has even been made penal at Turin to

relieve a stro lling beggar. To wh ich I might add that the personw ho se autho rity will be o f the greatest weight w ith yo u, even the

po pe h imse lf,is at this day endeavo uring to put new life into the

trade and manufactures o f his co untry.Tho ugh I am in no secret o f the Court o f Rome

, yet I w illventure to affirm

,that neither po pe

,no r cardinals

,will be pleased

to hear that tho se o f their Comm un io n are dist inguished, aboveall o thers

,by slo th

,dirt

,and beggary , o r be displeased at your

endeavo uring to rescue them from the repro ach o f such an in

famo us dist inctio n .

The case is as clear as the sun , w hat w e urge is enfo rced byevery mo t ive that can wo rk o n a reas o nable mind. The go odo f yo ur co untry

,yo ur ow n private in terest

,the duty of your

funct io n,the cries and distresses o f the po o r

,do with o ne vo ice

call fo r yo ur assistance. And,if it is on all hands allowed to

An Ex har tatio rz to MeRoman Catholic Clergy. 45 1

be right and just,if agreeable bo th to reaso n and re ligio n

,i f

co inciden t with the views bo th o f yo ur tempo ral and spiritualsuperio rs, it is to be ho ped this Address may fi nd a favourablereception

,and that a z eal fo r disputed po ints will no t hinder yo ur

concurring to pro pagate so plain and useful a do ctrin e,wherein

we are all agreed.When a leak is to be sto pped

,o r a fi re ext inguished, do no t

all hands co-o perate without dist in ct io n o f sect o r party ? O r

if I am fallen into a ditch,shall I n o t suffer a man to help me

out,unt i l I have first examined his creed ? O r when I am sick

,

shall I refuse the phys ic,because my physic ian do th o r do th n o t

believe the po pe’s supremacy ?Fas est et ah haste olocer z

'

. But,in truth

,I am no enemy to your

persons,whatever I may th ink o f your ten ets. On the co nt rary

,

I am your sincere well-wisher. I co n sider you as my co untrymen,

as fellow-subjects,as pro fessing belief in the same Christ . And

I do mo st sincerely w ish,there w as no o ther co ntest between

us but—w ho shall mo st completely practise the precepts o f him

bywhose name w e are called,and w ho se disciples w e all pro fess

to be.

[*Soo n after the preceding Address w as published, the Printer

hereof received the fo llo w ing L etter from the -Roman Catholic Clergy

of the Diocese of Dahlin,desiring it to be inserted in the Duhlz

'

n

70117 7141 o f N o vember 18,1749

‘You will very much o blige many o f yo ur co n stan t readers,if

you acquaint the public that the Address you lately published,entitled

,A Word to the I/Vz

'

se , or an Exhor tatiorz to the Roman Catholic

Clergy of Ireland, w as rece ived by the Roman Catho lic c lergy o f

Dublin w ith the h ighest sense o f grat itude , and they take the

liberty,in this public manner, to return the ir sincere and hearty

thanks to the w o rthy Autho r, assuring him that they are determined to comply with every part icular recommended in it

,to

the utmo st o f their power. In every page it co n tains a pro o f o fthe autho r’s ex tensive charity. His views are o n ly towards the

9 This Letter is appended to the Word preceding editio ns. It is omitted in all the

to the Wise, in the editio n published in Co llected Editio ns o f his Works .

Berkeley’s Miscellany,in 175 2

—no t in the

a g e

45 2 A fl Ex ho r tation to Me Roman Catholic Clergy.

public go o d . The means he prescribeth are easi ly complied with,and his man ne r o f t reat ing perso ns in their circumstances so verysingular that they plain ly shew the go o d man , the po lite gentleman

,and the true patrio t . All this hath so great an effect upon

them,that they have already directed circular Letters to the

parish priests o f this D io cese,recommending, in the mo st earnest

manner,the perusal and z ealous execut io n o f w hat is contained

in the said Address , and it is ho ped that by publish ing this inyo ur Jo urnal

,the Roman Catho l ic clergy o f o ther part s o f this

Kingdom will be induced to fo llow their example, w hich must promo te the laudable views o f that great and go o d man . At the same

t ime,he maybe assured that the Roman Catho lic clergy o f this

city have frequently taken co ns iderable pains to recommend to theirrespect ive flo cks

,indust ry

,and a due application to their respective

trades and call ings, as an indispen sable duty,and the means of

avo iding the many vices and bad co n sequences which generallyattend crim inal po verty and w an t . But the mo re effectually toprevent these evils

,and remo ve all excuses fo r slo th and idleness

,

they have,several mon ths ago , pursuant to the example of many

bisho prics in Lombardy,Spain

,N aples

,&c .

,taken the steps most

pro per and expedient,in their o pin io n

,to lessen co nsiderably the

number o f Ho lidays in this Kingdom , and they make no doubtbut their expectat io ns will

,in a sho rt t ime

,be fully answered

,

t o the great advantage o f the public.’

We are,86d }

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MAX IMS CONCERN ING PATRIOTISM ’

1 . EVERY man,by co nsulting his ow n heart

,may easily kno w

whether he is o r is n o t a patrio t . But it is no t so easy fo r theby—standers.2. Being loud and vehemen t either agains t a co urt

,o r fo r a

court,is no pro o f o f patrio tism.

3. A man who se passio n fo r mo ney runs h igh bids fair fo rbeing no patrio t . And he likewise w ho se appet ite is keen fo r

power.4. A nat ive than a fo reigner, a married man than a bachelo r

,

a believer than an infidel,has a better chance fo r being a patrio t.

5. It is impo ssible an epicure sho uld be a patrio t .6. It is impo ssible a man w ho cheats at cards

,o r cogs the

dice,should be a patrio t .

7. It is impo ssible a man w ho is false to his friends and

neighbours should be true to the public.8. Every knave is a tho ro ugh knave . And a tho rough knave

is a knave throughout .9. A man w ho hath no sense o f Go d o r co nscien ce : w o uld

you make such a o ne guardian to yo ur ch i ld ? If n o t,why

guardian to the state ?

10. A so t,a beast

,benumbed and stupefi ed by ex cess

,is go o d

for nothing,much less to make a patrio t o f.

1 1. A fop o r man o f pleasure makes but a scurvy patrio t.12 . A sullen

,churlish man

,w ho lo ves no body

,will hardly lo ve

his country.

These Max ims w ere fi rst published in the o riginal editio n . Berkeleyw as a patrio t1750, as it seems, in the Dublin yournal, —no t a P at-r io t, as he used to style h isbut I have no t been able to fi nd a co py o f ‘ baw ling'

co untrymen .

45 6 M ax ims concer n ing P atr io tism .

13. The love o f praise and esteem may do something : but tomake a true patrio t there must be an inw ard s ense o f duty andco n scien ce .

14 . Ho nesty (l ike o ther things) grows from its pro per seed,

go o d prin ciples early laid in the mind .15 . To be a real patrio t

,a man must co nsider his co un trymen

as Go d’s creatures,and h imself as acco untable fo r his acting

to w ards them.

16. If pr o nr z'

s et farr’

s be the l ife o f patrio tism,he w ho hath no

re ligio n o r no home makes a suspected patrio t .17 . N o man perjures himself fo r the sake o f co nscience.

18. There is an easy w ay o f reco nciling maleco ntents. —Sun tv erha et v oces guihns hunc len z

'

re dolorem,&c.

19. A go o d gro om w i ll rather stro ke than strike .

20 . He w ho saith there is no such thing as an ho nest man,

yo u maybe sure is himself a knave.

2 1 . I have n o o pinio n o f yo ur bumper patrio ts. Some eat,some

drink,some quarrel

,fo r the ir co untry. MODERN PATRIOTISM !

Ibycus is a cark ing, griping, clo sefi sted fellow. It is oddsthat Ibycus is no t a patrio t .

23 . We are n o t to think every clamo rous haranguer, o r everysplenet ic repin er against a co urt

,is therefo re a patrio t .

24 . A patrio t is o ne w ho heart ily w isheth the public pro sperity,and do th n o t o n ly wish

,but also study and endeavour to pro

mo te it .

25 . Gamesters,fo ps

,rakes

,bullies

,sto ckjo bbers : alas ! what

patrio ts !26. Some w riters have tho ught it impo ssible that men should

be brought to laugh at public spirit . Yet this hath been do ne inthe presen t age.

2 7 . The patrio t aims at his private go o d in the public. The

knave makes the public subservien t to his private interest . The

fo rmer co nsiders h imself as part o f a w ho le,the latter co nsiders

h imself as the w ho le.

28. There is and ever w i ll be a natural strife betw een courtand co untry. The o ne w i ll get as much

,and the o ther give as

l itt le as it can . How must the patrio t behave himself ?29. He gives the n ecessary. If he gives mo re, it is with a

view o f gain ing mo re to his country .

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46 2 F ir st Letter to Thomas P r io r,Esq,

2 . [4 Po ur a gallo n o f co ld water o n a quart o f liquid tar , stir,

mix,and wo rk them tho ro ughly together, with a wo o den ladle

,

o r flat st ick,fo r the space o f fi ve o r six minutes. Then let the

vesse l stan d clo se covered three days and n ights,that the tar

mayhave full t ime to subside. After w h ich,having first carefully

skimmed it without moving the vesse l,pour o ff the c lear water

,

and keep it in bo tt les,well co rked fo r use . This method w ill

pro duce a liquo r st ro nge r than that first published in Siris,but

no t o ffensive,if careful ly skimmed ] It is a

__go od general rule,but

,as stomachs and co nstitutio ns are [ 5 30] vario us, it mayadmit

o f some lat itude. Less water o r mo re stirringmakes it stronger,as mo re w ater o r less stirring makes it weaker. [6 It is to ben o ted that if several gallo ns are made at o nce in the same

vesse l, yo u must add fi ve o r six minutes’ stirring fo r every

gallo n . Thus tw o gallo ns o f water and tw o quarts o f tar re

quire ten o r tw e lve minutes’ stirring.)3 . The same tar will no t do so we ll a seco nd time

,but

may serve fo r o ther commo n uses : the putting o ff tar that hath

been used fo r fresh tar would be a bad fraud . To preventwhich

,it is to be no ted that tar already used is o f a lighter

brown than o ther tar. The o n ly tar that I have used is thatfrom o ur no rthern Co lo n ies in Amer ica

,and that from N o rway ,

the latte r,being thin ner

,mixeth easie r w ith w ater

,and seems

to have mo re spirit . If the fo rmer be made use Of (as I have[7 sometimes] kn o w n it with go o d success), the tar-water willrequire lo nger stirring to make it .4 . Tar-water

,w hen right , is no t paler than French, no r deeper

co lour than Span ish w h ite win e,and

'

full as clear , if there ben o t a spirit very sen sibly perce ived in drin king, you may con

clude the tar-w ater is no t go o d , if you would have it go od, seeit made yo urself. Tho se w ho begin with it little and weakmay by habit come to drink mo re and stro nger. Acco rding tothe seaso n

,o r the humour Of the pat ient

,it may he drank

either co ld o r warm , [8 in co lics, I take it to be best warm.

4 In the fi rst editio n instead o f the sen water. and keep it in bo ttles, well corked.renees w ithin brackets w e have— ‘ Put a fo r use.

’Cf. S ir is, sect. 1 .

gallo n o f co ld w ater to a quart o f tar , stir Omitted in seco nd edition.

and w ork them stro ngly together, fo r abo ut 6 No t in fi rst editio n .

fo ur minutes. Let the vessel stand c lo se 7 Omit ted in seco nd editio n.

co vered fo r eight and fo rty ho urs, that the 8 N o t in fi rst editio n .

tar may subside. Then po ur o i? the clear

on tke Vir tues of Tct r -w ater . 463

If it disgusts a patient warm,let him try it co ld

,and vice

versa. If at first it create to some squeamish perso ns a litt lesickness at the stomach

,o r nauseating, it may be reduced bo th

in quality and quant ity. In general, small inco nven ien ces are

either remo ved , o r bo rne with small tro uble it lays under n o

restraint as to air,exerc ise

,clo thes

,o r diet

,and may be taken

at all times in the year.5. As to the quan t ity in commo n chro n ical indispo s it io n s

,o ne

pint o f tar-water a daymay sufi ice, taken o n an empty stomach,

at two o r four t imes,to w it

,n ight and mo rn ing, and abo ut tw o

hours after d inn er and breakfast , mo re maybe taken by stro ngstomachs. Alteratives in general

,taken in small do ses

,and o ften

,

mix best with the blo o d—how o ft o r how stro ng each stomachcan bear

,ex perien ce will shew . But tho se w ho labo ur under

great and inveterate maladies must drink a greater quant ity ,at least o ne quart [9 every tw enty-four hours], taken at fo ur

,six

,

o r eight glasses, as best suits the circumstances and case o f the

drinker. All o f this class must have much pat ien ce,and per

severance in the use o f this as we l l as o f all o ther medicines,

which,if sure and safe

,must yet, from the nature o f things,

be slow in the cure o f inveterate chro n ical diso rders. In acute

cases,fevers o f all kinds

,it must be drank in bed

,w arm

,and

in great quant ity, the fever sti ll enabling the pat ient to drinkperhaps a pint every hour, which I have known to wo rk sur

prising cures. [10But it w o rks so quick,and gives such spirits

,

that the patients o ften think themse lves cured befo re the feverhath quite left them . Such

,therefo re

,sho uld n o t be impat ient

to rise,o r apply themselves to o so on to busin ess

,o r their usual

diet ][6

11. To some

,perhaps

,it may seem

,that a slow alterat ive in

Chro nical cases canno t be depended o n in fevers and acute distempers

,which demand immediate relief. But I affi rm that

this same medicine,which is a slow alterat ive in chro n ical

cases,I have fo und to be also a mo st immediate remedy, w hen

copiously taken,in acute and inflammato ry cases. It might

indeed be tho ught rash to have t ried it in the mo st threaten ing

‘

per fi rst editio n .

1‘ This and nex t sectio n no t in fi rstNo t in fi rst editio n. editio n .

464 Fir st Letter to T/z omas P r io r ,Esq,

fevers and pleurisies witho ut bleeding,wh ich in the commo n

practice w o uld have been held necessary. But fo r th is I can

say, that I had patien ts w ho wo uld n o t be bled,and th is obliged

me to make trials o f tar-water witho ut bleeding, which trialsI never knew unsuccessful . The same tar-water I fo und a slow

alterat ive,and a sudden febrifuge. If the reader is surprised

,

I ow n myself to be so to o . But truth is truth,and from w hat

ever hand it comes sho uld be candidly received. If physiciansthink they have a right to t reat o f re ligious matters

,I think

I have an equal right to t reat o f medic ine.

7 . Autho rity I have n o preten ce to . But reaso n is the com

mo n birth right o f all. My reaso ns I have given in Siris. Mymo t ives every o ne w ill in terpret from his own breast . But he

must o w n h imself a very bad man,w ho in my case (that is,

after lo ng experien ce,and under full co nvictio n o f the virtues

and inn o cence o f tar-w ater) would no t have do ne as much.

All men are,I w i ll n o t say allowed

,but o bliged, to promo te

the commo n benefit. And,fo r th is end

,w hat I co uld no t in

conscien ce co nceal,that I do and shall publicly declare

,maugre

all the spleen and raillery o f a wo rld w hich canno t t reat me w o rsethan it hath do ne mybetters ]8. As the mo rn ing’s draught is mo st diffi cult to n ice stomachs

,

such may lessen , o r ev en omit it at the beginn ing, o r ratherpo stpo ne it t i ll after breakfast

,and take a larger do se at n ight

the distance from meal-t ime need no t be mo re than o ne hour,

[19 fo r commo n stomachs,w hen the liquo r is wel l clarified and

sk immed . The o il that flo ated o n the top and was skimmed OEsho uld be carefully laid by, and kept fo r o utward so res.] [13 111the variety o f cases and co nstitutio ns

,it is no t amiss that ther

sho uld be different manners o f preparing and taking tar-water.Trial w i ll direct to the best ] Whether there be any differencebetween o ld tar and new tar o r which o f all the various tars,pro duced from difi

'

erent trees,o r in different parts o f the wo rld,

is mo st medicinal,future trials must determine.

9. I have made a seco nd so rt o f tar-w ater to be used externally—as a w ash [

14o r lo t io n] fo r the i tch

,scabs

,ulcers

, [14 evil

,]’2 In fi rst editio n w hen the stomach is kept fo r outw ard sores.

’

stro ng, o r the glasses small : the o il that 13 N o t in fi rst edition .

sw ims o n the t o p may either be drank w ith 1‘ No t in fi rst edition—in which alsothe rest o f the liquor, o r sk immed o ff, and sect . 9 is part o f the preceding o ne.

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466 F ir st Letter to T/z omas P r ior ,Eso ,

it . And,as the o ld ph i lo so pher cried alo ud from the house-tops

to his fe l low-citi z en s—Educate your ch i ldren , so,I co nfess

,if

I had a situatio n h igh en ough , and a vo ice loud enough, I wouldc ry out to all the valetudinarians upo n earth—Drink tar-water.

1 2 . Having thus frankly owned the charge, I must explain to

you, that bya panacea is no t meant a medicine wh ich cures allindividuals (th is co n sists no t w ith mo rtality), but a medicinethat cures o r re lieves all the differen t species o f distempers 17And

,if Go d hath given us so great a blessing, and made a

medicin e so cheap and plenty as tar to be withal so un iversalin its effects

,to ease the miseries o f human life

,shall men be

ridiculed o r bantered o ut o f its use,especial ly when they run

no risk in the t rial ? [18Fo r I can truly affi rm,that I never knew

any harm attend it,mo re than somet imes a litt le nausea

,which

,

if the liquo r be w e l l cleared,skimmed

,and bo tt led

,need no t

,I

th ink,be apprehended ]

13 . It must be o w ned I have no t had o ppo rtun ities o f tryingit myself in all cases , n either will I undertake to demo nstratea priori that tar—w ater is a panacea. But yet methinks I amno t quite dest itute o f pro bable reaso ns, w h ich

,jo ined to what

facts I have o bserved,induced me to entertain such a suspicio n ”.

14 . I [19 knew] tar w as used to preserve catt le from co ntagion ;and this may be suppo sed to have given rise to that practice of

drink ing tar-water fo r a preservat ive against the small-po x .

But,as the tar-w ater used fo r that purpo se w as made by mixing

equa l quan t ities o f tar and w ater,it pro ved a most offensive

po t io n : besides,as a fresh glass o f w ater w as put in fo r each

glass that w as taken o ut,and th is fo r many days o n the same tar,

it [Q o fo llo w s] that the w ater w as n o t equally impregnated withthe fi ne vo lat i le spirit

,tho ugh all alike stro ngly saturated with

gro ss partic les.[ 33. Having fo und th is nauseo us draught very useful against the

small-po x to as many as co u ld be prevailed o n to take it,I began

to co nsider the nature o f tar. I reflected 21 that tar is a balsam17 The claim o f tar-water to be 3

1° No t in fi rst editio n .

panacea , w hich Berk eley o ffers o n ly as a‘Kno w

'

in fi rst editio n .

suggestio n , is w hat is chiefly discussed in the2° Fo llow ed in fi rst editio n.

Tar-w ater co ntro versy, and to w hich the 21 Cf. S ir is, sect. 10—39, With this seemo st plausible o bjectio ns are made .

ou tfi e Vir tues of Tar -w ater . 46 7

flowing from the t runks o f aged evergreens , that it resists putrefaction , that it hath the virtues o f turpent ine, wh ich in medicineare known to be very great and man ifo ld —but I o bserved w ithalthat turpent ines o r balsams are very o ffen sive in the tak ing. Itherefo re considered dist in ct ly the several co n st ituent parts o f

balsams wh ich were tho se whe re in the medicinal virtues resided,

and,which were to be regarded rather as a viscous matrix to re

ceive,arrest

,and retain the mo re vo lat ile and act ive part ic les ;

and,if these last could be so separated and disengaged from the

grosser parts as to impregnate a c lear and po table liquo r,I co n

cluded that such liquo r must pro ve a medic ine o f great fo rce and

general use. I co nsidered that nature w as the best chemist and

preparer o f medicin es,and that the fragrance and flavour o f tar

argued very active qualit ies and virtues.16. I had

,o f a lo ng time

,en tertained an o pin io n

,agreeable

to the sent iments o f many an cient phi lo so phers—That Fire may

do regarded as fée A nimal Spirit of this fvisiéle w orld And it

seemed to me that the attract ing and secret ing o f th is fi re,in

the various po res,tubes

,and ducts o f vegetables

,did impart their

specific virtues to each k ind , that this same light o r fi re w as

the immediate in strumental o r physical cause o f sen se and mo t io n ,and consequent ly o f life and health to an imals ; that , o n acco un t

of this so lar l ight o r fi re,Phoebus w as in the an cien t mytho logy

reputed the go d o f medicine . Which light , as it is leisure lyintroduced

,and fixed in the viscid juice o f o ld fi rs and pin es

,

so the sett ing it free in part,that is

,the changing its visc id

for a vo latile vehicle,which may mix with water, and co nvey

it throughout the habit co pio usly and in o ffensively,w ould be o f

infinite use in physic,extending to all cases whatso ever—inas

much as all distempers are in effect a struggle betw een the v i:

vita and the peculiar miasma o r fomes moréi ; and no th ingstrengthens nature

,o r lends such aid and vigour to l ife , as a

co rdial which do th n o t heat .17. The so lar light, in great quan t ity during the space o f many

successive years,bein g attracted and detain ed in the juice o f

ancient evergreens,do th fo rm and lo dge itself in an o il so fi ne

and vo latile as shal l mix we ll w ith w ater,and light ly pass the

2"This opinio n’is the groundwo rk o f a large part o f Siris. Cf. especial ly sect. 15 2

468 F ir st Letter to Tfi ouz us P r io r ,Eso ,

pr imefvia’

,and penetrate every part and capillary o f the o rganical

system,w hen o nce exempt and freed from the gro sser nauseous

res in . It will no t,therefo re

,seem un reaso nable to w ho ever is

acquain ted w ith the medicinal virtues o f turpentine in so manydifferen t distempers

,fo r wh ich it hath been celebrated bo th by

ancient and mo dern physic ians,and withal reflects o n the nausea

o r clog that prevents their full o perat io n and effect o n the human

bo dy ; it w ill n o t,I say, seem un reaso nable to such a o ne to

suppo se that,if this same clog w ere removed

,numberless cures

might be wrought in a great variety o f cases .

1 8. The desideratum w as—how to separate the act ive particlesfrom the heavy visc id substance wh ich served to attract and

retain them , and so to o rder matters that the vehic le o f the

spirit sho u ld no t o n the o ne hand be vo lat i le en o ugh to escape,

n o r o n the o ther gro ss en ough to o ffend . Fo r the perfo rmingo f this

,I have found a mo st easy

,simple

,and efl-

"

ectual method,

w h ich furn isheth a po table inoffensive l iquo r,clear and fine

as the best w h ite w ine,co rdial and stomachic

,to be kept

bo tt led,as being endued with a very sen sible spirit

,though no t

fermen ted .19. I tried manyr

experimen ts as to the quantity o f w ater,and

the t ime o f stirring and standing, in o rder to impregnate and

clarify it,and after all

,fix ed o n the fo rement io ned receipt, as

the mo st gen erally useful fo r making th is salutiferous liquo rwe ll impregnated, and no t o ffen sive to commo n stomachs, and

even drank w ith pleasure bymany , in which the mo st medicinaland act ive part ic les

,that is

,the nat ive salts [23 spirit] and vo latile

o il [z 4o f the balsam], being disentangled [24and separated] from

[w its] gro ss o il and visco us resin [24do , combin ed together, fo rm a

fi ne balsamic and vegetable so ap,w hich no t o n ly] can [

‘33 freely]pass the [24 stomach and] prim e !v ile

,but also insinuate [Zfi itself

into the minutest capillaries, ] and pervade the who le animal

[27 system] 5 and that in such full pro po rt io n and measure as suitethevery case and co nst itutio n .

20. The fo rego ing general co nsideratio n s put me upon making23 Omitted in seco nd editio n.

2“ In fi rst editio n themselves into the2‘ N o t in fi rst editio n . smallest ducts.’”5 ‘

.the’—ih fi rst editio n .

2” machine—ih fi rst editio n.

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4 70 F ir st Letter to T. P r ior ,Esq, ou Tar -w ater .

circle , whereo f the chief if no t so le reaso n I take to be, thatit is thought to be in credible the same things sho uld produceco nt rary effects

,as it must do if it cures o ppo site distempers.

And yet this is n o mo re than every day’s experience verifies.M ilk

,fo r instance

,makes some co stive and o thers laxative. This

regards the po ssibi lity o f a panacea in general , as fo r tar-waterin part icular

,I do n o t say it is a panacea

,I o n ly suspect it t o

be so—t ime and trial wil l shew.

23. But I am mo st sincere ly persuaded,from what I have

already seen and tried,that tar-water may be drank w ith great

safety and success,fo r the cure o r relief o f mo st if not all

diseases—o f u lcers,itch

,scald-heads

,lepro sy

,the fo ul disease

,

and all fo ul cases,scurvies o f all k inds

,diso rders o f the lungs,

stomach,and rheumat ic

,] go uty, and n ephritic ailments

, [99megrims, inveterate head-aches,] pleurisies, peripneumon ies

,erysipelas

, [29small-po x ,] and all k inds o f fevers, [

29 co lics,]

hysteric and allnervous cases,dro psies

,decays

,and o ther maladies.

[29N o te that fo r agues it should be d rank w arm and often,in

small glasses,bo th in and out o f the fi t

,and co ntinued fo r

several days to prevent a relapse] N o r is it o f use o nly in thecure o f sickness , it is also useful to preserve health

,and guard

again st infectio n , and in some measure even against o ld age,

as its gives lasting spirits,and invigo rates the blo o d. I am

even induced,by the nature and analogy o f things, and its

wo nderful success in fevers o f all kinds,to think that tar-water

maybe [‘29very] useful against the plague, bo th as a preservative

and a cure.

24 . But I do ubt n o medicin e can withstand that execrableplague o f disti lled spirits

,wh ich do all

,witho ut exception

, (thefi re o f the ho t sti ll impart ing a caust ic and co agulat ing qualityto all disti lled spirits 30

,whatever the subject o r ingredients may

be), o perate as a slo w po iso n,preying o n the V itals

,and wasting

the health and strength o f bo dy and so ul , w hich pest of humank ind is

,I am to ld

,gain ing ground in th is count ry

,already too

th in o f inhabitants .

I am,&c .

29 No t in fi rst editio n .3° Cf. S iris, sect. 107 , 108 ; and Second Letter , sect. 9.

A S E C O N D L E T T E R

TO THOMAS PRIOR,ESQ ,

ON THE VIRTUES OF TAR—WATER I .

1. YOUR atten t io n to whatever promo tes the public go o d Of yo urcountry

,o r the commo n ben efit o f mank ind

,having engaged yo u

in a particular inquiry co ncern ing the virtues and effects o f Tar

water, you are en titled to know what farther disco veries

,Observa

tions,and reflectio n s I have made o n the subject .

2. Tar-water,in the several edit io ns Of Siris

,hath been directed

to be made by stirring three, four, fi ve, Or six min utes,a gallo n Of

water and a quart Of tar. But,although it seems best made

,fo r

general use, with in tho se lim its, yet the stomach o f the pat ien t isthe best rule whereby to direct the strength o f the water , w ith a

little mo re stirring, six quarts Of go od tar-w ater may be madefrom one o f tar , and w ith eight m inutes

’

stirring, I have know n a

gallon Of tar-water pro duced from seco nd-hand tar, wh ich pro ved a

good remedy in a very bad fever,when better tar could no t be

had. Fo r the use o f trave llers,a tar-water may be made very

strong, fo r instance, with o ne quart Of w ater,and a quart Of tar

,

stirred together fo r the space o f fi ve minutes. A bo tt le Of th ismayserve lo ng o n a road

,a litt le being put to each glass o f com

mon water,mo re o r less

,as you w o u ld have it stro nger o r w eake r.

Near tw o years ago , a quart o f abo ut th is strength w as given to an

Old woman,to be taken at o ne draught by direc tio n o f a yo ung

lady,who had co n sulted o ne in my fami ly , abo ut the metho d Of

preparing and giving tar-w ater, w h ich yet she happened to mistake. But even thus

,it did service in the main , tho ugh it wro ught

1 First published in 1746 ,appended , alo ng Accoun t of the Efi

'

ects of Tar-water , w hichwith theFirstLetter , to M r. Prior'sAuthen tic appc ired at Dublin in that year.

47 2 S econd Letter to Tdomes P r io r,Esq. ,

the patien t vio lent ly all manner o f ways : wh ich shews that erro rsand excesses in tar-water are n o t so dangero us as in o thermedic ines .

3. The best tar I take to be that wh ich is mo st liquid,o r first

runn ing from the bi llets Of fir o r pine wh ich grew o n the moun

tains it hath a greater share Of the an t isco rbut ic vegetable juices,w h ich are co ntain ed not o n ly in the leaves and tender tops

,but in

all parts o f the wo o d and these,together w ith the salts Of wood

so ap,being in the compo sit io n o f tar superadded to turpentine

,

render tar-w ater a medicine,if I am no t mistaken

,much mo re

ex ten sive and efficacio us than any that can be Obtained fromturpent ine alo ne.

4 . The virtues o f the w o o d-juices shew themselves in sprucebeer

,made o f mo lasses

,and the black spruce-fi r in the no rthern

parts o f America , and the yo ung sho o ts o f o ur commo n spruce-fi rhave been put to malt liquo r in my o w n fami ly, and make a veryw ho lesome drink.

5 . Tar-water seldom fails to cure,o r rel ieve

,when rightly made

Of go od tar,and duly taken . I say, Of go o d tar, because the vile

practice o f adulterating tar, and Of sel ling the dregs o f tar, o r usedtar fo r fresh

,is grown frequen t

,to the great w ro ng o f tho se who

take it . Who ever hath been used to go o d tar-water can readilydiscern the bad by its flat taste, vo id Of that warm co rdial qualityfound in the fo rmer , it may also be expedient

,fo r knowing fresh

tar,to Observe w hether a fat Oily scum flo ats o n the top Of the

water,w h ich is fo und to be much less

,if anyat all, o n the second

making o f tar-w ater. Th is scum w as directed to be taken Off,

n o t from its be ing apt to do harm w hen drank,but to render the

tar-water mo re palatable to n ice stomachs. Great quantit ies Of

tar are pro duced in Germany,Italy

,and o ther parts o f the wo rld.

The different qualities o r virtues Of these it maybe wo rth whileto try, and I wish the trial “ w ere made prin cipal ly by Observing,w h ich giveth mo st sen se Of a live ly co rdial spirit upon drinkingthe water.6. Th is medicine o f tar-w ater wo rketh vario us ways

,byurine,

by perspirat io n , as a sudo rifi c,carminat ive

,cardiac

,astringent,

detergent , resto rative, alterative, and somet imes as a gentle purgat ive o r emet ic

,acco rding to the case o r co n stitutio n Of the patient,

o r to the quan tity that is taken , and its o peratio n sho uld no t be

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474 Second Letter to Tfi omas P r io r ,E sg.,

distempers,as the mo st inveterate king’s evil, no r even the mo st

co nfirmed gout , provided it be drank a quart a day, at six o r eightglasses, and at all seaso n s

,bo th in and o ut o f the fi t

,and that fo r

a great length o f t ime, the lo nger the better. It is to be no tedthat in fi ts o f the gout , co lic, o r fever, it should be always drankw arm. On o ther o ccasio ns

,warm o r co ld

,as the pat ient likes.

10 . The inferen ce I make is,that tho se w ho expect health from

tar-water have less need o f any o ther co rdial, and would do w ell tosacrifice some part o f their pleasure to the ir health . At the same

t ime,I will venture to aflirm that a fever pro duced either from

hard drink ing, o r any o ther cause, is mo st effectually and speedilysubdued

,by abstain ing from all o ther co rdials

,and plentifully

drink ing o f tar-w ater : fo r it warms the co ld,and co o ls the ho t ,

simple water may co o l,but th is

,at the same t ime that it co o ls

,

gives life and spirit . It is,in t ruth

,a specific fo r all kinds Of

fevers the same medicin e,which is a le isure ly alterative in chro

n ical diso rders,being taken in larger quantit ies, is a speedy cure

in acute o nes.

I I . Tho se w ho,witho ut know ledge o r experience Of tar-water

,

have been so act ive and earnest to discredit its virtues, have muchto answ er fo r

,especially w ith regard to acute inflammato ry dis

tempers,in w h ich it do th wo nders. It is in tho se diso rders

,so

fatal and frequen t,that I have had mo st o ppo rtun it ies o f Observing

its virtues , n o r can the w o rld ever know the just value of thismedic ine

,but by trying it in the like cases.

1 2 . When pat ien ts are given o ver,and all know n methods fail,

it is allo w ed to try n ew remedies. If tar-w ater w as tried in such

cases,I do verily believe

,that many pat ients might thereby be

rescued from the jaw s Of death : part icularly,I wo uld recommend

the trial o f it in the mo st malignant and desperate fevers o r

small-po x , attended with purple, livid, o r black spo ts. It is my

s incere Opin io n that w arm tar-w ater,drank co piously

,may Often

prove salutary,even in tho se deplo rable cases.

13 . MyOpin io n is gro unded o n its singular virtues in co rrecting, sweeten ing, and invigo rating the blo od

,and in curing

cancers and gangrenes, o r beginn ing mo rtifi catio ns, such as tho se

spo ts do indicate. I have late ly know n it drunk w ith go od suc

cess in a very painful and unpromising w ound , and am persuadedthat if it w ere drank plentifully

,during the dressing o f all sorts of

ou t/ie Vir tues of Tar -w ater . 4 7 5

dangerous wounds, it might assuage the anguish,and fo rward the

cure , as it abates feverish symptoms,and

,by rendering the blo od

balsamic and dispo sing the parts to heal,preven ts a gangren e.

14. Tar itself is an exce llent medicin e,being spread o n a clo th

,

and applied warm to an ulcer o r wo und. I have known the same

applied to a very large and painful tumour,caused bya sprain o r

bruise, speedily assuage the pain , and reduce the swe lling. I mayadd that tar (mixed with ho ney to make it less Offen sive

,and)

taken inwardly,is an admirable balsam fo r the lungs , and a litt le

Of this, taken together with tar-water, hasten s its effect in curingthe mo st obst inate and wast ing co ughs , and an egg

-she ll full Oftar

,swallowed and w ashed dow n w ith a quart o f tar-water

,n ight

and mo rn ing,hath been found very useful fo r the same diso rder in

horses.15. Sitt ing over the vapour Of the heated lo tio n , described in

myfo rmer letter, is excel lent in the case o f piles o r fistula , especiallyif foment ing with the same lo t io n be added

,

‘

as also an o in tingwith the Oil scummed from the top Of tar-water. Tar-w aterhath been snuffed up the no strils

,w ith go o d success

,fo r a great

heaviness o f thehead and drow siness. It is a very useful w ash fo rweak

,dry

,o r itching eyes , an ex ce llent preservat ive fo r the teeth

and gums , also a go od drink and gargle fo r a thro at : I may add

that I have know n '

it succeed in cases where it has been triedw ithout ho pes Of success

,part icularly in deafness. I have know n

life sustained many days together o n ly by drink ing Of tar-water,

w itho ut any o ther n o urishment,and w itho ut any remarkable

diminutio n Of strength o r spirits , it may therefo re be o f singularuse

,and save many lives in the distress o f famin e at sea

,o r in

sieges,and in seaso ns o f great scarcity. The virtue o f tar-water

,

flow ing like the N ile 2 from a secret and o ccult so urce,brancheth

into innumerable channe ls,co nveying health and relief

,wherever

it is applied , n o r is it mo re easy and various in its use than

copious in quantity. How great havo c, nevertheless, is made bythe small-po x , raging like a plague in N ew England, and o therparts Of America

,which yet abo und w ith tar ! And how man y

tho usand sai lo rs,in all parts o f the wo rld, are ro tting by the

scurvy with their remedy at hand !2

[The Nile was by the ancien t Egyptians called S ir is, w hich w o rd also signifi es, in Greek ,

a chain, though no t so commo n ly used as Sira.]—AUTHOR .

47 6 Second Letter to Tnomas P r io r,Esq,

16. Many in th is town Of Clo yne have,by the co pious drinking

Of tar-w ater alo n e,been reco vered o f the mo st vio lent fevers

,

attended w ith the mo st threaten ing symptoms,

and muchhe ightened by relapses from mismanagemen t. It w ould be tedio usto enumerate all the cases o f this kind wh ich have happened.

at Clo yn e and in my o w n fami ly , where many fevers, pleuriticas we ll as o thers

,attended w ith vio len t stitches

,difliculty Of

breath ing, and spitt ing Of blo o d,have been cured by tar-water

and th is I can with truth affirm,that I n ever knew it regularly

tried,in any inflammato ry case, without success : but then it

must be given in bed w arm,and very Co piously

,w ith all due

cautio n against co ld,n o ise

,and impro per diet.

1 7 . I have o ften Observed,w hen a pat ient

,o n the first attack

Of a fever,hath betaken himself to his bed

,and drank tar-w ater

regularly and co n stan t ly,that he hath had such favourable

symptoms,so go o d appet ite

,and so sound s leep

,that the fever

passed almo st as no th ing, no r w as to be distinguished o therw isethan by a quickn ess o f pulse

,a litt le feverish heat

,and thirst.

The mo re that pat ien ts in a fever drink,the better they fi nd

themselves , and the ir liking to tar-water gro w s w ith their wanto f it

,by a certain inst inct o r dictate Of nature , insomuch that

I have known chi ldren in very h igh fevers,w ho

,at o ther times,

could hardly be prevai led on to drink a single glass, drink six

o r eight in an hour.1 8. I can truly aflirm that

,fo r the cases within my own

Observat io n,inflammato ry acute distempers cured by tar-w ater

have been at least ten t imes the n umber o f any o ther. Theseindeed Often est o ccur

,as caus ing the ch ief destructio n and general

ravage Of mankind : w ho are co nsequent ly debarred from the

prin cipal use and benefit Of th is medicine,so lo ng as they give

ear to the suggestio ns Of tho se w ho,witho ut any experience

thereo f,w ould persuade them it is o f a heating o r inflaming

nature , wh ich suggest io n , as I am co nvinced myself, by lo ng andman ifo ld experien ce

,that it is abso lutely false

,so may all o thers

also be sufficient ly co nvinced o f its falseho o d,by the wo nderful

fact,attested bya so lemn affidavit 3 Of Captin D rape at Liverpo o l ,

w hereby it appears that Of 170 n egro es sei z ed at o nce by the

3 See Captain Drape’s ‘aflidavit,

’

in Prior's Authentic Acco unt of tbe Efi cts of Tarw acer , pp. 18—20 .

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47 8 Second Letter to T. P r io r ,E sq ,

on Tct r -water .

in a high degree o f the scurvy w as disco uraged from the use Of

tar-water,by its having caused an uneasy itch ing all over his

bo dy. But this w as a go o d symptom,which shewed the peccant

humo urs to be put in mo tio n,and in a fair way o f being dis

charged through the skin .

22 . An humour o r flatus put in mo tio n , and dislo dged from o ne

part,Often produceth n ew pains in some o ther part , and an

efl-icacious medicine,as it pro duceth a change in the eco nomy

,

may be atten ded with some uneasiness,wh ich yet is no t to be

accounted a distemper,but o n ly an effect o r symptom o f the cure.

23 . The salts Of tar-w ater have no thing Of the fiery and co r

ro sive nature Of lixivial salts pro duced by the incineratio n Of the

subject , they n o t being fixed salts,made by the ex treme fo rce

o f fi re,but vo lat ile salts

,such as pre

-ex isted in the vegetable,and wou ld have ascended in smo ke

,if no t preven ted by the sods

o r co vering o f the bil let piles. This,though already hinted in

Siris,and plain from the mann er Of making tar, I have thought

fi t to repeat and in culcate,because

,if du ly attended to

,it may

o bviate suspic io ns about tar-water,pro ceeding o n ly from an

igno ran ce o f its nature.

24 . Every step that I advanced in discovering the virtues Of

tar-water,my ow n wo nder and surprise increased

,as much as

theirs to whom I ment io ned them. N o r co uld I,without great

variety and eviden ce o f facts,ever have been induced to suspect

that all so rts o f ai lmen ts w hatso ever it might relieve o r cure,w hich at first sight may seem in credible and unacco untable , but,o n maturer thought, w i ll perhaps appear to agree with, and

fo llow from,the nature o f things . Fo r

,it is to be no ted that

the gen eral n o t io n o f a disease seemeth to co n sist in thisthat w hat is taken in is no t duly assimilated by the force of

the an imal eco nomy , therefo re it should seem whatever assiststhe fu is vv ita may be o f general use in all diseases

,enabling nature

either to assimi late o r discharge all unsubdued humours and

part ic les whatso ever. But the light o r sether detained in the

vo lati le o il wh ich impregnates tar-water,being o f the same

nature with the an imal spirit,is an accessio n o f so much strength

to the co n stitutio n,w h ich it assists to assimilate o r expel what

ever is alien Or n o xio us.

A L E T T E R 1

TO THOMAS PRIOR, ESQ ,

CONCERNING

THE USEFULNESS OF TAR-WATER IN THE PLAGUE.

WHEREIN ALSO IT IS CONSIDERED,

WHETHER TAR-WATER,PREPARED WITH THE D ISTILLED ACID

OF TAR,SHOULD BE PREFERRED TO THAT MADE IN THE

COMMON WAY,BY M IXING TAR WITH WATER,

AND STIRRING THEM TOGETHER.

Theypro voked Him to anger w ith their ow n inventions, and the Plague brak e in upo n

them.

’—Ps. cvi. 29.

YOU Observe,in a late letter o f yours

,that I had fo rmerly

hinted Tar-water might be useful in the Plague , and desire to

know the reasons whereo n my o pin io n w as grounded,and that

I wo uld commun icate my tho ughts at large o n the subject . Iam the mo re willing to sat isfy yo u in this particular, as the

plague now raging in Barbary hath in some measure alarmedthe public

,and I think it may n o t be amiss to co ntr ibute my

mite Of advice towards averting o r lessen ing the presen t danger ,and

,as fear begets cautio n

,to po ssess my countrymen with an

apprehensio n Of this,the greatest Of all tempo ral calamit ies, suffi

cient to put them o n their guard, and prepare them against theworst that can happen .

A learned physician o f our o w n Observes that the plague do esnot visit these Britann ic islands Oftener than o nce in thirty o r

forty years,and it is now abo ve twice that time 2 sin ce w e fe lt

the hand o f the destro ying angel.

1 First published in Dublin and Londo n 2 In 1665—eighty-tw o years befo re this

(‘Innys.Hatch , andCo oper, Paterno sterRow , w as written. The plague has no t since

andDavis in Ho lborn in 1 747, in the same visited these islands.pamphlet with the Letter to Dr. Hales.

480 A Letter to Tnomas P r io r,Esq.,

It is also the Opin io n Of physicians that the infectio n canno tspread ex cept there is a suitable dispo sit io n in the air to

receive it , the signs Of w hich are w et summers,leaves and

fruits blasted,an unusual quan t ity o f insects

,epidemical dis

t empers amo ng the catt le,to which I presume may be added

lo ng easterly winds—all wh ich signs seem to have discoveredthemselves pretty plain ly in the co urse Of th is presen t year.Beside these natural fo rerunners o f a plague o r pest ilence in

the air,it is wo rth Observing that a progno stic may be also

made from the mo ral and re ligio us dispo sitio n Of the in

habitants. Certain ly that the digitus D ei (the Ta Oei‘

ov of

Hippo crates) do th man ifest itself in the plague w as no t onlythe Opin io n Of mankind in general, but also in part icular of

the mo st emin ent physicians thro ughout all ages down to our

ow n . How far w e Of these is lands have reaso n to expect thismessenger o f D iv ine vengeance will best appear if w e take a

view o f the prevai ling prin ciples and practices o f our times,

which many think have lo ng called aloud fo r pun ishment or

amendment .

Analogy and probability prevail in medicine : these are the

pro per guides where experien ce hath no t go ne befo re. I knewthat tar-w ater w as useful to prevent catching the small-po x, andco nsequen t ly that its nature w as co n trary to the taint o r venompro ducing that distemper , and therefo re I co ncluded that itmight be usefully applied to cure the same

,though I never

heard no r kn ew that it had been applied to that purpo se, and

the success answ ered my ho pes.

In like manner,having known the virtue o f tar-water in

preserv ing from epidemical infect io n,I co nceive in general it

may be useful fo r the cure o f distempers caused by such infect io n . Besides

,being ve ry w ell assured that tar-water was

so vere ign in the cure o f all so rts o f fevers,I th ink it not

un reaso nable to infer that it may pro ve a successful medicinefo r the plague, although I have never kn ow n it used in that dis

temper,fo rasmuch as the plague w ith all its symptoms may be

co ns idered as a species o f fever,and hath been actually con

sidered as such bo th by Hippo crates and Sydenham,no t to

ment io n o thers.Having Observed surprising effects o f tar-water in the most

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482 A Letter to Tli oni as P r io r ,Esq. ,

I knew a perso n w ho had been six weeks ill o f an erysipelasunder the care o f a ce lebrated physic ian

,during which time she

struggled w ith many dangero us symptoms,and hardly escaped

w ith life . Th is perso n was a year after seiz ed again in the

same manner,and reco vered in a week

,by the so le use Of tar

water. Co st iveness is recko ned a very ho peful progno stic inthe plague , and it is also a symptom w h ich Often attends thedrink ing o f tar-water

,when it thro w s out the venom Of a dis

temper thro ugh the skin .

D iseases Of the same seaso n gen erally hear some affinity toeach o ther in “

their nature and the ir cure , and it may no t be

impro per o n th is o ccasio n to Observe that the reign ing dis

temper Of the black catt le hath been o ften cured by tar-water,and wo uld (I am persuaded) have do ne much less mischief

,if

the pract ice had been general to have given each distemperedbeast three ga llo n s the first, tw o the seco nd

,and o ne the third

day, in warm do ses (from a pint to a quart), and at equalin tervals.Diemerbro eck 3 recommends in the first appearan ce Of a plague

the use o f sudo rifi cs,putting the pat ient to bed

,and covering

h im w arm,t i ll a co pio us sw eat be raised

,the very method I

co nstantly fo llow in the beginn ing o f fevers,using no o ther

medic ine than tar-w ater , wh ich, after numberless experiments,I take to be the best sudo rifi c that is kn own

,inasmuch as it

throws o ut the mo rbifi c miasma,w itho ut e ither heating the

pat ien t o r w eaken ing him,the commo n effects Of o ther sudorifi cs,

w hereas this,at the same t ime that it allays the feverish heat,

pro ves a mo st salutary co rdial, giving great and lasting spirits.

Upo n the w ho le,I am Sincere ly persuaded that fo r the cure

o f the plague there can no t be a better metho d fo llowed, moregeneral fo r use

,mo re easy in practice

,and mo re sure in effect,

than to co ver the pat ien t w arm in bed,and to make him drink

every hour o n e quart o f w arm tar-w ater,Of such strength as his

stomach is able to bear , a thing no t so impracticable as it mayseem at first S ight, since I have known much mo re drank infevers

,even by ch ildren , and that eagerly and by cho ice, the

distemper calling fo r drink, and the ease it gave encouraging toAn eminent Dutch physician , who practised at Nimeguen during the great p

lague there,in 1635

—7 . His w ork De P este appeared in 1646.

on tae Vir tues of Tctr -w ater in tne Plague, é’c. 483

go on. Th is fo r the cure , but I co n ceive that on e quart perdiem may suffice fo r preven t io n , especial ly if there be added an

even temper o f mind,and an exact regimen

,which are bo th

highly useful against the plague. Fo r carbun cles and bubo es Iwould recommend a lin imen t o f the Oil o f tar

,o r a plaster Of

pitch mixed with water, wh ich last w as used by the vulgar inthe Dutch plague described byD iemerbro eck .

It has pleased divine Providen ce to visit us no t lo ng sin ce,

first with famine, then with the swo rd , and if it should pleasethe same go o d Providen ce yet fart-her to visit us fo r our sins

,

with the third and greatest Of human wo es,th is

,by Go d’s

blessing, is the course I mean to take fo r myself and fami ly ,and if generally pract ised, it wo uld, I doubt no t (under Go d),save the lives o f many thousands , whereo f being persuaded inmy own mind

,bo th from the many trials I have made o f tar

water,and the best judgment and reaso n ings I co uld fo rm there

upon,I think myself o bl iged to declare to the wo rld what I am

convinced o fmyself.And I am the rather mo ved to this by the great uncertain ty

and disagreement among physi cians, in their metho ds Of treat ingthe plague. Diemerbro eck

,fo r instan ce

,a physician o f great

experience in the Dutch plague that raged about eighty yearsago , dissuades by all means from bleeding in that distemper.On the o ther hand

,Sydenham recommends what the o the r

disapproves. If w e believe Dr. Sydenham,the free use -Of wine

,

as a preservative,hath thrown many into the plague who o the r

wise might have escaped. Dr.Willis,o n the co ntrary

,avers that

he knew.

many w ho,be ing w el l fo rt ified by wine, freely entered

amongst the infected w itho ut catching the in fection .

Bleeding co o ls, but at the same t ime weaken s nature. Win egives Spirits

,but heats withal. They are bo th

,therefo re

,to be

suspected , whereas tar-water co o ls w itho ut weaken ing, and givesspirit w ithout heat ing

,a sure indicatio n o f its so vere ign virtue

in all inflammato ry and malignan t cases , wh ich is co nfirmed bysuch numbers o f instan ces that matter o f fact keeps pace (at least)with reason and argumen t in recommending this medicin e.

Plagues as well as fevers are observed to be o f different kinds :and it is observed o f fevers that

,as they change the i r gen ius

in different seaso ns,so they must be treated differen tly

,that

484 A Letter to Tnomus P r io r,Esq. ,

very metho d that succeeded in o ne seaso n Often proving hurtfulin ano ther. N ow it is very remarkable

,that tar-water has

been know n to vary its wo rking, and wo nderfully adapt itselfto the part icular case o f the patien t

,a th ing I frequen t ly have

experienced .Last spring tw o ch ildren

,a boy and a girl, the fo rmer ten

years o ld,the latter eight years Old

,were sei z ed w ith fevers ,

the boy had an inflammat io n in his breast . In less than two

hours they drank each above fi ve quarts o f w arm tar-water,which

w rought them very differen t ly,the girl as an emetic

,the boy

as a gent le purge, but bo th alike immediately reco vered,without

the use o f any o ther medicine : o f th is I w as an eye-w itness

,

and I have fo und by frequent experien ce that the best way is,to let th is medicin e take its ow n co urse

,no t hindered nor

interrupted by any o ther medicines , and,this being observed

,

I n ever knew it to fai l so much as o nce,in above a hundred

t rials in all so rts o f fevers.N evertheless

,there are no t want ing tho se who would insinuate

that tar-water made in the commo n w ay contains no xious Oilso r part ic les o f tar

,which render it dangero us to tho se who drink

it,a th ing co n trary to all my experien ce . This was the Old

Object io n made by tho se w ho Oppo sed it from the beginn ing.But I am co nvinced

,by innumerable trials

,that tar-water is

so far from do ing hurt by any caust ic o r fiery quality,that it

is,o n the co ntrary

,a mo st po tent medic ine fo r the allaying of

heat,and curing o f all inflammato ry distempers. The perpetually

return ing to the same Objectio n makes it necessary to repeat thesame an sw er.And yet some w ho are no t afraid to argue against experience

w o uld still persuade us that the commo n tar-water is a dangerousmedicine

,and that the acid freed from the vo lat ile Oil is much

mo re safe and efficacio us ‘1 but I am o f Opin io n that, being robbedo f its fi ne vo lat ile Oil (which neither sinks to the bo ttom,

nor

flo ats at the top, but is thro ugho ut and in timately un ited with it,and appears to the eye o nly in the co lo ur o f tar-water) , beingro bbed

,I say, o f this Oil

,it is myOpin io n it can be no co rdial ,

4 He pro bably refers to the recommenda Vir tues free fr om its burg/u! Oils, bytio n o f the acid alo ne in A Letter to [be A. Reid , Esq. Mr . Reid propo sesRev . Dr . Hales , Co ncerning the N atur e of t o administer the acid entirely separatedTar , and a metho d of obtaining its M edical from the O il.

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486 A Letter to Tnoni us P r io r,Esq.

,

and against viscidity as a soap,all w hich entire ly depends upon

the mixture Of Oil with the acid,witho ut which it could ne ither

o perate as a balsam no r a so ap. Briefly,it w as no t mere acid o r

dist illed w ater,o r t in cture o f tar

,but tar-water

,as common ly

made,by affusion and stirring o f co ld water upo n tar

,which hath‘

w rought all tho se great cures and salutary effects,which have

recommended it as a medicine to the general esteem Of the

wo rld .The mixture Of vo lat i le Oil

,which is o r co ntain s the spirit

,is

so far from no xious that it is the very thing that makes tar-watera co rdial , this gives it a grateful warmth, and raiseth the spiritso f the hysteric and hypo cho ndr iacal , this also , rendering the blo odbalsamic

,dispo seth wo unds o f all so rts to an easy cure , this also

it is that fo rtifi es the V itals,and invigo rates nature

,driving the

gout to the extremit ies,and sho rten ing the fi ts

,t ill it entirely

subdues that o bstinate and cruel enemy,as it hath been Often

known to do , but acid alo ne is so far from being able to do this,

that,o n the co n trary

,the free use Of acids is reckoned amongst

the causes o f the gout .I never co uld fi nd that the vo lat ile o il drawn from tar by the

affusion Of co ld water produced any inflammat io n , o r w as o therw ise hurtful

,n o t even though the w ater by longer st irring had

imbibed far mo re o f the o il than in the commo n manner,having

been assured,that some o f stro ng stomachs have drank it after

twen ty minutes’ stirring,without any the least harm,

and withvery great ben efit.It hath been indeed in sinuated that the o il w as o rdered to be

skimmed Off,because it is caustic and dangero us , but this is a

mistake. I myself,among many o thers

,drank the tar-water fo r

tw o years together, w ith its o il upo n it , which never provedhurtful

,o therwise than

,as be ing somewhat gro ss

,and floating o n

the top, it rendered the water less palatable, fo r which reasonalo ne it w as o rdered to be skimmed.It hath also been h in ted that making tar-water the seco nd time

Of the same tar w as caut io ned against,fo r that it w as apprehended

such w ater would pro ve to o heating , w h ich is so far from beingtrue that

,w hen I co uld no t get fresh tar, I used the seco nd water

w ithout difficulty,by means whereo f it pleased Go d to recover from

the small-po x tw o children in my ow n fami ly, who drank it very

on on Vir tues of Tctr -w ater in tneP lague, 69 7 . 437

copio usly, a sufficien t pro o f that it is no t o f that fiery causticnature w hich some would persuade us.

The truth is,my so le reaso n fo r advising the tar no t to be used

a seco nd time was,because I did n o t think it would sufficien tly

impregnate the water, o r render it stro ng enough, after so much Of

the fi ne vo lat ile parts had been carried Off by the fo rmer infusio n .

Truth obligeth me to affi rm that there is no danger (fo r as much asI could ever Observe) to be apprehen ded from tar-w ater, as com

monly made the fi ne vo lat i le Oil,o n wh ich I take its co rdial

quality to depend,is,in its o w n nature

,so so ft and gen t le, and so

tempered by the acid,and bo th so blended and diluted w ith so

great a quantity of water,as to make a compound

,cherishing and

co rdial,producing a gen ial kindly warmth without any inflaming

heat,a th ing I have Often said

,and stil l fi nd it n ecessary to

inculcate.

Some medicines indeed are so vio lent that the least excess isdangero us , these requi re an exactness in the do se

,where a small

erro r maypro duce a great misch ief. But tar is,in t ruth

,no such

dangerous medicine, n o t even in substance , as I have mo re thano nce know n it taken inno cent ly

,mixed with ho ney, fo r a speedy

cure o f a co ld.But

,n o tw ithstanding all that hath been said o n that subject

,it

is st ill somet imes asked,What precise quantity o r degree o f

strength is required P To which I answer (agreeably to w hat hathbeen fo rmerly and frequent ly Observed), The palate, the stomach

,

the parti cular case and co n stitut io n o f the patient,the very

climate o r seaso n Of the year,will dispo se and require him to

drink mo re o r less in quan tity,stro nger o r weaker in degree , pre

cisely to measure its strength,by a scrupulous exactness

,is by n o

means . necessary. Every o ne may settle that matter fo r h imse lf,

with the same safety that malt is pro po rt io ned to water in mak in gbeer

,and by the same rule, to w it

,the palate.

On ly in general thus much maybe said,that the pro po rt io n s I

fo rmerly recommended will be found agreeable to mo st stomachs,

and withal Of suflicient strength , as many tho usands have found,and daily fi nd

,by experience.

—I take this o ppo rtun ity to Observe,that I use tar-water made in sto ne ware o r earthen very we l lglaz ed, ,

earthen vesse ls unglaz ed being apt to commun icate a

nauseo us sw eetness to the water.

488 A Letter to Tnonius P r io r ,E sq.

, é’c.

Tar-w ater is a diet-drink,in the mak ing whereo f there is great

lat itude,its perfect io n no t co nsisting in a po in t

,but varying with

the co nst itut io n and palate o f the pat ien t,being, nevertheless, at

t imes,taken by the same perso n

,weaker o r stro nger, with much

the same effect,pro vided it be pro po rt io nably in greater o r lesser

quant ity. It may indeed be so very weak as to have litt le o r no

effect , and, o n the o ther hand,so very stro ng as to offend the

stomach , but its degree o f strength is easi ly discerned by the

co lo ur,smel l

,and taste

,w h ich alo ne are the natural and proper

guides whereby to judge thereo f : which strength may be easilyvaried

,in anypro po rt io n , by changing the quantity e ither o f tar o r

w ater,o r the time o f st irring. As fo r setting tar-water to stand,

th is is no t to make it stro nger, but mo re clear and palatable.

I fo und myse lf obliged to assert the inn o cence and safety,as

wel l as usefulness,Of the tar-water

,as it is commo n ly made by

the metho ds laid down in my fo rmer writ ings o n this subject ,and this no t o n ly in regard to t ruth

,but much mo re in charity to

a mult itude,w h ich may o therw ise perhaps be influenced by the

autho rity o f some w ho endeavo ur to put them o ut of co nceit witha medicine so cheap

,so efficacious

,and so un iversal

,by suggesting

and pro pagat ing scruples about a caustic quality arising from the

vo lat i le o ily part ic les o f tar,o r resin imbibed together with the

acid in making tar-water , an apprehen sio n so vain that the re

verse

'

thereo f is true,fo r wh ich I appea l to the experience o fmany

tho usands,w ho can answ er fo r the inno cen ce and safety

,as well

as efficacy,o f th is medicin e

,Of which there are such ample and

numero us cert ificates published to the w o rld .I shall fin ish my essay o n the Plague and its Cure w ith observ

ing that,in case Go d shou ld withho ld his hand fo r the present,

yet these reflect io ns will n o t be alto gether fruit less,if they dispose

men to a pro per temper Of mind,and a caut ious regimen, avo iding

all extremes (w h ich things are just ly recko ned among the chiefpreservat ives again st infect io n), but especially if the apprehen

sio n o f this destro yer shal l beget serious thoughts o n the frailtyOf human life

,and

,in co n sequence thereo f

,a refo rmation Of

man ners , advan tages that would suffic ien t ly repay the trouble ofw rit ing and reading this Letter, even though the trial o f tar-water,as a remedy fo r the plague, sho uld be po stpo ned (as God grant itmay) to some future and distant o ppo rtun ity.

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490 A Letter to Rev. D r . H ales on Tctr -w ater .

but also fo r the benefit o f mankind in general, w ith regard to a

fever , w h ich terrible subduer and destro yer o f our species,I have

co nstan t ly found to be itself easi ly subdued by tar-water. N evertheless

,though in mo st o ther cases I fi nd that the use o f this

medicine hath generally o btained, yet in this mo st dangero us andfrequen t case

,where its aid is mo st w an ted

,and at the same time

mo st sure,I do n o t fi nd that the use thereo f has equally o btained

abroad in the wo rld.It grieves me to th ink that so many tho usands o f our species

should dai ly perish,by a distemper w hich may be easi ly cured

bya remedy so ready at hand,so easy to take

,and so cheap to

purchase,as Tar-w ater

,wh ich I never knew to fail w hen copiously

drank in any so rt o f fever. All this I say after mo re than a

hundred trials, in my ow n family and n eighbourho o d.But

,whatever backwardness peo ple mayhave to try experiments

o n themselves o r their friends, yet it is ho ped they mayventure

to try them o n their Catt le,and that the success o f such trials

in fevers o f brutes (fo r a fever it plain ly is) maydispo se them to

probable hopes o f the same success in their ow n species.Experiments

,I grant

,ought to be made w ith cautio n

,and yet

they maybe made, and actually are made every day on probablereaso n s and analogy. Thus, fo r instance, because I knew that

tar-w ater w as co rdial and diapho ret ic,and yet no inflamer

,I

ven tur ed to give it in every stage o f the small-po x , tho ugh I hadn ever heard o f its being given o therwise than as a preservativeagainst that distemper , and the success answered my expectatio n .

If I can but in tro duce the general use o f tar-w ater fo r thismurrain , whi ch is in t ruth a fever

,I flatter myself this maypave

the w ayfo r its general use in all fevers whatever.A murrain amo ng catt le hath been sometimes o bserved to be

the fo rerunner o f the Plague among men . If that should provethe presen t case (w hich God fo rbid) I would earn estly recommendthe co pious drinking of warm tar-water

,from the very first appear

an ce o f the symptoms o f such plague. I do also recommendit to be tried in like manner again st the bite o f a mad dog,w hen o ther appro ved remedies are no t at hand .

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494 Far t/ter Thong/fi ts o n Tcar -water .

In fevers the pat ien t cann o t begin to o so o n , or drink too much.

By undo ubted experien ce it is found to co o l the ho t, and warmthe co ld, and to be a mo st successfu l medicin e in fevers

,no twith.

standing its great virtue in palsies and dro psies.When n o t lo ng sin ce an inflammation attacked the throat

,

breast,and lungs o f ch ildren

,and became general in myneigh

bourho od,numbers were reco vered by the use o f tar-water , nor

did I hear that anymiscarried who used it, though many perishedwho did no t.N o r is it a medicine less pro per and efficacious in old age.

At the same time that th is inflammato ry distemper raged amongthe children, a woman in her six ty-eighth year

,from vio lent co ld

,

w as seiz ed at o nce w ith ague, co li c, and jaundice,of all which

maladies she w as cured in a fo rtn ight, by drinking three pintso f warm tar-water every day. N umberless such instances dailyo ccur

,which shew it to be a safe and efficacious medicine for old

and young.Evacuat ions by sweat, which usually render patients very weak

and dispirited, have no t the same bad effects when produced bytar-water

,which I have frequently known to give high spirits

in all the stages o f a fever, and under the lowest regimen , therefo re old peo ple and weak perso ns

,who canno t well bear common

evacuations, are best cured by tar-water,which in some sort

seemeth to renew tho se w ho are wo rn o ut with age and in

fi rmities.

Tar-water is of singular use in strengthen ing the stomach andbowels

,and agrees part icularly we ll w ith infants

,taken either

by themselves o r by the nurse,and best by bo th. Though, as it

throws the il l humours o ut into the surface o f the skin,it may

render them fo r a t ime,perhaps

,unseemly with eruptions, but

withal healthy and l ive ly. And I will venture to saythat it laysin them the principles o f go o d co nstitutio n fo r the rest of theirlives.N o r is i t o n ly useful to the bo dies o f infants , it hath also a

go o d effect o n their minds,as tho se w ho drink it are observed

to be remarkably fo rward and spright ly. Even the most heavy,lumpish, and unpromising infants appear to be much improvedby it . A ch i ld there is in my n e ighbo urho o d, o f fi ne parts, whoat first seemed stupid and an idio t

,but

,by co nstant use of tar

Far tker Tbong/its on Tar -w ater . 495

water, grew lively and o bserving, and is now no ted fo r understanding beyo nd o thers of the same age.

Infants are easily bro ught to take it by spo on,and even grow

to a lik in g o f it , and,as thei r diso rders arise chiefly from in

digestio n,they receive the greatest benefit from a medicine so

well calculated to strengthen the in test ines,and preserve them

from fi ts. In a wo rd,if i t were the commo n practice to accustom

infants from the beginn ing to take tar-water,this wo uld great ly

conduce to the health bo th o f the i r minds and bo dies . Thereis,I am verily persuaded

,no o ne th ing in the power o f art o r

,nature that would so general ly and effectually con tribute to repairthe co nstitut ions o f o ur gentry and no bility

,by strengthen ing the,

children,and casting o ff in thei r infancy tho se impurities and

taints wh ich they o ften bring in to the wo rld.An infant may take o ne quarter o f a pint in the day, w arm,

by spo o nfuls , less may do go o d, and there is no fear o f ex cess.When I co nsider the private w o e o f famil ies

,as wel l as the publi c

loss o ccasio ned by the death o f such an incredible number o finfants under tw o years o f age, I canno t but insist o n recom

mending tar—water,bo th as a remedy and preservat ive in that

tender age, wh ich canno t bear the commo n treatmen t and methodsof physic

,o r with safety take tho se drugs wh ich are fitter fo r

grown perso ns.Ano ther reaso n which recommen ds tar-water

,part icularly to

infants and children,is the great security it brings against the

small-po x to tho se that drink it,w ho are o bserved

,e ith er never

to take that distemper,o r to have it in the gent lest manner.

There is no distemper mo re co ntagious and destruct ive thanthe small-pox , o r mo re generally dreaded

,attended w ith wo rse

symptoms,o r that leaves behind it w o rse effects. I o bserve

,at

the same t ime,that tar-water is in no o ther case a mo re safe

and sure remedy than in th is , o f wh ich Captain D rape’s cer

tifi cate 2,swo rn to befo re the Mayo r o f Liverpo o l

,in the presen ce

of several principal perso ns o f that town,is a mo st eviden t

pro of.That o ne hundred and seventy perso ns

,sei z ed at o nce w ith the

2 Cf. Second Letter to ThomasP rio r , Esq., w h ich might be found by a more rigidSect. 18. Berkeley is blamed by his critics inductive scrutiny o f the effects o f tar

fo r o verlo oking the negative instances w ater.

496 Far tfi er Tlwngkts on Tct r -w ater .

small-po x , deprived o f all co nven ien ces, and in the wo rst circumstances in a narrow ship and ho t c limate

,sho uld all recover by

the single medicine o f tar-water,except o ne w ho wo uld no t drink

it,is a matter o f fact so plain and co nvin cing, and so well att ested,

as to leave no doubt,in minds free from prepossessio n

,about the

usefulness and efficacy o f tar-w ater in the small-po x , a po int Ihad been befo re sufficient ly co nvinced o f

,by many instances in

my ow n neighbourho o d.It hath been surmised by some ce lebrated physicians 3 that one

day a specific may be disco vered fo r the peculiar venom o f the

small-po x . There seems to be some reaso n fo r th inking that

tar-w ater is such a specific. I say this o n go od grounds,having

by many experimen ts o bserved its virtue in curing,as w ell as

in preven t ing,that cruel distemper , during the who le course of

wh ich,it is to be drank warm , a mo derate glass (about half a

pin t) every ho ur, in commo n cases, may suflice , in bad casesmo re maybe given , there is no fear o f excess.Tho se w ho endeavo ur to discredit this co o ling, co rdial, and

salutary medicine,as an inflamer o f the blo o d

,do very co nsisten tly

decry its use in the small-po x but there can be no th ing mo rec lear

,full

,and sat isfacto ry than Captain D rape’s aflidavit

,to

co nvince reaso nable peo ple o f the great and surprising effi cacyo f tar-water in the cure o f the small-po x , and consequently ofthe gro undlessn ess o f that repo rt w h ich ascribes a heat ing o r

inflaming quality to it . And yet that groundless repo rt hathh indered many from reaping the benefit they might o therw isehave do ne from the use o f this water

,wh ich is o f excel lent virtue

in all k inds o f inflammato ry diso rders,fevers

,quinsies

,pleurisies

,

and such like,o f the ho t and inflamed k ind

,w hereo f the public as

we ll as myself have kno w n a mult itude o f examples.

I ask whether the fact sw o rn befo re the magistrates o fLiverpoo lbe no t a suflicient answer to all that is objected

,from an inflaming

quality,to tar-water ? Can any instan ce be pro duced in the

w ho le materia medica,o r h isto ry o f physic

,o f the virtue o f a

medic in e tried o n greater numbers, o r under greater disadvantages,o r w ith greater success, o r mo re credibly attested ? I wish, fo r

9 Boerhaave , fo r instance. Cf. Siris, great disco very, w hich has co nferred benefi tssect . 83 . Berkeley w as writing nearly half a upo n the human race o n ly seco nd to tho se

century befo re the promulgatio n o f j enner’s progno sticated from tar-w ater.

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Far tker Tkougnts on Ta r—w a ter .

d iet . It is indeed a specific bo th fo r th is and all o ther taints and

impurit ies o f the blo o d.An ex tract o f Siris w as made

,and accounts o f the effects o f tar

w ater were reprinted in America 4,in wh ich co nt inent

,as well as

in the islands,much use hath been made thereo f

,particularly by

tho se w ho po ssess great numbers o f slaves. O f this I have beenin fo rmed by letters, and bywo rd o f mouth , from perso ns belongingto tho se parts

,w ho have assured me o f the extensive and successful

use o f this medicin e in many cases,and mo re especially in the

mo st inveterate k inds o f the foul disease.

I need no t sayhow dearly they purchase health w ho o btain it bysal ivat io n

,and yet , lo ng and severe as that course is

,it is o ften

unsuccessful. There are instan ces o f such as having passedth rough it w ith much misery and patience have been afterwardscured by the simple use o f tar-water.The k ings evil

,so loathsome in its symptoms and effects

,and

withal so diflicult if at all po ssible to cure byany o ther method,is mo st sure ly an d easily cured by the tar-water

,even when

the pat ient is far go ne, even when he derives it from his ancestors.A quart per diem fo r a few mo nths, I have know n to cure the mostdeplo rable and abando ned cases.

Ho w many wealthy families,o therw ise at the ir ease

,are co r

rupted with this taint in their blo od ! How many want heirs and

husbands through th is o dious malady ! A specific fo r this diseasealo ne wo uld be just ly esteemed a mo st valuable secret

,and the

plen ty and cheapness o f the medicine ought no t in reaso n to makeit less esteemed.Salivat ing, bleeding, and purging are attended with great hard

ships and in co nven ien ces even where the patient recovers, re

ducing the strengt h a nd spirits o f tho se w ho use them,whereas

tar-water greatly adds to bo th .

In fractures and wounds,a quart o r tw o drank dailyw hile the

pat ien t is under cure do th very much assuage the pain and

4 In a letter to his American friend, Dr .

Samuel j o hnso n , dated Cloyne , August 23,Berk eley refers to a small pamph letrelating to tar-w ater

’

w hich j o hn so n hadsent to h im . He adds,

‘ I can o n ly say, inbehalf o f th o se po in ts in w hich th e in

gen io us auth o r seems to differ from me.that I advance no thing w hich is no t gro unded

o n experience, as may be seen at large inM r . Prior’s N arrative of tbe Ej

‘

ects of Tarw ater , printed three o r fo ur years ago . and

w h ich may be suppo sed to have reachedAmerica.

’

He refers to this American

pamph let also in a letter to Mr. Archdall,in N o vember 1 75 r_

Far ther Tnongfi ts on Tct r -w ater 499

promo te h is reco very, bo th as by its balsamic nature it diSpo seththe parts to heal, and also as it lessen s

,if no t to tal ly prevent s

,

the fever.A po o r boy in Clo yne, having fallen from a tree

,broke bo th arm

and wrist . Th is acciden t w as co ncealed o r neglected fo r tw o o r

three weeks , he w as then put under the care o f a sk ilfu l bo nesetter

,who

,finding the bo n es kn it and grown cro o ked

,and that it

would be necessary to break them again , in o rder to set them

right , and withal co n side ring the ho t seaso n o f the year (in July),he apprehended his pat ient’s being thrown in to a fever that migh tprove fatal . But the boy being made to drink co pio usly o f tarwater

,th is prevented o r lessen ed the fever in such so rt that the

bones were bro ke and set again,and the cure pro ceeded as easi ly

and speedily as co uld be wished .I have known several instances o f bruises and wounds cured by

‘

tar-water. A perso n in my n eighbourho o d ran o ver by a ho rsewas much bruised

,and cur ed o n ly bydrinking tar-water. An o the r

kno cked down with a mallet,thereupo n thrown in to a vio lent

fever and given fo r dead , ano ther wo unded with an ax e so that

his life w as tho ught in danger, were bo th reco vered by the use o f

tar-water , w hich, as it is so vereign against gangren es and fevers,hath great success in all so rts o f w ounds

,co n tusio n s

,and fractures

,

being taken thro ughout the who le ch irurgical pro cess, alo ng w ithwhatso ever o ther metho ds o r remedies are applied.Tar-water o perates vario usly. In dro psies and bruises it hath

been know n to wo rk by purging. The stro nger k ind being usedas a wash is go o d again st ulcerous erupt io n s. But

,in all cases

where the lo tio n is used,I be lieve the drink ing o f tar-water might

alone suffi ce,albeit the so res maybe lo nger withering and dying

aw ay.There is a certain age o r time o f life w hen the female sex run s

no smal l risk from the ceasing o f thei r natural evacuatio ns. In

this case tar-water is a go o d preservat ive, purifying the blo o d,and c learing it from that can cero us tenden cy

,which it is some

times subject to about that t ime. I take it to be a specific in all

cancerous cases,even the bleeding cancer, esteemed incurable by

physicians,hath been cured by tar-water.

In diseases peculiar to women it is o f no smal l use . Severalwho had suffered much by acciden ts in ch i ld-bearing have fo und

K k z

500 Far/Men T/longnts on Tct r—w a ter .

themselves re lieved by tar-w ater. In all so rts o f tumo urs, w en-s,

and preternatural excrescences, it hath been fo und an excellentremedy.M an y dangero us symptoms

,and even sudden death, are often

ow ing to a po lypus,in some o r o ther o f the vesse ls through which

the blo o d c irculates,than w h ich it seems there is no inward cause

o f death o r disease mo re to be dreaded and guarded against . Howmany dro p down dead in o ur streets

,o r at table

,o r in the midst

o f business,o r diversio ns ? How many are found dead in their

beds ?Tremo rs

,palpitat io ns o f the heart

,irregular pulses, apoplex ies,

sudden deaths,o ften pro ceed from a slow

,stagnat ing

,interrupted

mo t io n,o r sto ppage o f the blo o d in its c ircu lat io n through the

bo dy and there seemeth to be no cause so certain ly pro duct ive ofo bstructed circulat io n as the po lypus

,a case

,perhaps

,much mo re

frequen t than is commo n ly imagined . Mo rgagn i 5 , the celebratedpro fesso r at Padua

,and mo st eminen t anatomist

,w ho w as sup

po sed to have dissected mo re human bodies than anyman living,assured me

,abo ve thirty years ago , that in the far greater part of

such bo dies,he found po lypuses

,if n o t in the ventricles of the

heart o r larger vessels, yet in some o ther vesse l '

o r cavity , tow h ich he attributes many diso rders

,and which be suppo sed to

be fo rmed by the o bstructed mo tio n o f the blo o d . To preventth is

,he dissuaded from all t ight ligatures, especially in sleep

,

unbutto n ing the n eck and w ristbands o f his shirt every night,a pract ice he had learned (as he said) from his master the famousMalpigh i 6When the circulat io n is o n ce quite sto pped no thing can resto re

it,wh ich w ould be the same thing as resto ring a dead man to life ,

and in pro po rtio n as the circulat io n o f the blo o d is o bstructed,the

bo dy is diso rdered . To tal o bstruct io n is death , partial obstructionis disease . The po lypus therefo re is a lw ays hurtful

,if no t mo rtal.

It is,indeed

,matter o f serio us reflect io n

,that w e may probably

carry abo ut with us a principle o f death,always at wo rk w ithin,

5 An Italian anat omist o f high repute , One o f the mo st famo us anatomistsfo r many years Pro fessor o f Anatomy at and bo tanists o f the seventeenth century,Padua

, w ho died in 1 7 7 1 , in his n inetieth Pro fesso r o f M edicine successively in the

year . Berk eley seems t o have met him in un iversities o f Pisa, Messina, and Bo lognathe co urse o f h is last visit to Italy, more than He died at Rome in 1694 .

th irty years befo re this trac t w as written .

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502“

a t/Mgr Tnonglt ts on Tar—w ater“

.

being a safe and cheap remedy fo r such as canno t affo rd to be longsick

,o r to make use o f co st ly medic ines.

A pat ient w ho drinks tar-w ater must n o t be alarmed at pustuleso r erupt io ns in the skin , these are go o d symptoms

,and shew the

impurit ies o f the blo o d to be cast o ut . It is also no t amiss too bserve that

,as tar-w ater

,by its act ive qualit ies

,do th stir the

humo urs,entering the minutest capillaries

,and dislo dging o h

structio ns,it may happen that th is w o rk ing shal l sometimes be

fe lt in the limbs,o r discharge itself in a fi t o f the gout, w hich,

however disagreeable, pro ves salutary.I am credibly in fo rmed o f several strange co nveyances, which

tar-w ater hath fo und o ut,whereby to discharge impurit ies from

the human co nstitut io n . A perso n w ho had been in a bad state

o f health abo ve twenty years,upo n a co urse o f tar-w ater was

thro w n into a mo st ex t rao rdinary fi t o f an ague, and from that

time reco vered a go o d state o f health . An o ld gen t leman in the

county o f Co rk,w ho

,fo r a lo ng t ime

,had been a valetudinarian

,

afflicted w ith many infi rmities,being advised to drink tar-water

,

fo und h imse lf relieved , but it pro duced and so o n cured a pthiriasiso r lo usy distemper, in w hich the putrid humours having dischargedthemselves left him quite so und and healthy.In a course o f tar-w ater

,if any diso rder happens from some

o ther cause,as from co ld

,from the use o f st ro ng liquo rs, from

a surfeit,o r such like accident

,it w ould no t be fair to impute

it to tar-w ater and yet this hath been sometimes do ne.

The effects o f vomiting o ccasio ned by tar-w ater are no t to

be apprehended. Some are disco uraged from drinking becausethe i r stomachs canno t bear it . But

,when it takes a turn towards

wo rking upwards,

nature,by that very w ay, hath been o ften

known to . carry o n the cure . A wo rthy gent leman, member ofParliament , came in to myneighbourho o d in the autumn o f the year175 0 : he w as cachetic and ex tremely reduced

,so that his friends

tho ught him near his end. Upo n his en tering into a course of

tar-water,it pro duced a pro digio us vomiting, w h ich weakened

him much fo r the presen t , but, persisting to' co nt inue the use

thereo f fo r about tw o mo nths,he w as resto red to his health,

strength, and spirits.

Tar-w ater is very diuretic,thereby preven t ing sto ne and gravel

,

and carrying o ff byurine tho se salts that might o therwise o ccasion

Feta/tear Tnongkts on Tar -w ater . 503

fevers, rheumat isms, dropsies, headaches, and many o ther diso rders,if retained in the blo o d . Hence some have apprehended a dia

betes, from the co ntinued use thereo f,but it is so far from causing

a diabetes that it hath been know n to cure that diso rder.The co nstitution o f a patien t somet imes requireth

,during a

course o f tar-water,that he take w ater and ho ney

,also ro asted

apples, stewed prunes, and o ther diet o f an o pen ing kind . A hin tof this is suffi cient. If the reader now and then meets with someremarks co ntained in myfo rmer w rit ings o n this subject

,he may

be pleased to co nsider I had rather repeat than fo rget what Ithink useful to be known .

Some,endeavouring to discourage the use o f tar-water in Eng

land,have given out that it may indeed be serviceable in Ireland

,

where peo ple live o n such lo w diet as sour milk and po tato es,but it canno t be o f the same service in England

,where men are

accustomed to a mo re liberal and hearty fo o d , and indeed itmust be owned . that the peasants in th is island live but po o rly

,

but no peo ple in Euro pe live better (in the sense o f eat ing and

drinking) than our gent ry and c it iz en s , and from these the

instances o f cures by tar-water have been chiefly taken . Tho sewho would co nfine its use to the mo ist air and po o r diet o f Irelandmay be assured that all over Euro pe

,in France

,and Germany,

Italy,Po rtugal

,and Ho lland, tar-w ater w o rks the same effects.

In bo th N o rth and South, in West and East Indies,it hath been

used and co nt inues to be used w ith great success. It hath reachedall our Co lo n ies bo th o n the Co nt inent and the Islands

,and many

barrels o f tar-water have been sent from Amsterdam to Batavia ,of allwhich I have had authent ic acco unts. But its use is nowheremo re conspicuous than at sea

,in curing that plague o f seafaring

persons,the scurvy

,as w as found in the late attempt to disco ver

a north-west passage , and (as I do ubt n o t) will be found as o ft

as it is tried. Every ship in his M ajesty’s navy should alw ayshave a vessel o f tar-water upo n deck, fo r the use o f the sai lo rs,bo th in the scurvy and o ther maladies .It is indeed a medicine equal ly calculated fo r all climates, fo r

sea and land,fo r rich and po o r

,high and low livers , being, as

hath been elsewhere mentio ned, a co rdial w hich do th not heat ,a peculiar privilege this

,and o f excellent use . That it is a co rdial

is manifest from its cheering and en l iven ing quality , and that

504 Far t/t er T/z ougkts on Tar -w a ter .

it is no t heat ing is as man ifest , from its singu lar use in all casesw here the blo o d is inflamed . As th is medic in e imparts a friendlygen ial w armth , suited to the human co n st itut io n

,tho se w ho pass

thro ugh a co urse o f tar—w ater wo uld do we l l no t to in crease suchfriendly w armth to an inflaming heat

,by a w ro ng regimen of

h igh-seaso n ed fo o d and st ro ng liquo rs, which are no t wanted bythe drinkers o f tar-water. There is a certain degree o f heat

necessary to the w e llbe ing and life o f man . M o re than this willbe uneasy

,and this uneasiness indicates a pro per cho ice o f diet .

I have myself drank above a gallo n o f tar-w ater in a few hours,

and been co o led and reco vered from a fever by it. So manyin stances o f the same nature I have know n as would make iteviden t

,to any unprejudiced perso n

,that tar-w ater is a co o ling

medicine , o f wh ich truth I am as tho ro ughly co nvinced as it

is po ssible to be o f any theo rem in phys ic o r natural sc ience.

The unsuccessfulness o f o ther metho ds should rather be an

enco uragement than a bar to the trial o f tar-water. A young lady,

daughter to a w o rthy gent leman n ear Co rk,had been lo ng afflicted

w ith a grievous pain in her side,and

,having had the best advice

that co u ld be go t , w as no t relieved unt i l she drank tar-water,w h i ch quite remo ved her pain . Some t ime after she was againsei z ed w ith the same d iso rder

,but

,returning to the use o f tar

water,she grew we ll

, and sti ll co n t inues so .

A woman turned o ut o f the infi rmary at Co rk as incurable,because she wo uld no t submit to the cutting off her leg, cameto Clo yne

,w here she co ntinued half a year drinking tar-water,

and living upo n bread and mi lk,by w hich course she recovered

and w ent to service .

There is at present,w hile I am writing, a mo st remarkable case

here at Clo yne, o f a po o r so ldier in a dropsy,who se belly was

swo llen to a mo st immo derate si z e . He said he had been fi vemo nths in an hospital at Dublin

,and

,having tried o ther methods

in vain,left it

, to avo id being tapped . It is a fo rtn ight sincehe came to Clo yne

,during w h ich t ime he hath drank tw o quarts

o f tar-w ater every day. His be l ly is now quite reduced : hisappet ite and sleep w h ich were go ne are resto red : he gathersst rength every momen t : and he w ho w as despaired o f seems to

be quite o ut o f dange r, bo th to himself,and to all who see him.

It is remarkable that,upo n drink ing the tar-water

,he vo ided

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506 Far/bier Tnongnts on Tar -w ater .

ineffectual,w hen a larger hath perfected the cure. A woman of

Clo yne go t co ld after child bearing, which o ccasio ned a great painin her th igh , sw e lling also and redness , she co nt inued in greatto rment abo ve three weeks. She then began to drink tar-water

,

but no t drink ing much she did no t perce ive much go od , and

when there w as no t any ho pes o f her life,she was persuaded to

try what a gallon a daymight do , upon this she grew better,the

swe lling bro ke and ran , no dress ing w as used but tar,and no

wash ing but tar-w ater,unt i l she w as quite recovered.

In ailmen ts o f an o dd and un t ried nature,it may be wo rth

wh i le to try tar-w ater. In pro o f o f this many instances mightbe given. A gen t leman with a withered arm had it resto red bydrinking tar-water. Ano ther w ho

,by runn ing his head against

a po st,had a co ncussio n o f the brain attended with very bad

symptoms,reco vered by drinking tar-water after o ther medicines

had failed . In my ow n neighbourhoo d,o ne had lo st the use of

his limbs bypo iso n, ano ther had been bitten by a mad ass these

persons drank tar-water,and their cure w as attributed to it.

When tar-water is co piously drank in fevers,the great danger

to be guarded against is an excessive flow o f spirits,w hich excites

the patien t to talk and divert h imse lf with company,which may

pro duce a relapse , o f this I have known fatal effects.If in a course o f tar-water the pat ient sho uld fi nd himself

heated,let him abstain from o r lessen his do se o f spirituous and

fermented liquo rs , fo r tar-water alo ne n ever heats.In chro n ical diso rders it is no t advisable to break ofl"a course of

tar-water at o nce,but rather to diminish the quant ity bydegrees.

The acid alo ne hath n o t the medicinal virtues o f tar-water.Th is is agreeable to reaso n and experience

,as w ell as the opinio n

o f the ablest judges. Do cto r Linden “ justly observes,

‘ that whenthe empyreumat ic o il is en tirely separated from the acid, it is not

in any shape superio r to any o ther distilled acids o r Vinegarswhatso ever.’—Treat z’re on Selter Water

,p. 307.

8 Diederick Wessel Linden, M .D., a is added an Appendix on the Seller Water.

German physician , sett led in England, In his Appendix the author refers w ith

an authority in h is day o n mineral great appro batio n to the medical propert iesw aters. The w ork here referred to , wh ich o f tar-w ater, wh ich he propo ses to mix w ithappeared in 1 75 2, is entit led A Tr eatise on Selter w ater in certain cases. Linden con

tbe Origin , N a ture, and Vir tues of Cbalybeat demus M r. Reid fo r recommending thatWaters and N aturalHo t Batbs. To wbicb the acid sho uld be separated from the oil.

Far iner T/z ongnts o n Tctr -w ater . 507

9That extrao rdinary virtues should be co ntained in tar-waterw ill no t seem strange

,if w e co nsider that pitch is no thing e lse

but hardened tar, o r tar drained o f its mo isture , and that an

extrao rdinary quantity o f l ight is retained in the substan ce o f

pitch, as appears from certain e lectrical experimen ts,w h ich

,

having been made since,seem no t a little to confirm w hat had

befo re been suggested in Sirir .

9[Somethingo f this nature hath been long

expected and hoped fo r , if w e may credit

that learned chemist Do ctor Linden . At

last (saith he) the lo ng delayed w ishes o f

the mo st eminentmen o f the facultyare fulfi lled in the Bishop o f Cloyne

'

s disco very.

’

SeeTreatise on Selter Water , p. 303 . Again

(speaking o f empyreumatic o ils o f plants) hehath these w o rds There has alw ays prevailed a no tio n amo ng the chemists, and

particularly w ith Paracelsus and his fo l

lowers, that ih those o ils there lay a great

secret undisco vered. This no tio n w as o cca

sio ned by the strange eff ects w hich a smallquantity thereo f hath upo n the human ma

chine. Several have been very diligent todisco ver th is secret , and to fi nd o ut ameth o d

to administer these o ils w ith safety. Yet

no thing was performed salutary o n this

inquiry, until the Bish o p o f Cloyne dis

co vered to us the tar-w ater ; to h im alo new e are indebted fo r rendering the empyreu

matic o ils a safe medicine in every respect .’Ibid. p.

—AUTHOR.

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AP PEND IX .

THE FIRST EDITION OF THE ‘

Q UERIST.

’

[As already mentio ned, the First Editio n o f the Q uer ist appeared at

Dublin in three successive Parts, in 1 735 and the tw o fo llowing years 1.

This has long been out o f print, and, like all previo us edito rs o f the

Q uerist, I sought fo r it in vain,and was unable to fi nd a copybefo re the

sheets in this editio n had passed thro ugh the press. Since then , how ever,I have been so fo rtunate as to fi nd t he Three Parts in the curiouscollection o f pamph lets in the Royal Irish Academy. Through the

kindness o fMr. Macsweeny, I am now able to present in "

this Appendixthe numerous Q ueries (numbered as in the o riginal) which were omittedin all the later editio n s o f the Q uer ist.The o riginal editio n co ntains 894 Q ueries, in the Three Parts, while

all the later o nes have o n ly 5 95 .

The fo llow ing Q ueries, co ntained in the later e ditio ns, are no t found

in the fi rst editio n — Q u. 164 , 165 , 17 7—79 , 19 1 ,

194-98, 202 , 2 16,

233-35. 237, 265—68

,2 79, 335

-44 .

The following appeared some years since in at Bristo l Catalogue o f

bo oks for sale Autograph MS. The Commo n-place Bo ok o f the

GREAT Bren o r BERKELEY, in a thick vo lume fo lio , nearly 400 pages,vellum covers. Written througho ut in a co lumn o ne—half the w idth o f

the page, the blank remainder, in many parts, being o ccupied by laterremarks, also in his handwriting. One part is o ccupied by 323 Q ueries—the o riginal co llectio n fo r The Q uer ist containing several Q uer ies

pr oposed to [be consider ation of the P ublic. P ar t [ 113

It is to be

regretted that so o n after the ann o uncement was made this MS. w as

accidentally destroyed by fi re, alo ng w ith many o ther bo o ks mentio nedin the Catalogue. A. c , F.]

1 See Advertisement by theAuthor, ’and o f this vo lume ; also p. 249 o f the Life andeditor's prefatory no te to the Q ierist, p. 353 Letters o f Berkeley.

5 I 2 Affi ma’ix to tire Quer ist

T HE Q UER IST .

FIRST PART. [PUBLISHED IN

29. Whether,

n evertheless,the damage wo uld be very con

siderable,if by degrees our mo ney were bro ught back to the

English value there to rest fo r ever ?30 . Whether the English crown did no t fo rmerly pass with us

fo r six sh i llings ? And what in co nven ience ensued to the publicupo n its reduct io n to the present value

,and w hether what hath

been mayno t be ? 1

5 2 . Whether it be no t a bull to call that making an interest,whereby a man spendeth much and gaineth n o thing ?55 . Whether cunn ing be no t o ne thing and good sense

ano ther ? and whether a cunn ing t radesman do th no t stand in hiso w n light ?62 . Whether

,co nsequent ly

,the fi ne gent lemen

,whose employ

men t is o n ly to dress,drink

,and play

,be no t a public nuisance ?

7 7 . Whether tho se specimen s o f our ow n manufacture,hung

up in a certain public place,do no t suffi cien t ly declare such our

ign o rance ? and whether fo r the honour of the natio n they oughtno t to be removed ?20 1 . Whether anynatio n ever was in greater want o f such an

expedien t than Ireland ?209. Whether the public may no t as wel l save the interestwh ich it n ow pays ?2 10. What would happen if tw o of our banks should break at

o nce ? And whether it be wise to neglect pro viding against aneven t which experience hath shewn us n o t to be impossible ?

2 1 1 . Whether such an acc iden t would no t part icularly affectthe bankers ? And therefo re whether a nat io nal bank would notbe a security even to private bankers ?2 1 2 . Whether w e may no t easily avo id the inco nven iences

attending the paper-money o f N ew England, which were incurredby the ir issu ing to o great a quant i ty o f no tes

,by their having no

silve r in bank to exchange fo r n o tes,by their no t insisting upon

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5 I4 Appendix to Me Quer ist,

in o thers,w e may no t co n trive to adopt the fo rmer, and avo id the

latter ?2 24 . Whether great evils

,to which o ther schemes are liable

,

may n o t be preven ted,by exc luding the managers o f the bank

from a share in the legislature ?2 26. Whether the bank pro po sed to be established in Ireland

,

under the no t io n o f a n atio nal bank,by the vo luntary subscription

o f three hundred tho usand pounds,to pay o ff the natio nal debt

,

the interest o f w h ich sum to be paid the subscribers,subject to

certain terms o f redempt io n,be n o t in reality a private bank

,

as tho se o f England and Sco t land,w h ich are nat io nal o n ly in

name,be ing in the hands o f part icular perso ns

,and making

dividends o n the mo n ey paid in by subscribers ?2 28. Whether it is no t wo rth while to reflect o n the expedients

made use o f by o ther nat ion s,paper-mo ney

,bank-no tes, public

funds,and credit in all its shapes

,to examine what hath been

do ne and devised to add to o ur o w n an imadversio ns,and upo n the

who le o ffer such h in ts as seem n o t unw o rthy the attentio n of

the public ?230 . Whether it may no t be expedient to appo int certain funds

o r sto ck fo r a nat io nal bank,under direct io n o f certain persons,

o ne-th ird whereo f to be named by the Go vernmen t, and one-thirdby each Ho use o f Parliamen t

23 1 . Whether the directo rs should n o t be exc luded from sittingin either Ho use

,and whether they should no t be subject to the

audit and visitatio n o f a standing committee o f bo th Houses ?

232. Whether such committee o f in specto rs should no t be

changed every tw o years,o ne-half go ing out

,and ano ther coming

in bybal lo t ?233. Whether the n o tes o ught no t to be issued in lo ts, to be let

at in terest o n mo rtgaged lands, the w ho le number o f lo ts to bed ivided amo ng the fo ur pro vinces

,rateably to the number of

hearths in each2 34 . Whether it mayno t be expedient to appo int four count ing

houses,o ne in each pro vince

,fo r co nvert ing n o tes into specie ?

235 . Whether a limit sho uld no t be fixed,w h ich no person

might ex ceed, in taking o ut no tes ?236 . Whether

,the better to answer domestic circulatio n

,it may

no t be right to issue n o tes as low as twen ty shi llings ?

Par t I . 5 15

237. Whether all the bills shou ld be issued at o nce, o r rather. bydegrees, that so men maybe gradually accustomed and reco nciledto the bank ?

238. Whether the keeping o f the cash,and the direct ion o f the

bank, o ught no t to be in differen t hands, and bo th under publiccontro l ?239. Whether the same ru le should no t alway be observed

,of

lending o ut mo ney o r no tes,o n ly to half the value o f the mo rt

gaged land ? and Whether this value should alw ay be rated at the

same number o f years’ purchase as at first ?240. Whether care should no t be taken to prevent an unduerise o f the value o f land ?24 1 . Whether the increase o f industry and peo ple w i ll no t o f

course raise the value o f land ? And whether this rise mayno tbe suffi cient ?242. Whether land mayno t be apt to rise o n the issuing to ogreat plenty o f no tes ?243. Whether this may no t be prevented by the gradual and

slow issuing o f no tes,and by frequent sales o f lands ?

244. Whether interest do th no t measure the true value o f land ;for instance

,where mo ney is at fi ve per cen t ., whether lan d is n o t

wo rth twenty years’ purchase245. Whether to o small a pro po rt io n o f mo n ey wo uld no t hurt

the landed man,and to o great a pro po rtio n the mo n ied man ?

And w hether the quan tum o f no tes ought no t to bear pro po rtionto the public demand ? And whether trial must no t shew whatthis demand will be ?246.Whether the exceeding th is measure might no t pro duce

divers bad efi'

ects,o n e whereo f w o uld be the lo ss of our si lver ?

247.Whether interest paid into the bank o ught no t to go o n

augment ing its sto ck ?248,Whether it would o r wo uld no t be right to appo int that

the said interest be paid in no tes o n ly ?249.Whether the n o tes o f th is national bank should no t be

received in all paymen ts into the exchequer ?250.

Whether o n suppo sit io n that the specie should fai l, thecredit wou ld no t

,nevertheless, still pass, being admitted in all

payments of the public revenue ?L l 2

5 16 Appena’ix to Me Q aer isi ,

25 1 .Whether the public can become bankrupt so lo ng as the

n o tes are issued o n go o d security ?25 2 . Whether mismanagement

,pro digal living, haz ards by

t rade,w h ich o ften affect private ban ks

,are equally to be appre

hended in a public o ne ?253 . Whether as credit became curren t

,and this raised the

value o f land,the security must no t o f course rise ?

255 . Whether by degrees, as business and peo ple multiplied,

mo re bills may n o t be issued,witho ut augmenting the capital

sto ck,provided sti ll

,that they are issued o n go o d security , w hich

further issuing o f new bills,n o t to be without consent o f Parlia

men t

256. Whether such bank would no t be secure w hether the profitsaccruing to the publi c wou ld n o t be very co n siderable ? And

whether industry in private perso ns w ould no t be supplied,and a

gen eral circulatio n encouraged257 . Whether such bank shou ld

,o r sho uld no t

,be allowed to

issue no tes fo r mo n ey depo sited therein ? And,if no t

,whether

the bankers wo uld have cause to complain ?258. Whether

,if the public thrives

,all particular persons must

n o t feel the ben efit thereo f,even the bankers themselves ?

259. Whether,beside the bank company

,there are not in

England many private wealthy bankers, and whether they weremo re befo re the erect ing o f that company ?261 . Whether w e have n o t paper mo n ey circulating amo ng us

already , w hether,therefo re

,w e might n o t as w el l have that

w h ich is secured by the public, and whereo f the public reaps theben efit

2 62 . Whether there are n o t tw o general ways o f circulatingmo ney

,to w it

,play and traffi c ? and whether sto ck-jobbing is no t

to be ranked under the fo rmer ?263. Whether there are mo re than tw o things that might draw

si lver o ut o f the bank,when its credit w as once w e ll established,

to w it,fo reign demands and small paymen ts at home ?

264 . Whether,if o ur trade with France w ere checked

,the fo rmer

o f these causes could be suppo sed to o perate at all ? and whetherthe latte r co uld o perate to anygreat degree ?

2 73 . Whether banks raised by private subscriptio n would beas advan tageo us to the public as to the subscribers ? and whether

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5 18 Appendix to tire Q aer z’

si ,

296. Whether,if penal laws sho uld be thought o ppressive, w e

may no t at least be allowed to give premiums ? And whether itw o u ld be wro ng, if the public enco uraged Po pish families to

become hearers,by paying thei r hearth-mo n ey fo r them ?

297 . Whether in gran t ing to lerat io n,w e o ught n o t to dis

t inguish between do ctrin es pure ly re ligious, and such as affect theState

298. Whether the case be no t very differen t in regard to a man

w ho o n ly eats fi sh o n Fridays,says his prayers in Lat in

,o r believes

t ransubstant iat io n,and o n e w ho pro fesseth in

‘

tempo rals a sub

jectio n to fo re ign powers, w ho ho ldeth h imself abso lved from all

obedience to his natural prince and the law s o f his count ry ? whois even persuaded

,it may be merito rious to destro y the pow ers

that are

Whether,therefo re

,a dist inct io n should n o t be made

between mere Papists and recusants And w hether the latter canex pect the same pro tect io n from the Go vernment as the fo rmer ?300 . Whether o ur Papists in this kingdom can complain

,if

they are al low ed to be as much Papists as the subjects o f Franceo r o f the Empire30 1 . Whether there is any such thing as a bo dy o f inhabitants,

in anypo pish country under the sun,that pro fess an abso lute sub

missio n to the Po pe’s o rders in matters o f an indifferen t nature,o r that in such po ints do no t think it thei r duty to obey the civilgo vernment

Whether every plea o f co nscience is to be regarded ?Whether

,fo r instance

,the German Anabaptists

,levellers

,o r fifth

mo narchy men w o uld be to lerated o n that pretence ?304. Whether Po pish ch ildren bred in charity scho o ls, when

bound o ut in appren t icesh ip to Pro testan t masters,do generally

co ntinue Pro testants ?306 . Whether if the parents are overlo o ked

,there can be any

great ho pes o f success in co nvert ing the chi ldren ?3 1 2 . Whether there be any natio n o f men go verned by reaso n ?

And yet, if there w as n o t,w hether th is w o uld be a go o d argument

again st the use o f reaso n in public affairs ?3 15 . Whether o ne

,w ho se end is to make his countrymen

th ink, may n o t gain his end,even tho ugh they should no t think as

he do th ?

P ar t I ] . 5 19

316. Whether he, who o n ly asks,asserts ? and whether any

man can fairly co nfute the querist3 l7. Whether the interest o f a part will no t always be pre

ferred to that o f the who le ?I

SECOND PART. [PUBLISHED IN

5. Whether it can be reaso nably ho ped, that our State willmend

,so lo ng as pro perty is insecure among us ?

6. Whether in that case the wisest go vernment,o r the best

laws can avail us ?7 . Whether a few mishaps to part icular perso n s mayno t throw

this natio n in to the utmo st co nfus io n ?8. Whether the public is no t even o n the brink o f being

undone by private accidents ?1 1. Whether therefo re it be no t high time to o pen our eyes ?24. Whether private ends are no t pro secuted w ith mo re atten

tio n and vigour than the public ? and yet, wheth er all private endsare no t included in the public ?

25 . Whether bank ing be no t abso lutely necessary to the publicweal ?26. Whether even o ur private banks

,though attended w ith

such haz ards as w e all know them to be,are no t o f singular use in

defect o f a nat io nal bank ?28. Whether the mystery o f banking did no t derive its o riginal

from the Italians ? Whether th is acute peo ple w ere no t,upon a

time,bankers all o ver Europe ? Whether that busin ess was no t

practised by some o f their no blest fami lies w ho made immense

profits by it,and whether to that the house o f M ed ici did no t

o riginally ow e its greatness ?30. Whether at Ven ice all payments o f bi lls o f exchange and

merchants’ co ntracts are no t made in the nat io nal o r public bank,the greatest affairs being transacted o n ly by writing the names o f

the parties,o ne as debto r the o ther as credito r in the bank-bo ok ?

3 1. Whether nevertheless it w as not found expedient to

5 20 Appendix to Me Q aerf z'

si,

pro vide a chest o f ready cash fo r answering alldemands that shouldhappen to be made o n accoun t o f paymen ts in detai l ?3 2 . Whether this o ffer o f ready cash

,instead o f t ransfers in the

bank,hath n o t been fo und to augmen t rather than dimin ish the

sto ck thereo f ?33. Whether at Ven ice

,the differen ce in the value o f bank

mo ney above o ther mo ney be no t fixed at twenty per cen t. ?34 . Whether the bank o f Ven ice be no t shut up fo ur t imes in

the year tw enty days each time ?

35 . Whether by mean s o f this bank the public be no t mistresso f a mill io n and a half sterling ?38. Whether w e may n o t ho pe fo r as much skill and ho nesty in

a Pro testant Irish Parliamen t as in a Po pish Senate o f Ven ice ?39. Whether besides co ined mo ney

,there be no t also great

quant it ies o f ingo ts o r bars of go ld and s ilver lo dged in thisbank ?

4 1 . Whether it be n o t t rue,that the bank o fAmsterdam never

makes paymen ts in cash ?

42 . Whether,n everthe less

,it be no t also true

,that n o man

w ho hath credit in the bank can want mo ney from part icularperso ns

,w ho are w illing to become credito rs in h is stead

43 . Whether any man thinks h imself the po o rer,because his

mo ney is in the bank ?44 . Whether the credito rs o f the bank o f Amsterdam are no t

at liberty to w ithdraw their mo ney when they please,and whether

th is liberty do th n o t make them less des irous to use it ?

45 . Whether this bank be n o t shut up tw ice in the year fo r teno r fifteen days

,during which t ime the accounts are balanced ?

53. Whether w e are by nature a mo re stupid peo ple than the

Dutch ? And yet whether these things are sufficien tly co nsideredby our patrio ts ?54 . Whether anything less than the utter subversio n o f those

republics can break the banks o f Ven ice and Amsterdam ?55 . Whether at Hamburgh the c it i z ens have n o t the manage

ment o f the bank, without the medd ling o r inspect io n o f the

Senate

56. Whether the directo rs be no t fo ur principal burghers cho senby plurality o f vo ices, w ho se business is to see the rules observed,and furn ish the cashiers with mon ey ?

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5 2 2 Appendix to Me Quer ist,

7 2 . Whethe r the o riginal sto ck thereo f w as no t six mi llionso f livres

,divided into act io n s o f a th o usand crowns each ?

73 . Whether the pro prieto rs w ere n o t to ho ld general assembliestw ice in the year

,fo r the regulat ing the ir affairs ?

74. Whether the accompts o f th is bank were no t balanced twiceevery year ?75 . Whether there w ere no t tw o chests belo nging to this bank

,

the o ne called the general chest co n tain ing their specie,their bills

and their copper plates fo r the printing o f tho se bills,under the

“custo dy o f three lo cks,whereo f the keys were kept by the director,

the inspecto r and t reasurer ; also ano ther called the o rdinary chest,co ntain ing part of the sto ck no t ex ceeding tw o hundred thousandcrowns

,under the keyof the t reasurer ?

76. Whether out of this las t ment io ned sum, each particularcashier was no t to be intrusted w ith a share no t exceeding thevalue of twenty thousand crowns at a t ime

,and that under good

security77 . Whether the regent did no t reserve to himself the power ofcalling this bank to acco un t

,so o ften as he should think good, and

o f appo inting the inspecto r ?78. Whether in the begin ing o f the year 1719 the French Kingdid no t co nvert the gen eral bank o f France into a Banque Royale,having himself purchased the sto ck o f the company and taken itinto his ow n hands

,and appo in ted the Duke o f Orleans chief

manager thereof ?79. Whether from that t ime

,all matters relating to the bank

w ere no t t ransacted in the name,and by the so le autho rity, of

the k ing ?80. Whether his majesty did n o t unde rtake to receive and keep

the cash o f all part icular perso n s,subjects

,o r fo reigners, in

“ his

said Ro yale Banque,without being paid fo r that trouble ? And

whether it w as no t dec lared,that such cash should no t be liable to

sei z ure o n anypretex t, n o t even o n the k ing’s own account ?81 . Whether the treasurer alo n e did no t sign all the bills,rece ive all the sto ck paid in to the bank

,and keep account of all

the in-go ings and out-go ings ?82 . Whether there we re no t three registers fo r the enregistering

o f the bills kept in the Banque Ro yale,o n e bythe inspecto r, and

the o ther by the co n tro l ler, and a third by the treasurer ?

P ar t I ] . 5 23

83. Whether there w as no t also a fo urth register, co n tain ingthe pro fits o f the bank

,w h ich w as visited

,at least o nce a week

,by

the inspecto r and co n tro ller ?84. Whether

,beside the general bureau o r compter in the city

ofParis, there were no t also appo inted fi ve mo re in the towns o fLyons, To urs, Ro che lle, O rlean s, and Amiens

,each w hereo f w as

provided w ith tw o chests,o ne o f specie fo r discharging bills at sight,

and ano ther o f bank bills to be issued as there sho u ld be demand ?85. Whether, in the abo ve ment io ned to w ns

,it w as n o t pro

hibited to make payments in si lver,ex ceeding the sum o f six

hundred livres ?86. Whether all credito rs w ere n o t empo w ered to demandpayment in bank bil ls instead o f specie87. Whether, in a sho rt compass o f t ime

,this bank did n o t

undergo many n ew changes and regulat io ns by several successiveacts o f counci l ?88. Whether the unt imely

,repeated

,and boundless fabricatio n

of bills did no t precipitate the ruin o f this bank ?89. Whether it be no t true

,that befo re the end o f July

,17 19,

they had fabricated fo ur hundred m illio ns o f livres in bank-no tes,to which they added the sum o f o ne hundred and tw en ty millio nsmo re o n the tw elfth o f September fo llow ing, also the same sum o f

one hundred and tw en ty mi llio ns o n the tw en ty-fo urth o f O cto ber,and again o n the tw enty-n in th o f December

,in the same year,

the farther sum o f three hundred and sixty millio ns, making thewho le

,from an o riginal sto ck o f six mill io n s

,mount

,w ithin the

compass o f o ne year,to a tho usand mi llio ns o f livres ?

90. Whethe r o n the twenty-eighth o f February, 1 720, the kingdid no t make an un io n o f the bank with the un ited company o fEast and West In dies

,which from that t ime had the adminis

tratio n and pro fits o f the Banque Royal ?91 . Whether the k ing did n o t st ill pro fess h imself respo nsible

fo r the value o f the bank-bills, and whether the company were no t

respo nsible to his majestyfo r the ir management

92. Whether six teen hundred mi llio n s o f livres, lent to h is

majesty by the company, w as n o t a sufficient pledge to indemn ifythe king?93. Whether the n ew directo rs were no t pro hibited to make

anymo re bi lls w itho ut an act o f co uncil

5 24 Appendix to Me Q ner ist,

94 .Whether the chests and bo o ks o f the Banque were no t

subjected to the jo int inspect io n o f a counsello r o f state,and

the Prevot des Marchands,assisted by tw o Echevins, a judge, and

a co nsul,w ho had power to visit when they would and witho ut

w arn ing95 . Whether in less than tw o years the act io ns o r shares o f

the Indian Company (first established fo r M ississippi, and afterwardsin creased bythe additio n o f o ther compan ies and further privileges)did n o t rise to near 2000 per cen t . ? and whether this must beascribed to real advantages o f trade, o r to mere fren z y ?96 . Whether

,from first to last, there were n o t fabricated bank

bills,o f o ne k ind o r o ther, to the value o f mo re than two thousand

and six hundred mi llio n s o f livres,o r o ne hundred and thirty

mill-io ns sterling ?97 . Whether the credit o f the bank did n o t decline from its

un io n w ith the Indian Company ?98. Whether

,no twithstanding all the abo ve-men tio ned extra

o rdinary measures,the bank bi lls did no t st i ll pass at par w ith

go ld and silve r to May, 1 7 20, w hen the French king thought fi t,

by a new act o f co uncil,to make a reduct io n o f the ir value

,wh ich

proved a fatal blow,the eEects whereo f

,though so o n retracted,

no subsequent skill o r managemen t could ever repair ?99. Whether

,w hat n o reaso n

,reflectio n

,o r fo resight could do ,

th is simple mat ter o f fact (the mo st pow erful argument with themultitude) did n o t do at o nce

,to w it

,o pen the eyes o f the people ?

100 . Whether the dealers in that so rt o f ware had ever troubledthei r heads w ith the nature o f credit

,o r the true use and end of

banks,but o n ly co nsidered their bi lls and act io ns as things, to

w h ich the gen eral demand gave a price ?10 1 . Whether the Go vernmen t w as no t in great perplexity to

co ntrive expedients fo r the gett ing rid o f tho se bank bills, whichhad been lately multiplied with such an un limited passio n ?

102. Whether no tes to the value o f abo ut n inety mi llio ns weren o t sunk bybe ing paid o ff in specie

,with the cash o f the Com

pagn ie des Indes w ith that o f the bank, and that o f the Ho tels desM o n n oyes ? Whether fi ve hundred and th irty mi llio n s were no t

co nverted into annuit ies at the ro yal treasury ? Whether severalhundred millio ns mo re in bank bills were n o t extinguished and

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5 2 6 Appendix ia Me Q nex ist,

1 28. Whether jobs and tricks are no t detested o n all hands,

but w hether it be no t the jo int in terest o f prin ce and people to

promo te industry ?1 29. Whether

,all th ings co nside red

,a natio nal bank be not

the mo st pract icable,sure

,and speedy metho d to mend o ur affairs

,

and cause industry to flourish amo ng us ?130 . Whether a compte en ban c o r curren t bank bi lls would

best answ er our o ccasio n s13 1 .

-Whether a public compte en ban c,where effects are re

ceived,and accounts kept with particular perso n s

,be no t an

ex cel len t expedien t fo r a great city ?1 32 . What effect a gen eral compte en ban c would have in the

metro po lis o f th is k ingdom w ith o n e in each pro vin ce subo rdinatethereunto

133 . Whethe r it may n o t be pro per fo r a great kingdom to

un ite bo th expedients,to w it

,bank no tes and a compte en banc ?

134 . Whether,n evertheless

,it w ould be adviseable to begin with

bo th at o n ce,o r rather to pro ceed first with the bi lls

,and after

wards,as business mult iplied

,and mo ney o r effects fi ow ed in

,to

o pen the compte en banc ?

135 . Whether,fo r greater security, do uble bo oks o f compte en

banc sho uld n o t be kept in different places and hands ?136. Whether it would n o t be right to bui ld the compters and

public treasuries, w here bo o ks and bank no tes are kept,without

wo o d,all arched and flo o red with brick o r sto ne

,having chests

also and cabinets o f iro n ?137 . Whether divers registers o f the bank n o tes sho uld no t be

kept in differen t hands ?1 38. Whether there sho uld n o t be great discretio n in the uttering

o f bank no tes,and Whether the attempting to do things per 54 1mm

be no t o ften the w ay to undo them ?1 39. Whether the main art be no t by slow degrees and caut ious

measures to reco nci le the bank to the public,to wind it insensibly

into the affectio n s o f men,and interweave it w ith the consti

tutio n

14 1 . Whether a natio nal bank may n o t preven t the drawingo f specie o ut o f the co untry (where it circulates in small paymen ts), to be shut up in the chests o f particular perso ns ?

143. Whether ten an ts o r debto rs could have cause to complain

Par t I ] . 5 2 7

of our mo n ies be ing reduced to the English value if it werewithal multiplied in the same

,o r in a greater pro po rtio n ?

and whether this wo uld no t be the co n sequence o f a nat io nalbank .

144. If there be an o pen sure w ay to thrive, witho ut haz ard toourselves o r prejudice to o ur n eighbo urs, what shou ld h inder usfrom putting in pract ice ?

145 . Whether in so numerous a Senate,as that o f th is k ing

dom,it mayno t be easier to fi nd men o f pure hands and clear

heads fi t to co n trive and -mo del a public bank ?146. Whether a view o f the precipices be no t suffi cien t

,o r

whether w e must tumble headlo ng befo re w e are roused ?147 . Whether in this dro oping and dispirited country

,men are

quite awake ?156. Whether

,if w e do no t reap the benefits that may be

made o f our co untry and go vernment,w ant o f will in the lower

people,o r want o f w it in the upper

,be mo st in fault ?

165 . Whether an assembly o f freethinkers, petit maitres, and

smart fellows,w ould no t make an admirable Senate ?

175 . Whether there be real ly amo ng us any perso ns so silly,as

to encourage drink ing in their chi ldren ?1 76. Whence it is

,that our ladies are mo re alive

,and bear

age so much better than o ur gent lemen ?

185 . Whether this be altogether thei r ow n fault ?197 . Whether it may n o t be right to appo in t censo rs in everyparish to observe and make returns o f the idle hands ?

198. Whether a register o r h isto ry o f the idleness and industryo f a peo ple would be an useless thing ?

199. Whether w e are appri z ed,o f all the uses that may be

made o f po litical arithmet ic ?207 . Why the wo rkhouse in Dublin

,w ith so go o d an endow

ment,should yet be o f so litt le use and w hether this may n o t be

ow ing to that very endowment208. Whether that income might no t

,by this time

,have go n e

through the who le k ingdom,and erected a do z en wo rkhouses in

every co un ty ?2 10. Whether the tax o n chairs o r hackney co aches be no t

paid,rather by the co unt ry gen tlemen ,

than the citi z ens o f

Dublin

5 28 Appendix to Me Q nex isi,

22 7 . Whether there should n o t be a difference between the

treatment o f criminals and that o f o ther slaves ?25 1 . Whether w hen a mo t io n w as o nce upo n a t ime to establish a private bank in this k ingdom by public autho rity

,divers

gen t lemen did no t shew themse lves fo rward to embark in that

des ign25 2 . Whether it may n o t n ow be ho ped that our patrio ts w ill

be as fo rw ard to examine and co n sider the pro po sal o f a publicbank calculated on ly fo r the public go o d

253. Whether any peo ple upo n earth shew a mo re early z eal fo rthe service o f thei r co un try

, greater eagern ess to bear a part in theLegislature, o r a mo re general parturiency with respect to po liticksand public counsels ?

254 . Whether,neverthe less

,a light and ludicro us vein be no t

the re ign ing humo ur ; but w hether there w as ever greater cause tobe serious ?

THIRD PART. [PUBLISHED IN

I 3. Whether the who le city o f Amsterdam would no t have beentro ubled to have brought together twenty thousand po unds in one

ro om ?14 . Whether it be no t abso lutely necessary that there must be a

bank and must be a trust ? And,if so

,w hether it be no t the

mo st safe and pruden t co urse to have a nat io nal bank and trustthe legislature

15 . Whether objectio ns against trust in gen eral avail,when it

is al lowed there must be a trust,and the o n ly questio n is where to

place this trust,w hether in the legislature o r in private hands ?

16. Whether it can be expected that private person s sho uld havemo re regard to the public than the public itself ?

1 7 . Whether,if there be haz ards from mismanagement

,tho se

mayn o t be pro vided again st in the framing o f a public bank , butw hether anyprovision can be made again st the mismanagement ofprivate banks that are under no check

,co ntro l

,o r inspectio n ?

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530 Appendix to Me Quer ist,

33 . Where is it mo st reaso nable to expect wise and punctualdealing, whether in a secret impen etrable recess, where creditdepends o n secrecy

,o r in a public managemen t regulated and

inspected byParl iamen t ?

34 . Whether a supine security be n o t catch ing, and w hethernumbers run n ing the same risque

,as they lessen the cautio n

,may

n o t increase the danger ?35 . What real object io n lies again st a nat io nal bank erected by

the legislature, and in the managemen t o f public deput ies,ap

po in ted and inspected bythe legislature36. What have w e to fear from such a bank

,w h ich mayno t be

as w el l feared witho ut it ?37 . How

,w hy, by what means

,o r fo r what end

,should it

become an instrument o f o ppressio n ?38. Whe ther w e can po ssibly be o n a mo re precarious fo o t than

w e are already Whether it be no t in the power o f any particularperso n at o nce to disappear and co nvey him se lf into fo reign parts ?o r whether there can be any security in an estate o f land whenthe demands upo n it are unknow n ?

39. Whether the establishing o f a natio nal bank,if w e suppose

a co ncurrence o f the go vernmen t,be n o t very practicable ?

40. But,w hether tho ugh a scheme be n ever so evidently prac

ticable and usefu l to the public, yet, if co nceived to interfere with

a privat e interest,it be no t fo rthwith in danger o f appearing

doubtful,difficult

,and impract icable ?

4 1 . Whether the legi s lat ive bo dy hath no t already sufficientpow er to hurt

,if they maybe suppo sed capable o f it

,and whether

a bank w o uld give them any new pow er ?4 2 . What should tempt the publ ic to defraud itself ?43 . Whether

,if the legislature destro yed the public

,it would '

n o t be felo de se ,and w hether it be no t reaso nable to suppo se it

bent o n its o w n destructio n44 . Whether the o bjectio n to a public n atio nal bank

,from w ant

o f secrecy,be no t in truth an argumen t fo r it ?

45 . Whether the secrecy o f private banks be no t the very thingthat renders them so haz ardo us ? and w hether

,witho ut

,that there

co uld have been o f late so many sufferers ?46. Whether w hen all o bject io ns are answered it be still incum

bent to answer surmises

P ar ! 5 3 1

47 . Whether it were just to insinuate that gent lemen would beagainst anypropo sal they co uld no t turn into a jobb ?48. Suppo se the legislature passed their wo rd fo r any privatebanker

,and regularly visited his bo o ks

,would no t money lo dged

in his bank he therefo re recko n ed mo re secure49. In a coun try where the legislat ive bo dy is no t fit to betrusted

,what security can there be fo r t rusting anyo ne else

50 . If it be no t ridicu lo us to quest io n whether the public canfi nd cash to circulate bills o f a limited value when private bankersare suppo sed to fi nd enough to c ircu late them to an un limitedvalue ?53. Whether tho se haz ards that in a greater degree attendprivate banks can be admitted as o bjections against a publicone ?

54. Whether that w h ich is an objectio n to everything be an

objectio n to anything, and whether the po ssibi lity o f an abuse beno t o f that k ind ?55 . Whether

,in fact

,all th ings are n o t mo re o r less abused

,

and yet no twithstanding such abuse,w hether many things are no t

upon the who le expedien t and useful ?5 6. Whether tho se things that are subject to the mo st generalinspect io n are no t the less subject to abuse ?

57 . Whether, fo r private ends,it may n o t be somet imes ex

pedient to o bject no velty to th ings that have been often tried,difficulty to the plainest things, and haz ard to the safest ?

58. Whether some men w i ll n o t be apt to argue as if the

quest io n w as between mo ney and credit, and no t (as in fact itis) which ought to be preferred, private credit o r public credit ?59. Whether they will no t prudent ly o verlo ok the evils felt, o r

to be feared,o n one side ?

60. Whether,therefo re, tho se that w o uld make an impart ial

judgment o ught no t to be o n their guard, keeping bo th pro spectsalways in view

,balan cing the in co nven ien ces o n each s ide and

considering neither abso lutely ?61 .Whether wilful mistakes, examples without a l iken ess, and

general addresses to the passio ns are no t o ften mo re successfulthan argumen ts ?62 .Whether there be no t an art to puz z le plain cases as wel l

as to explain o bscure o nes ?M m 2

5 3 2 Appendix 10 Me Quer ist,

63 . Whether private men are no t o ften an o ver-match fo r thepublic , w ant o f weight being made up fo r by act ivity ?64 . If w e suppo se neither sense no r ho nesty in o ur leaders o r

represen tat ives,whether w e are n o t already undone, and so have

no th ing further to fear ?65 . Suppo se a power in the go vernment to hurt the public by

mean s o f a natio nal bank, yet what should give them the will

to do th is ? Or suppo sing a will to do mischief, yet how co uld anatio nal bank

,mo delled and admin istered by Parliament, put it in

the i r po w er66. Whether even a wicked will intrusted with pow er can be

suppo sed to abuse it fo r no end ?

67 . Whether it be no t much mo re probable that those who

maketh such o bjectio ns do no t be lieve them68. Whether it be no t vain to object that our fel low -subjects o f

Great Britain would malign o r o bstruct our indust ry w hen it isexert ed in a waywhich cann o t interfere with their own ?69 . Whether it is to be suppo sed they should take de light in

the dirt and nakedness and famine o f our peo ple,o r envy them

sho es fo r their feet and beef fo r their bel lies ?70. What po ss ible handle o r in clination could our having a

nat io nal bank give o ther peo ple to dist ress us ?7 1 . Wh ether it be no t rid icu lo us to con ceive that a pro ject fo r

clo athing and feeding our nat ives should give any umbrage to

England72 . Wh ether such unwo rthy surm ises are no t the pure effect

o f spleen ?78. Whether the Pro testan t co lo ny in this kingdom can ever

fo rget what they ow e to England ?79. Whether there ever was in any part o f the wo rld a country

in such w retched circumstan ces,and wh ich

,at the same t ime,

co uld be so eas i ly remedied,and n evertheless the remedy no t

applied80 . What must become o f a peo ple that can ne ither see the

plainest th ings no r do the eas iest ?81 . Be the mo n ey lo dged in the bank what it will

, yet whetheran Act to make go od deficien cies would n o t remo ve all scruples ?82 . If it be objected that a nat io nal bank must lower interest,

and therefo re hurt the mo n ied man,whether the same objection

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5 34 Appendix to Me Q nex isi ,

104 . Whether o ur circumstances do no t cal l alo ud fo r some

presen t remedy And w hether that remedy be n o t in our pow er ?106. Whether

,o f all the he lps to industry that ever were

inven ted,there be anymo re secure

,mo re easy

,and mo re effectual

than a nat io nal ban k ?10 7 . Whether medicines do no t recommend themselves byex

perience, even though thei r reaso ns be o bscure ? But w hetherreaso n and fact are no t equally clear in favo ur o f this po liticalmedicine

1 1 7 . Whether therefo re a tax o n all go ld and si lver in apparel,

o n all fo reign laces and silks,may n o t raise a fund fo r the bank

,

and at the same time have o ther salutary effects o n the public ?1 18. But

,if gen t lemen had rather tax tho usands in ano ther way,

w hether an additio nal tax o f ten sh i llings the hogshead o n w inesmayno t supply a suffi cien t fund fo r the national bank

,all defects

to be made go o d byParliament ?1 19. Whether upo n the who le it may no t be right to appo int

a natio nal ban k ?1 20 . Whether the sto ck and security o f such bank wo uld no t be

,

in truth,the natio nal sto ck

,o r the to tal sum o f the w ealth of this

k ingdom1 2 1 . Whether

,nevertheless

,there should n o t be a particular

fund fo r present use in an sw erin g bills and circulat ing credit ?1 2 2 . Whether fo r this end any fund may no t suffice

,provided

an Act be passed fo r making go o d deficiencies ?1 23 . Whether the so le pro prieto r o f such bank should no t be

the public,and the so le directo r the legislature ?

1 24 . Whether the managers, o fficers,and cashiers sho uld not

be servan ts o f the public,act ing by o rders and limited by rules of

the legislature125 . Whether there sho u ld no t be a standing number o f ln

specto rs,o n e-third men in great o ffi ce

,the rest members o f both

ho uses,half w hereo f to go out

,and half to come in every sessio n ?

1 26. Whether tho se inspecto rs should n o t,all in a bo dy, visit

tw ice a year,and three as o ften as they pleased ?

1 27 . Whether the general bank should no t be in Dublin, andsubo rd inate banks o r compters o ne in each pro vince o f Munster,U lster

,and Co nnaught

1 28. Whether there sho uld no t be such pro visio n s o f stamps,

P ar t [ I ] . 535

s ignatures, checks, stro ng bo xes, and all o ther measures fo r securing the bank n o tes and cash

,as are usual in o ther banks ?

129. Whether these ten o r a do z en last queries may no t eas i lybe co nverted in to heads o f a bill ?

130. Whether any o ne co ncern s h imself about the security o r

funds o f the bank o f Ven ice o r Amsterdam ? And w hether in a

l itt le t ime the case w o uld no t be the same as to o ur bank ?

133 . Whether it be n o t the mo st o bvious remedy fo r all the

inco nveniences w e labour under w ith regard to our co in ?134. Whethe r it be no t agreed o n all hands that o ur co in is o nvery bad fo o t

,and calls fo r some remedy ?

135 . Whether the w ant o f s i lver hath n o t intro duced a so rt o ftrafi ick fo r change

,wh ich is purchased at n o inco nsiderable dis

count to the great o bstruct io n o f o ur domest ic commerce ?136. Whether

,though it be eviden t s ilver is w an ted

,it be yet

so evident w h ich is the best w ay o f pro vid ing fo r this w ant ?

Whether by lowering the go ld, o r raising the s i lver,o r partly o n e

,

part ly the o ther ?137 . Whether a part ial raising o f o ne species be n o t

,in truth

,

granting a premium to o ur bankers fo r impo rt ing such species ?And w hat that species is w h ich deserves mo st to be encouraged ?

138. Whether it be n o t just that all go ld sho uld be alike ratedacco rding to its w eight and finen ess ?

139. Whether th is maybe best do ne by lo w ering some certainspecies o f go ld, o r by raising o thers

,o r by jo in ing bo th metho ds

together14 1 . Whether the N o rth and the South have no t

,in truth

,o n e

and the same in terest in this matter ?143 . But

,w hether a public benefit o ught to be obtained by

unjust metho ds,and therefo re

,w hether any reductio n o f co in

should be tho ught o f wh ich may hurt the pro perties o f privatemen

144 . Whether tho se parts o f the k ingdom w here commercedo th mo st abound would n o t be the greatest gain ers byhavingour co in placed o n a right fo o t ?

145 . Whether,in case a reductio n o f co in be tho ught expedient,

the uttering o f bank bi lls at the same t ime may n o t preven t thein co nven ien ces o f such a reduct io n

146. But,w hether any public expedien cy could co un tervail a

5 36 Appendix to Me Quer ist,

real pressure o n tho se w ho are least able to bear it, tenants and

debto rs147 . Whether

,neverthe less, the po litical bo dy, as wel l as the

natural,must no t somet imes be w o rse in o rder to be better ?

150 . What if our o ther go ld w ere raised to a par with Po rtugalgo ld, and the value o f si lve r in general raised with regard to thato f go ld ?

15 1 . Whether the public ends may o r may no t be betteranswered by such argumentat ion

,than by a reductio n o f our

co in15 2. Provided silver is mult iplied

,be it by raising o r dimin ish

ing the value o f o ur co in,w hether the great end is no t answered ?

154 . Whether,if a reductio n be thought necessary, the obvious

mean s to prevent all hardships and injustice be n o t a natio nalbank

155 . Upon suppo sition that the cash o f this k ingdom was fi ve

hundred tho usand pounds,and by lowering the vario us species

each o ne-fi fth o f its value the w ho le sum w as reduced to fourhundred thousand pounds

,whether the difficulty o f gett ingmoney,

and co nsequen tly o f paying rents,w ould n o t be increased in the

pro po rtio n o f fi ve to four ?15 6. Whether such diffi culty w o uld no t be a great and unmeriteddistress o n all the tenants in the nat io n ? But if at the same t imewith the afo resaid reductio n there were uttered o ne hundredthousand po unds addit io nal to the fo rmer current sto ck, whethersuch diffi culty o r inconven ience would then be felt ?

15 8. Whether in any fo reign market, twopence advance in a

k ilderkin o f co rn co uld great ly affect o ur trade ?159. Whether in regard o f the far greater changes and fluctua

t io n s o f price from the difference o f seaso ns and o ther accidents,that small rise should seem co nsiderable ?

162. Whether,setting aside the ass istance o f a natio nal bank,

it w ill be easy to reduce o r low er o ur co in without some hardsh ip(at least fo r the present) o n a great number o f particular perso ns ?

163 . Whether,n everthe less

,the scheme o f a natio nal bank

do th no t in t irely stand clear o f th is question , and whether suchbank may n o t compleatly subsist and answer its ends

,although

there should be no alterat io n at all made in the value o f o ur

co in

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5 38 Appendix to Me Q nex isi ,

204 . Whether there be anyw o o l len manufacture in Birmingham?205 . Whether bad management may n o t be w o rse than slavery ?

An d w hether any part o f Christendom be in a mo re languishingco nditio n than this k ingdom ?

2 1 2 . Whether it be n o t true,that w ithin the compass of o ne

year there flow ed from the South Sea, w hen that commerce waso pen

,in to the single town o f St . Malo ’s

,a sum o f go ld and silver

equal to fo ur t imes the w ho le species o f th is k ingdom ? Andw hether that same part o f France do th n o t at presen t draw fromCadi z upw ards o f tw o hundred tho usand pounds per annum ?

2 14 . Whether it be true that the Dutch make ten millio ns o f

l ivres,every return o f the flo ta and galleo n s, by the ir sales at the

Indies an d at Cadi z ?2 15 . Whether it be true that England makes at least one

hundred tho usand po unds per annum by the single art icle o f hats

so ld in Spain ?2 17 . Whether the toys o f Th iers do n o t emplo y fi ve thousand

famil ies ?2 18. Whether there be n o t a small town o r tw o in France

w h ich supply all Spain with cards ?222 . Whether

,about twen ty-fi ve years ago , they did n o t first

attempt to make po rcelain in France , and w hether,in a few

years,they did no t make it so w el l

,as to rival that w h ich comes

from Ch ina ?2 26. Whether part o f the profits o f the bank should n o t be

emplo yed in erect ing manufactures o f several k inds,w h ich are

n o t like ly to be set o n fo o t and carried o n to perfect io n w ithoutgreat sto ck

,publ ic enco uragemen t

, general regulat io ns, and the

co ncurrence o f many hands ?230 . Whether it w ere n o t to be w ished that o ur peo ple shewed

their descen t from Spain,rather by the ir ho n o ur and ho nesty than

the ir pride,and if so

,w hether they might n o t easily insinuate

themselves in to a larger share o f the Span ish trade ?235 . Whether w e may n o t

,w ith commo n industry and common

ho n esty,underse ll any nat io n in Euro pe ?

242 . Whether they are no t the Sw iss that make hayand gatherin the harvest througho ut Alsat ia ?269. Whether commissio n ers o f trade o r o ther pro per perso ns

sho uld n o t be appo in ted to draw up plan s o f our commerce bo th

P ar t 5 39

fo reign and domest ic, and lay them at the beginn ing o f everysessio n befo re the Parliamen t ?270. Whether registers o f industry should n o t be kept

,and the

public from t ime to t ime acquain ted w hat new manufactures areintro duced, what increase o r decrease o f o ld o n es ?

286. Whether therefo re M isisipi, South Sea,and such l ike

schemes w ere n o t calculated fo r publ ic ruin ?289. Whether all such princes and statesmen are n o t great lydeceived w ho imagin e that go ld and s ilver

,any w ay go t , w i ll

en rich a coun try ?292. Whether the effect is n o t to be co ns idered mo re than the

kind o r quant ity o f mo ney ?299. Whether tho se w ho have the in terests o f th is k ingdom at

heart, and are co n cerned in the co unc ils thereo f,ought n o t to make

the mo st humble and earnest represen tat io ns to h is Majesty,that

he mayvouchsafe to gran t us that favour,the w ant o f wh ich is

ruinous to o ur domest ic in dustry,and the hav ing o f w h ich w o u ld

interfere w ith no in teres t o f o ur fe llow-subjects ?30 1 . Whether h is mo st gracio us Majesty hath ever been ad

dressed ou th is head in a pro per mann er, and had the case fairlystated fo r h is ro yal co ns iderat io n

,and if n o t

,w hether w e may no t

blame o urselves ?3 1 1 . Whether every k ind o f emplo ymen t o r bus iness

,as it

implies mo re skill and exerc ise o f the h igher powers, be n o t mo revalued3 16. Whether private endeavours w itho ut assistance from the

public are l ikely t o advance our manufactures and commerce toanygreat degree ? But Whether

,as bi lls uttered from a nat io nal

bank upo n private mo rtgages w o uld facilitate the purchases and

projects o f private men,even so the same bills uttered o n the

public security alo ne may n o t an sw er public ends in promo t ingnew wo rks and manufactures throughout the k ingdom ?

323 . Whether as many as w ish w el l to their co untry o ught no tto aim at increas ing its momentum ?

5 40 Appendix M ax ims concer n ing P a ix io lisin .

FIRST EDITION OF THE ‘MAXIMS CONCERNINGPATRIOTISM .

’

[In the co llectio n o f pamphlets which co ntains the three o riginalParts o f the Q uer ist, I fo und also the First edition o f the M ax ims con

cer n ing published in 1 7 50 . Curio usly, it bears o n the titlepage to be BY A LAD Y .

’

Max ims 1 7 , 1 8,19 , in the editio n published

tw o years afterwards in the M iscellany by Berkeley, are no t found in the

o ri ginal editio n . In 1 6, instead o f a suspected patrio t,’ the 1 750 editio n

has a‘bad patrio t ; and in 2 6

,instead o f ‘

the present age,’

the same

editio n has the presen t metry age—and the Max im is 2 3 .

A. c . F.]

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54 2

Americans , co l lege fo r savage , iii. 2 17 .

Analo gical kn ow ledge o f Go d , ii. 168.

Analogy, defi ned , ii. 167 ; how used

by scho o lmen , ib. ; Bisho p Brow no n , 168 Archbisho p King o n ,

169 kn ow ledge o f Go d by, i.

37 5 ; lo gical use o f,ii. 2 85 .

Analyst, o n mo tio n , i. 2 14 ; o n in fi n itedivisibility, 2 24 discussio n it

caused,iii. 2 5 8 302 its aim,

2 5 8 n ., 30 3.

Anax ago ras, the uo fi s‘ o f, 11. 1 6 3 N otis

e’

rrehdé w, ii. 490 ; o n mind,iii. 85 .

Anax imander,o n matter

,ii. 489 .

Anax imenes,o n fi re princip le, ii. 4 2 5 .

Ancient philo so phy, nearer the truth ,ii. 480 .

Ancients,mo derns have advantages

o ver the,ii. 2 5 7 .

An ima mundi,ii. 348, 47 4 n ., 47 7 n . ;

e lemen tary fi re , 49 1 .

An imal spirit in man , 11. 4 20.

Appetite o f immo rtality, iii. 148.

Aquinas, Thomas, no tio n o f God , 11.

1 66 n .

Arbitrariness o f re latio n betw een

o bj ects o f sight and distance,i. I 10 n .

Arbitrarycharacter o f law s o f nature ,i. 1 7 1 n .

Arbitrary co nnectio n betw een sight

and to uch , i. 102 .

Archaeus o f Parace lsus, 11. 4 14 .

Archetypal o r eternal state o f th ings,1. 35 1 .

Archetype o f sensible system, the

D ivine Idea the u ltimate , i. 19 3 n .

Archetypes, ex ternal , i. 2 00, 345

o f ideas, 1 2 2,160

,2 98 ; o f real

things, are sense-o bj ects, 1 7 6 n . ;ex ist o n ly in some o ther mind

,2 0 7 .

Arch imedes, pro b lem propo sed byH iero ne, iii. 35 .

Architectural beauty, 11. 1 20.

Architecture, Berkeley’s taste fo r , ii.1 2 2 .

Ario sto and Tasso compared, 11. 2 04 .

Aristo tle , i. 39 n ., 5 3, ii. 47 5 ; o n

number , i. 85 n . ; materia prima,16 1 o n happiness, ii. 7 7 ; o n

virtue,82 ; o n rakes

,86

, 94 ; o n

the go o d man , 1 29 ; o n t rue edu

catio n , 339 o n magistrates and

re ligio n , iii. 4 2 1 ; o n principle o f

fi re , 4 2 4 ; co nnectio n betw een so u land bo dy, 4 26 heat is divine

,

4 26 M ind everyw here , 4 2 7

I N D E X .

B.

Baco n , referred to , i. 65 149 n.,

2 1 1 n . ; h is biblical studies, ii. 267 ;o n effects o fheat, 4 18 n . ; interpre

fatio u o f nature, 460 o n mathemat ies, iii. 6 1 o n mo tio n

, 7 6 n .

e lemen ts inanimate, 449 ; uncon

scio us mental agency, 46 2 o n

space, 468 o n anima mundi,

47 2 arrangement o f mental faculties, 482 n . ; threefo ld distinctio n

o f obj ects, 484 ; know ledge and

the thing know n are o ne, 485 ;so u l place o f fo rms, 486 ; ex istence

po tential and actual , ib. ; do ctrineo f matter, 489 ; no t an atheist,

49 2 ; Go d is Law , 496 ; criticismo f P lato ’s do ctrine o f Ideas, 497 ;identity is unity, 503 ; mind produces un ity, 5 04 ; defi n ition

'

o f

mo tio n , iii. 90 ; o n perpetual motio n , 8 1 o n se lf-mo tio n , 83 mindthe fi rst mo ver

,85 so urce o fmo

t io n , 9 1 his psycho logy, 93.

Arithmetic , its o bj ect, i. 2 1 8 ; regardssigns, no t things, 2 19 ; its nature,

Berke ley’s treatise o n, a

juven ile essay, ii i. 9 .

Ar t, w ealth in objects o f, 111. 36 1 .

Asclepian dialo gues, o n fi re , ii. 42 8.

Asso ciatio n,by co ntiguity, law o f

,i.41 .

Atheism, i. 2 36 ; its fo undatio n, 204 ;

grew o ut o f English deism, 37 1

the perfectio n o f free-thinking,ii. 36 ; n o t encouraged by greatmen o f antiquity, 5 03.

Athen ians, attachment to their established church

,ii. 1 7 7 .

Atomic theo ry adopted by Lo cke,ii. 465 72.

Atomic theo ry o f fo rce, 11. 45 1 .

Attractio n , a great mechanical prini

c

i

iple, i. 2 08 ; in acids,Newto n o n,

. 437°

no t a pro ductive o r effi

c

l

ient cause, 45 5 .

Attractio n and repu lsion , Newton o n,

ii 45 2 ) 45 4Attractio n

,repu lsio n , and mo tion, 11.

454Attribute, defi ned, i. 181 .

Augustine, o n heathen religio ns, 11.

1 82 ; so u l is vis, 49 1 o n Creatio n,5 05 .

Aurea Catena Homeri, 11. 35 3 n .

Aurelius, M arcus, o n immo rtality,11. 1 3 r .

I N D E X .

Bailey, Samuel, against New Theo ryo f Visio n , i. 2 3 35 n., 39 n .

Bain, Pro f , o n relatio n o f co lo ur andex tensio n , i. 108 n .

Balsams, ancient , ii. 37 3.Bank , natio nal , iii. 37 3, 37 5 , 390,

5 1 2 , 5 3 1 , 5 36 ; w ou ld increase momentum o f a state, 404 ; w o uldenco urage industry,

Banks, haz ards o f private, iii. 5 29.Barbado es Co llege , iii. 2 19 .

Barrow ,D r ., i. 7 his problem, 42 .

Bartelet t, Dean , iii. 1 83 n .

Barto n , o n princip le o f fi re, 11. 4 19 n .

Baxter’s criticism o f Berke ley, i. 248.Bayes, Thomas, iii. 30 1 n .

Bayle, referred to , i. 374 iii. 62

o n material substance , i. 288.

Beattie, Essay o n Truth , remarks o n ,

i.’

1 1 5 objectio ns to Berke ley, 2 48.

Beauty, how perceived , ii. 1 1 8 ; co n

nection w ith the mo ral sense, 1 24

presuppo ses pro vidence , 1 2 5 .

Beauty, arch itectural , ii. 1 20 .

Beauty and reaso n , ii. 1 19 .

Beggars to be made pub lic s laves,iii: 387 .

Being incomprehensible , abstract ideao f, i. 164 ; co nceptio n o f intelligible ,2 0 1 72.

Benevo lence, an ethical mo tive, iii.1 14 .

Benso n’s M emo irs o f Co llier, i. 44 3 .

Bentley’s letters to Hare, i. 37 5 72.

Berkeley, o n nature o f ex t‘

ernality, i.5 2 a student o f Lo cke

’s Essay,

1 1 7 influenced by Malebranche ,ib. ; combats Lo cke, 1 18 ; idealismand realism,

1 1 9 n . fo llo w s Lo cke ,1 39 n. pro o f o f his do ctrine,1 57 n . ; held unity o f substance,1 5 9 assumes causality, 169co nnects cause and substance, ib. ;defi nitio n o f substance , 1 7 4 n . w hat

meant by his po tential ex istence,1 7 8 o n co ntinualcreatio n , 1 7 9 n . ;o n mirac les, 1 98 ; abo lishes r epre

sentative idea in perceptio n , 200 n .

ho lds a so rt o f spiritual po sit ivism,

208 ; his style , 24 1 ; crit icised byBax ter, 248 ; pro fesses a commo n

sense philo sophy, 26 2 answ ersHume, 3 2 7 n . po sitive and negativesides o f his philo sophy, 330 n . re ligio ns tendency o f h is w o rks, ii. 4 ;his ethics, 6 , 5 3 , 10 7 iii. 107 ; a

theo logical utilitar ian , ii. 107 n . ; taste

543

fo r architecture, 1 2 2 o n the liquo rtraffic, 40 3 fi re -philo so phy and

physical theo ries o f heat , 4 19o n mo tio n as effect Of fi re , 4 2 2 n . ;o n space, 467 n . ; o rigin o f his fi re

ph ilo sophy, 47 7 n . ; o n n o tio ns and

ideas, 489 n . ; his ideas oppo sed to

P lato ’s, 496 accused o f Jacobitism, iii. 105 essays in the

Guardian , 143 drank tar—w ater,47 7

Berke ley and But ler, 11. 9 .

Berke ley and Co leridge , ii. 9 .

Berke ley and Co l lier, i. 2 5 2 .

Berke ley and Ho o ker,11. 4 5 9 72.

Berkeley and Hume, i. 2 48.

Berke ley and Lo cke o n ethics,iii.

1 I O n .

Berke ley and Pascal, 11. 9.

Berke ley and Pro tago ras, i. 245 .

Berke ley and Sw ift,Mackinto sh 011

,

iii. 35 6 n.

Berke ley o f Stratto n , Lo rd , dedicatio no f Dialogues to , i. 25 7 .

Bermuda scheme,iii. 2 1 5 n .

Bermudas , advantageo us fo r site o f

pro po sed co l lege, iii. 2 2 0 .

Bernays, ii. 4 24 n o n Hippo cratesand Heraclitus, 4 2 5 n .

Bessario n , Cardinal, ii. 2 0 3, 507 .

Bianchi’s Histo ry, ii. 262 n .

Bilfi nger , refers to Co l lier, i. 2 5 4 n .

Bills o f ex change, iii. 35 7 .

Blasters,Dublin So ciety o f, iii. 409 n .,

42 7 .

Blind , a man bo rn , has n o idea o f.

distance, i. 5 2 , 444 ; ii. 15 2 .

Blind , case o f resto ratio n o f sight to

bo rn-b lind, i. 1 1 1 , 444—448.

B lind man , co u ld no t at fi rst co nnectideas o f sight and to uch , i. 7 2 , 94 .

Bo dy, c lo thes the so u l,ii. 395 ; the

priso n o f the so ul , 402 ; resistancegives us a n o tio n o f, 47 6.

Bo’

erhaave, ii. 4 19 n . o n,natural

spirits, 38 1 ; o n Myrrh , 383 ; vinegara so ap, 386 o n cure fo r smal l-po x ,394 ; o n scurvy, 398 ; o n acids, 4 10 ;o n fi re principle , 4 33.

Bo lingbro ke, o n abstract ideas, i. 1 4 2 n .

Bo rellus, ii. 45 8, iii. 8 1 ; o n fo rce , ii.304 ; o n vis percussio n is, iii. 7 8

impetus is gradus velo c itatis, 80

o n commun icatio n o fmo tio n, 98.

Bo sco vich ’

s theo ry o f matter, ii. 447 .

Boyer, Abel , translates Fene lo n’sD emo nstratio n , iii. 169 .

544

Boyle, Richard, Earl o f Co rk , ii. 83.

Boyle , ii. 5 45 n . bib lical studies, 267o n impregnat ing pow er o f air , 4 1 5o n effects o f heat , 4 1 8 n .

Brachmans, traditio ns o f the, 11. 267 .

Brain,residence o f the so u l, i. 300 .

Bribery, prevalence o f, iii. 209.

Brow n,Bisho p, o n analo gy, i. 37 5

ii. 16 8 n . ; o n T o land , ii. 8—9.

Brow n , D r . T ., ado pts Theo ry o f Vi

sio n,i. 2 2 o n co lo ur and ex tensio n ,

108 n . ; o n abstract ideas, 142 n . ;o n pow er in ideas, 168 elimin

ates all po w er from material w o rld ,1 7 1 o n causatio n , 37 8, iii. 84 n .

Brute, en vied by sen sualists, ii. 7 9 .

Buffo n,ado pts Theo ryo f Visio n , i. 19 .

Building and industry, iii. 388.

Bunyan referred to , ii. 32 1 .

Burnet’s theo ryo f the earth , iii. 49 n .

But ler, Archer, quo ted , i. 5 4 n .

But ler, Bisho p, o n atheism,i. 2 37

o n the popu lar view o f Christian ity,ii. 3 h is Analogy directed against

Tindal , 2 5 7 ; subo rdinatio n o f bene

vo lent aff ectio ns, iii. 1 1 5 n . o n de

c line o f re ligio n , 195 n .

C.

Ca sar, o n bo rrow ing mo ney, iii. 199 .

Calcu lus, diff erential , i. 2 2 5 .

Calidum innatum,ii. 4 20 .

Campane l la, ii. 47 2 n .

Cantacuz in i, Histo ry, 11. 432 .

Cart eret , Lo rd , iii. 2 1 5 n .

Cartesian theo ry o f o ccasio nal causes,i. 19 2 explanatio n o f gravity, ii.45 6.

Casw e l l , the mathematician , iii. 5 4 .

Causality, principle o f, assumed and

interpreted by Berke ley, i. '

169 n .

Causatio n , physical , co n trasted w ith

spiritual , i. 190 n .

Cause , free vo luntary activity, i. 1 17substance co nnected w ith , by Ber

ke ley, 169 co rpo real , 1 83 spiritthe o n ly effi cient , 208 vo lit io n theo n lykno w n , 3 10 n . defi ned

,ii. 420 .

Cause and effect, i. 37 8.

Causes , phen omena and their, co n

trasted , i. 380 n . ; physical explanat io n o f natural , ii. 46 2 theo logicalex p lanatio n o f natural

, ib.

Cedrium o f P liny, w hat, ii. 37 1 .

Ce lerities, represented by areas ando rdinates

,iii. 2 88.

Celsus,ii. 2 7 1 .

I N D E X .

Chain in all things, 11. 482 in

nature, 35 3 47 0, cf. 72.

Chaldee o racles, o n nap vo epdu, 11.

Chand ler, o n pro phecy, ii. 2 5 9 n .

Characteristics o f Shaftesbury, to becompared w ith Third Dialogue, ii.107 n .

Chardello u, the astro nomer,iii. 49.

Charter, fo r the Bermuda Co l lege, iii.2 2 8 2 30 n .

Chemistry o f nature , ii. 37 9.

Chesselden’s case

,i. 18

,19, 367 , 400,

444Child, Sir Jo siah , o n trade and interest , iii. 35 3 n .

Chimeras, difference betw een realthings and, i. 17 3, 330 .

Chinese, o n Fire principle, 11. 429 .

Christian faith,its al leged impo ssi

bility, ii. 290 ; mysteries, no t meaningless w o rds

,296 re ligio n, its

utility, 1 7 3, 1 7 7 .

Christianity, ennob les men , ll. J 7 8 ;

pro duces happiness , ib. ; is neitherbigo try no r superstitio n , 1 7 9 cha

racter and results , 189 ; Shaftes

bury o n, ib. ; fo unded o n naturalre ligio n , 2 08 po sitive argumentfo r its divinity, 2 2 0 .

Church, enco urages learning, 11. 203.

Church o f Christ, tho ughts 011, iii.

1 7 2 .

Church-lands and tithes, 11. 2 1 1 .Church’s patrimo ny, do es no t belongto o ne tribe, iii. 384 .

Cicero,o n kinds o f pleasure,

quo ted , 1 32 , 1 34, 1 7 9, 192

495 , iii. 1 1 5 ; soul is vis, 11. 49 1 ;o n future life

,iii. 2 05 , cf. mis

quo ted by Co l lins, 146 .

Circe’s enchanted vase, matter compared to , iii. 7 8.

Circu latio n in plants, Grew o n, 11. 376.

Clarke , D r . S., o n co n tinual creation ,i. 1 7 9 o n the being and attri

butes o f Go d, i. 2 1 7 ii. 140 ; o n

the p lanetarymo tio ns, ii. 268 n. o n

divine space, iii. 9 3 n .

Clarke and Berke ley o n space, 11.

467 n.

Clarke and Co l lins,11. 1 5 n .

Clarke and Leibnit z , their co rrespondence, i. 37 4 n .,

11. 1 5 7 3 19,

4 5 0 o n space and mo tio n , iii.

9 2 n .

Clergy, their character, 11. 180.

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546 I N D E X .

D e Linden , tar is no t heating,

368 n .

Demo critus, iii. 94 Cudw o rth on

hypo thesis o f, ii. 45 8 ; an ignifo rmdeity, 49 1 .

D emo nstratio ns in ethics, Spino sa’s,

ii. 3 34.

D e M o rgan, o n New to n’s flux io ns, 111.

2 5 8 n .

D emi-atheism,i. 2 37 .

D e Q uincey, o n the name Siris, ii.35 3 n .

D ero do n , o n abstract ideas, 1. 142mind the fi rst mo ver, iii. 85 defi

n itio n o f mo tio n , 90 n . ; o n p lace,9 2 72.

D es Cartes,i. 36 44 ; 5 2 m ; 69 ;

iii. 308 ; o n visio n , i. 14 ; o n com

prehensiveness o f sigh t , 29 n . ; o n

scepticism o f senses, 5 4 n . ; o n

signs o f distance,109 ; theo ry o f

mat ter, 1 18, 19 4 o n man ’sfi n ite mind

,1 38 n . ; o n princip les

o f kn o w ledge , 1 39 o n causalityin sensible things, 183 o n the

ex istence o f sensible things, 2 0 132 4 o n pro o f o f D eity, ii. 140 ;w o rld and the law s o f mo tio n

, 4 50 ;o n attractio n

, 45 5 ; o n mathemat ics

, iii. 6 1 ; o n mind,85 ; defi ni

t io n o f mo tio n, 90 ; o n the pineal

gland , 1 5 1 .

D es Chales,the mathematician , iii. 5 4 .

D eslandes, a French sceptic, iii. 15 0 ,1 5 7 .

Des Mar z eaux,iii. 6 2 n .

D ialogues, summary o f, i. 244 ; editio ns o f

,2 50 ; translatio ns o f

,

their aim and scope, 2 5 8.

Didero t , refers to Berke ley, i. 1 3ado pts Theo ry o f Visio n

, 19 .

D ifferen tial calcu lus,iii. 2 6 1 .

D io nysius the Areo pagite , mysticalw ritings attributed to , ii. 164 and n .

D isco urse to M agistrates &c .,its aim

,

iii. 409 72.

Distance, signs o f near,i. 7 , 39 ;

remo te, perceived by experience,35 ; invisib le, z

'

b. ; in visibility o f,a po stu late o f the New Theo ry o fVisio n , 35 commo n exp lanatio nso f visio n o f near, 36 how far an acto f judgment , is suggested , 38h o w real ly perceived, ib. ; has n o

necessaryco nnectio n w ith its signs,39 ; man bo rn b lind has n o

“

ideao f

, 5 2 in w hat sense seen , 5 4 ;

in a w ay perceived by to uch , ib. ;idea o f

,ho w go t from lo como tive

experience, 5 5 , cf. defined,86 ;visib le ideas signs o f, 90, cf. arbi

trar iness o f re latio n betw een it andw hat is seen , 1 10 suggested, 2 98,

396 ; pow er o f interpreting signs o f,acquired o r instinctive 448.

D istrust o f senses by philo sophers,1. 20 1 .

D iversity and ident ity, i. 344.

D ivine ideas and w il l , co incident w ithlaw s o f nature, i. 185 u ltimatearchetype o f sensible system,

193 n .

Divine necessity o f Hippo crates, n .

45 5 .

D ivine tho ught , abso lute truth , i. 195 n.

D ivin ity o f Christianity, po sitiveargumen t fo r , ii. 2 20.

D ivisibility o f sensible ex tensio n,11.

5 9 ; in fi n ite , i. 2 20, 448 .

D ivisio n , Italian metho d o f, mi. 18.

D oubting, imp lies suspense, i. 263.D rake, Captain , iii. 47 6 .

D rama, its refo rmatio n

,in . 204.

D ramatists, English, ii. 200 .

D ress, lux ury o f, iii. 20 1 ladies

’

, 393.

D ruids , mo dern admirers o f, ii. 17 6.

D runkenness, benefi t o f, ii. 60 and n.

D ryden , iii. 1 5 8.

Dualism,Berkeley’s, i. 1 2 0 ; o r intelligible realism, i. 1 7 5 n .

Duality o f ex istence,held by Ber

ke ley, i. 1 5 9 n .

Due l ling, discussed, 11. 1 86.Durandus, the w o rld a machine

,i.

1 7 9 n .

Dw ight , President, preface to Alciphro n , ii. 6 .

Ecc lesiastical tyranny, n . 1 94.

Ectypal state o f things, ii. 35 1 .

Educatio n, true , P lato o n , u. 339

Aristo t le o n, Irish neglect o f,

in . 447 .

Edw ards, Jo n ., o n co ntinual creatio n,

i. 1 7 9 on ex istence, ii. 1 5 5Eflicien t cause

,no ne but spirit , 1. 208.

Ego , is substantial and causal, i. 2 30 n.

Egyptian philo sophers, ii. 480 ; imperso nated Nature, 466 .

Elasticity, permanent, o f air, 11. 417.Eleatics, o n senses, i. 5 4 n .

Empedo c les, ii. 46 2 ; o n principle o fFire, ii. 42 5 .

I N D E X .

Employment o f peo ple, the greatpublic aim, iii. 383.

English dramatists, ii. 200.

7 6, o f Parmenides, ii. 50 1 .e’

vr ehe’

xeia and Fo rce, ii. 304 .

s’

vr ehc’

xeiai wpé r a z , ii. 487 .

Entity, abstract idea o f, i. 197 .

Epicureans, i. 2 04 ; o n kinds o f pleasure, ii. 88 ; being o f Go d, 16 1 .

Episcopacy, when estab lished inAmerica, iii. 2 18.

Erdmann , o n Berke ley, i. 336 .

Eschenbach’s trans latio n ofBerke ley’s

Dialogues, i. 2 50.

Esse, is percipi in unthink ing things,1. 15 7 .

Essence, nominal, i. 208 n.

Eth ical opinio ns o f Berkeley, ii. 5 3.Ethical system o f Berke ley, w heredeve lo ped, iii. 107 .

Ethical act io n , its test , iii. 1 1 3.Eth ical law s o f nature, iii. 1 14 .

Ethics o f Berkeley, w here found , 11.

6 107 71.

Ethics, Spino z a’s demo nstratio ns in

,

11. 334.

Eugubinus, 11. 507 .

Evelyn , on preservative qualities o ftar, ii. 369.

Evidence fo r Christianity, 11. 286 .

Evil, obj ectio n from mo ral, to ex ist

ence o f Go d, ii. 170 .

Ex istence, abstract idea o f,i. 197 o f

an idea, co nsists in its being per

ceived, 15 6 intel ligible co nceptio n o f, 20 1 inferred from its

signs, ii. 143 o f Go d, obj ectio nfrom mo ral evil, 170 .

Experience, co nscious, o bj ects o f,what, i. 1 2 1 ; presentative and re

presentative, 1 2 3 ; suggest io ns o f,2 3 1 ; co nnects ideas o f sight and

touch , 390.

Exp lanatio n o f phenomena, w hat, i.

338

Expo rts and famine, iii. 369.

Ex tensio n , based o n sensatio n , visible ,i. 8 visib le and tangib le quite

distinct , i. 5 3, 5 5 , 94 no t in fi

nitely divisible, 5 9 ; tangible, w hycal led real, 6 1 tangible and

visible no t necessarily co nnected,62 abstract, 9 1 visible defi ned,

95 and co lo ur, 108 n ., 207

abstractio n frames the idea o f

colo ur, exclusive o f, 140 ; a pri

mary quality, 160 ; the character

547

istic o f'

the material w o rld, 16 1 n .

an accident o f matter, 163 o bj ecto f geometry, 2 20 ; sensible, 28 3

pure abstracted ideas o f, ib. ; its idea

prio r to that o f mo tio n, iii. 2 91 ; isthere abstract ib.

Ex ternal bo dies, suppo sition o f, i. 165 ;their ex istence w ith in our kno w

ledge impo ssible, ib.Ex ternal things, are perceived by

sense, i. 202 .

Ex ternal w o rld, inferred from sensa

tio ns, i. 38 1 n .

Ex ternality, i. 5 7 ; abso lute, 10 n .

Berkeley o n , 5 2 how seen , 5 4 ;defi ned

, 1 20, 203 37 8 n .

Faculties o f Soul, 11. 502 71.

Faith and mirac les, ii. 282 .

Faith and probability, ii. 2 84.

Faith and Science, ii. 2 84 71.

Faith,true nature and effects, 11. 3 10.

Famine and expo rt trade, iii. 369.

Famine in Ireland, iii. 44 1 .

¢aurdapar a and yofipar a , ii. 299 n .

Farms,large o r smal l, iii. 363 .

Fash io n , w oman o f, a pub lic enemy,iii. 367 .

Fash io nab le to decryReligio n , iii. 195 .Fatalism

, w hence derived, ii. 32 3.Fate, ancient ly no t inco nsistent w ith

013

1 660130 101, o f Go d, ii. 469 ; spiritual , Poemander, 469 n.

Faz elli, Histo ry o f Sicily, 11. 266.

Fe l lows o f Bermuda Co l lege, iii. 2 30 n .

Fene lo n’s demo nstratio n o f the ex ist

ence o f Go d,iii. 169 ; a prayer o f,

1 7 0 .

Ferrier, Pro f., i. 2 3 39 o n per

ceptio n and matter, 1 82 on

Herac litus, 11. 424 h is stylecompared to Berkeley’s, i. 24 1 .

Fever,lessened by tar water, iii. 499.

Fichte’s ego istic idealism,

i. 2 50 ;o n o rgan ic unityo f nature, ii. 47 1 n .

Ficinus, mercurythemo ther o fmetals,ii. 435 quo ted, ib. n . light isinco rpo real, 439 ; o n the fi re principle , 441 ; light the sight o f the

So ul , ib. De Fato , 469 seminalnature depends o n intel ligence,47 4 ; o n the Trinity, 505 71.

Figure, a primaryquality, i. 160.

Final cause and mo ver, spirit the, 11.4 19 .

a

548

Fir,Sco tch , 11. 37 4 .

Fire invisib le, o r Aether, 11. 4 18 .

Fire,its e lastic ity, ii. 4 18 ; un iversal

fo untain o f life, 4 1 9 vehic le o f

so u l, 42 6 ; the omn ifo rm seminary,4 3.

Fire—philo sophy, 11. 408 ; ancient au

tho rities fo r , 4 2 4 ; mo dern autho

r ities in suppo rt o f, 4 32 .

Fire-principle and tar-w ater, iii. 467 .Fire pro vidence, Hippo crates o n , ii.

4 2 7 .

Flo rence, treasures o f Art, iii. 36 1 .

F lo rentine ex periment , ii. 445 .

Flo yer , o n use o f turpentine, ii. 406.

Flux io ns and the differential calcu lus,1. 2 2 5 .

F lux io ns,their impo rtance, iii. 2 5 9 ;

defect in ru le fo r fi nding the, 2 64 ;defective, lo gic and metho d in , 2 70 ;metaphysical o bj ectio ns to the

theo ry o f,2 89 ; idea o f, no t im

pro ved in the analysis , 3 10 .

Fo rce, as inco nceivab le as Grace, 11.30 3 and e

’

vr she'

xeta, 304 ; ru lesthe e lementary fi re, 444 ; w h ich

ex ists in po ints is spiritual , 447 ;belo ngs t o the so ul , 4 5 7 ; and the

so ul , 49 1 .

Fo reknow ledge and contingencies,ii. 16 1 .

Fo rgeries and Scripture , 11. 2 7 8.

Fo rm and matter,in P lato and Aris

to tle,ii. 484 n .

Fo ulis editio n o f the Og erist,iii. 35 3 n .

Fract io ns,iii. 2 5 .

Freedom, a b lessing o r curse , as used ,11. 1 1 5 .

Freeth inker,character o f the

,iii. 17 8.

Freethinkers, M inute Philo so phers, ii.39 do ctrin e o f, its circulatio n and

revo lut io n , 7 1 miseryand co w ardiceo f, 85 ; and go vernment , 90 ; somerecommend suicide

, 99 ; mo de o f

pro ving a Go d, 1 39 ; sophistry o f,

32 9 ; their scepticism, 33 1 theirigno ran ce, iii. 16 3 ; their narro wness, 1 7 2 o bstruct happiness, 1 7 9 .

Freeth inking, defi ned , iii. 1 44 ; its

prevalence in Berke ley’s time, ii.2 6 its aim and endeavo ur

,28 ;

persecuted , 30 ; c laims mo no po lyo f l iberty, 3 1 atheism its go al,

3 3 into lerant o f priest and magis

trate, 34 its pro gress insidio us, 36 ;

atheism perfectio n o f, £5 . its

po sit ive princip les, 38 lo o sens

I N D E X .

patrio tism, 44 ; and natural reliigio n , 45 ; its use , 1 0 1 danger o fits n o tio ns abo ut Go d , 162 .

Free-w il l and mo ral agency, 11. 318.

Free-w ill, Hobbes o n , ii. 3 19 n .

Frugality o f manners, iii. 200 .

Future rew ards and punishments, iii.

16 2 .

Future state , Christian ideas o f,iii.

186.

G.

Galen and Hippo crates, 11. 426 n .

Galen , Fire vehic le o f so u l, ii. 426.

Galilaeus, o n attractio n , ii. 45 6 ; ex

perimen ts abo ut vis, iii. 7 8.

Gaming, benefi t o f, ii. 60.

Garth , D r . S.,iii. 305 n .

Gassendus,i. 1 7 , 69, 1 10 ; o n the

ho riz o ntal mo o n , 1 10 ; o n ab

stract ideas , 14 2 71.

General ideas, n o t denied, i. 144.

General , ho w idea becomes, i. 145 , 4 12 .

Generalisatio n , Lo cke o n , i. 144, 4 14.

Gen Seng, its virtues, ii. 389.

Gent ile re ligio ns, preparato ry, 11. 182 .

Gen t leman’s M agaz ine, i. 7 3 84 n.

Geometry, abstract ex tensio n no t the

o bj ect o f,i. 9 2 o bj ect o f, 104,

2 20 ; a means o f educatio n , iii. 2 57 .

Geulinx,

o n causality in sensiblethings, i. 1 8 3 o n matter, 192 n .

Gibbs o n the King’s evil, ii. 400.

Gibso n,D r ., Bishop o f Lo ndo n, 111.

2 1 7 .

Gildo n’s o rac les o f reaso n , 11. 87 .

Glanvill,mystery o f sensation , i. 15 .

Go d , natura naturans is,i. 1 7 9

iii. 87 ; His ex istence known likethat o f men

,i. 2 3 1 , ii. 17 0 is

kno w n certain ly, i. 2 32 ; pro o f o fex isten ce o f

, 304 ; no idea o f, 326 ;kno w ledge o f, ib. ; variety o f no

tio ns o f,ii. 34 w isdom and know

ledge no t in , 16 1 ; danger o f thiso pin io n , 16 2 o rigin o f this opinio n ,164 ; o bj ectio n from mo ral evil toex isten ce o f a

,1 70 ; no t autho r o f

evil , P lato n ists, 490 ; is M ind, 49 1the mo nad o f Pythago ras, m7pvo epév, 492 is law

,Aristo t le, 496 ;

is o rder, P lo tinus, ib. the 1

’

and 7 6 Séo u, ib. ; w e know o ur

se l ves by kno w ing, P lato , ib. ; aloneex ists

, 499 ; his omnipresence ac

co rding to P lo tinus, 50 5 Christian ideas o f, iii. 18 2 .

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55°

fers from Berkeley, 32 5 n . an

sw ered byanticipatio n byBerkeley,32 7 n . o n material substances,

335 causatio n , iii. 84 n .

Hurd , o n Alciphr o n , ii. 1 1 n .

Hutcheso n and Mandeville, 11. 5 9

65 n .

Hutcheso n’s mo ral sense, 11. 1 24.

Hyde, o n religio n o f Persian s, ii. 43 1 .

Hypo stases o f D eity, ii. 498, 503.

I.

Idea, how used in theo ry o f visio n ,i. 5 5 , cf. ho w used in Siris, ii.

350 ; defi ned, i. 1 58 20 2 , 37 7 ;

no idea o f substance, 146 no r

o f spirit , 2 26 ; its esse is percipi,1 5 6 ; implies passiveness, 168 ; in

co ntradistinctio n to th ing, 17 5 ;used fo r thing, 33 1 .

Idealism and realism,Berke ley’s, i.

1 19 21.

Ideas , phenomena, sensib le things,i. 1 18 ; archetypes o f, 1 2 1 advan

tages o f co nsidering them apartfrom names, 1 5 2 ; visibly inactive,168 ; successio n o f, 169 ; divine,ultimate archetype o f sen sib le system,

1 93 and Spirits make upthe w h o le of kn o w ledge, 199 ; are

real th ings, 20 2 ; pro duced bymo tio n o f brain , 30 1 ; their co nnectio n , 34 1 .

Ideas, o f P lato and o f Berke ley, 11.

496 n .

Ideas and no tio ns, w hat , 11. 484 and n

489.

Ideas, P lato ’s do ctrine of, criticisedbyAristo t le, ii. 487 .

Identity and diversity, i. 344 .

Identity, Lo cke o n personal , ii. 307 .

Iden tity, is unity, Aristo tle, ii. 503.Id leness, its ow n pun ishment, ii. 86.

Incho fer , quo ted, ii. 1 05 .

Individuality and o rganism,ii. 56.

Industry, the o ne w ay to w ealth, iii.195 ; how to increase it, 356 ; andbuilding, 388 and Id leness , 439, 448.

In-ex istence, o f sensib le things, Co llier’s, i. 4 38.Infi n ite divisibility o f fi nite ex tensio n,1. 2 20 .

Infi nity, diffi culties abo ut, i.

quantitat ive, 443 , 448.Innate no tio ns, P lato nic do ctrine o f,11. 488.

1 38 ;

I N D E X .

Inspirations, neither impo ssible no r

absurd , ii. 2 28.

Inte l lect , pure, i. 2 85 .Inte l lect , defi ned , iii. 93.Intel ligib le realism and dualism, i.

1 7 5 20 3 n .

Intelligible ex istence o f sense-obj ects,1. 200 .

Intelligib le ex istence, explanatio n of,

i. 346 71.

Interpretability o f Nature, ii. 460 71.

Images o f things, ideas, i. 17 2 .

Imaginatio n , defi ned, iii. 93 its

pow er, i. 1 24 co nfo unded w ithsense , 167 ideas o f, 1 70 ; Co llierand Hume o n, 443.

Imagining, facu lty o f, i. 142 .

Immaterialism, its advantages, i. 354.Immediateness o f sense-perceptio n,i. 264 .

Immo rtality of the soul, i. 2 29, iii.

147 ; pro ved by Berkeley’s principles, i. 1 29 ; Seneca o n , ii. 131 ;M arcus Aure lius o n, ib.

Impenetrability, a secondary quality,i. 160 .

Intuitio n , generic individualisation,11. 31 3.

Invisibility o f distance, the po stulateo f the new theo ry of visio n , i. 35and 21.

Irish j ealo usyo fEngland, iii. 363, 391.Irish language, Church services in the,iii. 37 7 .

Irish po verty, its causes, iii. 356, 438.

Irish , to Tartars and Span iards, iii.398.

Irreligion , prevalence o f, iii. 4 15 .

Isis and Osiris, ii. 480, 466 72.

Italian method o f division, iii. 18.

JJackso n and Co l lins, 11. 15 n .

Jamblichus, w o rld an animal, 11. 470 ;go ds ex empt fr om fate, 469 ; o n

matter, 489 ; o n creatio n , 505 .Jeho vah , meaning o f w o rd, ii. 499 n.

Jerome o n inno vat io ns in do ctrine,ii. 310 .

Jo hnso n , Samuel, o fNew Yo rk,Berkeley addressing him o n h is essays, i.

1 16 ; addressed by Berke ley o n

continual creatio n , 17 9 o n the

design o f Alciph ro n, ii. 3 ; o n use

o f tar w ater in America, iii. 498 n .

Jo nsto nus, pine gro ves are who le

I N D E X .

some, 11. 370 , 37 1 o n trees whichpro duce resin , 37 4 .

Jo sephus, quo ted, ii. 270 ; o n mirac les o f Ch rist, 2 7 3.Julian , ii. 2 7 1 .

Ju lianus, fi re principle, 11. 439.

Jurin, D r ., attacks the Analyst , iii.

302 71.

Justin Martyr, 11. 492 n .

Raho xdyadfin h . 1 29.xahév, 16

,ik 1 2 7 .

Kant, o n obj ect o f geometry, i. 104 ;

o n space, ii. 468 n .

Kantian philo so phy, i. 2 5 3.Kantism in Berkeley, i. 230 n.

Ke l land, Pro f., o n the Analyst, iii.30 2 n .

Kepler , i. 44 .

King, Archbish o p, i. 37 5 11. 50 2

o ppo ses predestinatio n , 8 o n

analogy, 1 69 71.

Knight, o n tar w ater, 11. 368 21.

Kno w ledge, o bj ects o f human , defi ned

,i. 1 5 5 , ii. 483 of tw o kinds ,

199 .

Kno w ledge, defi ned, 11. 293 no t givenby sense , 460.

Kno w ledge and o pinio n , P lato,ii.

482 .

Kno w ledge, compared to depths o f a

river by P lato , ii. 507 .

Know ledge o f Go d, w hat, 11. 2 37same as o ur know ledge o f fe llo wmen

, 1 70 n.

L.

Labour, so urce o f w ealth , iii. 35 8.

Lamy, Bernard, iii. 1 2 .

Land tenure, Irish , iii. 443.Language, il lustrates the co nnectio n

betw een sigh t and touch, i. 64 ;o ccasio ns o bscurity, 90 ; difficultyo f language, 2 3 1 ; its nature and

abuse, 1 39 ; cause o f erro r, 148 ;sure sign o f ex istence, ii. 146.

Language o f Go d, nature the, ii. 147 .

Language o f nature, God speaks to

men in,ii. 1 54 .

Language o f visio n is universal, i.100 .

Language, visual, and Pro videnc e, ii.15 7 .

55 I

Language, visual, admirab le nature o f,ii. 15 8.

Language, visible ideas are a, i. 1 7 8.Language o fAutho r of Nature , i. 19 1 .Lassal le, o n Herac litus, ii. 4 24 n .

Law, o n mo neyand trade, iii. 35 3 n .

Law’s no tes o n King

’s essay, i. 37 5 71.

Law , Go d is, Aristo t le, ii. 496.

Law o f nature, ambiguous , iii. 1 2 7Law s o f nature, i. 1 7 1 , 3 25 ; D ivmeideas and will co incident w ith

,

185 71.

Learning, encouraged by the Church,u . 2 0 1

, 203.

Lechler, o n the grow th o f Englishdeism, ii. 3, 26 72.

Le C lerc’s defence o f Tindal,i.

37 4Leibnitz , on symbo lical know ledge, i.

1 5 0 1 54 m ; o n the idea, 17 2o n co ntinual creatio n

,1 7 9 re

ferred to , 96 37 4 iii. 8 1 ; o n

the p lanetarymo tio ns, ii. 2 68 o n

fo rce, 304 ; and the Ro sicrucians,4 17 o riginal pro vidence, 4 5 0o n mo tio n, iii. 7 6 o n vis activa,7 8 co nfuses impetus and mo tus,80 ; o n space and mo tio n

, 9 2

o n differential calculus,2 69 .

Leibnit z and Glarke, their co rrespo ndence, ii. 1 57 3 19 450 n .

Legislato rs, bo rn , iii. 37 0 .

Le land, o n English deism,ii. 3, 1 33 n .

Lemery the younger, ii. 45 5 o n thefi re princip le, 433 71.

Leo Africanus, o n making o f tar, 11.

37 1.

Lepro sy, cured by tar w ater, iii. 497 .Leuw enho eck , fi re the seminary, ii.

47 3 72

Light and co lour, proper o bjects o f

sight, ii. 1 5 1

Light is princip le o f vegetab le life,ii. 38 1 impregnates, ib. ; co rporeal, 440 ; transmutatio n po w er o f,4 33

Lines, how generated, iii. 2 5 9 .

Liquo r traffi c, Berke ley o n , ii. 40 3.

List er, o n qualities o f turpentine, n.

395Livy, o n virtue, 11. 69.Lo cke, anticipatio ns o f theo ry o fvisio n, i. 1 5 o n sense o f sight ,29 o n distance, 38 o n

space, 5 5 n. defects o f humanmemo ry, 7 5 on number, 85 n . ;o n visible extensio n, 95 ; a friend

552

o f M o lyneux , 1 17 Essay introduced in to T rin ity Co llege byM o lyneux , Berke ley a student

o f the Essay, 1 1 7 , 1 39 n . combated

by Berkeley, 1 18 ; quo ted , 1 35o n man

’s fi nit e mind , 1 38 prin

ciples o f kno w ledge, 1 39 n . o n

abstractio n , 1 4 3 ; o n generalisatio n ,144 ; o n abstract ideas, 9 2 , 1 4 5 ,ii. 2 97 , iii. 32 8 o n abuse o f w o rds,i. 1 5 3 ; ideas o f sense and refleetio n , 1 5 5 no tio n o f materialsubstance se lf-co ntradicto ry, 1 60 ;o n matter

,16 1 194 n . o n unity,

1 62 o n metho ds fo r ex citingideas, 190 o n ex istence o f sen

sible things, 2 0 1 o n being, z'

b

o n mo tio n,2 1 4 n . ; o n primary and

seco ndary qualities , 2 7 9 n . o n ex

istence o f sensib le th ings, 3 2 5referred to , ii. 1 5 7 iii. 5 6 , 96 ;bib lical studies, ii. 267 o n c learideas

,29 2 ; defi n it io n o f kno w

ledge, 2 93 o n perso nal identity,307 ; o n the do ctrine o f signs, 3 16 n ;atomic theo ry, ado pted by, 4 65 n.

mind like sheet o f b lank paper,485 n . his ideas oppo sed to P lato ’s,496 Burnet 011, iii. 50 o n

mathematics, 6 2 o n space andmotio n , 9 2 o n eth ics

,1 10 o n

go vernment, 107 1 20 1 2 5 ,1 2 7 .

Lo como tive experience , inc luded in

touch , i. 5 4 n . gives idea o f

distance, i. 5 5 , cf. in sense , i.

16 1 n .

Lo garithms, iii. 38.

Lo gic , scho lastic, use less, 11. 20 2 .

Ao -yw'

yos‘

Midas, ii. 484 .

Mye r , the, made the w o rld , P lato , ii.50 5 .

Ad'yo s o f Philo , 11. 466 71.Lo ndo n , fi re o f, iii. 206 , cf. 71.

Lo tus, Egyptian idea o f the,11. 466 .

Loyalty, a mo ral duty, iii. 109 .

Lucan , quo ted, iii. 169 .

Lucretius, quo ted , ii. 1 39 , 2 2 2, 398

iii. 1 5 8 .

Lux ury o f dress reprehended , iii.20 1 .

M achiave l , o n material w ealth, iii. 20 1go vernmen t and re ligio n , 4 2 2 .

M ackinto sh , Sir J., o n theo ry o f

I N D E X .

visio n , i. 2 2 ; co rrespo ndence w ith

Parr, z 5 4 n . 011 the Characteristics, 37 3 n . ; referred to , ii. 494o n the Q i er ist, iii. 35 6 n . o n

Berke ley and Sw ift , ib.

Mac laurin , Co lin , iii. 30 2 n .

M agi, light bo dy o f Go d, ii. 429.

Magist rates , must have a pro per careabout re ligio n , iii. 4 10 .

Magnitude , no t seen , i. 5 8 ; signs of,5 9, 395 bo th tangib le and visible,ib.

M ah ometan paradise, iii. 187 .

M alebranche, anticipates Berke ley’stheo ry o f visio n , i. 14 ; referred to ,5 2 1 5 8 1 92 2 5 3 ; influ

ence o f, o n Berkeley, 1 17 ; causalityinsensible things, 183 o n matter

,194 u .,

198, 2 0 1 o n

mo t io n , 2 14 ; o n seeing all things

in Go d, 305 No rris a disciple o f

,

4 38, ii. 1 5 7 , 2 33 argument against,i. 306 o n mathematics

,iii. 6 1 .

Malfrighi o f Bo lo gna, iii. 5 00.

M ankind, the end o f

,iii. 1 1 2 .

Man’s po w ers, their feebleness, i. 1 38.

M andevil le,

to be studied w ith

Alciphr o n , ii. 3 referred to,6

refuted in seco nd dialogue o f Alciphro n , 7 , 5 8 ; criticism o f Alciphro n , 9 ; his ethics, 59 propo sesto burn Lo ndo n

,67 , cf. o n a

future state, iii. 4 24 .

Mandevil le and Hutcheso n , 11. 59 n.

Manetho’s accuracy, ii. 2 63 n .

Man ichean heresy, i. 2 36 .

Manners, frugality o f, iii. 200 .

Manse l, o n natural realism, i. 35 9Bampto n Lectures, 37 5 n .

Manufactures in Ireland, w ant o f, iii.397

Marriage, iii. 37 2 .

Marseil les, plague at , iii. 204 n.

Marsham,Sir Jo hn

,ii. 2 65 .

Marve l l , Andrew , o n the Bermudas,111. 2 20 n .

Ma

iquerades, their abuses, 11. 203,

c 71.

Mathematics,app licatio n o fBerkeley’sPrinciples to , i. 1 29 ; a pro vince ofspeculative science, 2 0 7 ; discussed,2 1 7 ; its relatio ns and their impliednecessity, 448 advantages o f studyo f, iii. 6 1 ; their mysteries, 262 ; andabstract ideas, 3 28.

Matter, w hat,i. 160 Descartes’

theo ry o f, 1 18 ; a negative no tion ,

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554 I N D E X .

M o o n , apparent difference o f diametero f the

,i. 64 .

M o ral agency, English co ntro versyo n , 11. 1 5 n . and free-w il l , 3 18 .

M o ral attractio n , iii. 189 .

M o ral evil , obj ect io n from, to the

ex istence o f a God,ii. 1 7 0 .

M o ral rules, eternal and immutab le ,iii. 1 38 .

M o ral sense , Shaftesbury’s insuffi

c ient, ii. 107 discussed,1 1 5 .

M o ral sense and beauty, ii. 1 24 .

M o rgagn i o f Padua, iii. 500.

M o rgan , D r . C z sar , o n the Plato nic

Trin ity, ii. 50 1 n .

M o saic acco un t o f creatio n , 11. 267 .

M o ses, do es n o t insist o n a futurestate, iii. 4 19 .

M o ses and M o chus,u . 480.

M o ses and P lato , describe Go d fromh is being, ii. 499 .

M o t io n , its defi n itive, iii. 89 abstract,un inte l ligible, i. 99 a primaryquality, 160 ; o n ly re lative, 2 1 3Lo cke o n , 2 14 n . ; discussed, 28 1 ;a mere effect, ii. 42 2 ; repulsio nand attractio n , 45 4 analysis o f

essay o n,iii. 7 5 ; ancient specula

t io ns abo ut, 7 6 ; Vitale principium

cause o f, 9 1 mutatio lo ci effect o f,fé . abso lute and re lative, 9 2 sqq.

its communicatio n, 97 prio r to ex

tensio n , 2 9 1 .

M o tio n and Go d, Opinions o f the an

c ients abo ut, ii. 490.

M o tu, De,aim o f the, iii. 100.

M o ver, M ind the fi rst, iii. 85 .

M uscu lar sensatio ns, signs o f distance,1. 39 .

M usgrave, o n D evo nshire scurvy, 11.

397M usurus, Marcus , an archbisho p, 11.

2 0 3 .

Myrrh , Bo erhaave o n , 11. 38 3 ; Helmo n t o n , ib.

Mysteries, Christian , no t mean inglessw o rds, ii. 2 96 ; o f mo dern mathematies, iii. 262 .

N .

Names,lik : letters in algebra, i. 15 0 .

Nap les, Gro tto del Cane o f, ii. 4 16 .

Narrow -minded men,have a talent fo r

o bj ectio ns, iii. 2 2 5 .

Nature, Go d ’s language, ii. 147 , 1 54 ;law s o f, i. 1 7 1 ; law s o f, co inc identw ith Divine ideas and w ill, 185

sense-symbo lism o f, 187 metho ds o f

,styled language o f its

autho r, 2 10 w hat,2 34 ; co urse

o f,ii. 45 1 interpretability o f

,

460 n ; ratio mersa, 46 1 ; imperso nated byEgyptians, 466 .

ature, dign ity o f human, ii. 8 1 .

Natura naturans, is Go d, i. 1 7 9iii. 87 .

Natura naturans and natura naturata,ii. 480 .

Natural effects, unifo rmity in pro ductio n o f, i. 1 88 .

Natural language, defi ned , i. 388.Natural law ,

its divinity, ii. 45 9 .

Natural philo sophy, purifi ed by the

principles, i. 1 29 ; discussed, 2 07 .Natural princip le , w hat is, ii. 48

and n o riginality, a mark o f, 49.Natural realism, Hamilto n o n, i.

3 5 9 72

Natural religio n, Christianity foundedo n

,ii. 208.

Necessary co nnectio n betw een ideas,n o , i. 1 7 1 .

Necessity, D ivine, o f Hippo crates,&c ., ii. 4 5 5 .

N eop lato nic do ctrine o f the Deity,ii. 498.

N erves, inner garment o f so u l,11. 395 .

N ew to n , Sir Isaac, o n mo tio n , i. 2 1 5 ,iii. 7 6 referred to

,ii. 15 7

iii. 5 1 , 308, 340 , 34 2 treatiseo n mechanics

, i. 2 1 2 Biblicalstudies, ii. 2 67 , iii. 334 ; o n the

planetary mo tio ns, 11. 2 68 de

pendence o f co lo urs o n sun’

s light,380 ; o n acids, 4 10, 4 1 3 447 ;Attractio n in acids

, 4 37 ; o n salts,4 1 2 o n kinds o fair

, 4 1 7 o n transmutatio n , 4 18 o n effects o f heat,

4 18 n . theo ry o f co lo urs, 42 3fi re emits light, 444 ; o n reflectio no f light, 445 o n aether, ib.,

449 n . philo so phy speculativelydefective, 446 ; Attractio n and re

pu lsio n , 45 2 , 45 4 ; light an hete

r o geneo us medium, 45 3 o n attraet io n

, 45 5 ; o n law o f gravity, 456 ;o n fo rces, 45 8 ; o n attractio n , iii.80 ; vis inertia is the same as the

impetus, 8 3 o n the fi rst mo ver,86 defi n it io n o f mo tio n , 90 ;o n space and mo tio n , 9 2 n . o n

commun icatio n o f mo tio ns, 98

third law o f mo tio n, ib. ; theo ry o fF lux io ns

,2 5 8 theo ryo fFlux io ns,

I N D E X .

differences in,

268 failure influx io ns, 3 1 1 meth o d o f indivisibles, 31 3 ; use o f ‘moment,

’

3 17 ;o n indeterminate quantities, 346.

ew to n and Co l lins, iii. 3 2 3 .

Nieuw entyt, o n fi re principle, 11. 433,436

Nile,called Siris, iii. 47 5 .

1401332011 : and ¢avr da pa r a , 11. 299 a .

Nominal essence, the real essence o f

things , i. 208 n.

Nominalism,i. 1 19 ; Berkeley’s, 406.

No rninalist, Berkeley n o t a, i. 4 16 n .

Nominals, i. 4 17 n .

No rris, John, o f Bemerto n, a Malebranchian, i. 1 18 o n materialw o rld, 198 ; o n no n-ex ternality o fvisib le w o rld, 2 5 3 ; a neighbour o fCo l lier, 438.

No rw ay tar , the best, iii. 462 .

o tio ns o f relatio ns, i. 1 1 8 particular o r universal, 147 n . ho w

represented in the phantasy, 149ho w app lied to the o bj ect-w o rld o f

the senses, 15 8 u . visibly inactive,168 ; pro neness to realise o ur, ii.

45 8 ; innate, P lato o n, 485 .

No tio ns and ideas,Berke leyo n, 11.489n .

o umena,abso lute o r unknown sub

stan ces, ii. 32 3 n .

vo fi s, o fAnaxago ras , ii. 163 o r Myo so f P lato , its generatio n , 502 .

vo iis‘ an i ons”, Anax ago ras, ii. 490.

Number, is a relative no tio n , i. 85 ;a primary quality, 160 creatureo f the mind, 162 abstract ideas o f

,

o bj ect o f arithmetic, 2 18 ; no o b

j ect o f sense, ii. 47 5 .

Nunneley, o n case o f bo rn-blind, i.446

0 .

Obj ect , distinguished from sensatio n ,i. 286 ; o utward, a co ntradictio n ,163 signifi catio n o f, 15 8 n.

Obj ects, o f know ledge, ii. 483 ; defi ned

, i. 1 55 ; perceived by sense ,

defi ned, 203 proper and their

causes co ntrasted, 380 n .

Obj ects, o fco nscio us experience,what ,l. 1 2 1 .

Obj ectio ns to Berke ley, i. 249.Obj ectio ns to immediate Pro vidence,

1. 332 .

Objectio ns to princip les, i. 17 2 .

Objectio ns to Berke ley’s principles o fkno w ledge, i. 1 2 1 , 1 26.

iii

555

Objective, phenomenal, 11. 47 7 .

O ccasio nal causes, theo ry o f, i.192 n.

Ocellus Lucanus,Oken and the pseudo Dio nysius,ii. 164 n .

Omnipresence o f God, acco rding to

P lo tinus, ii. 5 05 .

Omnipresence o fmind, i. 233 n .

Omnipresent eternal mind, necessarilyexists, i. 32 5 .

One, the do ctrine o f the, 11. 47 5 , 498,503.

One, God is the, 11. 505 .Onto logy and psycho logy, co nfusio no f, i. 364.

Opinio n and kn o w ledge, P lato , 11. 482.Opium, medicinal uses, ii. 390.

Optics and the theo ryo f visio n , i. 383 71.O rder , Go d 15

,P lo tinus, ii. 486 .

O rganism, defi ned, ii. 56 ; and indivi

dua lity, fé . ; is dependent o n mind,243.

O rigin , its mean ing, i1i. 87 .

O rigin o fEssayto w ards aNew Theo ryo f Visio n,

Originality, a mark of natural principles, ii. 49.

O rpheus, ii. 46 2 .

Osiris, represen ts mind, 11. 466.

Osiris and Isis, ii. 480 ; Cudw o rth o n,

466 72.

Osw ald’s obj ectio ns to Berke ley, i.248.

m’

xn’

a 314m : 031m , P lato ’s, 11. 466 .

at’

wia, P lato ’s do ctrine o f, ii. 497 .

Outness o r distance, no t an o bj ect o fsight, i. 5 5 ; suggested, 293.

P .

Pain in the w o rld, i. 236.

Palay’s ethics and Berkeley’s, iii.

1 10 n .

Pal liser , archbisho p, '

iii. 5 .Pal liser, W .

,ib.

Pao lo , histo rian o f the Inquisitio n, ii.195 .

Papin , o n fo rce, 11. 304.

Paracelsus, referred to , 11. 383 4 14,

47 7 n .

—pro vidence,

409 ; do ctrine o f the One , 47 5

genitum audens, 496 ; o f 7 0 Eu,

50 1 no t an atheist, 503.

Parr, o n mo de o r attribute, i. 18 1

co rrespo ndence with Mackinto sh ,254 n.

,556 I ZVZL7 1? )Y.

Part icular, everything w hich ex ists is,i. 2 83.

Pascal , o n reaso n ing, i. 7 5 n .

Pascal , o n rebe l lio n , iii. 1 2 0 71.

Passiveness implied in an idea, i. 168 .

Passive o bedience , analysis o f D is

co urse o n,iii. 10 7 n .

Patr icius, ii. 493 n .

Patrio t,no epicure a, iii. 45 5 .

Patrio tism, iii. 2 05 M ax ims co ncernins.4 5 5 , 5 40

Pau l , St ., divisio n o f anthropo logicalprincip les, ii. 1 3 1 n .

Pembert o n , D r ., co ntributes to ana

lyst co n tro versy, iii. 30 2 n .

Pembro ke, dedicatio n to earl o f,i.

1 33 .

Perceptio n , used ambiguo usly i. 37 n .

o f Go d,2 33 mean ing o f

,2 95 ;

do ub le mean ing o f, 3 14 ; imme

diate, 389 suggested o r mediate,

397Percepts, are perceived sensatio ns o r

sense given phenomena,i. 37 6 71.

Percival, Sir Jo hn , i. 2 7 .

Peripatetics , o n princip le o f fi re,11.

4 24 unity pro duced bymind , 504 .

Permanence o f sensib le things, i. 243,304 72.

Permanent po ssibility o f sensatio ns,i. 32 5 n .

Persius, quo ted , 11. 88 , 1 8 2 .

Perso nal Identity, Lo cke o n,ii. 307 .

Perso nality, ii. 35 1 by it w e partici

pate in th e divine nature , 5 00 .

Phan tasy, no tio n how represented in ,i. 149 n .

Phenomena, sensible things, ideas o f

sense,i. 1 18 ; o bj ects o fhuman knowledge, 1 5 5 numerical ly diff erent

in each mind,2 3 2 explanatio n o f

,

338 ; n o t acco unted fo r o n mechanical principles, ii. 45 8 ; in Sirisideas o f sense, 45 9 n .

Philo,o n the Mye r, ii. 466

so u l o f the w o rld, 47 4 .

Philo so phy, defi ned, i. 1 37 ; derivedfrom heaven , ii. 48 1 .

Philo soph ical Transactio ns, Chesse lden

’s and o ther cases

,i. 366,

444—448

Philo so phical treatise o n visio n im

po rtan t , i. 386.

Physical causatio n, co ntrasted w ith

efficient o r spiritual, i. 190 71.

Physical explanatio n and natural causes,ii. 46 2 .

Pineal gland , a visit to the, 111. 15 1 ;o f a free-th inker, 1 5 4 .

Pine gro ves, are w ho lesome, Jo nstonus, ii. 37 0 .

Pissinum o f P liny, Ray o n the,11.

37 1 .

P lace, defi ned , 111. 9 2 .

P lanetarymo tio ns, pro o fs o f creatio n,ii. 268, cf. 72.

Plato , revived study o f,i. z 5 3 ; , re

ferred to , ii. 68, 88 , 460 , 498, 499 ;fo rgeries o f, by Sigo nius, 2 28

o n purges, 389 ; image o f the tw o

h o rsed chario t, 3 16 o n true Educatio n , 339 and o f Berke ley, ideaso f, 35 0 o n spiritual causality,4 19 o n principle o f fi re

, 424 ;tw o kinds o f fi re, 42 5 ; o n the ve

hicle o f the so ul , 42 7 ; o n go ld,4 36 tar an ignited juice, 442 ;mind in all mo t io n , 449 n . o n

sense-know ledge, 460 ; m’

nn’

a gum s

mic a, 466 makes fi re the principle

o f impregnatio n , 47 3 ; animamundi,

47 7 kno w ledge and opin io n,

482 ; o n matter, 483 ; fo rm and

matter in , 484 know ledge and

the thingknow n are o ne, 485 o n in

nate no tio ns, z’

b.; perso nalityo fGo d,48 1 , cf. men

’

s souls generated,487 ; do ctrine o f ideas criticisedby Aristo t le , z

’

b. ; p lace go t in a

kind o f dreaming, 490 ; w ritings ato uchsto ne

, 494 ; compares state

to a ship , 495 w e kno w o ur

se l ves in kno w ing Go d , 496 ; genitum and ens, ib. ; ideas as oppo sed

to Lo cke’s and Berke ley’s, 496

do ctrine o f O z’

un’

a , 497 acco unt o f

creatio n , ib. ; the Go o d comparedt o the sun , 499 ; and M o ses, de

scribe Go d from his being, ib. ; p‘

é

o wr es and o i 7 013 w oman-ac, 500 ;no t an atheist , 503 do ctrine o f

the One, ib. ; the Ad‘

yo r made the

w o rld , 5 0 5 do ctrine o f the Trinity,50 1 to Dio nysius, 507 ;

compares kno w ledge to depths o f ariver, 50 7 ; mind the fi rst mo ver,iii. 85 ; o n passive o bedience, 1 34 ;o n future rew ards and pun ishments,148 philo sophy en larges the mind,1 7 3 divine o rigin o f law s o f

so ciety, 4 1 8 ; go vernment and re

ligio n , 4 2 2 .

P lato nic do ctrine o f sensible qualities,ii. 488 ; o f innate no tions, ib. ; o f

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558

Pro o f, Berke ley’s, o f h is do ctrine, i.1 5 7 n .

Prophecy, treatises o n , 11.

2 60 .

P ro po rtion , its ru les, iii. 32 .

Pro tago ras, i. 245 ; almo st kil led byAthen ians

,ii. 17 7 .

Pro testant gentry o f Ireland , iii.

37 6

Pro testant co lo ny in Ireland, iii.

5 3 2

Pro vidence, immediate, i. 2 5 8 ; o h

j ectio ns to, 332 suppo sed by

beauty, 11. 1 2 5 ; Aristo t le o n , 1 30and visual language, 1 38, 1 5 7 ; re

vealed in reign o f Law , 1 38 n .

P lutarch o n, 4 19 equivalent t o

the reaso n o f man , 4 27 .

Ps.—P lutarch , ii. 4 2 5 ; o n spiritualcausality, 4 19 n.

Psycho lo gical acco unt o f visio n,i.

389 .

P to lemy, i. 65 71.

Pub lic aim, employment o f the people,the great , iii. 383 .

Puffendo rf, o n n o n-resistance, iii.

1 36 .

Pur ifi ed co nsciousness, i. 37 9 .

1n7p vo epév, ii. 47 1 , 492 .

1e vo epdu, Chaldee o rac les o n the,ii.

4 39Pythago ras, Go d the mo nad o f

,11.

49 1 no t an Atheist, 503.

Pythago rean transmigratio n , iii. 187 .

Pythago reans, ii. 465 , 5 0 3.

Pythago reans, o n principles o f fi re, 11.4 24 .

2 59 ”q

mialifi es do no t ex ist apart , i. 140 .

Q ialities co ex istent , idea o f, i. 1 4 1 .

Q ualities, primaryand seco ndary, dist inctio n between , i. 1 60 .

(Q ialities, primary and seco ndary, 11.

465 .

w er ies o n theo ry o f F lux io ns, iii.2 90.

Q uerist , aim and scope , iii. 35 3 andedit io ns, 35 3 fi rst editio n o f,5 1 1 .

w iddity, abstract idea o f,i. 197 .

Q ietists, mo ral do ctrines, ii. 1 32 .

R.

Ramsay, the Chevalier, 11. 497 .

I N D E X .

Ratio nal disco urse in nature, ii. 460.

Ray, o n turpentine, ii. 37 2 ; o n the

pissinum o f P liny, 37 1 .

Real , tangib le ex tensio n why cal led,i. 6 1 .

Real and substan tial in nature, what,i. 1 7 3 .

Real, sense ideas are, i. 2 0 2 .

Real ex istence o f sense objects , i.2 00 .

Real ex istence, sensible things haveno , i. 30 2 meaning o f, 302 o f

things, 330 , 35 9Realism and Idealism

,Berkeley’s, i:

1 19 n .

Realism o r Dualism, inte l ligible, i.1 7 5 n.

Realism,fo undatio n o f

,i. 204 .

Reality, kn ow n by to uch , i. 5 7 in

ideas, 17 4 ; meaning o f,20 1 ; o f

things, 203, 2 66 ; implies permanence

, 304 n .

Reaso n , gives us kno w ledge o f ex

ternal things, i. 164 ; ex istence o f

abstract matter no t pro ved by, 164 ;po w er o r cause o f ideas an obj ecto f, 37 7 ; and beauty, ii. 1 19 ; o ftenreaso n ing, 47 9 essence o fmo rality, eternal law o f

,iii. 1 10

eternal rules o f, 1 14 .

Reaso n ing and thinking, distinctio n

betw een,i. 144 n .

Redi, o n vo latile salts, 11. 409.

Reid, i. 38 86 1 08, 382 n .

ado pts theo ry o f visual signs, 2 1 ;

geometryo f visibles, 105 on re

presentative percept io n , 200 72. o n

p lurality o f Ego s, 2 3 1 ; objectionsto Berke ley, 248 ; on o bj ects and

sensatio n , 2 86 .

Reina,histo ry o f M essina, 11. 266.

Reflectio n,Lo cke

’s ideas of sense

and,i. 1 5 5 n .

Reflectio n, is implied in theo ry o f

Visio n , 1. 37 9 n .

Relativity o f mo tio n , &c .,i. 2 13.

Religio n , natural , and free-thinking,11. 45 .

Re ligio n , learn ing fo stered by, 11.

2 0 1 .

Re ligio n , true sense o f, iii. 205 .

Re ligio n and civil ru le, iii. 4 1 7 .

Re ligio us and scien tifi c advantages o fimmaterialism

,i. 354 n .

Remin iscence,P lutarch says learning

is, ii. 487 ; P lato nic do ctrine o f,4 88 n .

I N D E X .

Represen tative idea in perceptio n ,abo lished by Berkeley, i. 200 71.

Representat ive and presentat ive ex

per 1ence, 1 2 3.

Repulsio n , mo t io n and attractio n , 11.454

Resina, P liny’s use o f, ii. 405 .

Resistance to the supreme pow er, iii.1 17 .

Resistance to go vernment and se lfpreservatio n , iii. 1 2 7 .

Resistanc e to go vernment , couse

quences o f w an t o f, iii. 1 30 .

Respo nsibility o f man , ii. 324.Respo nsibilitymeasure o f realAgency,ii. 46 1 .

Rest, a primary quality, i. 160.

Retina, pro b lem o f in vert ed pictureo n the

,i. 7 7 in verted image o n the,

8 1 , 87 ; pictures o n , 39 1 ; tangib leand visib le, 39 2 .

fi rrn'

vq o f Theo phrastus, u . 405 .

Rettig, o n the perso na lity o f Go d in

Plato , i. 48 1 n .

Reve latio n , So crates o n , ii. 2 5 7 pre

tended , 2 2 2 .

Riccio li’s Almagest , i. 69 n .

Riche lieu, po licy o f lux ury, iii. 202 .

Ritter, o n Isis and Osiris, ii. 466 n .

Ritter and Pre l ler, ii. 46 2 n .

Ro bins, co ntributes to Analyst co n

tro versy, iii. 30 2 22.

Ro chester, Earl o f, iii. 1 5 8.

Roman Catho lics,letter to , iii. 433.

Roman Catho lics, d isabilities o f, iii.

44 2 .

Roman Catho lic c lergy, and a w o rdto the w ise, iii. 45 1 .

Roman care fo r religio n , iii. 42 2 .

Romans and Greeks,less virtuous

than mo dem s,ii. 1 84 .

Romans,character o f, ii. 1 87 .

Rome,treasures o f art , iii. 36 1.

Ro per, Abe l , iii. 1 5 8.

Ro sicrusians and Leibn it z , ii. 4 1 7 .

Ruin o f Great Britain , an Essay to

wards preventing the , iii. 195 .

8 .

Saint Evremo nd , iii. 6 2 .

Salts,nature o f, ii. 4 1 2 .

Sallust, o n avaric e , ii. 69.

Same, its mean ing, i. 343 .

Scaliger, J o seph , ii. 265 .

Scepticism,refuted byBerke ley’s prin

ciples, i. 1 29 its causes, 1 37 its

559

ro o t, 200 ; o f Free-thinker, 11. 33 1Arist o t le o n , 333.

Sceptics, Principles useful to , i. 1 35 .

Scheinerus, i. 44.

Schil ler, o n the law s o f nature, i.1 7 1 n .

Sch leiermacher,11. 4 24

Scho lastic lo gic , use less, 11. 20 2 ; definitio n o f mo t io n , iii. 90 .

Scho lastic ism, due to Arabian in

fluence, ii. 202 .

Scho o lmen , their do ctrine o f abstrac

tio n , i. 148 ; argue fo r a co n tinualcreatio n , 1 7 9 h o w they used ana

lo gy, ii. 167 ; and theo logy, 1 9 3 .

Scho o ls and Universities, th oughts o n ,iii. 1 65 .

Science, what , 11. 483.

Science and faith , ii. 284 n .

Sciences have to do w ith signs, 11.

3 1 5 .

Scientifi c advantages o f immaterialism,

i. 35 4 72.

Scientifi c universality, nature and

purpo se, ii. 3 1 3.Scientifi c previsio n , Berke ley o n , 11.

459Scientifi c princip le and sensuo us ima

ginatio n , ii. 464 n .

Scripture acco unt o f creation , i. 33 1 ,347

Scripture, o n ex istence o f matter,i. 197 ; style and compo sitio n , ii.2 29 ; diffi cu lties in , 2 3 1 ; and fo r

geries, 2 7 8 ; o n fi re-princip le, 4 3 1 .

Scurvy, discussed, ii. 398.

Seco ndary qualities, their o ccasio n , i.16 1 no ex istence w ithout mind,2 7 8 ; referred to , 2 85 .

Seeing in the dark, pow er o f,11.

44 2

Se lf-lo ve the universal pr inciple, 111.

1 10 .

Se lf-preservation and resistance, 111.

1 2 7 .

Seneca, 11. 68 ; o n immo rtality, 1 3 1 .

Sensatio n , signifi catio n o f, i. 1 5 8

the basis o f visib le ex tensio n,8 ;

distinguished from o bj ectio n , 2 86 .

Sensatio ns, cann o t ex ist but in a per

c ipient mind, i. 1 56 ; visibly inact ive, 168 ; unifo rmity o f, 193 ; in

the mind are perfectly know n,

2 00 permanent po ssibility o f,

32 5 pro per percepts, 37 6

suggest ex ternal w o rld, 38 1 n. ; un i

versalised into things, ii. 300 n .

560

Sense, defi ned , iii. 93 ; and reflectio n ,Lo cke

’s ideas o f

,i. 1 5 5 ideas

o f, ex ist w itho ut the mind , Sir

W il liam Hamilto n , 1 5 9 lo como tive ex perience in , 16 1 and

imaginat io n co nfused,167 n . ideas

o f, 1 7 0 ; do es no t give kno wledge ,ii. 460 ; and Inte l lect , 464 .

Sense-co nscio usness purifi ed , i. 38 1 .

Sense—ideas, ho w distinguish ed fromimaginatio n , i. 1 70 entire pas

sivity o f,iii. 8 2 .

Sense-know ledge, P lato o n,11. 460 .

Sense-o bj ects , archetypes o f realth ings, i. 1 7 6 are cal led ideas

,

37 7 ; their inte l ligib le ex istence ,200 .

Sense—p leasures, happiness ii. 7 7 .

Sense-symbo lism o f nature,i. 1 87

o f sight , 2 42 .

Senses,distrusted by ph ilo so phers, i.

2 0 1 ; c log the mind , ii. 48 1 .

Senses do n o t pro ve matter,i. 164 .

Sensibile,min imum

,i. 2 2 5 .

Sensib le ex tensio n,i. 283 .

Sensib le o bj ects have no abstract existence, i. 1 5 7 ; defi ned, 37 6 .

Sensible qualities, are the seco ndary,i. 160 ; must be in the mind , 16 1 ,cf. 72 do n o t ex ist w itho ut the

mind,2 7 0 ; are acts, P lo tinus, ii.

488.

Sensib le qualities, P lato nic do ctrineo f, ii. 488.

Sensib le system,Divine ideas u ltimate

archetype o f,i. 193 n .

Sensib le things, defi ned , i. 2 64 ; ex ist

po ten tial ly, 1 7 8 ; ex istence o f,2 0 1

are permanen t,24 3 ; are sensible

qualities, 2 64 .

Sensib les, n o commo n , i. 94 n .

Sensualists,brute en vied by, ii. 7 9 .

Sensuo us imaginatio n , and Scientifi c

principle, ii. 4 64 n .

Sermo n preached befo re So ciety fo rP ropagatio n o f the Go spe l , iii.2 35 .

’S Gravesande . See Gravesande .

Shaftesbury, ii. 6, 1 6 1 33 ; to bestudied w ith Alciph ro n , 3 in th irddialo gue o f Alciphro n , 8 mo ralsense insuffi cient , 1 0 7 n . ; character istics to be compared w ith th irddialo gue, 10 7 mo ral taste , 1 2 8 ;and future state, 1 32 n . o n Christ ianity, 1 89 o n theo logical polemics

,1 96 ; so lilo quyquo ted , 1 98 ;

I N D E X .

o n faith in revelatio n , 2 26 atheism,

i. 37 2 o n w il l and desire, ii.

3 2 1 , 3 24 ; Christian mo rals are defect ive, iii. 19 2 o n a future state

,

4 24 .

Shakespeare, o n the Bermudas, iii.2 2 0 72.

She l ley, quo ted, 11. 404 .

Sherlo ck , o n P ro phecy, 11. 260 .

Sigh t , the mo st comprehensive sense,

i. 2 8 n o t w itho ut the mind, objects

o f, 5 3 ; o utness and Space no t oh

j ects o f, 5 5 .

Sight and distance, arbitrariness o f

relatio n betw een o bj ects o f, per

ceived , i. 1 10 n .

Sight and to uch , heterogeneo us , i. 5 6 ;w ould no t be co nnected by a b lindman

, 7 2 ; ideas o f,heterogeneo us,

7 8, cf. 86,89 ; no t aff ected by

the same thing, 98 ; arbitrary co n

nectio n betw een , 10 2 have no t thesame o bj ect, 34 1 go d ly experience , co nnection betw een , 390 .

Sight , pro per o bjects o f, w ithin the

mind , i. 89 b lind man receiving,in Tatler , 1 1 1 n . its proper o bj ectslight and co lo ur

,ii. 1 5 1 ideas o f,

distinct from tho se o f touch, i.

1 7 7 ; gives the idea o f light and

co lo ur, 1 5 5 ; its sense symbo lism,

242 ; suggests distance, 293.

Sign , a w o rd a sign o f several ideas,1. 144 .

Sign , re latio n o f w ith thing signifi ed,1. 190 .

Signs o f near distance, i. 7 , 39 ; visual,co nstant , 10 1 ; regarded by arithmetic , no t things, 2 19 ; the o bj ectso f sciences, ii. 3 15 ; Lo cke o n the

do ctrine o f, 3 16 o f magn itude,

1 395 .

Sigo n ius, his fo rgeries o f P lato , 11. 228.Siris, its re latio n to the Principles, i.

19 1 its scope and aim,ii. 343 ;

analysis o f, 34 5 divisio ns, 35 3 ;D e Q incey o n the name, 35 3 n . ;editio ns o f, 35 4 ; trans latio n o f,

35 4Siris, a name fo r the N ile

,iii. 47 5 .

Situatio n, its in visible signs, i. 7 6 .

Situat io n visible, unkno w n to a blindman , i. 7 9, 83, 84 , cf. 85 .

Simp licius, a se lf-acting reaso n , ii.488 .

S kelto n’s letterto Brow n andBerkeley,

11. 169 n .

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Suggestio n and perceptio n , i. 397 .

Sun,influence o n aromatic flavo urs o fvegetab les, ii. 380 .

Sun-w o rship, M ax Mu l ler o n , 11.

4 30 n .

Surds, value o f essay o n , iii. 46 n.

Suspense , doubting signifi es, i. 2 63.

Sw ift , iii. 2 1 5 n .

Sydenham, o n cure fo r go ut , 11. 393co nsiders the plague a fever, iii.80 .

Symbo lical know ledge, Leibn it z o n ,

i. 1 50 n .

Symbo lism-sense , o f nature, i. 187 n .

Symbo lism o f nature, universal, i.

190 n .

Symbo lism o f sight , i. 24 2 .

Tacquet , the mathematician,referred

to,i 1 7 2 44) 45 , 47 ”v iii° 7 ) 5 4

Tangible and visible ex'

tensio n, quite

distinct, i. 5 3, 5 5 ; no t necessarilyco nnected ,

'

6 2 .

Tangib le ex tensio n , w hy cal led real ,i. 6 1 .

Tangible and visib le mo tio n, quite-distinct , i. 98.

Tangib le and visib le retina, i. 39 2 .

Tangibilia, and visibilia min ima,i. 5 9 .

Tar,Cul len o n , ii. 35 7 n . an ancient

medicine, 369 ; and resin o us balsams, so urces and mo des o f pre

paratio n , 369 h ow made in

co lo n ies , 37 1 ; w hich kind is best ,37 4 , 47 2 ; preserves teeth and

gums, 406 an ign ited j uice , P lato ,44 2 ; used as a p laster , iii. 4 7 5 .

Tar-w ater,co ntro versy, ii. 35 5 ; tracts

o n , 35 5 ; ho w made , 366, iii. 46 2 ,47 1 ; cure fo r smal l po x , ii. 366 ;sho ps in Britain and co ntinent

, ib.

cure fo r fo ulness in b lo o d , 367 ;to nic pro pert ies, 368 do es no t in

flame, 382 ; mo des of o peratio n ,384 ; cures by, 392 , iii. 460 n .,

47 0 , 497 sqq., 504 ; cheers but no t

inebriates,ii. 44 3 ; letters o n the

virtue o f,iii. 46 1 , cf. n . ; do ses o f,

463 ; used as a lo tio n, 464 ; a

panacea, 465 ; h isto ry o f its use,

466 ; ho w it w o rks medicinal ly,47 2 ; compared to the Nile , 47 5 ;its usefu lness in the plague, 47 9 ;a co rdial , 50 3 fo r the navy, ib.

I N D E X .

Tartars and Spaniards, Irish are, iii.

398

Tasso and Ario sto compared , 11. 204 .

Tastes, seco ndary qualities, i. 160 .

Tat ler, quo ted , i. 1 1 1 n .

Taylo r’s P lato , ii. 507 n .

Telesius,ii. 4 7 2 72.

Temp le, Sir W ., o n mathematics,iii. 6 1 .

Tenneman,o n Alciphr o n , 11. 10

Alciphro n a rep ly to Bishop Brow n,169 71.

Terms, sometimes equivo cal, Berkeley

’s,i. 4 .

Thales, Go d mind o f the w o rld, 11.

49 1

Themistius, matter a mere privatio nii. 484 allbeings in the so u l

, 485o n w o rth o f intel lect , 504.

Theo lo gical explanatio n o f naturalcauses, ii. 46 2 .

Theo lo gy and Scho o lmen , 11. 193 .

Theo phrastus, ii. 37 0 ; o n turpen tine,37 2 ; o n best tar

, 37 4 ; o n time to

pro cure resin , 380 ; use o f fi rjn’

mj ,

40 5 o n fi re and heat, 4 2 8.

Th ing, mean ing o f,i. 1 1 9 n .,

2 0 1 ; in

co ntradistinctio n to idea, 1 7 5 ; no t

sensible o bj ects, ii. 500 ; real , i.1 7 2 no t regarded by arithmeticbut signs , 2 1 9 ; are combinatio ns

o f sensible qualities, 2 65 ex ist

ence o f,commo n-place bo o k o n,

3 2 5 real and abso lute , ex istenceo f, 330 ; and chimeras

,difference

betw een , ib

Thinking and reaso ning, distinctionbetw een , i. 1 44 72.

Thomas Aquinas o n natura naturans,iii. 8 7 n .

Tho ught , divine , absolute truth , i.

I 9ST ides

, o n atmo spheric , iii. 49 .

T imaeus Lo crensis, quo ted , 11. 47 3,

480 ; 49 1

Time,fi n ite

, apprehensio n o f changes

o f our ideas, i. 1 1 7 ; idea o f,206 ;

space and ve lo city, iii. 342 .

Tindal,Rights o f the Christian

Church,i. 37 2 37 4, iii. 340 71 ;

o n go vernmen t, 1 5 6 But ler’sAnalo gy directed against, ii. 2 5 7 .

Tithes and Church lands,ii. 2 1 1 .

T o land , Bisho p Bro w n 011, ii. 8—9 ;

and h is critics,ii. 1 68.

To n ic pro perties o f tar , 11. 368.

To rrice l li, ii. 45 8, iii. 7 8 ; o n fo rce,

I N D E X .

11. 304 ; o n vis percussio nis, iii. 7 8o n communicatio n o f fo rce

, 98 .

To uch , visio n , an tithesis o f, i. 6 so

lidity ho w far perceived by, 5 4 ;distance how far perceived by, ib. ;inc ludes lo como tive experience,5 4 n . and sight heterogeneo us, 56 ,7 8, cf. 86

,89 , 1 7 7 disco vers

reality, 5 7 and sight w o u ld no t

be co nnected by a b lind man madeto see , 7 2 ; and sigh t no t affectedby the same th ing, 98, 34 1 the

ideas acquired by, 1 5 5 .

To uchsto ne,P lato ’

s w ritings a,

11.

494Trades, impro vement in , iii. 199 .

Traditio n , primeval, ii. 48 1 ; its nu

certainty, 2 2 3 ; never co nstant anduniversal

,2 2 7 .

Transmigratio n o f so u ls, iii. 187 .

Transmutatio n o f e lements , ii. 4 1 7 .

Transmutatio n po w er o f Light, 11.

4 33.

Trin ity, be lief in , no t absurd , 11. 30 5

P lato n ic, 5 0 1 , 50 5 ; P lo t inus’ do c

trine o f the , 50 5 ; Ficinus o n th e,

50 5 amo ng the ancients, do c

trine o f, 5 06 .

Trin ity Co l lege, admissio n o f RomanCath o lics into , iii. 37 1 .

Triune, co nscio usness is, 11. 506 .

T ruth,cry o f all, but game o f a few ,

ii. 5 07 .

Turpen tine, w hat , 11. 37 2 .

U .

Ueberw eg, Pro f., ii. 35 4 72.3M, a negative no tio n , ii. 489 .

Unco nscio us M en tal agency, ii. 462 72.Understanding, imp lies spirit , i. 169 .

Unifo rmity, in pro ductio n o f naturaleff ects, i. 1 88 ; o f sensatio ns, 193 .

Unity, an abstract idea, i. -162 in

abstract den ied, 2 18 o f substance

he ld by Berke ley, 1 5 9 n . is

identity, Aristo t le, ii. 503 mind

pro duces, Aristo t le , 504.

Un iversal assent o fmankind, an argumen t fo r matter, i. 183.

Universal o r particu lar no tio ns, i.

147 n .

Un iversality, in w hat it co nsists, i.

1 47 nature and purpo se o f scien

tifi c, 11. 3 1 3.

Universals, combated in the Principles, i. 1 18 .

Un iversities, censured, 11. 197 .

Un iversit ies and scho o ls, tho ughts o n ,iii. 165 .

Use o f free-thinking, 11. 10 1 .

Utilitarian, Berke ley a theo logical, 11.

10 7 1 14 72.

Utility and quality o f pleasure, 11.

89 72.

Ut ility, Christian w o rship , its, 11.

1 7 3

Van in i, i. 305 .

Van ity, the mo ving princip le, 11. 66 .

Van ity, o f Free-thinkers, iii. 1 5 6 .

Variety may belo ng to natural principle, ii. 50.

Varro , so u l is vis, 11. 49 1 .

Vegetab le principle, w hat 11. 409 .

Vegetative so u l, ii. 463.Ve lo city, time and space, in . 34 2 .

Verses, byBerke ley, iii. 2 37 .

Vesta, a fi re go ddess, ii. 4 30 .

Vice,

6

a fi ne thing w ith a bad name,11. 3 .

Vindication , summary o f, i. 364 .

Vinum mamert inum, iii. 369 .

Virgil quo ted, ii. 1 2 1, 4 26, 442 , 47 4 .

V irtue, no tio nal, ii. 7 6 .

Virtue,stro ngest incentive o f, i. 2 38 .

Vis,St .Augustine o n , ii. 45 7 ; no ab

stract , iii. 7 7 .

Visibile,min imum,

i. 1 1 1 .

Visibile, minimum, exact lyequal in all,

i. 7 3 , cf. 72.

Visib le ideas are a language, i. 1 7 8.

Visible ideas, signs o f distance, i. 90 ,cf. 72.

V isib le ex tensio n , based o n sensatio n ,i. 8 .

Visib le and tangible ex tensio n , quite

distinct , i. 5 3, 5 5 , 98.

Visible and tangible ex tensio n , no t

necessarily co nnected, i. 62 .

Visibilia and tangibilia min ima, i. 5 9.Visio n , editio ns o f Essay to w ards a

New Theo ry o f, i. 3 ; no t o pticalno r physio lo gical , 5 analysis o f

Essay o n , 6 .

Visio n and To uch , an tithesis o f, i. 6 ;

pro cedure analytic in essay, fé . ; a

theo ry o f suggestio n , New Theo ryo f

, 9 ; anticipatio ns o f Theo ry o f,

14 .

Visio n , later histo ry o f Theo ry o f,i. 18 ; New Theo ry o f, discussio n

564

caused by, ib. ; theo ry o f, misunder

sto o d, 35 n .

V isio n,defects o f

,i. 7 4 ; exp lanatio n

o f erect , 7 7 .

Visio n , co n structive princip le o f Essayo n

,i. 10 3, cf. 72.

V isio n , perceives co lo urs o n ly, i. 1 0 7 ;New Theo ry o f applied in Alciphro n , ii. 1 48 reading a language,1 5 3.

Visio n , o rigin o f Essayto w ards aNewTheo ry o f

,i. 1 7 7 ; Essay o n , re

ferred to , i. 2 16, 2 4 2 , 260 ; design

o f Essay to w ards a New Theo ryo f

, 37 8 n .

V isio n,language o f Autho r o f Na

ture,i. 387 psycho logical acco unt

o f, 389 ; w hat the Theo ry o f in

vo l ves , 389 71.

V isual language, i. 5 7 , 365 , 11. 1 5 8 ;o bj ectio ns to a

,i. 403 Pro vidence ,

ii. 1 38, 1 5 7 .

V isual signs, co nstant , i. 10 1 .

Vitruvius, quo ted , ii. 1 2 2 .

Vo litio n , the o n ly cause w e know ,i.

3 10 n .

V o ltaire , adopts New Theo ry o f Vi

sio n,i. 18 .

Vo ssius,11. 4 28 .

W .

W al ler , o n the Bermudas,iii. 2 20

2 2 2

W al lis,111. 5 4 , 2 68 ; apparent diame

ter o f mo o n,i. 70 ; mathesis un i

versalis, iii. 1 2 ; arithmetic o f in fi

n ites, 308.

W alto n , attacks theAnalyst , iii. 30 2 n .

vindicatio n o f flux io ns, 333 ; cate

chism fo r th e autho r o f the M inutePhilo so pher, 3 39 exp lanatio n o f

flux io ns, 344 ; o n mo tio n in a po int ,

346

VVarburto n , i. 37 3 11. 1 33 n .

W arto n , o n Alciphro n , ii. 1 1 n .

W ealth , no t the o ne public go o d , 11.7 3 ; industry the o ne w ay to , iii.195 n o measure o f pub lic pro sper ity, 2 00 ; the fo ur e lemen ts and

man’s labo ur in them the true so urce

I N D E X .

o f, 35 6 ; labo ur a so urce o f, 358 ;

in o bj ects o f ar t , 36 1 ; 15 no t mo

ney, 35 7 , 40 2 ; defi ned , 400 ; o f a

state its momen tum , 404 .

W e l l-being o f all mankind is the

summum bo num,i1i. 1 1 2 .

Whate ly, i. 37 5 n .

Wheatsto ne , o n visual magn itude, i.

39 3 in vestigatio ns into visio n ,366 n .

W ilkinso n ’s Ancient Egyptians, 11.

466 71.

W il l is active spirit , i. 169 .

W il lis, o n vital flame , ii. 4 39 ; instanceo f seeing in dark , 44 2 .

W ines, medicated w ith resin, 11. 370,40 5 .

W ise, AW o rd to the, editio ns o f, iii.

4 37 .

W o rds, deceptio n o f, i. 1 5 3 ; Lo ckeo n abuse o f, £6. embarrass and delude , 1 5 4 ; men amuse themselvesw ith , 166 ; are signs o f ideas, ii.29 2 .

W o rk fo r its po o r, every parish to

fi nd, iii. 386 .

Wo rld , sees itse lf, 11. 44 1 .

W o rld,an an imal

,11. 47 0 ; this do es

no t invo l ve atheism, 47 1 .

W o rship, Christian , its utility, 11.

1 7 3 n .

Wyld ’s theo ry o f matter,11. 447 n.

X enophanes, no t an atheist,11. 5 03.X en o pho n , o n virtue, ii. 69 .

Y .

Yo ung, D r . J., adopts New Theo ry o fV isio n

,i. 2 2 .

Z .

Z eleucus, lawgiver o f the Lo crians,iii. 4 2 1 .

Z e l ler, ii. 4 2 4 nZ eno the Eleat lc , ii. 50 1 .

Z eno, o n mo tio n , iii. 7 6 9 1 .